CANNING

1.1 Introduction to Canning

The purpose of thermal processing during manufacture of canned fishery products is the destruction of bacteria by
application of moist heat. Only having satisfied the safety requirements of protecting consumer health, and the
commercial requirements of preventing non-pathogenic spoilage, does the canner set about choosing a thermal process
schedule that will optimise the sensory quality of the finished product.

Of the bacteria contaminating fishery products, some (the pathogenic bacteria) cause food poisoning while others only
spoil the food. Of particular concern to fish canners is the possibility of there being contamination by  Clostridium
botulinum which, if present, can form heat resistant spores capable of withstanding a mild thermal process. As this
micro organism can grow at the pH of fish flesh it is important that the processor ensure that all his cans have received a
process that is sufficiently severe to kill spores and vegetative forms of the bacterium. Survival of  Clostridium botulinum,
after the thermal process, is an extreme health risk as low-acid canned foods (pH > 4.5) support growth of the organism,
and under certain conditions will also favour formation of the neurotoxin responsible for outbreaks of botulism.

Sterilization is a heat treatment given foods capable of supporting the growth of heat resistant spore forming bacteria.
Sterilization processes destroy all pathogenic contaminants and all other micro organisms capable of growing under
normal storage conditions; survivors of the process will be extremely heat resistant spores which pose no health risk and
only grow at elevated temperatures (= 40 ºC). Rather than make canned foods absolutely sterile, canners aim for
"commercial sterility" which means that the contents are safe (as all pathogenic microorganisms have been destroyed)
and shelf-stable at normal storage temperatures. Were the thermal process designed to make all cans absolutely sterile,
there would be unnecessary loss of sensory and nutritional quality without there being any increase in the safety of the
product.

The higher the temperature of sterilization the greater is the rate of thermal destruction, which is why canners process
their canned fish in steam under pressure rather than in water at atmospheric pressure. The rate of thermal destruction
is also affected by the nature of the product (liquids heat faster than solids) and the container size (large cans of fish
packed in brine take longer to reach lethal temperatures, than do small cans containing the same product). The total
sterilization effect of a thermal process can be expressed as the sum of all the sterilization effects achieved by all the
time-temperature combinations throughout the entire thermal process. By convention, sterilizing effect is expressed in
standard units of minutes at 121.1 ºC, so that. an entire processing cycle is expressed as being equivalent, to holding the
product at 121.l ºC for a given time. The unit of sterilization is the Fo unit, where an Fo value of one minute is equivalent
to holding the product at 121.1 ºC for one minute and then cooling it instantly:

1.2 Selection of Thermal Processing Conditions

The purpose of sterilizing cans of fishery products is to rid the container and the contents of all pathogenic micro-
organisms and to prevent. spoilage by non-pathogenic contaminants under normal storage conditions. Selection of
processing conditions necessary to fulfill these criteria is based upon experimental studies in which the rate of heat
penetration to the slowest heating point (SHP) of the container is measured during simulated retorting cycles. The data
from these trials (or from suitable reference sources) are .used by fish canning technologists to determine the
processing temperatures and times necessary to render the canned product commercially sterile. Manufacturers of
canned fish (and all low-acid canned foods) can specify their thermal processes in terms of target Fo  values, where the
Fo value is a measure of thermal processing severity. Having selected an appropriate Fo value (which may be far in
excess of that required to reduce to an acceptably low level, the probability of survival of Clostridium botulinum spores
-as may be the case when the process is designed to bring about bone softening) the canner then adopts a time and a
temperature for the thermal process which will ensure its delivery at the SHP of the container.
1.3 Heat Resistance of Bacterial Spores

The heat resistance of bacterial spores is specified by the time required to kill 90 per cent of the population at constant
temperature; this enables a comparison of heat resistance of spores of many different bacteria. For most spores of
importance in canned food spoilage their heat resistance is measured at 121.1 ºC (250 ºF), a common retorting
temperature, and is expressed as the D value. A typical plot of the number of survivors against heating time is shown in
Figure 1. It can be seen that the time to reduce the population from 1 000 000 to 100 000 is the same as that required to
reduce it from 100 to 10. That is, the D value is constant for specific bacterial spores when they are subjected to heat at
constant temperature. In Table 1 are summarised the D values of bacterial spores important in canned foods.

Destruction of all spores of Clostridium botulinum is the minimum safety requirement , when thermally processing low-
acid canned foods. Canners aim to reduce the probability of one spore surviving the thermal process to such a low level
that, for all practical purposes, the contents of the container pose no health risk due to survival of Clostridium
botulinum (spores). Experience has shown that a process equivalent in sterilising effect to twelve decimal reductions of
the population of Clostridium botulinum is sufficient to protect consumer safety. Such a process is referred to as a "12
D" process and it is equivalent to holding the contents of the container at 121.1 ºC for 2.8 min (12 D= 12 x 0.23 = 2.8
min). A process as severe as this will satisfy requirements (under conditions of good manufacturing practice); however, it
will be insufficient to reduce to a commercially acceptable level, the probability of survival for the extremely heat
resistant spores (with D values of 2.0 to 5.0 min) of non-pathogenic bacteria. This is why canned fish manufacturers
select a thermal process which goes beyond the safety requirements of destruction of Clostridium botulinum.

Figure 1 Survivor curve for bacterial destruction at constant temperature

Although the probability of survival for spores of non-pathogenic heat resistant bacteria may be several thousand times
that for Clostridium botulinum spores, their presence is of no great concern to canners for two reasons:

should they lead to spoilage, there is no associated health risk, and

they only grow at temperatures above 40 ºC (i.e., they are thermophilic) and their optimum growth temperature is
around 55 ºC, which is above that in most warehouses ) and retail outlets .
Table 1 Decimal reduction times (D-values) of bacteria important in low acid canned foods.

Organism D value
(min. at 121.1 ºC)
B. stearothermophilus 4.0 - 5.0

C. thermosaccharlyticum 3.0 - 4.0

D. nigrificans * 2.0 - 3.0

C. botulinum  (A & B) 0.1 - 0.23

C. sporogenes  (P.A. 3679) 0.1 - 1.5

B. coagulans 0.01 - 0.07

* Formerly C. nigrificans

1.4 Lethality of Heat During Heating and Cooling

Although by convention the sterilising effect of a process is expressed in standard units of minutes at 121.1 ºC (the
symbol used is Fo). the product inside a can does not instantaneously reach processing temperature and in some cases
of conduction heating, the temperature at the thermal centre of the can never reaches that of the heating medium
(which need not be at 121.1 ºC) .This paradox is resolved by making use of a relationship which shows that the rate of
change in the thermal destruction of bacteria (i.e. the rate of change in their D values) is logarithmic around
temperatures commonly used in heat sterilisation. This means that the lethal rate of destruction at any temperature can
be related to that at a reference temperature. This relationship is graphically represented . in Figure 2 which shows a
thermal death time curve passing through 1 min at 121.1 ºC. This "phantom" curve shows that relative to the lethal rate
of unity at 121.1°C the lethal rates at 91.1, 101.1, 111.1, 131.1, 141.1 and 151.1 ºC are 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 10, 100 and 1
000, respectively.

The sterilising effect of a thermal process (the process Fo value) can therefore be computed by integrating the combined
lethal effect of exposure at all time/temperature combinations throughout the process. This means that a process that
delivers an Fo value of 2.8 min (the so called 12D process for Clostridium botulinum) is equivalent in . sterilising effect to
heating the contents of the can to 121.1 ºC instantly, holding it at that temperature for 2.8 min, and then cooling it
instantly. Similarly, a process for solid style canned tuna packed in 84 x 46.5 mm cans may have a target Fo  value of 10
min, which can be achieved by processing for 74 min at 116 ºC or 50 min at 121.1 ºC. With each process, however, the
sterilising effect is the same as, and equivalent to, holding the can of tuna at 121.1 ºC for 10 min under conditions of
instantaneous heating and cooling.

1.5 Calculating Fo Values

To be sure of commercial sterility the Fo value at the SHP, the thermal centre of the container, must be sufficient to kill
all Clostridium botulinum and reduce survival probabilities for other more heat resistant bacteria to an acceptable level.
It is assumed that bacterial spores will randomly contaminate the fish and that therefore they may be located at the
SHP. Although a pessimistic approach, this caters for the ``worst case`` scenario on which product safety must be based.
The measure Fo value heat penetration studies are conducted for representative packs of the canned fish filled to the
maximum fill weight likely to be encountered. These cans are then fitted with thermocouple probes which must be
located so as to measure the temperature at the SHP. (As can-to-can variation in the rate of heat penetration can be
significant, it is recommended that at least twelve replicates are tested before data from the slowest heating of all the
test cans are used to compute the Fo value for the process).The thermocouples are connected to digital or graphical
recorders, some of which indicate the product temperature during the thermal process, while others can be purchased
which automatically compute Fo value. Where automatic computation is not possible, the temperature-time data can be
used in a number of ways to calculate Fo value.

Figure 2 Thermal death time curve passing through 1 min at 121.1 ºC.

1.5.1 The improved general method

A plot of temperature versus time is made on specially constructed lethal rate paper which has on its left-hand vertical
axis product temperature (on a log scale) while on the other vertical axis is drawn lethal rate (on a linear scale). Thus for
each temperature can be shown the corresponding lethal rate. Time is plotted along the horizontal axis, using a
convenient scale. The area under the graph which represents the product of exposure time at all lethal rates throughout
the process, is then divided by the area equivalent to that of an Fo value of unity. This yields the total sterilising effect,
or the Fo value, for the process. In Figure 3 is shown a hypothetical heat penetration curve for a semi-solid product
processed for 40 min at 120 ºC.
Figure 3 Heat penetration lethal rate curve

The temperature profile shown is that of the slowest heating point. By counting squares or using a planimeter the area
under the graph is found to be 71 cm², while the area corresponding to one unit of lethality (Fo = 1) is 4 cm². Therefore
the total process lethality can be calculated,

= 71/4

= 17.5 min
This means the total sterilising effect of the process is equivalent to 17.5 minutes at 121.1 ºC, assuming instantaneous
heating and cooling. We have now expressed the severity of sterilisation, as experienced at the slowest heating point of
the can.

In the worked example, the retort was not operating at the reference temperature (121.1 ºC) nor did the product reach
retort temperature. It is important not to confuse the specification for the process (40 min/120 ºC) with Fo  for the
process. A process specification alone indicates little about the total process lethality. It would be possible to have a
process specification of 60 min at 121.1 ºC and Fo values of, say, 6.2 min and 11.5 min for 450-g and 225-g cans
respectively, the different process severity in this case reflecting can size. Similar mode of heating
(convection/conduction), pack weight and fill temperature can all affect the Fo value even though retorting conditions
may be constant.

TO SUMMARIZE
The improved general method takes account of the entire heating and cooling effects including any changes in heat
penetration rates caused by product gelation or liquefaction.

The thermal characteristics of the product need not be known. While this makes Fo  calculation simple it limits the
versatility of the technique .

Theoretically the thermal centre of a conduction heating can is at the geometric centre, while that for a convection
heating product is slightly below this on the vertical axis. It is important to locate thermocouple tips at the thermal
centre for solid packs heating by conduction but less so for convection heating, as the rapid heat transfer caused by
convection currents prevents any significant heating lags.

1.5.2 The trapezoidal integration method.

A mathematical method in which the time-temperature data are used to measure changes I in lethality during heating
and cooling. By using standard time intervals the lethal value: is computed in stages and the cumulative L value for the
process is found without the need for graphical representation of the heating and cooling curves.

The Fo value for the process is calculated by summing all the L values and multiplying this value by the standard time
interval between readings.

The trapezoidal method also allows simple calculation of the contribution to total process lethality of the heating and
cooling portions of the process.

In Table 2 are shown L values and in Table 3 is shown a worked example in which temperature was recorded at 5 minute
intervals for a process of 60 minutes at 121.1 °C.

To calculate Fo for the process: Summing the L values gives 2.925 which when multiplied by 5 (the time interval between
readings) gives an Fo value of 14.6 min.

To calculate Fo for the heating phase: The sum of L values at time 25 and 60 min (0 and 0.776) is divided by 2 and this
value (0.388) is added to the sum of L values from time 30 to 55 min. This gives 1.730 which when multiplied by 5 yields
on Fo of 8.6 min for the process lethality at the stage when the steam was turned off.

