Practical Manual

ON
WEED MANAGEMENT
Course No. AGRO-202

Mrs.P.Leela Rani
Assistant professor (Agronomy)
Dr. A. Srinivas
Principal Scientist (Agronomy) & Head
AICRP on Weed control

   

Department of Agronomy.
College of Agriculture,
Acharya N.G Ranga Agricultural University
 
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030.
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 A.N.G.R
Agricultural University Rajendranagar

Certified that this is a Bonafied Record of the work done

In the field during the year 20 - 20 Ist / II Sem by

Name
……………………………………………………

Class ………………………………………………

Course No…………………………………………….

LD. No. ………………. Batch …………………….

Signature of the Course In-charge

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 INDEX
Sl.No Date Title of exercise Date of Signature Page
submission no.

1. Identification of weeds

2. Survey of weeds in crop fields and other

habitats
3. Herbarium preparation of weeds
4. Study of crop-weed association and
crop- weed competition and
determination of critical Period

5. Estimation of weed flora and calculation

of WCE and WI
6. Study of commonly available herbicides
in the market, their nomenclature and
label information
7. Computation of herbicide dose

8. Study of herbicide application

equipment and calibration

9. Herbicide application methods and

precautionary measures

10. Study of phytotoxic symptoms of

herbicides in different crops

11. Field study and control of problematic

weeds - nutsedge and bermuda grass
12. Field study and control of problematic
weeds - Parthenium and Celosia

13. Field study and control of problematic

weeds - parasitic weeds
14. Field study and control of aquatic weeds

15. Weed control in non-cropped areas

16. Economics of weed control practices

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  6
 COMMON WEEDS
About 30,000 species of weeds have been listed in the world, out of which nearly
18,000 cause serious damage in different ways resulting in considerable losses to agricultural
production. Eighteen weeds identified as the most serious in the world are listed in Table.

Table. Eighteen most serious weeds in the world.

Smooth name Scientific name Growth habitat and kind

of plant

Smooth pig weed Amaranthus hybrids A-B

Spiny amaranth Amaranthus spinosus A-B

Wild oat Avena fatua A-G

Common lamb’squarters Chenopodium album A-B

Field bind weed Convolvulus arvensis P-B

Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon P-G

Yellow nut sedge Cyperus esculentus P-S

Purple nut sedge Cyperus rotundus P-S

Crab grass Digitaria sanguinalis A-G

Jungle rice Echinochloa colonum A-G

Barnyard grass Echinochloa crusgalli A-G

Water hyacinth Echinochloa crassipes P-G

Goose grass Elusine indica A-G

Cogon grass Imperata cylindrica P-G

Sour paspalum Paspalam conjugation P-G

Common purslane Portulaca oleracea A-B

Itch grass Rottboellia exaltata A-G

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 Johnson grass Sorghum halepense P-G

A= Annual, P= Perennial. B=Broad leaved, G= Grass, and S = Sedge.

Environment ideal for crop growth is also ideal for weed growth. Hence, any attempt
to improve the crop productivity without weed control is a futile exercise. The most common
weeds in cop fields in India are given in Table.
Most common weeds inn crop fields of India (Sankaran and Mudaliar 1991)

Monocot species Dicot species

Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name

Annuals Annuals
Barnyard grass Echinochloa crugalli Goat weed Ageratum conyzoides
Crab grass Digitaria sp Pig weed Amaranthus sp
Foxtail Setaria sp Black jack Bidens pilosa
Sandbur Cenchrus sp Cox comb Celosia argentina
Wild oat Avena fatua Lambsquarters Chenopodiu, album
Goose grass Eleusine indica Wild carrot weed Parthenium spp
Torpedo grass Dactyloctenium Horse purslane Trianthema
aegyptium portulacastrum
Perennials Perennials

Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon Canada thistle Circium arvense

Thatch grass Imperata cylindrica Day flower Commelina benghalensis
Johnson grass Sorghum halepense Field bind weed Convolvulus arvensis
Quack grass Agropyron repens White horse Solanum elaegnifolium
nettle
Nut grass Cyperus rotundus

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 Identification of weeds
Exp no: Date:
Objectives
weeds identification through laminations
weeds identification through images
:

S.No. Common name Scientific Name Family

1. Quack grass Agropyron repens

2. Parrot amaranthus Amaranthus viridis

3. Wild oat Avena fatua

4. Wild safflower Carthamus oxycantha

5. White cock’s comb Celosia argentea

6. Lamb’s quarter Chenopodium album

7. Canada thistle Cirsium arvense

8. Field bind weed Convolvulus arvensis

9. Salt grass Chloris barbata

10. Blue daisy Chichorium intybus

11. Day flower Commelina benghalensis

12. Dog pea Crotalaria verrucosa

13. Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon

14. Purple nutsedge Cyperus rotundus

15. Eclipta Eclipta alba

16. Jungle rice Echinochloa colonum

17. Phyician’s spurge Euphorbia hirta

18. Foxtail weed Pennisetum purpureum

19. Little seed canary grass Phalaris minor

20. Cat green gram Phaseolus trilobus

21. Sweet grass Poa annua

22. Johnson Grass Sorghum halepense

23. Mexican daisy Tridax procumbens

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 24. Common Vetch Vicia sativa

