Phases in Research process

The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely related activities,
as shown through I to VII. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly
prescribed sequence.
The following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process:
(1) Formulating the research problem.
(2) Extensive literature survey.
(3) Developing the hypothesis.
(4) Preparing the research design.
(5) Determining sample design.
(6) Collecting the data.
(7) Execution of the project.
(8) Analysis of data.
(9) Hypothesis testing.
(10) Generalisations and interpretation.
(11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions
reached.

1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz.,
those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the
very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the
general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the
problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem
be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working
formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research
problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in
formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the
same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
 The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with
those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help
from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind. Often,
the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it down and
phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental
organisations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with whom the
researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what considerations are
involved in its possible solutions.
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself
acquainted with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the conceptual
literature concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made
earlier which are similar to the one proposed.

2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it

should be written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to
write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for
approval. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with
the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government
reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should
be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to
the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at
this stage.

3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher

should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the
manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide the
focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis
of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types of research,
the
development of working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and
limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to
guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens
his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also indicates the
type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used. How does one go about
developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following
approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking
a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with
interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the
problem.
Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination
of the available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested
parties. Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. It may
as well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we do not need working
hypotheses, especially in the case of exploratory or formulative researches which do not aim at testing
the hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses in another basic step of the
research process in most research problems.
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear
cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the
conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design
facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the
function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the
research
purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.
(i)Exploration.

(ii) Description.

(iii) Diagnosis.
(iv) Experimentation.

A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a
problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration. But when
the purpose happens to be an accurate description of
a situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimises bias
and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing.
Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-
only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized
design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of
which the researcher must select one for his own project. The preparation of the research design,
appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised and
the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute
a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as
a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no
element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even
the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations
increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a
resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money
and energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For
instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items
from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called
a sample.

6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real-life problem it is often found that data at hand
are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several
ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and
other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of
which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be
collected by any one or more ways.
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s
own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to
what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future
intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and
the information provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not
suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers
to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting
data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the
interviewer to a large extent.
(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting
the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an
important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has
to be accomplished in a very limited time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact
with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the
respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively
used method in various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually
a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if
any, of the questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that
it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training.
They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to
respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by
enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability
of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the
work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.

7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research
process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be
adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can
be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be
coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper
selection and training of the interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction
manuals which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks
should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much
realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey
is under statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined
standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be
designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a
list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts
vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.

8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analysing
them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing
statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable
groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some
purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the
categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the
procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for
tabulation.
Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of
tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, specially in
large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to
study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.

9. Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position
to
test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they
happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the
purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon
the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis
or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalisations established on the
basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.

10. Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several

times, it may
be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact,
the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known
as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in
turn may lead to further researches.

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the
report of
what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the
following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements
and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list
of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and
an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope
of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings
and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they
should be summarised.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography,
i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also
be given specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information
more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced
in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

By:- Shubham Amar Shete

TY:- Production
Roll no:- 68
SMRM Lab Assignment