The Improved General Method which relies on a temperature-time plot. for the entire process is the most accurate of all
methods for calculating Fo value and for this reason is frequently quoted as the "reference method". Like the
Trapezoidal Method there are no assumptions made regarding product heating and cooling characteristics, however the
benefits of accuracy have to be balanced against the lack of versatility. Data from one set of trials cannot easily be used
to calculate Fo values when product temperature and/or retort temperature are (is) altered. This means that once
process conditions are altered new temperature-time data must be collected under the new experimental conditions.
Table 2 Values of L for temperature ranging from 90 ºC to 130.9 ºC in 0.1 ºC intervals

ºC 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
90 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
91 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
92 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
93 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
94 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
95 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003
96 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004
97 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005
98 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006
99 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.008
100 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.010
101 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.012
102 0.012 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.015 0.015
103 0.015 0.016 0.016 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.018 0.018 0.019 0.019
104 0.019 0.020 0.020 0.021 0.021 0.022 0.022 0.023 0.023 0.024
105 0.025 0.025 0.026 0.026 0.027 0.028 0.028 0.029 0.030 0.030
106 0.031 0.032 0.032 0.033 0.034 0.035 0.035 0.036 0.037 0.038
107 0.039 0.040 0.041 0.042 0.043 0.044 0.045 0.046 0.047 0.048
108 0.049 0.050 0.051 0.052 0.054 0.055 0.056 0.058 0.059 0.060
109 0.062 0.063 0.065 0.066 0.068 0.069 0.071 0.072 0.074 0.076

110 0.078 0.079 0.081 0.083 0.085 0.087 0.089 0.091 0.093 0.095

111 0.098 0.100 0.102 0.105 0.107 0.110 0.112 0.115 0.117 0.120

112 0.123 0.126 0.129 0.132 0.135 0.138 0.141 0.145 0.148 0.151

113 0.155 0.158 0.162 0.166 0.170 0.174 0.178 0.182 0.186 0.191

114 0.195 0.200 0.204 0.209 0.214 0.219 0.224 0.229 0.234 0.240

115 0.245 0.251 0.257 0.263 0.269 0.275 0.282 0.288 0.295 0.302

116 0.309 0.316 0.324 0.331 0.339 0.347 0.355 0.363 0.372 0.380

117 0.389 0.398 0.407 0.417 0.427 0.437 0.447 0.457 0.468 0.479

118 0.490 0.501 0.513 0.525 0.537 0.550 0.562 0.575 0.589 0.603

119 0.617 0.631 0.646 0.661 0.676 0.692 0.708 0.724 0.741 0.759

120 0.776 0.794 0.813 0.832 0.851 0.871 0.891 0.912 0.933 0.955

121 0.977 1.000 1.023 1.047 1.072 1.096 1.122 1.148 1.175 1.202

122 1.230 1.259 1.288 1.318 1.349 1.380 1.413 1.445 1.479 1.514

123 1.549 1.585 1.622 1.660 1.698 1.738 1.778 1.820 1.862 1.905
124 1.950 1.995 2.042 2.089 2.138 2.188 2.239 2.291 2.344 2.399

125 2.455 2.512 2.570 2.630 2.692 2.754 2.818 2.884 2.951 3.020

126 3.090 3.162 3.236 3.311 3.388 3.467 3.548 3.631 3.715 3.802

127 3.890 3.981 4.074 4.169 4.266 4.365 4.467 4.571 4.677 4.786

128 4.898 5.012 5.129 5.248 5.370 5.495 5.623 4.754 5.888 6.026

129 6.166 6.310 6.457 6.607 6.761 6.918 7.079 7.244 7.413 7.586

130 7.762 7.943 8.128 8.318 8.511 8.710 8.913 9.120 9.333 9.550

Note:

z = 10 ºC
T = product temperature

Table 3 Trapezoidal method for integration of lethal rate data to calculate Fo value

Time  Temperature (ºC) L L/t Fo 

(min) (min)
0 24 0    
5 24.5 0
10 34 0
15 54 0
20 72.5 0
25 87 0
30 98 0.005
 35 105 0.025
40 110.5 0.087
45 114.5 0.219
50 117 0.389
55 119 0.617
60 120 0.776 1.730 8.6
* STEAM OFF      

65 120 0.776
70 106 0.031
75 88 0 2.925 14.6
 RAW MATERIALS
2.2 fish handling

2.2.1 General

Information about fish handling prior to canning is given in detail in Planning and Engineering Data, Fresh Fish Handling, FAO
Fish. Circ. 735. In this context these data are of most value where they concern operations of special importance for canning.

2.2.2 Fish handling on board

After washing, the raw material should be chilled as soon as possible, and kept chilled until unloading. Depending on the type of
fishing vessel the catch can be iced in boxes, containers, or shallow bins.

In practice, however, methods for handling fish on board vary from doing little or nothing, to chilling or freezing, depending on
the type of vessels, area of catching and fish species.

With large fish like tuna the most common method of handling on board smaller vessels is washing and chilling with water and/or
ice. Larger vessels are equipped with tanks in which the fish is chilled. These tanks are either chilled sea water (CSW) tanks or
refrigerated sea water (RSW) tanks. The CSW- tanks are chilled with ice, and the RSW- tanks are chilled by refrigeration. Air
blast and brine freezing methods are also commonly used. For more details concerning freezing methods, see "Freezing in
Fisheries". FAO Fisheries Technical Paper no. 167.

Smaller species are chilled in CSW or RSW- tanks, and when in small quantities, iced in boxes.

Industrial species intended for mincing must be handled (as with any high valued food fish) according to good handling practice.
The fish must be washed, and if the raw material is by-catch from bottom trawling, all mud, sand, etc. must be rinsed away. If
possible, the fish must be sorted, but in some areas this is difficult as the catch consists of several species, each in small
quantities.

2.2.3 Unloading fishing vessels

Care must be taken during unloading and handling in order to avoid bruised fish and/or skin abrasions. Allhough systems for
unloading and handling fish depend on various factors, the most common methods are as follows:

i. Fresh fish is humped from the fish hold through scales or volume measuring equipment to rolling conveyors for further
-transport, or directly to tanks, bins, etc.
ii. Fresh or frozen fish is loaded into baskets or cases, heaved to the quay, by either electrical dock hoists or by use of the
vessel's own winch. and then tipped into containers, before transport, or into bins before gutting or transport. When the
fish is iced into boxes, J or containers. on board. it is unloaded in a similar way. When the boxes are stacked on pallets
the entire pallet load is heaved up.
iii. Fish kept in CSW or RSW-tanks is heaved from the fish tank by use of nets. Fish in bulk may also unloaded this way.
iv. A conveyor system may be used for unloading fresh and frozen fish.

2.2.4 Fish handling on land

The processes and principles involved in preparing fresh fish for canning are, for the most part, similar to those that would be
involved in preparing them for marketing as fresh fish. Therefore the general instructions described in the Recommended
International Code of Practice should be used as a guide for the handling and preparation of fresh fish for canning (CAC/RCP 9-
1976 and CAC/RCP 10-1976).

For information concerning icing, CSW, RSW, chill storage, containers for raw materials, materials, freezing and frozen storage,
readers are referred to planning and Engineering Data I - Fresh Fish handling, FAO, Fish. Circ. 735, and freezing in Fisheries,
FAO Fisheries "-"' Technical Paper no. 167".

If the fish consists of industrial species, and sorting is not practical, the raw material can be stored in containers and mixed with
ice until use. If possible, the fish should be kept in the same boxes or containers, without emptying and reicing, as this will be the
best means of maintaining quality;. sometimes however this is not possible, especially in cases where the fishermen want their
catches weighed immediately after landing. The less the handling of the iced and boxed/containerized raw material, the longer
will quality be maintained.

It is not recommended to freeze fish which is to be used as a minced raw material.

Frozen fish can be thawed by immersion in chilled water (temperatures above 15 ºC are not advisable), water spraying or air
current exposure. Thawing of frozen fish is an important step in canned fish manufacture. For larger species, like tuna, thawing
up to 12 hours or more is not unusual. As thawing of the fish is progressive, smaller species, and exterior parts of larger species
may reach the desired state of thaw while the inner parts of larger species remain frozen.

Deterioration of fresh fish, especially whole uneviscerated tuna, is rapid at temperatures sufficient to hasten thawing. The quality
of the fresh tuna begins to diminish before the last thawed portions have become unfrozen.

2.3 Ingredients and Additives

2.3.1 Quality requirements for water

All water available for use in those parts of an establishment where fish and shell fish are received, kept, processed, packaged
and stored should be potable water or clean sea water and should be supplied at pressure of no less than 1.4 kg/cm².

An adequate supply of hot water of potable quality at a minimum temperature of 82°C should be available at all times during the
plant operation (CAC/RCP 9-1976).

The cold water supply used for cleaning purposes should be fitted with an in-line chlorination system allowing the residual
chlorine content of the water to be varied at will in order to reduce multiplication of micro-organisms and prevent the build-up of
fish odours.

Water used for washing or conveying raw materials should not be recirculated unless it is restored to a level of potable quality.

Non-potable water may be used for such purposes as producing steam, cooling heat . exchangers and fire protection. It is very
important that both-systems of storage and distribution of potable and non-potable water are entirely separate and there is no
possibility for cross-contamination or for inadvertent usage of non-potable water in the fish or shellfish processing areas. Only
potable water should be used for the supply of hot water. The same requirements for the separation of systems would apply to
clean sea water when it is used in the processing of fish (CAC/RCP 9-1976).

2.3.2 Quality requirements for other ingredients and additives

Salt used for making brine or other purposes should be pure and not contain appreciable quantities of magnesium chloride, a
common contaminant of unrefined salt. If the salt contains too much magnesium chloride the risk of struvite formation increases;
this may concern consumers as struvite can form crystals resembling glass in the canned fish.

Salt should comply with the "Codex Alimentarius Specifications for Food Grade Salt" (being-developed by the Codex Committee
on Food Additives).

Olive oil intended for canning has to be one of the two following categories (Research Laboratory of the Norwegian Canning
Industry):

i. Virgin olive oil produced by mechanical processes, or:

ii. Olive oil produced by blending of virgin olive oil with chemically refined virgin olive oil which is produced from pure virgin
olive oil.

Olive oil intended for canning Norwegian sardines may be blended to a maximum of 35 % with chemically refined oil. For
canned fish other than Norwegian sardines, chemically refined virgin oil as such is accepted in addition to the olive oil specified.

Olive oil should be extracted from sound olives, without any admixture of other oils (fat). Further, the oil must be free from any
admixture of refined solvent-extracted olive oil. Synthetic olive oil is strictly forbidden.

The oil shall be clear, free from mucilage, mould or other impurities. The oil shall also be free from moisture.
The colour of the oil shall be yellow to golden with only a slight tinge of green.

Odour and taste of the oil shall be pure, good and natural, not acrid, bitter or too strong.

The oil must be resistant to cold.

Soya bean oil should be free from foreign and rancid odour and taste. Colour additives are permitted for the purpose of restoring
natural colour lost in processing or for the purpose of standardizing colour, as long as the added colour does not deceive or
mislead the consumer by concealing damage or inferiority or by making the product appear to be of greater than actual value.

Maximum level of use is not limited for such additives.

Natural flavours and their identical synthetic equivalents, except those which are known to represent a toxic hazard, and other
synthetic flavours approved by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, are permitted if they fullfill the limitations mentioned in the
text above.

Other additives as antioxidants, antioxidant synergists and crystallization inhibitors are permitted in soya bean oil.

Tomato sauce should be made from sound raw materials without any decomposition by mould, yeast or bacteria. The canned
tomato sauce should not contain microbes which can develop at a normal storage temperature. The colour should be red, even
with a faint tinge of yellow, but never brownish. Odour and taste should be pure and natural. The tomato sauce should be
heterogeneous and not contain too much seeds or skin.

The total solids shall not exceed 30% (Tripple concentrated tomato sauces are not be permitted). The content of sugar is not
permitted to be reduced below 40% of. the total amount of solids.

The tomato sauce must not contain any extraneous matters (such as carrots etc.). Artificially colouring or any kind of
preservatives, except salt are not permitted. (Research Laboratory of the Norwegian Canning Industry).

Examples of other ingredients and additives used in the canning process are:

 Pepper (Piper nigrum l.)

 Cardemon (Elletria cardamomum)
 Ginger (Zingiber officinale roscae)
 Onion (Allium cepa allium ascalonicum)
 Spirit vinegar (Solution containing vinegar acid, CH3 COOH, concentrate from 4 to 12 %)
 Ground mustard seed (Brassica species)
 Curry powder
 Starch (potatoes flour)
 Mono Sodium Glutamate (MSG)
 Stabilizing agents as sodium alginate and gum tragacanth
 Milk
 Sugar
 Wine
 Beer

The ingredients should be suitable for human consumption and be free from abnormal taste, flavour and odour.

2.4 Packaging Materials

The most common material used for manufacturing containers for fish products are tin plate, aluminium and lacquered steel
plate (TFS). Flexible packaging as an alternative to metal cans has become more common during the last years and glass jars
are sometimes used for speciality packs.

2.4.1 Tin plate

Tin plate is steel sheet coated with a thin layer of tin on each surface. Because of its strength and rigidity tin plate forms an ideal
material for food containers. In addition to the benefits of its bright appearance and ease of soldering, the major function of the
tin layer is to protect the base steel from corrosion. Mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, etc., are controlled in the
manufacturing process to suit the specifications of the can maker. Minimum thickness of tin plate for can making is 0.15 mm
(Palling, 1980). The main factors of importance are chemical composition and physical properties of the base plate, thickness of
tin coating, application of protective coatings and relative corrosivity of the product which is to be canned.

Low carbon steel is used for can manufacture. The chemical composition of the base steel plate is of primary importance in
obtaining adequate service-life for corrosive, products; the most critical element is phosphorus, but other elements such as
copper nickel, chromium and silicon may also affect the corrosion resistance of the plate. 'Two basic types of stell (L and MR)
are used for different food products and a third type (D) is used for unusual drawing operations. For low-acid products, such as
fish the steel type has no important influence on corrosion and any of the available types may be used, nevertheless MR steel is
usually required. Originally tin plate coating weight specifications were expressed in terms of the "base box" which was an
industry measure. Tin plate was sold in only one size sheet (356 x 508 mm), and bundled 112 sheets to a package. The total
area of plate in such a package (20.22 m2) came to be known as a base box, the weight of which varied with the thickness of
the steel (Ellis, 1979).

Formerly, tin plate was made by immersing sheets of "black" plate in molten tin (hence this plate was known as hot dip plate)
.Nowadays electrolytic plating techniques are used to apply tin to the base steel plate. This method permits thinner tin coatings
(0.38 to 2.03 microns) on each side of the plate surface. The electrolytic tinning process permits also a close control over
deposition of the tin coating layer. The most common coating weights are 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1.00 lb per base box which
corresponds to 5.6, 11.2, 16.8 and 22.4 g/m², respectively (when considering both plate surfaces). In the metric system coating
weight is expressed as the weight of tin on each surface. Thus a total tin coating weight of 5.6 g/m² is listed as 2.8/2.8 g/m² (Ellis
1979), which signifies that on each surface the tin coating weight is 2.8 g/m². Differentially coated tin plate has different tin
coating weights on each surface; the heavier coating usually being on the inside of the container.

2.4.2 Tin-free steel (TFS)

The tin-free steel is one of the newer can-making materials. Untinned steel on which very thin layers of chromium-oxide have
been electrodeposited is resistance to corrosion and discolouration. Disadvantages are that the plate must be, coated on both
sides and that it cannot be soldered. It is principally used for the ends of the cans.