25. Dog mustard Cleome viscose

26. Carvelle Gynandropsis pentaphylla

27. Thatch grass Imperata cylindrica

28. Wild sage Lantana camera

29. Dog basil Ocimum canum

30. Lady’s sorrel Oxalis corniculata

31. Kans grass Saccharam spontaneum

32. Prickly brinjal Solanum xanthocarpus

33. Sow thistle Sonchus oleraceus

34. Wild indigo Tephrosia purpurea

35. Cocklebur Xanthium strumarium

36. Spiny amaranth Amaranthus spinosus

37. Spreading hog weed Boerhavia diffusa

38. Negro-coffee Cassia occidentalis

39. Egyptian crowfoot grass Dactyloctenium egypticum

40. Lippia Lippia nodiflora

41. White sweet clover Melilotus alba

42. Touch-me-not Mimosa pudica

43. Yellow foxtial Setaria glauca

44. Indian acalypha Acalypha indica

45. Prickly-chaff Flower Achyranthes aspera

46. Goat weed Ageratum conyzoides

47. Ass betelvine Aristolochia bracteata

48. Mexican Poppy Argemona mexicana

49. Para grass Brachiaria mutica

50. Dog chilli Croton Sparsiflorus

51. Rat’s ear Merremia emerginata

52. Holy basil Ocimum sanctum

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 53. Prickly pear Opuntia dellenii

54. Indian purslane Portulaca oleracea

55. Small caltrop Tribulus terrestris

56. Wetland amaranth Alternanthera sessilis

57. Fire feaf Ammania baccifera

58. Giant swallow wort Calotropis gigantean

59. Jimson weed Datura stramonium

60. Carrot grass Parthenium hysteroporus

61. Dodder Cascuta Spp

62. Broom rape Orobanche cernua

63. Witch weed Striga Spp

64. Common rag weed Ambrosia artemissifolia

65. water lettuce Pistia lanceolata

66. water fern Salvinia molesta

67. Alligator weed Alternanthera sp

68. Mile-a–minute weed Mikania micrantha

69. Noble cane. Saccharum spontaneum

70. Algae Chlorella pyrenoides

71. Hariyali grass Cynodon dactylon

72. Buffel grass or African Cenchrus ciliaris

foxtail grass

73. Marvel grass Dichanthium annulatum

74. Bringraj Eclipta alba

75. water hyacinth Eichornia crassipes

76. wild mustard Brassica kaber

77. Chick weed Stellaria media

78. Prickly Pear Opuntia dellini

79. Dronapushpi Leucas aspera

80. Cogon grass Imperata cylindrica

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 81. Common vernonia )) Vernonia cinera

82. Dock Rumex spp

83. Goose grass Eleusine indica

84. wild poinsettia Euphorbia geniculata

85. Indian acalypha Acalipha indica

86. Joe Pye weed, boneset, Euphatorium spp

snakeroot

87. American mint / pignut Hyptis suaveolens

88. Johnsongrass Sorghum halepense

89. Canada thistle Circium arvense

90. Chicory Cichorium intybus

91. Swine cress Coronopus didymus

92. Mesquite Prosopis juliflora

93. Wild plum Zizyphus rotundifolia

94. Red sorel Rumex acetosella ,

95. Bracken fern Pteridium spp

96. Drop seed grass Sporobolus diander

97. Digera Digera arvensis

98. Yellow fox tail Setaria glauca

99. Vetches Vicia spp

100. Wild carrot or Bishop's Daucus carota

weed
101. Wild onion and garlic Allium vineale

102. Dandelion Taraxacum officinale

103. Lilac tassel flower Emilia sonchifolia.

104. Horse weed Erigeron canadensis L

105. Arrow weed Pluchia lanceolata

109. Annual sow thistle Sonchus oleraceus

110 Baloon vine Cardiospermum halicacabum

111 Mauritian Grass Apluda mutica

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 112 NodeFlower/Gurugu Allmania nodiflora
koora

113 Barbed Wire Grass Cymbopogon refractus

114 DwarfMorning-Glory Evolvulus Alsinoides

115 Bristly starbur Acanthospermum hispidum

116 King of Bitters Andrographis paniculata

117 Brahmi/Brain Plant Bacopa monnieri

118 Christmas Bush Chromolaena odorata

119 Panicled peristrophe peristrophe bicalyculata

120 Forest bur Pupalia lappacea

121 knot grass Paspalum distichum

122 Buffel Grass Cenchrus ciliaris

123 Natal Ruby Grass Rhynchelytrum repens

124 Green foxtail Setaria viridis

125 Gomphrena Weed Gomphrena celosioides

126 Baghanulla Cyanotis axillaris

Refer 7 & 8 books in

the last page and net

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 Survey of weeds in crop fields and other habitats
Ex no: Date:
Objectives
Survey of weeds in different habitats
Survey of weeds in crops and cropping systems

S.No. Common name Scientific name Propagation A/B/P

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19
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 20

21

22
23

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45
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 46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70
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 71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94
Refer 7 & 8 books in the last page
95 and net
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 Herbarium preparation of weeds
Exp no: Date:

Herbarium
Herbarium is a collection of plants that are dried, pressed and preserved on herbarium
sheets and arranged in sequence in accordance of specific purpose for future reference, record
and study.
Objectives
1. How to collect weed specimens.
2. Steps in preparation of herbarium.