2.4.3 Aluminium alloys

Aluminium alloys are finding increasing use in the can making industry. Advantages of aluminium include the light weight of the
material resistance to atmospheric corrosion and to sulfide-bearing products (commonly found in fish products) and versatility for
making containers by different methods. Disadvantages include difficulties in closing the body seam by soldering and the
necessity for heavier gauges which are required to obtain strength comparable with tin plate. Sheet made with pure aluminium
has mechanical and physical properties which limit its use as a can-making material. Increased strength is obtained by alloying
aluminium with one or more other metals such magnesium and manganese. Minimum thickness of aluminium for use in fish
cans is 0.28 mm.

2.4.4 Enamel coatings

Enamel coatings are used to protect tin plate, aluminium alloys and TFS, The coatings can be applied to sheets and coils either
before and after cans are made. In some cases, coatings make it possible to use more lightly coated grades of tin plate or tin-
free steel. The enamels or lacquers were originally prepared from polymerized fish oil but today lacquers are made from
synthetic materials which provide better performance.

2.4.5 Retortable pouches

Retortable pouches for thermoprocessed food as an alternative to metal cans and glass jars have found increased use during
recent years. The pouches are heat sterilized in retorts and the sterility maintained by the impermeability of the material and the
hermetic seals of the pouches. Characteristics for their use include (Lampi, 1979) convenience fore-heating by immersion in
boiling water. rapid sterilization as the flat. thin cross section of the pouch permits rapid heat transfer to the contents. energy
conservation. and space utilization.

Retortable pouches are made from rigid or flexible materials. Rigid pouches are constructed with high density polyethylene
(HDPE), whereas flexible pouches may be made from a lamination which consists of an outer polyester ply, an aluminium foil,
as the primary material. and an inner ply which is made of modified polyolefin (medium to high density polyethylene modified
with polyisobutylene) or cast polypropylene. Products are being commercially packed in a film described as 12 microns
polyester, 9 microns aluminium oil, 15 microns nylon and 50 microns polypropylene, and processed at temperatures up to 135
ºC for times ranging from 2.7 to 9 minutes (Lampi, 1979).
2.4.6 Glass

The principles of processing with glass are substantially the same as for cans, except that there are some modifications
necessary because of the sealing mechanism used and the thermal characteristics of the glass. As with cans, glass containers
must be hermetically sealed; this is achieved by using a metal closure into which has been placed a plastisol lining compound
that acts as a sealant between the glass and the metal cap.

Glass containers are processed under water in a counter-balanced retort. The water prevents thermal shock breakage as steam
enters the retort while the counter-balancing air transmits pressure through the water ensuring that at all times the pressure in
the retort is greater than that in the sealed container.

As glass is resistant to all food products no internal surface treatment is required. The metal closures however must be
protected from corrosion and for this reason are internally and externally lacquered.

Table 5 Size of 2-piece cans for different types of the most important fish products

Type of can Material Volume Length Width Height Product Net weight Fish weight
ml mm mm mm g g
1/4 dingley aluminium tin plate 112 105 76 21.5 sardines, small fish 106 85
1/4 club * aluminium tin plate 115 105 60 29 sardines, small fish, 125 95
tuna
1/2 hansa * aluminium tin plate 200 148 81 26 herrings 195 130
1/2 oblong aluminium tin plate 212 154.7 61 30 kippers 225 225
1/3 oval tin plate 200 149 81 25 mackerel 195 130
1/2 oval tin plate 270 149 81 25 mackerel 250 180

* Noblikk-Sannem A/S standards.

Table 6 Size of 2- and 3-piece cans for different types of the most important fish products

Type of can Material Volume Diameter Height Product Net Fish

ml mm mm weight weight
g g
2-piece round aluminium 225 90 40 shrimp 217 150
2-piece round aluminium 115 78 32 shrimp 111 75
2-piece 1/2 pound aluminium tin 245 90 44 fish with vegetables, 230 *
round plate herring, tuna
2-piece 1 pound tin plate 490 120 49 fish with vegetables, 460 *
round herring, tuna
3-piece round tin plate 212 83.8 46 tuna 200 155
3-piece round tin plate 400 99.5 60 tuna 377 292
3-piece round tin plate 450 72 119 cod roe in brine 425 300
3-piece round tin plate 450 101 64 fish cakes 400 260
3-piece round tin plate 900 101 121 fish balls 800 520
3-piece 5 kg round tin plate 4 250 218 123 tuna, sardine 4 000 3 100
3-piece 10 kg tin plate 8 500 218 245 tuna 8 000 6 200
round
* Depends on amount of vegetables.

2.4.7 Construction of metal containers

Metal containers are normally divided into two groups:

 2-piece cans (square, oval or round).

 3-piece cans with soldered or welded body (square, oval or round).

Specifications for the most common metal containers are shown in Tables 5 and 6.
 PRODUCTS
3.1 General
Important canned fish products are tuna packed as solid pack, chunks, flakes, grated or shredded in water or oil, sardines or
sardine-like fishes in oil, tomato sauce or other types of sauce, pre-smoked sardines in oil or tomato sauce, kippers (pre-smoked
herring), salmon, mackerel, fish paste products and pet food.

3.2 Standardization and Product Requirements

Requirements for all type of products are that the canned fish shall have an odour and flavour characteristic of the species and
type of packing medium, and be free from objectionable odours and flavours of any kind.

The main product requirements which are given in Codex standards for fish and fishery products(CAC/VOL V -Ed. 1) and not
mentioned elsewhere in the report are given in chapters 3.2.1, 3.2.2, 3.2.3 and 3.2.4.

3.2.1 Tuna species

Styles of tuna are pre-cooked (packs prepared from cooked fish without skin) and not pre-cooked (solid packs prepared directly
from raw fish) which may be presented as" skin-on" ).

Solid pack is fish cut into transverse segments to which no free fragments are added. In containers of 450 g (one pound) or less
of net contents, such segments are cut into lengths suitable for packing into one layer. In containers of more than 450 g (one
pound) net contents, such segments may be cut into lengths suitable for packing in one or more layers of equal thickness. No
layer shall have a thickness less than 2.5 cm (1 inch).

Chunk or chunks are a mixture of pieces of cooked fish most of which have dimensions of not less than 1.2 cm (1/2 inch) in each
direction and in which the original muscle structure is retained.

Flake or flakes are a mixture of particles of cooked fish in which the muscular structure of the flesh is retained.

Grated or shredded are a mixture of particles of cooked fish that have been reduced to a uniform size, and in which particles are
discrete and do not comprise a paste.

Canned tuna may be packed in olive oil -in conformity with the Recommended International Standard for Olive Oil, Virgin and
Refined, and for Refined Olive Residue Oil (CAC/RS 33-1970), or other vegetable oils -clear, refined, deodorized, edible
vegetable oil in conformity with the relevant recommended international standards adopted by the Codex Alimentarius
Commission.

On opening, the cans shall be well filled with fish. The products shall be practically free from skin (except when presented as
"skin-on" pack), scales, prominent blood streaks, blood-clots, bones, bruises, the red muscle known as red meat. and honey-
combing. The colour, texture, odour and flavour shall be characteristic of good quality canned tuna and bonito of the particular
species.

For the solid form of pack, the proportion of free flakes broken in the canning operation shall not exceed 18 percent of the weight
of the flesh.

For canned tuna designated as light, the product shall be practically free of dark meat.

3.2.2 Sardines

The fish pre-cooked nor not, smoked or unsmoked shall be neatly arranged within the can. At least 2 fishes shall be contained in
each can.

The product in a can shall comprise fish with a reasonable uniform size, neatly cut to remove the head and with no excessive
ventral breaks (unsightly rupture of the ventral area), or breaks and cracks in the flesh.
The can shall be well filled with fish and the final product shall be free from foreign matter.

The fish shall be reasonably firm, free from mushiness, with soft bones. The colour of the flesh shall be characteristic of the
species and type of pack (Codex Stan 94-1981)..

3.2.3 Salmon

Regular style consists of canned salmon to which salt has been added.

Skinless and boned salmon shall consist of regular pack canned salmon from which the skin and vertebrate have been
substantially removed.

Salmon tips or tidbits shall consist of small pieces of salmon.

Canned Pacific Salmon shall be prepared from clean, wholesome salmon.

On opening the cans shall appear well filled with fish. The bones shall be soft and the flesh shall be practically free from bruises,
blood spots, honey-combing or abnormal colours. The contents shall be free from viscera and reasonably free from pieces of
detached or loose skin or scales. In the case of regular packs, the sections of fish shall be arranged so that the cut surfaces are
approximately parallel to the .opened end and the skin side parallel to the walls of the can. Regular packs shall be reasonable
free from cross packs and pieces of skin or section of the vertebrae across the top of the can (Codex Stan 3-1981).

3.2.4 Shrimps

Styles of shrimps are conventional or regular shrimps or prawns which have been peeled and subsequently canned without
intentional removal of the dorsal tract and cleaned or deveined shrimps or prawns which have been peeled and in addition the
back has been cut open and the dorsal tract removed at least up to the last segment next to the tail.

In addition to the meat of the shrimps or prawns, the container may also contain a liquid in sufficient volume to cover the shrimps
or prawns.

Broken shrimps or broken prawns are pieces of the product consisting of less than four segments. Such pieces may occur
provided they do not occur in excess of the tolerance limits set in standard (Codex Stan 37-1981).

Canned shrimps or prawns should be clean, generally uniform in size and prepared with care; have good (firm) sinuosity,
making them appear curved; have appetizing appearance and uniform colour, characteristic of the species and habitat or areas
from which harvested, even if artificially coloured; not be smeary and not more than slightly sticky.
 PROCESSING
4.1 Technological Processes
The main objective of canning is to obtain a shelf-stable product that can be stored in suitable containers for a considerable
length of time (at least two years) without undergoing food spoilage, while retaining desirable nutritional and sensory qualities.

To achieve satisfactory shelf-life the following conditions must be observed:

i. The contents of the cans must be commercially sterilized.

ii. The inside of the can must be resistant to and damaging effects from the contents and the outside must be resistant to
corrosion under reasonable storage conditions.
iii. The can ends must be sealed to prevent ingress of water and/or air or any form of contamination.

4.2 Processing Operations

4.2.1 General

Fish should be chill stored at a temperature between 0º and 2 ºC, or sorted frozen in freezers at temperatures below -28 °C.

When frozen fish is used, it must be thawed before grading and/or dressing.

In the following descriptions of the processing stages for various products, operations which are similar are described in Chapter
4.2.2 "Description of canning tuna in brine", and subsequently only mentioned.

4.2.2 Description of canning tuna in brine

The description is related to canning plant with a capacity of 20 tons whole raw fish (bluefin or yellowfin tuna) per 8 hours. The
overall yield is approximately 50-55% which gives approximately 10 000 450 g (1 pound) cans or 20 000 225 g (1/2 pound) cans
per 8 hours. See Figure 4 "Layout for tuna cannery".

Simplified flow sheets for canning tuna in brine, tuna flakes with vegetables and tuna. pet food are shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7
respectively.

Sequential processing operations for canning tuna are described as follows:

a. Frozen tuna is thawed, preferably, by means of running water at a temperature of 10-15 °C. Loss during thawing is 0.5-
1.0%.

Holding of frozen tuna for long periods before thawing may lead to oxidation of fat resulting in a yellow to orange
discolouration on the surface of the cooked loins. Usually this surface discolouration can be removed when the fish is
cleaned.

b. Longitudinal cuts are common with large sized tuna and the viscera are removed from the fish on board fishing vessels
prior to freezing. Bonito and skip jack are frozen with viscera. Once thawed, the tuna is washed and inspected for
spoilage. If tuna is not eviscerated on board vessels this must be done in the plant. The splitting and evisceration
procedure is the only butchering operation performed on the tuna while it is in the raw condition. All other cleaning is
performed after the tuna has been cooked. Loss of weight is approximately 24-27%.
Figure 4 Layout for tuna cannery
Figure 5 Flow sheet for canning tuna in brine
Figure 6 Flow sheet for tuna flakes with vegetables

Figure 7 Flow sheet for tuna pet food

c. The tuna is given a pre-cook by heating at a temperature in range of 102 to 104 ºC. This operation is necessary to
make it possible to hand pick the light meat from the carcass and also to remove some of the oil from oily fish.

The fish is placed in baskets which are placed on racks. The racks of butchered fish are rolled into the cookers which
are usually of rectangular cross section and made of reinforced steel plate with a door, or doors, at one or both ends.
The pre-cooking is a batch type operation.
 Steam is admitted through a steam spreader on the floor of the cooker. Steam vent and drain valves are provided to
permit removal of air and condensate. Pre-cooking may also be carried out in boiling brine.

The pre-cooking time for individual batches varies widely according to the size of tuna. For example, the cooking time
may vary from 1 1/2 hours for small tuna to 8 to 10 hours, or more, for larger tuna. Loss of weight is approximately 22-
26%.

d. Tuna is cooled thoroughly to firm the flesh before the manual cleaning operation can be performed. Loss of weight is
approximately 3-5%.

e. After the pre-cooking and cooling operations, tuna is individually cleaned. The head is removed and the fish is skinned
and split into halves before removing the tail and backbone. The loins are produced by splitting the halves of the fish
along the median line. Red meat is then removed from each loin; the blood and dark meat are scraped away and the
loins, edible flakes and waste products are separated; of these portions approximately 15% is flake tuna.

f. The production of solid packs was formerly a hand-packing operation, but is now carried out by machines. This machine
produces a cylinder of tuna loins of uniform density from which can be cut can-zised segments of uniform weight.

Chunk packs are produced from loins which are cut on a moving belt by means of reciprocating cutter blades. The cut
loins are then filled into cans by tuna filler machines.

Flakes and grated tuna, which is produced from broken loins and flakes, are J packed in the same way as chunk packs.

g. The open cans next pass the line where additives such as salt, vegetables and finally either water or oil are added. Oil
should be added slowly over a sufficient stretch of the line to permit its thorough absorbtion by the tuna meat. When oil
is not added an equivalent amount of water replaces it. The oil temperature is recommended to be 80 ºC-90 ºC.

h. Small cans may be closed, without a vacuum, and processed directly, whereas larger ones must be vacuum sealed.

As the pressure in the can increases considerably during heat processing , the vacuum is necessary to minimize the
pressure increase in order to reduce the chance of distortion (peaking) and damage to the double seam.

After processing and cooling the formation of .the vacuum causes the ends of the can to assume a concave profile
which is characteristic of vacuum packed and hermetically sealed cans. The vacuum also reduces the residual oxygen
content in the can and therefore the extent of internal corrosion.

In order to form a vacuum, cans are seamed by using either vacuum seamers or an exhaust system.

When using the exhausting method the lids of the cans are first clipped or clinched on to the body in such a way as to
allow free passage of gases and vapours out of the can. The can and contents are then heated by passage through an
exhaust box. The lid is seamed to the can immediately it emerges from the exhaust box, so that when the contents cool
a vacuum is obtained. Thus the system relies on sealing the can while the contents are hot and allowing product
contraction to create the vacuum.

An alternate method of achieving a vacuum in sealed cans is by using vacuum seamers. These machines close the
cans and while so doing draw the air out thus creating a vacuum.

i. The double seaming method is usually used to seal metal containers. The seam is created in two operations. See
Figure 8. "Seaming Operation -Double Seam (CAC/RCP 10-1976) .

 The can, with the lid (can end) placed or clinched on top, stands on a base plate which is raised so that a chuck
fits into the countersink part of the lid, holding both in position.

The can end which is lined with a plastisol sealing compound is crimped into place so that it forms the so-called
"cover-hook" around the lip of the container body.

 The "cover-hook" and the enclosed lip of the container are folded down against the container and interlock
about the "body-hook". Both hooks overlap to form a strong joint which acts as a hermetic seal.
The sealing compound renders the seam air tight (hermetic). Around its circumference the double seam consists of five layers of
metal -three layers of the can end and two layers of the can body, however at the intersection with the side seam there are
seven layers of plate, the extra two being due to side seam overlap.

The seaming operation must be monitored throughout the processing and visual inspections should be carried out at least every
30 minutes (Warne, 1993).

Good manufacturing practice indicates that the. overlap should be at least 45 % of the internal seam lenght to ensure that the
seam will function correctly and resist to minor abuse.

Figure 8 Seaming operation -double seam

j. The sealed cans are transferred by a conveyor through a can washer which cleans the cans in detergent and water
before discharging them into retort baskets. The retort baskets are transferred into the retort and the cans sterilized.

Table 7 Examples of retorting temperatures and times for canned tuna

Nominal capacity  Alternative Processing temp. conditions time

of cans (°C) (min)
1.8 kg (4 pound) I 116 230
II 121 190
450 g {l pound) I 116 95
II 121 80
225 g (l/2 pound ) I 116 75
II 121 45
112 g (l/4 pound) I 116 65
II 121 40

All canned fish products are sterilized at temperatures above 100 ºC. Sterilization takes place in retorts, with or without water.
Overpressure is between 2-3 kg/cm². Processing conditions shown are suitable for those canneries , operating under conditions
of good manufacturing practice. Individual canneries may select different processing times and/or temperatures to suit their
manufacturing requirements.

The simplest and most common retorts today are horizontal, or vertical, batch retorts.

The following general description. applies to processing in batch retorts using saturated steam as the heating medium.
After the retort is loaded the door or lid is closed and the seal is checked to confirm that all the lugs are fastened securely. The
temperature recorder is checked to ensure that it is working correctly. Following this the vents and bleeders are opened and the
drain and overflow are closed {unless the over flow is used for venting).

The retort is now ready for operation during which the following operational procedures should be adopted:

 Steam is admitted by gradually opening the controller and the steam by pass lines.
 When the correct venting temperature is reached (>100 ºC) and/or the specified, vent time has elapsed, the vents are
closed. It is bad practice to vent less than the recommended time; nor should reliance be placed on agreement between
the mercury thermometer and pressure gauge readings as a criterion for complete air elimination, as this is not
necessarily a true indication of the required condition. If the pressure gauge is reading high while the temperature is
reading low, there is still air in the retort and venting should be continued until agreement between pressure reading and
the corresponding retort temperature is reached.
 Gradually close the bypass as the retort approaches the processing temperature. This will prevent a sudden drop in
temperature as the steam supply is cut when the retorting temperature is reached.
 When the retort has reached the processing temperature, check the temperature indicated on the mercury and
recording thermometers. While it is not serious if the thermograph indicates a temperature slightly lower (say 1 °C) than
the mercury thermometer, it is most important that it never reads higher. At all times the mercury thermometer should
be used as the reference, for indicating true retort temperature.
 At the start of the process, record on the production records the time, the mercury thermometer reading, the pressure,
and the temperature indicated by the recording thermometer.
 Keep a record of the come-up time to make certain it has been long enough to . allow sufficient venting.
 Maintain the retort temperature at the recommended processing temperature.
 Throughout the process, check that the specified temperature is being maintained.
 Leave all bleeders wide open during the entire process.
 When the recommended processing time has elapsed, turn off the steam and immediately start the cooling cycle.

k. When processing medium sized or larger cans (say greater than 250 g) in retorts using steam it may be necessary to
cool the cans under pressure so that the ends do not peak during cooling. Steam may be used to maintain the pressure
but compressed air is more usual. The cooling time depends on the processing temperature, the temperature of the
water used for cooling, the can size and the nature of the pack (i.e., liquid to solid ratio).

l. If necessary the cans should be washed before temporary storage, however under no conditions should the processed
cans be manually handled while wet.

4.2.3 Description of the processing operations of an automatic canning line for

skipjack

The descriptions are related to a plant with a capacity of 10 tons whole fish per 8 hours. The overall yield is 50-55% and
approximately 9 000-10 000 450 g (1 pound) cans are produced per 8 hours. See Figure 9 "Layout por skipjack cannery". The
weight of the fish to be processed is approximately 2 to 5 kg per fish.

a. From the chill room the whole fresh skipjack is brought to a bulk elevator which transports the fish to a gutting machine
which consists of a semi-automatic machine in which the fish is placed with its belly upermost. A rotating knife opens
the fish and removes the viscera.

The fish is conveyed to a rotating nylon brush under which it is cleaned by water spray nozzles.

After evisceration the tuna is conveyed to an inspection table where the final cleaning is completed manually; or where
those fish, too large for the gutting machine, can be butchered. At the discharge of the gutting machine the offal is
directed to a rotating filter drum for separations of water; the retained offal, is pneumatically pumped to containers.
Figure 9 Layout for skipjack cannery

b. Inspectors examine the fish, while it passes on the conveyor, to ensure that is has been satisfactorily cleaned.

c. Fish are automatically size-graded to assist in feed to the rotor cooker and regulation of cooking time.

d. Rotory cookers are frequently built with counter flow and discharge belts, and a capacity of approximately 1.3 tons per
hour with variable cooking times of up to 2 hours.
 The cooker is divided into 16 cells into which the fish is fed. The bottom of the cooker is separated by a heavy mesh
plate, and under this are placed heat exchangers for indirect steam heating.

After cooking the fish are transported on a continuous belt to the counter-flow cooler (a stainless vessel with freshwater
supply) and then on to the cleaning stations.

e. Typical cleaning arrangements consist of:

 One working table for cleaning the tuna after cooling

 One rotating table fitted with holders/cups for loins
 One discharge elevator for transportation of loin portions from the rotating table to the packing machine
 One offal conveyor monted beneath the cleaning station to collect and " discharge offal.

The operations are as follows:

 The 1st operator removes the fish from the conveyor and transfers it to a working. table where the skin and the head
are removed.
 The 2nd operator opens the fish, removes the backbone and divides the fish into 4 loins. Simultaneously the majority of
dark meat is removed and single loins are placed in the cups on the rotating table.
 The 3rd and 4th operators clean the loins, removing the remaining dark meat. The cleaned loins are then removed
automatically from their cups to a rubberbelt conveyor which transports them to an overlying conveyor.

f. The loins then pass to an automatic scale for continuous weighing which makes it possible to monitor production yields.
After weighing the loins pass to an I accumulation station prior to passing to a pack-shaper which packs the loins into
cans.

The filled cans pass to an oil/brine filling machine before the vacuum seaming machine.

Description of the subsequent operations and their effects on yield are similar to those described for canning tuna in brine.

4.2.4 Description of canning sardines in oil

The method for canning sardines in oil is often called the raw packaging method which contrasts with the method in which the
sardines are thermally treated before packing into cans.

The processing plant related to the description has a capacity of 15 tons raw fish per 8 hours. The overall yields is approximately
50% of the weight of raw fish. See Figure 10 "Layout for sardines in oil, cannery" which shows a plant of this capacity.
Figure 10 Layout for sardines in oil cannery

One ton of raw sardines is required to produce 5 200 (5 263) 1/4 club cans, packed into 52 cases of 100 cans each or 5 800 (5
882) 1/4 dingley cans packed into 58 cases of 100 cans each.

Figure 11 shows "Flow sheet for canning sardines in oil".

The operations after the thawing of the frozen fish or after transporting the fresh fish from the chill store are as follows:

1. The sardines are size-graded by an automatic grading machine which selects sardines to suit the size of cans used in
the plant.

The number of sardines per can permitted for various can types is given in Table 8

Table 8. Number of sardines per can permitted* for various can types

Type of can Number of sardines

Minimum Maximum
1/4 dingley 1 layer 6 sardines 12 sardines
1/8 6 sardines 12 sardines
1/16 oblong 2 layers 8 sardines 14 sardines
1/4 club 1 layer 4 sardines 8 sardines

* Permitted by ?

The smallest size of sardines allowed for canning (in Norway) is 9.5 cm.

2. After grading, the sardines are discharged onto a conveyor for transportation to the nobbing machine where the head
and guts of the fish are removed. On a typical nobbing machine, the fish are placed on continuous belts with one fish in
each compartment. The belt feeds the fish to a cutting wheel which cuts the head, and together with the guts, draws it
away from the body with rollers. If necessary the tails are cut in the same operation.

The packers examine the fish to ensure complete removal of guts. Loss of weight during nobbing is approximately 21%.

Nowadays there are also nobbing machines with greater capacity, served by four or more operators, which can complete
following operations:

 Removal of the head

 Evisceration
 Removal of the tail
 Washing the fish
 Packing the fish into cans

The automatic nobbing/packing machine has a capacity of 35-80 cans per minute and requires approximately 50% of the
manpower required by a traditional canning line (Perovic, 1983).
Figure 11 Flow sheet for canning sardines in oil

3. After nobbing the sardines pass through a washing process to remove blood and surface slime. Washing machines of
many types may be used. Washing should be with potable water or sea water of similar quality. (For certain species
with hard and inedible scales, such as pilchard, special washing machines suitable for removing scales are used).

4. The sardines are then transported, usually by a conveyor, to a brining machine. The brining can either be a batch or a
continuous operation. The speed of the process and the concentration of the brine can be controlled. The fish are
loaded into the brining unit in one end where they are immersed in concentrated salt solution, and then screwed through
the unit and simultaneously brined. The fish are then discharged at the opposite end of the unit.

Salt is absorbed by the flesh; a salt content of about 1-2% of fish weight, when in boxes is acceptable. The brining
machine is equipped with a filter to screen particles from the brine.

In addition to giving the product the desired salt content, brining has other beneficial effects. The process brightens the
appearance of the fish by removing remaining slime and also toughens the skin; when unbrined fish are canned much
of the skin adheres to the can.

After brining, the fish are allowed to drain before being transported to the packing table.

The brine must be prepared from salt which does not contain large quantities of magnesium chloride, a common
contaminant in unrefined salt. The brine should be replaced regularly as otherwise it becomes a source of
contamination.

5. After the brining process the sardines are packed (manually or automatically) into pre-washed cans.
 A manually operated packing line is equipped with conveyor belts, the speed of which can be altered in order to ensure
a smooth supply of sardines and cans to the packers. The filled cans and waste are removed by the conveyor after
packing.

In common sardine lines the filled cans pass over a weight control unit to a can aligner and then to a can pusher, which
automatically feeds the conveyor transferring them to the pre-cooker.

Change of yield during the packing process depends on the quality of raw material, but on average 5% loss of weight is
expected.

6. A typical flash cooker for sardines consists of 2 sections, one for cooking (in steam at about 95 °C) and one for drying
(in hot air at about 130 °C). The cans with the open end upwards are automatically transferred to crates, which are
hanging on crossbars mounted on a continuous chain conveyor running in slings up awards into the cooking section,
and into slings downwards in the drying section.

Between the two sections water is drained from cans as the crates are turned through 360° around a tumbler. The heat
in the cooking section is obtained from supply of direct steam while the heat in the drying section is indirectly supplied
from a heat exchanger. A fan located on the top of the section circulates the heated air. Weight loss during this
operation is approximately 25 %.

7. From the cooker the cans are automatically transferred onto a conveyor which takes then to the oil dispenser and onto
the seaming machine where they are sealed.

8. Before the retorting process the cans are washed to remove fish residues and oil from the outside of the containers.

9. Further operations as for canning tuna in brine. See chapter 4.2.2. .

Table 9 Examples of retorting temperatures and time for canning sardines

Can type Temp. (°C) Retorting time (min)

1/4 club 115-116 55
1/4 dingley 115-116 65

4.2.5 Description of canning pre-smoked sardines in tomato sauce or oil

Most of the operations in this process are similar to those described for canning sardines in oil.

The description is related to a plant capacity of 5 tons of raw fish per 8 hours.

The yield from canning of sardines and other pre-smoked small fishes approximate the yields obtained when canning sardines in
oil.

See Figure 12 "Flow sheet for canning pre-smoked small fish in tomato sauce and oil", and Figure 13 "Layout for pre-smoked
small fish cannery" which shows a plant of the capacity mentioned above.

The various operations are described below.

1. Grading is similar to the operation described for canine sardines in oil.

2. Brining is similar to the operation described for canning sardines in oil.

3. The fish are rodded, i.e, hung on rods through the eyes. This operation can be done automatically or manually.

The automatic rodding being a complicated process is only practised in large plants. The rodded fish are placed into
frames which are fitted to the smoking racks.

The frames have usually accommodate for 30 rods, each with 30 fish.
 4. The fish are smoked for approximately 1 hour at temperatures up to l30 °C. The main purposes of the smoking is to
enhance flavour and to lower the water content of the fish.

Usually tunnel type smoking kilns are used in which there is a controlled temperature gradient between 30° and 125-
130°C.

The air passes through a heat exchanger while smoke added. The smoke is produced by a smoke generator using
sawdust from hard woods (oak or similar). Loss during smoking is approximately 25%.

5. After smoking the bodies of the fish are separated from the heads with an automatic cutting machine. The heads are
then removed from the rods with an automatic rod stripping machine. Loss of weight during the deheading operation is
approximately 10-12%.

6. The packing, the filling of sauce or oil and the double seaming operations are similar to those described for canning
sardines in oil.

When preparing tomato sauce, puree of good quality must be used and to this is added olive oil or fish oil, etc.

Typical mixtures comprise one part oil and two parts tomato puree (20% concentration).

7. All subsequent operations are similar to those described for canning sardines in oil.

4.2.6 Description of canning fish paste products

The description is related to a fish paste canning plant with a capacity of l0 tons whole raw fish per 8 hours. The production is
based on either deheaded, gutted fish with an average weight of 1.5 kg or smaller industrial fish. See Figure 14 "Layout for fish
paste products cannery" which shows a plant of the capacity mentioned above.

Overall yield when manufacturing canned fish paste products depends on species involved, however, approximately 45-65% of
raw fish weight could be used for planning purposes.

The output from a plant producing meat balls is approximately 25 000/850 ml cans per 8 hours; alternatively 8 000/850 ml cans
of fish cakes or 15 000/850 ml cans of meat balls could be produced.
Figure 12 Flow sheet for canning pre-smoked small fish in tomato sauce and oil

The flow sheet for canning fish paste products is shown in Figure 15.

The various processing operations are summarised as follows.

The raw material has to go through a grinding/chopping and mincing process.

1. The fish are washed, descaled when necessary, eviscerated and deheaded.

2. According to skin thickness and size, the fish will have to be split into halves from head to tail along the backbone.

3. The split and opened fish are washed and cleaned.

4. The washed split fish is separated in a meat-bone separator. According to the type of fish one will get an acceptable
minced product, and offal, bones and skin.

5. If the mince is unacceptable, (i.e. ,discoloured because of blood etc. ), it may be necessary to have it washed and then
dewatered by means of a screwpress

6. The minced fish is mixed in a bowl chopper or mincer with the other ingredients. it is important to add the salt first and to
allow the mincer to work for a few minutes before adding the remaining ingredients to the mixture.

This will improve the binding properties of the fish. See Figure 16 "Processing line for fish meat".
Figure 13 Layout for pre-smoked small fish cannery.
Figure 14 Layout for fish paste products cannery.
Figure 15 Flow sheet for canning fish paste product.

7. Starch, spices and, if necessary, onions, fat, etc., are added.

8. Liquid milk is added and according to the type of mincer, it will take 10-12 min for the materials to reach a soft and
formable conditions.

9. The fish balls can be formed in machines, by hand with spoon, or by hands only, and dropped into a 1 1/2% solutions of
salt water at approximately 90 °C.

10. After cooking in the salt solution for approximately 5-8 min the fish balls are filled into cans.

11. Hot brine or fish bouillon is added.

12. After seaming the product goes immediately to retorting.

Figure 16 Processing line for fish meat

Figure 17 Layout for salmon cannery

Several alternatives for retorting temperatures and times are shown in Table 10.
Table 10 Examples of retorting temperatures and times for canned fish paste products

Alternative Initial product temp. (°C) Preheating Heating

temp. (°C) time temp. (°C) time
(min) (min)
Fish meat balls in brine/bouillon  

850 ml (99 x 119 mm) cans  

I 20 105 20 120 15
II 20 105 20 115 40
425 ml (99 x 63 mm) cans  

I 20 108 20 120 13
II 20 108 20 115 35
Fish cakes in brine/bouillon  

850 ml (99 x 119 mm) cans  

I 30 100 30 120 25
450 ml (99 x 63 mm), cans          

I 30 100 30 120 20

Further descriptions are as for canning tuna in brine.

4.2.7 Description of canning salmon

The description is related to a processing plant with a capacity of 8 tons of raw fish per 8 hours; this capacity has been based on
using whole fish weighing 4 kg each. See Figure 17 "layout for salmon cannery".

The overall yield when canning salmon is between 55 to 60 %, depending on the size of the fish. With a yield of 55%, 1 ton of
raw salmon will give 3 400 
(3 437) 225 g (1/2 pound) cans.

The processing operations are described below. See Figure 18 "Flow sheet for canning salmon"

1. The fish are transported to a sorting table and sorted by species.

2. The salmon are eviscerated with an iron chink machine which removes the head, fins and viscera from the salmon (see
Figure 19). The loss of weight is approximately 35-40 %

3. The eviscerated, deheaded fish is next conveyed to the sliming table. Sliming consists of removing fins, viscera and
blood, etc. not removed by the buchering machine. During the sliming operation the fish is throughly washed. The loss
of weight is approximately 3-5 %.
Figure 18. Flow sheet for canning salmon.

4. From the sliming table the cleaned fish is conveyed to a fish cutter fitted with revolving sknifes which cut the fish into
slices. The slices are then .fed into an automatic filling machine. The loss of weight is approximately 0.5-1.0 %.

5. The filling machine fills the cans with the salmon after which salt is added.

6. The filled cans pass through an automatic scale which sorts for under Weight cans.

7. From the scale the cans pass into a vacuum seaming machine.

8. The filled and sealed cans are then discharged from the seaming machine through a can washer.

9. After seaming the product goes immediately to retorting. Retorting conditions of approximately 115 °C for 100 min are
used for 450 ml cans.

10. Further descriptions are as for canning tuna in brine.

4.2.8 Description of canning shrimps

Headless, peeled shrimps are graded according to number of shrimps per 100 g of drained product. See Table 11 (Codex Stan
37-1981).
1. HEADER KNIFE
2. FISH IN POSITION FOR HEADING
3. BULL RING WHICH CARRIES FISH THROUGH THE MACHINE
4. BACK PINCERS
5. TAIL PINCERS ADVANCED AND GRASPING FISH
6. TAIL CUA OFF SAW
7. BELLY FINNING KNIFE
8. BACK PINCERS ADVANCED AND GRASPING FISH
9. BACK FINNING KNIFE
10. BELLY SLITTING SAW
11. GUIDE TO OPEN BELLY FLAPS FOR GUTTING REEL
12. GUTTING REEL TO REMOVE VICERA
13. KNIFE AND REEL TO SLIT KIDNEY MEMBRANE AND TO REMOVE KIDNEY
14. BRUSH TO REMOVE BLOOD AND MEMBRANES
15. ROLLER TO SUPPORT BULL RING
16. FISH RELEASED AS BACK AND TAIL PINCERS RETRACT
17. CONVEYOR TO REMOVE BUTCHERED FISH

Figure 19 Iron chink for dressing salmon

Table 11 Number of shrimp per 100 g of drained product

Size Designation Conventional Cleaned

Extra large or jumbo less than 12.3 less than 13.4
Large 12.3 to 17.7 inclusive 19.4 to 19.1 inclusive
Medium more than 19.1 but not more than 31.8 more than 19.1 but not more than 34.6
Small more than 31.8 but not more than 60 more than 34.6 but not more than 65.3
Tiny or minuscular more than 60.0 more than 65.3
Figure 20 Layout for shrimp cannery

It is usual to can only those shrimp which fall in the medium to very small size range.

The description is based on a processing plant capacity of 3.6 tons raw shrimp per 8 hours. This corresponds to production of 12
000-14 000 cans, each containing 75 g shrimp, in 8 hours.
The overall yield from canning shrimp is between 25 to 30% of raw weight. See Figure 20 "Layout for shrimp cannery " which
shows a plant of the capacity mentioned above. The description is based on using iced raw shrimp as the raw material. The
shrimps are usually graded before delivery to the cannery. See Figure 21 "Flow sheet for canning shrimps" .

The operations in the canning process are summarized below:

a. On arrival at the cannery, ice is removed before washing the shrimps.

b. The shrimps are throughly washed while being conveyed into the plant.

c. After washing the shrimps are inspected and foreign debris removed.

d. The shrimps are then conveyed to a peeling machine, which separates the shells and heads from the body. This
operation can also be done manually. Aproximately 46% of the total weight is lost during this process.

e. After peeling, the shrimps pass through to a waste separator, which removes fragments left after peeling.

f. The cleaned shrimps are loaded into baskets and placed into a boiling salt solution for cooking. Average salt
concentration in the solution is 11-13%. The cooking time varies from 6-10 minutes depending on the size of the
shrimps.

g. After cooking the shrimps are inspected and any broken ones and/or pieces are removed. The shrimps are then dried
by fans.

h. The shrimps are weighed and hand-filled into cans. The weight of the shrimps . should be 64% of the content of the
can. Aluminium cans are preferably used for shrimp canning, however if tin plate cans are used, layers of parchment
paper should be placed between the shrimps and the can to prevent corrosion. Hot or cold brine is filled into the cans.

Table 12 Example of mixture for brine

Salt 2 kg

Sugar 1 kg

Citric acid 0.9 l

Water 100 l

i. The cans are automatically closed and transferred to retorts for processing.
Figure 21 Flow sheet for canning shrimp

Table 13 Examples of retorting temperatures and times for canning shrimp

Alternatives Preheating Conditions Processing Conditions

temp. time temp. time
(°C) (min) (°C) (min)
I 104 50 116 22
II     108 60

j. Further operations are as for canning tuna in brine

 PROCESSING Equipment
Some of the most important equipment used for canning and pre-treatment of fish is described in this chapter. The items
selected are chosen, more to give an impression of the processing principles, rather than to recommend particular equipment.

5.1 General Canning Equipment

5.1.1 Retorts

As briefly described previously retorts are used to sterilize the contents of the cans.

Horizontal retorts, which are commun within the fish canning industry, have the following general features :

The major components of such retorts are the retort shell (body), crates and various controllers.

The capacity of the retort is .optional and depends on the output of the cannery, however as a guide a retort which holds 1 400
cans (850 ml) per batch would suit most medium sized batch operations. In this case the retort would be approximately 4 000
mm long and have a diameter of 1 200 mm. The size of each crate would be 800 mm x 700 mm x 700 mm.

Approximate steam consumption would be 400 kg per batch while water consumption during cooling would be approximately 10
000 l per batch. Consumption of electricity would be approximately 5 kWh per hour for circulation pump etc.

Stainless steells mainly used in the construction of retorts.

Normally the retort can be operated by one person, who in many cases is in charge of a batch of retorts.

5.1.2 Seaming machines

There are several automatic seaming machines specially designed for closing filled square, oval and round aluminium or tin
plate cans. Characteristics of a common machine are shown in Figure 22.

Automatic machines are fitted with can end and can body feeding devices and also with equipment for automatic code marking
of can ends.

In addition they may also be linked with the following devices:

Automatic filling device

The device is designed for filling of oil, tomato sauce and other liquid sauces into cans. It is pneumatically operated and fills
precisely measured quantities into each can.

Lidplunger and control closing device

The device is mounted on the closing machine and is particularly useful for overpacked cans. It presses the lid down on the can,
and if the lid is not lying on the can, the seaming operation is automatically stopped.

Automatic seaming machines can operate at speeds of 3 500-4 000 cans per hour. Diateters of cans that may be seamed range
from approximately 50 to 195 mm. The height of the cans may range from 15 to 120 mm. Multiple code markings are available.

Approximate length of the seaming machine will be 2 000 mm while width will be 2 000 mm .
Figure 22 Automatic seaming machine

Approximate consumption of electricity is 30-35 kWh per 8 hours.

The machine can be operated by two workers.

5.1.3 Can washing and drying machine

Can washing and drying machines are used to clean cans after sterilization in order to remove residual oils that may have
adhered to the can surfaces during filling and retorting.

These machines are frequently fitted with a variable speed drive to regulate the speed of the conveyor-belt.

Approximate dimensions of these machines are 3 600 mm (length), 1 500 mm (height) and 1 600 mm (width).

The drive motors will consume approximately 60-70 kWh per 8 hours when fully used. If steam battery is used for heating it will
consume approximately 200 kg steam per hour. If the machine is heated by electricity it will consume approximately 100 kWh
per 8 hours.

All parts are made from stainless steel.

The machine is automatic, but may be fed by one or two workers. See Figure 23.

5.1.4 Cartoning machine

Cartoning machines are used for packing cans into individual cartons. The main characteristics of an air operated cartoning
machines are given below.
Figure 23 Can washing and drying machine

They may be equipped with a rotating infeed table. The cartons are separated and opened by use of vacuum and the machine is
equipped with a pump for this purpose. The machine has two electric motors each of 0.25 hp.

The capacity of the machine shown in Figure 24 is up to 65 cans per minute

Table 14 Dimensions of cans that may be operated by the cartoning machine, shown in Figure 24

Length: 85-180 mm

Width: 50-100 mm

Height: 12- 40 mm

Length of the machine is 2 400 mm and width is 800 mm

The motors will consume approximately 3-5 kWh per 8 hours. Consumption of compressed air is 160-200 litres per minute.

The machine may be fully automatic or it may be fed by one or two workers.

There are on the market other types of cartoning machines with capacity 120 or more cans per minute.

5.2 Equipment for Canning Tuna

5.2.1 Racks

Racks are used in the pre-cooking process. Baskets with tuna are placed on the racks before they are loaded into the cooker.

The main characteristics of racks used for tuna are given in the following:

 The racks are equipped with two fixed and two swivel wheels.
 The holding capacity of each rack is determined by the requirements of production .
CARTONING MACHINE:
A: Feeding conveyor for product
B: Cardboard boxes stack and extraction
C: Infeed attachment for product
D: Closing station for boxes
E: Discharge of finished cardboard boxes

Figure 24 Automatic cartoning machine

 Approximate dimensions of a rack are 760 mm, width 838 mm and height 1 400 mm wheel.
 The material used in construction is either galvanized or black iron
 Two workers are used to fill the baskets and load the cooker.

5.2.2 Baskets for cooking tuna

Baskets filled with tuna are placed in racks and loaded into the cooker.

The main characteristics of baskets often used for pre-cooking tuna are given below:

 The holding capacity of each basket is approximately 15-16 kg fish.

 Dimensions of the baskets used for the racks described above are 810 mm x 380 mm x 100 mm and the net weight of
each basket is 4 kg.
 Galvanized wire is often used .to construct these baskets.
 Two workmen can fill the baskets and load the cooker.

5.2.3 High speed tuna filler

A high speed tuna filler is a fully automatic machine designed to cut and fill pre-cooked tuna meat into round and/or oval cans.

The main components are the feeding unit, the cutting unit and the filling unit.

The machine fills tuna tablets ranging from 100 g to 1 kg. Mass speeds are shown in Table 15.

Length of the machine is 3 600 mm, width is 1 700 mm and height is 1 250 mm.

Table 15 Summary of operating parameters for automatic filling of round and oval tuna cans

Can description Can dimensions Fish tablet diameter Filling speed

 Diameter Height Minimum Maximum
(c.p.m.)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Standard round 60 to 90 24 to 45 54 82 up to 150

Large round 80 to 110 48 to 106 75 93 up to 70

Oval 65 x 105 20 to 40 56 92 up to 100

All contact parts are made from stainless steel.

Only one person is required to feed tuna loins into the machine.

5.2.4 Exhaust box

Exhaust boxes are used for heating cans to ensure that when sealed and cooled a vacuum is produced in the container.

The main characteristics for a typical exhaust boxes used for tuna are given in the following:

 They are equipped with can feeding and discharge belts and electric motor.
 The capacity of the exhaust box should be approximately 10 tons per 8 hours with an exhausting time varying between
1-10 minutes in steam open to the atmosphere.
 Length of the box is 3 600 mm and width is 600 mm.
 The motor will consume approximately 25 kWh per 8 hours. Consumption of steam is 70-80 kg per hour.
 Material used in construction is mainly stainless steel.
 The machine can be operated by one or more worker, depending on the degree of automation used at the infeed and
exist stations.

5.3 Equipment for Canning Sardines

5.3.1 Grading machines

The machine is designed to automatically grade sardines into various sizes.

The main characteristics of a typical grading machine for sardines are given below:

 The machine shown n Figure 25 is powered by a 1.0 hp motor. If greater segregation is demanded than is achievable in
a single grading operation, the machine can be equipped with a double set of grading rollers, the second mounted
underneath the first. In this manner a double grading of the fish will be achieved. The capacity of the machine is 1 500-2
000 kg per hour, when grading sardines of a size ranging from 20 to 100 fishes per kg.
 The approximate dimensions of the machine are length 2 700 mm, width 1 100 mm, and height 700 mm.
Figure 25 Grading machine for sardines

 The motor will require approximately 5-6 kWh per 8 hours.

 Aluminium alloy is mainly used in the construction of the machine.

5.3.2 Brining unit

The main characteristics of an automatic brining unit. used for sardines are described below and shown in Figure 26.

 The main components are a drum made of perforated plate, which is connected to a variable speed drive and a 1.0 hp
motor.
 The capacity of a brining unit varies from 1 000 to 5 000 kg per hour an the speed of the drive controls the brining time
from between 1 and 15 minutes.
 The approximate dimensions are length 4 000 mm, width 1 550 mm and height 1 700 mm.
 The motor will require approximately 5-6 kWh per 8 hours.
 The machine is manufactured from stainless steel.

5.3.3 Nobbing machine

A nobbing machine as described previously and illustrated in Figure 27 is used for head cutting, nobbing (which means pulling
the viscera out of the belly), cleaning and tail cutting and/or fixed body cutting.

The characteristics of a nobbing machine used for sardines and herring are given below.

 The main components of the machine are the feeding unit, fish magazine, head cutting unit, nobbing unit, cleaning unit
and cutting unit for the tails.
 The capacity of the machine described is 400-550 fishes per minute depending on fish length, which may vary from 110
to 260 mm.
 Approximate dimensions are length 2 700 mm, width 2 200 mm and height 1 600 mm.
 Power consumption is approximately 20 kWh per 8 hours and water consumption is approximately 12 litres per minute.
Figure 26 Brining unit

Figure 27 Cutting and nobbing machine

 Materials used in construction are stainless steel and aluminium alloy

 The machine shown may be operated by one supervisor.
5.3.4 Continuous flash cooker

The flash cooker is used for pre-cooking and drying of sardines before exhausting and closing the cans.

The main components of the cooker shown in Figure 28 are the automatic charge and discharge section, the steam chamber,
the draining section and the drying section. Two chains carry approximately 800 crates in which the cans are placed.

Chain speed and thereby cooking time is variable. Different types of cans can be cooked without adjustments to the cooker. Up
to 12 500 club cans per hour can be processed.

Approximate dimensions are length 15 500 mm, width 1 600 mm and height 3 900 mm.

The cooker will require approximately 50-60 kWh per 8 hours if it is used fully while depending on load steam consumption is
approximately 500 kg per hour.

The cooker is mainly constructed from stainless steel.

Being fully automatic one operator is required to supervise the machine.

5.3.5 Smoking kiln

The smoking kiln is also used for drying, pre-cooking and smoking sardines. The main components of a kiln are the drying unit,
the smoking chamber, the fans, the heat exchanger and two motors, a 4-hp motor for the fans and a 1.5-hp motor for the chains.

The capacity of the automatic kiln shown in Figure 29 is 6 000-8 000 kg per 8 hours.

Approximate dimensions are length 11 650 mm, width 2 200 mm and height 2 170 mm.

The kiln requires approximately 30-40 kWh per 8 hours and consumption of oil is approximately 5 litres per hour.

Material used in construction is mainly black iron. Being fully automatic the kiln is operated by one worker.

5.4 Equipment for Canning Fish Paste Products

5.4.1 Meat separator

Fish meat separators are used to recover meat from split and washed fish.

The main components of a separator are normally a rotating perforated drum/cylinder, mounted horizontally, and a rubber belt.
The perforated drum and the rubber belt rotates in the same direction, and the fish is squeezed in between the rubber-belt and
the drum. The separator is equipped with a 5 hp motor.

The capacity is 10 tons washed and split fish per 8 hours, with an approximate yield of 7 tons minced fish and 3 tons offal.

Approximate dimensions of a typical separator are 1 060 mm x 1 127 mm x 1 050 mm.

The diameter of the holes in drum are 2 1/2- 3 mm.

The motor will require approximately 30 kWh per 8 hours.

All contact parts are made from stainless steel.

The machine is operated by one worker.

Figure 28 Flash cooker

Figure 29 Smoking kiln

5.4.2 Bowl chopper/mincer

The ingredients (fish, salt, milk starch, etc.) must be mixed and finely minced. The mincer-bowl rotates, and the ingredients have
to pass under vertical high speed cutting knives.

The main components of the machine are the bowl, the mincer and a 50-100 hp motor.

Mincer/cutter capacities vary from approximately 25 litres to several hundred litres. The bowl capacity is approximately 325
litres.

Approximate dimensions of the chopper/mincer are (2 200 mm x 1 800 mm x 1 350 mm)

The motor will consume from approximately 300 to 600 kWh per 8 hours.

All contact parts are made from stainless steel.

The machine is operated by one worker.

5.4.3 Pumps for minced materials

The mixture of fish and ingredients is emptied from the bowl mincer into a container with a built-in screw and pump at its base.
From this container the mass can be pumped, either to the ball former, or the fish cake former. The fish balls and cakes are
extended through stainless steel pipes.

The main components are the container, the pump with a 2 hp motor and the pipes.

Approximate capacity is 40-50 litres per minute, with variable speed.

The dimensions are 1 550 mm x 1 100 mm.

The motor will require approximately 12 kWh per 8 hours.

All contact parts are made from stainless steel.

One operator is required.

5.4.4 Cooking equipment for fish balls

The cooker for fish balls may vary in size however an example of a cooker with a 2 000 kg/h capacity is given below.

 The main components of the machine are normally a ball former and cooking chamber.
 Approximate dimensions are length 6 000 mm, width 1 250 mm and height 400 mm.
 For the size quoted steam consumption is approximately 500-700 litres per hour.
 The cooker is made from stainless steel and it is usually operated automatically.

5.4.5 Fryer for fish cakes

As the cakes have to be fried on both sides, they have either to be turned manually otherwise the machine can do this
automatically.

A description of an electrical fryer for fish cakes is given below and shown in Figure 30.

 The main components of the machine are normally the cake former, a belt and a heating element.
 Capacity is 650 kg fried cakes per hour (13 000 cakes x 50 g per cake).
 Approximate dimensions are length 6 000 mm, width 1 500 mm and height 1 500 mm.
 The fryer described requires 900 to 1 000 kWh per 8 hours when it is used to full capacity.
 The machine may be operated by one worker.

Figure 30 Frying machine with fish cake former

 BY PRODUCTS
In most fish canneries offal from the preparatory processes are available for manufacturing by-products. In general the main by-
products are canned and frozen pet food, minced frozen fish and fish silage for animal feeding and fish meal. oil can be
recovered from the canning process however this should only be used for industrial purposes.

Quality of the by-products depends on the freshness of raw material, and their fat content and nutritional value. Fish flesh is
generally more valued than viscera, heads, and backbones.

The source and approximate yields of by-products from various fish canning operations are shown in Table 16.

Table 16 Source and approximate yields of by-products from various fish canning operations

By-product By-product yield from canning operations

Tuna (%) Sardine (%) Salmon (%)
Pet food 4-6 - -
Fish meal 30-35 20-30 30-35
Industrial oil <5 5 -
 PACKAGING and STORAGE

PACKAGING AND STORAGE

7.1 Packaging 
7.2 Storage

7.1 Packaging
If the cans are litho-printed, once filled they can be packed into master cartons after an interim storage period. Plain ("bright")
cans should be labelled and then packed into cartons.

The labelling is usually done by an automatic labelling machine however where labour is relatively cheap, manual labelling is
sometimes practised.

The cartons can be glued, stitched or taped on one end, and later they are usually taped or glued at the other end. The packing
operations can be automatic, semi-automatic or manual.

The cartons are usually printed, however sometimes labels are attached to the outside of the cartons.

The cartons are handled manually or transported on pallets by fork-lifts to the store.

A more economic method is to use a simple base plate of cardboard with 30 mm high rims. The plate on which the cans are
placed is then shrink wrapped with plastic sheets. The plastic should not seal the trays completely, as this will prevent air
circulation, which may cause moisture to be trapped and corrosion of the tin plate.

To identify the cannery and the production batch, the can ends are coded.

According to the Recommended International General Standard for the Labelling of pre-packaged foods (CAC/RS 1-1969) the
following information should be used in labelling:

 The name of food

The name shall indicate the true nature of the food and normally be specific and not generic.

 List of ingredients

A complete list of ingredients shall be declared on the label in descending order of proportion.

 Net contents

The net contents shall be declared in either the metric ("System International" units) or avoirdupois or both systems of
measurement as required by the country in which the food is sold.

 Name and address

The name and address of the manufacturer, packer, distributor, importer, exporter or vendor of the food shall be
declared.

 Country of origin
 The country of origin of a food shall be declared if its omission would mislead or deceive the consumer.

 Optional labelling

Any information or pictorial device may be displayed in labelling provided that it would not mislead or deceive the
consumer in any way whatsoever in respect of the food.

 Grade designations

If grade designations are used, they should be readily understandable, and not be misleading or deceptive in any way.

7.2 Storage

7.2.1 Storage of finished products

The cans should be stored in storage, in cartons or containers, after sterilization and washing.

This procedure will facilitate the inspection of the cans to ensure appropriate quality. The duration of the storage must be at least
4 weeks. During this period, inspection for swollen containers will reveal the majority of microbiologically unsound cans that may
have been produced and damage to cans.

The final storage for canned products must be dry and with good air ventilation.

Canned products should be stored neither at extremely high temperatures (>40 °C) nor at freezing temperatures.

Canned products manufactured and stored under normal conditions usually have a shelf-life of at least two years.

The space requirements will depend on type of commodity. As a general rule the storage room must have sufficient space for 4-
6 months normal production capacity; however as costs rise many manufacturers attempt to reduce their inventories. Utilization
of. and need for storage space depends on the number of product types and the storage system adopted.

When storing without a rack system. three to four pallets can be stacked on top of each other in the store room without
damaging the cans (with tin plate cans). The storage density is approximately 3 tons per square metre. Transport and working
areas in the store are not included.

If humidity is very high. space should be provided to allow air circulation and to prevent external corrosion of the cans.

A storage system based on racks enables the best utilization of the store and gives greater scope for arranging the different
types of products separately.

The store volume shown in Figure 30 will contain approximately 315 pallets with dimension 0.8 m-1.2 m (the Europallet). With
approximately 800 kg on each pallet, The store will contain approximately 250 tons of final products (packaging material
included).
Figure 31 Example of storage arrangement

7.2.2 Storage of Ingredients

Generally ingredients should be stored in a clean, dry and preferable cool place. However canned tomato sauce can be stored
under less controlled conditions. Similarly dry commodities (e.g., flour, spices, salt and dried vegetables) and oil for canning
when kept in steel cans (drums), will also withstand variable storage conditions.

It is recommended that pasteurized milk be held in chilled rooms and/or tanks.

For more detailed information, see FAO Circular 735, Fresh Fish Handling, Chapter 8.
 SERVICES AND LABOR
8.1 Requirements for Water and Energy
Requirements for water and energy are listed in Tables 17 and 18; the figures correspond to the plant capacities quoted in
Chapter 4.2. Electricity required for refrigeration installations is not included.

Table 17 Water requirements

Processing plant m³/hour

Thawing &  Processing Sterilization Other Total Capacity
dressing line (tons raw fish/8 h)
l. Tuna production 20 10 30 20 80 20
2. Automatic skipjack line - 10 20 5 35 10
3. Sardines in oil 15 10 30 15 70 15
4. Pre-smoked small fish - 5 15 10 30 5
5. Fish paste products 10 15 40 10 75 10
6. Salmon - 10 25 5 40 8
7. Shrimps - 20 15 5 40 3.6

8.2 Requirements. for Material Handling Equipment

Requirements for material handling equipment are listed in Table 19.

The designations from 1-7, which correspond to the processing plant capacities described in chapter 4.2 are as follows:

1. Processing tuna in brine: 20 tons raw fish per 8 hours.

2. Automatic skipjack production line: 10 tons raw fish per 8 hours.

3. Processing sardines in oil: 15 tons raw fish per 8 hours.

4. Processing pre-smoked small fish: 5 tons raw fish per 8 hours. .

5. Processing fish paste products: 10 tons raw fish per 8 hours. ,

6. Processing salmon: 8 tons raw fish per 8 hours.

7. Processing shrimps: 3.6 tons raw fish per 8 hours.

Table 18 Energy requirements (approx.).

Processing plant Electricity  Steam  Fuel oil Capacity

(kWh per 8 h) kg/h (litre/h.) (tons raw fish/h)
Equipment Total
l. Tuna production 2 000 2 700 5 000 350 20
2. Automatic skipjack line 1 700 2 200 2 000 135 10
3. Sardines in oil 1 500 2 200 3 500 230 15
4. Pre-smoked small fish 600 1 000 1 000 65 5
5. Fish paste products 1 800 2 300 4 500 300 10
6. Salmon 800 1 200 2 500 170 8
7. Shrimp 500 900 750 50 3.6

Table 19 Requirements for material handling equipment

Processing plant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Equipment              
Fork lift trucks 4 2 3 2 3 2 2
Battery charging unit 2 1 2 1 2 1 1
Pallets for raw material - - 100 100 100 - 40
Pallets for finished products 240 125 300 100 300 150 50
Boxes - - 2 000 1 000 1 200 - 300
Hand lifting trucks 4 2 3 2 3 2 2
Crates for autoclaves 16 12 24 12 24 12 8
Tuna cook baskets 280 - - - - - -
Tuna racks 20 - - - - - -
Containers for thawing 20 fresh - fresh - - -
Bins/cages for whole fish 70 50     40 50 -
Trays     120 50      

8.3 Quality Control Facilities

Quality control laboratory should be set up to:

 ensure that only acceptable fish or shrimps are processed

 carry out inspection along the production line
 determine the quality of incoming raw material
 ensure that the product complies with applicable bacteriological, chemical and physical specifications, and that it
conforms with the buyer's specifications.

A control laboratory should require approx. 40 m² space.

Investment cost is approximately NOK 2 500 per square meter. In addition approximately NOK 200 000 should be provided for
purchase of equipment.

8.4 Other Services

The requirements for other service installations, such as first aid-services, security, welfare, refrigeration and wharfs depends on
the capacity of the processing plant and the number of employees involved.

Sanitary installations and canteen must be assessed according to the number of employees. See Table 20.

Table 20 Number of toilet rooms with hand-washing facilities a/

 No. of employees No. of toilets
1-9 1
10-24 2
25-49 3
50-100 5
and thereafter for every 30 employees over 100: 1 more toilet

a/ Based on recommendations contained in CAC/RCP 10-1976.

In addition to the hand-washing facilities available in toilet rooms, washing basins with adequate supply of hot and cold water or
clean sea water and liquid or soap powder should be provided, wherever the process makes these necessary.

Rooms containing showers should also be provided for the workforce. Generally, for every 20-25 employees, 1 shower should
be provided.

Canteen and changing rooms will also be necessary.

Where workers of both sexes are employed, separate facilities should be provided. Restrooms and canteen may be shared.
Space requirements are shown in Table 21.

Investment costs per square meter are estimated at NOK 2500 (including plant pipelines electric installations and equipment).

Consumption of water per 8 hours is usually expected to approximate 80 litres per employee, but experience shows
consumption can range between 50 and 100 litres per employee.

Table 21 Approximate space requirements for sanitary installations

Installation Net space a/

Canteen 1.2 m² per employee
(kitchen not included)
Showers 1.0 m² per shower
and changing rooms 2 m² per worker
Toilet 2 m² per toilet

a/ Traffic areas are not included.

Requirement of electric power installed may be up to 0,5 kW per worker.

First-aid services must be provided within the factory area.

Security will depend on the local conditions. Watchmen should always be included.

Fire protection equipment must be installed both inside and outside buildings. Fire extinguishers should be installed at strategic
points indoors. Outdoors fire hydrants for engines should be located at strategic sites.

Refrigeration should be provided to suit the condition in which the fish are received for processing, i.e., iced fish, or frozen.

Calculation for energy consumption is shown in "Freezing in Fisheries", FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 167 and "Planning
and Engineering Data. 1. Fresh Fish Handling", FAO Fisheries Circular No. 735. Investment costs are shown in Table 22.

Table 22 Estimated investment costs for refrigeration facilities

 Facility Estimated cost (NOK)/m²
Chill store - 3 000
Cold store - 4 000
Air blast freezing (tunnel) - 5 000

Wharfs

Requirements for wharfs depend on various factors and they will differ according to species involved, cycle in the fishery, size
and number of boats, requirements for general fleet services and shipment conditions for products and receiving conditions for
cans, etc.

As a rule the following quays may be needed:

 Unloading quays for fishing vessels (or reefers carrying frozen fish)

 Service and lay-by quays for the fishing fleet
 Shipping quay for cargo vessels carrying canned products (the same quay should be used for cargo vessels carrying
empty cans) .

The quays mentioned above should at least be constructed to suit loads of 4 000 kg per square meter.

Depth will depend on vessels using the quays. For reefers and cargo vessels the depth should be at least 6-7 m. Similar depth
will be required for the largest tuna purse seiners.

Quays length should be thoroughly assessed for each case on its merits.

Throughput depends on the cycle in the fishery, i.e., how often fishing vessels are unloaded. This must be assessed both for low
season and peak season. The throughput also depends on the type of unloading system. Investment costs are shown in Table
23.

Table 23

construction material Cost/m²(NOK)

Wood 2 000
Concrete 4 000

8.5 Maintenance
Maintenance procedures must be established to avoid repair and costly delays in production. See Table 24.

The following procedures for maintenance may be advisable:

1. Keep an inventory of specifications, technical data, maintenance procedures, etc..

2. Set up procedures for maintenance to suit the manufacturers specifications and manufacturing experience.
3. Keep records on the type of maintenance conducted and the type of and reasons for repairs.
4. Maintain adequate stocks of share parts.
5. As is necessary, the maintenance procedures should be revised and adjusted.
6. Inspection of the machines should be carried out according to the maintenance schedule.

Table 24 Frequency of inspection procedures for maintenance a/

Machines and equipment Daily Weekly Monthly Every 3 months Every 6 months
Nobbing machines X        
Brining machines   X      
Packing lines     X    
Fish cookers   X      
Scales   X      
Seaming machines X        
Retorts   X      
Fork lifts   X      
Steam boilers     X    
Can washing     X    
Machines   X      

a/ While inspection is recommended as shown, it is not expected that maintenance would be required after each inspection.

8.6 Labour
Table 25 Estimated number of employees required for canning sardines in oil and pre-smoked small fish

Operations Processing plant

Sardines in oil  Pre-smoked small fish 
(capacity 10 tons per 8 h) (capacity 5 tons raw fish per 8 h)
Thawing/brining 2 1
General labour 1 1
Rodding   16
Smoking/cooking 1 1
Head cutting/Nobbing 6 1
Handling cans   1
Packing 26 12
Inspection 1 1
Seaming/filling 3 2
Seaming machine expert 1 1
Retorting/can washing 3 1
Internal transport/storage 1 1/2
Preparing oil/sauce 1 1/2
Foreman 1 1
Inspector 1 1
Mechanic 1 1
Total direct production 49 42
Administration 4 2
Watchmen and canteen 2 2
Factory cleaning 2 1
Manager 1 1
Total employers 57 48

Table 26 Estimated number of employees required for canning tuna

Operation Processing plant

Sardines in brine  Skipjack tuna
(capacity 20 tons raw fish per 8 h) (capacity 10 tons raw fish per 8 h)
Thawing 2  
Head cutting 2  
Band sawing 4  
Machine gutting   1
Inspection/manual gutting   1
Brining 1  
Inspection, filling baskets and racks 4  
Cooking and transport 2  
Feeding baskets to conveyor 2  
Cleaning 40 24
Weighing 2  
Packing 16 8
Pressing/filling 4 1
Inspection 2 2
Seaming 2 2
Retorting/can washing 2 2
Labelling 1 1
Internal transport/storing 4 3
General labour 2 1
Mechanics 2 2
Foreman 2 2
Inspector 1 1
Total direct production 97 51
Administration 5 2
Watchmen and canteen 3 2
Factory cleaning 2 2
Manager 1 1
Total employers 108 58

CONSTRUCTION WORK

9.1 Buildings
9.1.1 Building quality requirements

Buildings for fish processing are subject .to internal. conditions of use which, in many respects, normally would lead to rapid
decay of building components unless special precautions are taken. The various types of processing rooms will pose different
requirements regarding insulation, surface finish, bearing capacity of floors, resistance to intensive high-pressure, hot water
cleaning, resistance to chemical and mechanical wear, etc. Great care has, therefore, to be taken in choosing proper building
materials and detailed design for fish processing buildings.

Buildings accommodating canneries should be planned in details with considerable emphasis on the hygienic aspect; sanitary
facilities and control.

It should be mentioned, however, that all rooms used for full-time work should be equipped with a mechanical ventilation system,
some with air conditioning.

Floors should be hard-surfaced, waterproof, non-toxic, non-absorbent and easy to clean. Preferably they should be constructed
of reinforced concrete coated with 1-4 mm slurry epoxy or acryl, anti-slip treated. Heavy duty ceramic tiles can also be used.
Floor to be graded towards concrete drain ditches (also coated), covered with galvanized fork-lift-proof steel bar meshes. Height
in processing rooms should be 4 m.

Column and main beams should be made of reinforced concrete with smooth surface.

Walls should be smooth, waterproof, resistant to fracture, light coloured and readily cleanable. They should be constructed of
solid concrete blocks to approximately 1.2-2.0 m above floor level, clad with multicoated aluminium steel sheet or glazed tiles.

All sheeting joints should be sealed with a mastic or other compound resistant to hot water and cover strips should be applied
when necessary. Wall to wall and wall to floor junctions should be covered or rounded to facilitate cleaning.

Roofing should be with scantling of galvanized steel covered with asbestos sheets and gutters for rainwater. Ceiling should be of
corrugated steel insulated against heat, and in noisy rooms covered with sound absorbing material, perforated plates or
something similar .

Doors and windows should be made of aluminium or PVC-coated steel frames, single or double glesed depending upon the
climate. All doors should have ample space for fork lift transportations (2.5 m x 3 m).

9.1.2 Area requirements

Area requirements in square metre for single operations for products and capacities described in chapter 4.2 are shown in Table
27.

9.2 Civil Works

9.2.1 Drains and sewage

The drains should have sufficient capacity for peak situations, and a system should be chosen so that water from processing
can be separated from the general sewage water when there is a need for treatment.

Treatment of waste water differs according to governmental pollution rules and regulations.

Screening to remove coarse solids is an essential procedure regardless of further treatment (0.5-0.75 mm openings). Both
vibrating and rotating screens can be provided.

Grease removal by means of a trap which allows the grease to float off is advisable for fish canneries.

Sewage from washrooms, etc. should be connected to the public sewage system or if this is not possible it should pass a septic
tank.
9.2.2 Dimensions for in-plant roads, parking space and offices

Area requirements for parking space depends on local transport conditions.

The main roads in the plant area should have a total width of 5 m.

The surfacing should be designed to allow a maximum axle load of 10 tons.

Office space requirements should be assessed according to the activities to be administrated. Space requirements for offices in
connection with the plant capacities described in this report will vary approximately from 45 m² to 90 m².

Table 27 Approximate area requirements (m²)

Product Pre-treatment Smoking  Packing . Filling/ Sterilization/ Capacity

pre-cooking seaming labelling (tons/8 h)
Tuna in brine 225 190 400 275 350 20

Automatic skipjack production line - 350 400 300 250 10

Sardines in oil 600 200 400 200 250 15

Pre-smoked small fish 110 90 180 80 120 5

Fish paste products 120 130 30 70 150 10

Salmon 150 - 60 60 120 8

Shrimp 130 35 30 40 110 3.6

9.3 Site Requirements

It is vital that a fish cannery be situated near a harbour to avoid high transport costs and other problems when fish is transported
long distances after being landed. A cannery will also require labour electricity, water, and disposal of waste.

A large amount of fish becomes waste during the process of canning and because of this disposal of this waste should be
considered during the selection of site. To avoid unnecessary cost by transporting waste to fish meal, or fish silage plants, it
would be preferable to locate the cannery near such a plant.

The criteria to be considered when selecting plant site are as follows:

 Nearness to harbour
 Availability of labour
 Availability of electricity
 Availability of potable water
 Disposal facilities for waste
 Suitable land
 Communication and transport facilities
 Prospects for expansion
 Proximity to markets

Size of the site required for the plant capacities described in chapter 4.2 are presented in Table 28.

Table 28 Site requirements (based on one storey buildings)

 Plant Without provision for expansion (m²) With provision for expansion (m²)
Tuna in brine 4 500 6 000

Skipjack 4 000 5 000

Sardines in oil 5 000 6 700

Pre-smoked sardines 2 500 3 500

Fish paste products 3 000 4 000

Salmon 2 500 3 500

Shrimps 2 500 3 500

 CONSTRUCTION WORK
10.1 Single Costs
The costs of the most important equipment used for canning tuna, Sardines, fish paste products, salmon and shrimp are given in
the following chapters. The costs given are based on a 1983 fob level. All prices are given in '000 NOK.

10.1.1 General fish handling equipment

Dock hoist crane(2 tons) 200

Fork lift (1.5 tons) 130

Battery charging unit 20

Hand lifting truck 5

Stainless steel cart 4

Internal pallets (polyethylene), nos 100 15

Containers 750 l (polyethylene) (not insulated) 1.2

Containers 1 000 l (polyethylene) (not insulated) 1.5

Ice production equipments (3 tons/24 h) 180

Steel or wire belt conveyor approximately per 1m 6

Plastic or wire belt conveyor approximately per 1m 3

Roller conveyor 1.5

Hydraulic container lifter for discharging steel and HD containers 60

Automatic scale 30-75

10.1.2 General canning equipment

Steam boiler (1 500 kg/h) 200

Steam boiler (3 500 kg/h) 350

Steam boiler (5 000 kg/h) 450

Compressed air plant (2 500 l/h) 25

Combined oil. brine and tomato filling machine (150 cans per min) 125
Tomato mixing machine (1 000 kg/h) 30

Aut. can seaming machines with clincher (capacity 100 cans per minute) 240

Fully automatic can seaming machine with clincher (capacity 100 cans per minute) 300

Aut. can seaming machines with aut. after filling device, clincher, lid plunger and control device (capacity 150 cans 380
per min)

Aut. steam vacuum seaming machine, 1 type of can 700

Overpressure retort (5 500 cans of 450 g capacity) 450

Washing & drying machine 135

Automatic labelling machine (55-60 cans/min) 110

Can stacking machine (9-10 000 cans/min) 85

Semi automatic carton filling machine 143

Carton adhesive machine (10 000 cans/min) 28

Oil separator (500 l/h) 350

Seam cross cutting saw 1.4

10.1.3 Equipment for canning tuna

Bulk elevators 30 to 100

Semi-automatic gutting machine arr. with cleaning section for skipjack 150

Electric hand saws 1.1

Electric meat cutter (bandsaw) 35

Automatic grading machine for tuna (skipjack) 75

Rotor cooker with counter flow, cooler and discharge belt 750

Filleting arr. for loins 20 operators 200

Filleting arrangements for small tuna, 4 operators each 350

Automatic scale 136

Overlying conveyor for accumulation of fillets 30

Hydraulic press for moulds 75

Pack shaper for skipjack line 460

10.1.4 Equipment for canning sardines

Thawing device, capacity 15 t/d 140

Grading machine 160

Automatic nobbing machine (400-550 fishes per minute) 250

Flash cooker (capacity 2 tons/h) 1 000

Rodding table 10

Pre-smoking unit 5 t/8 h 280

Automatic cutting machine for heads 110

Rod washing machine 12

Packing line, 30 operators 300

Packing line, 16 operators 160

Try-washing machine 100

Brine making unit 46

Continuous brining unit 155

10.1.5 Equipment for canning fish paste products

Splitting equipment 50

Meat separator 200

Screw press 150

Mincer 650

Pump 25

Cooker and former 350

Fryer and former 300

Product filling table for fish balls 250

Product filling table for fish cakes 250

10.1.6 Equipment for canning salmon

Butchering machine (1 000 kg/h) 260

Sliming and washing table (8 operators) 45

Cutting machine (l 000 kg/h) 35

10.1.7 Equipment for canning shrimps

Feeding tank and peeling machine (450 kg/h) 368

Cleaner (900 kg/h) 40

Steam cooker (450 kg/.h) 16

10.2 Production Costs

Production costs will vary depending on local' conditions (prices. wages, etc.). As an example cash flow projection and internal
rate of return are calculated for the sardine cannery while production costs are shown for the fish paste cannery. The costs are
partly based on production in existing canneries and partly in assumptions made in the report. (All prices are NOK '000).

10.2.1 Production costs for canning sardines in oil .

Basis for calculation:

 15 tons raw material per 8 hour

 240 production days 6 hours each
 10% contingencies for all investments
 10% freight for equipment
 Investment costs according to assumptions made in the report
 Site and building investments 1st year
 Equipment investments 2nd year

Investment costs: NOK '000

Land 165

Civil works 700

Total site costs 865

Buildings 7 162

Equipment (depreciation 5 years) 1 860

Equipment (depreciation 10 years) 9 411

Total investment costs 19 298

Oil/sauce/salt    
Costs per 100 l/4 club cans based on costs in existing canneries (yield 50%):

Ingredients NOK 0.40    

Lithographed cans, cartons NOK 9.28    

Sub-total NOK 28.66    

Sub-total   NOK 28.66

Raw materials   NOK 75.38

Labour:  

Hour/100 cans: 1 002 hours  

Direct labour NOK 36.61    

37% soc expenses NOK 13.55    

Sub. Direct labour NOK 50.16 NOK 50.16

Total production costs   NOK 125.54

Production costs per can   NOK 1.255

Cash flow projection and internal rate of return are shown in Table 29. The calculations are based on the assumptions above
and given in the following notes:

1. Sales prices per can is NOK 1.55.

2. Waste is 30% of raw material sold at NOK 0.10 per kg.
3. Borrowers contribution is 10% of investment costs.
4. Loan amount is 90% of investment costs
5. Fish is purchased at NOK 1 514 per ton.
6. Filler and salt at NOK 19.38 per 100 cans.
7. Cans and cartons at NOK 9.28 per 100 cans.
8. Direct labour at NOK 50.16 per 100 cans and management etc. at NOK 450 000.
9. Water at NOK 1.50 per ton.
10. Electricity at NOK 0.34 per kWh.
11. Fuel oil at NOK. 2.00 per litre.
12. Insurance is 2% of aggregated investment costs.
13. Maintenance and spares are 4% of aggregated investment costs.
14. Freezing costs at NOK 14.00 per 100 cans.
15. Freight at NOK 5.50 per 100 cans.
16. Miscellaneous costs are estimated.
17. Working capital is 10% of operating costs and interest of working capital is 14.5%.
18. Equipment is replaced each 5th and 10th year according to lifetime. Lifetime of buildings are 25 years and lifetime of
site investments are 50 years. Residual. values at 20th year are calculated accordingly
19. Interest to be capitalized over the first 5 years and loans to be repaid over the following 20 years. Interest 11%.

10.2.2 Production costs for canning fish paste products

Basis for calculations:

Example I:

Raw materials:

 Headed, gutted fish, average weight 1.5 kg/fish

 Skim milk

Production capacity:

 25 000/850 ml cans/8 h shift

Example II:

Raw materials:

 Industrial fish, ungutted, head on, size 300-500 g/fish

 Milk powder + water

Production capacity:

 25 000/850 ml cans/8 h shift

The waste (offal) is sold unfrozen for a price equal to 10% of the price of the fish raw material.

Note: Normally the weight increase during the cooking is approximately 12%.

Table 29 Cash flow projection -canning sardines in. Oil. Capacity 15 tons raw fish per 8 hours. (NOK 000’)

YEARS 1 2 * 6 7 12 17 20
1. CASH INFLOW  
GROSS SALES CANNED PROD. 1)     34 104 34 104 34 104 34 104 34 104 34 104

GROSS SALES WASTE 2)     108 108 108 108 108 108

TOTAL GROSS INCOME     34 212 34 212 34 212 34 212 34 212 34 212

BORROWERS CONTR. 3) 803 1 127            

LOAN AMOUNT 4) 7 224 10 144            

TOTAL CASH INFLOW 8 027 11 271 34 212 34 212 34 212 34 212 34 212 34 212

2. CASH OUTFLOW  

OPERATING COSTS  

PURCHASE OF FISH 5)     5 451 5 451 5 451 5 451 5 451 5 451

FILLER AND SALT 6)     3 672 3 672 3 672 3 672 3 672 3 672

CANS AND CARTONS 7)     1 758 1 758 1 758 1 758 1 758 1 758

LABOUR 8)     9 954 9 954 9 954 9 954 9 954 9 954

WATER 9)     202 202 202 202 202 202

ELECTRICITY 10)     180 180 180 180 180 180

FUEL OIL 11)     1 656 1 656 1 656 1 656 1 656 1 656

INSURANCE 12) 81 243 243 243 243 243 243 243

MAINTENANCE AND SPARES 13)     487 487 487 487 487 487

FREEZING 14)     2 653 2 653 2 653 2 653 2 653 2 653

FREIGHT 15)     1 042 1 042 1 042 1 042 1 042 1 042

MISCELLANEOUS 16)     100 100 100 100 100 100

INTEREST OF WORK. CAP. 17) 1 4 397 397 397 397 397 397

TOTAL OPERATING COSTS 82 247 27 795 27 795 27 795 27 795 27 795 27 795

INVESTMENT COSTS 18) 8 027 11 271     1 860 11 271 1 860 - 4 578

DEBT. SERVICE 19)       3 800 3 800 3 800 3 800 3 800

TOTAL CASH OUTFLOW 8 109 11 518 27 795 31 595 33 455 42 866 33 455 27 017

NET CASH FLOW - 82 - 247 6 417 2 617 757 - 8 654 757 7 195

FINANCIAL B/C  

BENEFITS     34 212 34 212 34 212 34 212 34 212 34 212

COSTS 8 109 11 518 27 795 27 795 29 655 39 066 29 655 23 217

NET BENEFITS - 8 109 - 11 518 6 417 6 417 4 557 - 4 854 4 557 10 995

FINANCIAL RATE OF RETURN: 27.1%  

* ALL OTHER YEARS

Example I

  Quantity per shift a/ Cost per shift Per can

Unit Quantity Unit price Total cost Quantity Cost
Fish raw material:  

Headed, gutted kg 9 500 6.00 57 000 0.380 2.280

– waste (yield 75%) kg (2 375) 0.60 (1 425) 0.095 (0.057)

Sub-total kg 7 125   55 575 0.285 2.223

Sundry raw materials:  

Milk kg 4 000 2.04 8 160 0.160 0.326

Potato floor kg 1 000 7.50 7 500 0.040 0.300

Salt kg 250 1.06 265 0.010 0.002

MSG kg 15 13.00 195 0.001 0.001

Species kg 20 77.00 1 540 0.001 0.062

Sub–total sundry raw material kg 5 285   17 660 0.212 0.691

Total raw materials kg 12 410   73 235 0.497 2.914

Packing materials:  
Cans (0.5% waste) Nos 25 125 1.61 40 450   1.618

Labels (1.0% waste) Nos 25 250 0.08 2 020   0.081

Card-board (trays) Nos 2 100 0.75 1 575   0.063

Plastic kg 75 10.00 750   0.030

Pallets Nos 26 65.00 1.690   0.068

Sub-total packing material   -   46.485   1.860

Total raw mat + packing       119.720   4.774

Labour:  

Filleting department hrs 128 38 4 864 0.00512 0.195

Production hrs 88 38 3 344 0.00352 0.134

Retorts and packing hrs 56 43 2 408 0.00224 0.096

Auxiliary act + cleaning hrs 50 40 2 000 0.00200 0.080

Sub-total direct labour hrs 322   12 616 0.01288 0.505

37% soc. expenses       4 668   0.186

Total direct labour       17 284   0.695

Total production costs       137 004   5.469

Example II

Industrial fish, ungutted, head on, average size 300-500 g. Compared with gutted headless fish,. the yield will decrease from
75% to 50%. Labour expenses at filleting department will increase by 25%.

Milk powder and water are substitutes for fresh milk, 0.014 kg milk powder/can.

Raw material price NOK 3.00/kg  

Milk powder price NOK 20.00/kg  

New calculations:    

New material, total 14 250 kg x 3 NOK/kg NOK 42 750

-Sale of waste 7 125 kg x 0.30 NOK/kg NOK 2 140

Raw material, net price total   NOK 40 610

Price raw material per can (25 000 cans) NOK 1.624

Price milk powder per can (0014 x 20.00) NOK 0.280

Labour exp. filleting dept. (0 195 + 25%) NOK 0.244

+ 37% soc. expenses   NOK 0.091

Labour exp. filleting dept. per can   NOK 0.335

Difference from Example I to Example II

Raw material 2.283 - 1.624 NOK 0.659

Milk 0.326 - 0.280 NOK 0.046

Labour 0.267 - 0.335 -NOK 0.067

Decrease in costs (per can)   NOK 0.638

Total production costs for alternative II:      

Price for alternative I (per can)   NOK 5 469

-Price difference   NOK 0.638

Total production costs   NOK 4 83l

The production costs for example II will depend almost entirely on the price for the raw material.

If the price for the fish raw material used in example II is lower than NOK 4.06 per kg, the production costs will be lower using
this type of raw material (industrial fish).

To choose between different raw materials is normally not only a question of price, but more often, availability. This refers also to
fresh milk and milk powder; especially in developing countries where the supply of fresh good quality milk is not reliable, and
because of this it is therefore advisable to base the recipes on milk powder.

Regarding labour expenses it is obvious that this will, to a great extent, depend on the size of the fish. It will, therefore, always
be necessary to compute price, and if possible also a price comparison, between different types of raw materials.

The costs shown in the above mentioned examples are only direct production costs.

No general overheads, indirect labour, energy, sales expenditure, etc. are included.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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