Materials required
1) Sharp knife / scalpel – for cutting
2) Vasculum – It is a container made up of wood having a lid to keep the specimen in
turgid condition.
3) Plant press
4) A weed note book

Herbarium collection
1) Collect the plant material at flowering stage
2) It is desirable to maintain all the plant parts intact (leaf, stem, flowers, fruits)
3) Collect fresh part of the plant but not diseased preferably apical part.

Herbarium pressing and drying

The wooden press board consist of 2 wooden plates of 12”x13” each which are
tighten with nuts on bolts for pressing.
Placing each of the collected specimen in between the folds of the newspaper for
blotting.
Ensure that plant is maintained.
The specimen in newspaper folds are to be arranged on the lower part of the pressing
board.
Place upper plate on the top and tighten upper and lower parts with nuts and bolts.
Keep the specimen for 24 hrs for sweating of moisture. This is called as Sweating
period.
Ensure that the specimen is spread in the newspaper folds and if necessary the top
portion should be bent during pressing.
The large specimens are to be cut in 2 to 3 parts according to convenience the cut
parts are to be arranged on separate sheets.
If the specimen can’t be directly dried they have to be preserved by preservatories.
If the foliage is very thick, it has to be pruned assuring that the portion of the cut parts
are identified.
If the leaf is large, cut it vertically into 2 halves use one of the portion as specimen.
The newspaper/bolting paper changed after 12 hrs in first incidence and these after 24
hrs, 48 hrs and 72 hrs is done till the specimen is dried completely. This is called
Natural drying.
In artificial drying, after sweating period specimens are direct in hot air oven by maintaining 
620C.

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Herbarium mountings
Thick herbarium sheets of 11 ½” x 16 ½ “ are used for mounting.
Keep the specimen in centre and spread properly.
Fix the specimen to the mounting sheet with glue / gum / tape.

Herbarium labeling
Label the specimen in the space provided 4 ½ x 3 ½ on lower right side of the
herbarium sheets.
The label information should have details of botanical name, local name, family,
habit, habitat and name of the student.
Arrange the herbarium by group into terrestrial and aquatic weeds, sub group them
into monocots and dicots and further into annuals, biennials and perennials.
Number the herbarium sheets, serially on the top right corner of the sheet.
Write the index for it.

Things to do
1) Collect 65 weeds.
2) Collect seed samples in 10 weeds for identification, study and record.
3) Select well spread specimen with natural color and all parts intact.
4) Reject discolored, folded, wrinkled specimen which are unfit for herbarium.

Assignment
At the time of herbarium submission
Arrange the herbarium by group into terrestrial and aquatic weeds, sub group them
into monocots and dicots and further into annuals, biennials and perennials.

Exercise

Q. What is sweating period?

Q. Is there any necessity to change the news paper at regular interval? If it is yes
substantiate.

Q. Differentiate between natural and artificial drying?

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 Study of crop-weed association and crop- weed competition and
determination of critical Period

Exp no: Date:

Crop weed association
When two plants are living together i.e called association
Objectives
1. To acquaint with the weeds associate with the crops
2. To acquaint with the critical period of crop weed competition for different crops
3. To estimate the critical period under field conditions
 

Climatic, edaphic and biotic factors of environment determine the distribution of

species, their competitive ability, prevalence and intricate relationships. Crops grown under
specific agro-ecological situations have their characteristics weeds. Major factors
contributing to crop-weed association are similarity in climatic needs, seed sizes seed
germination, tillage needs, cropping and harvest practices.
Season bound weeds: They are seen in that particular season/ irrespective of crop. These are
either summer annuals or Winter annuals. Sorghum halepans is a summer perennial and
Circium arvense is Winter perennial
Crop bound weeds: Weeds which usually parasite the host crop partially or fully for
nourishment i.e parasitism also called as parasitic weeds.
1 Root parasites a. Complete root parasite eg Orobanche (broom rape) in tobacco
b. Partial root parasite eg Striga spp (Witch weed) on millets
2. Stem parasites a Complete stem parasite eg Cuscuta (dodder) in lucern & burseem
b. Partial stem parasite eg Loranthus on fruit crops
Crop associated weeds: These are also crop specific due to
Mimicry : If weeds look exactly like crops morphologically & complete their life cycle.
Echinochloa colonum (barnyard grass) mimic the rice plant. Avena fatuva (wild oat) and
Phalaris minor (canary grass) both mimic the wheat. Loranthus in tea gardens . Avena fatua
(wild oats) tends to grow to the height of winter grains and adjusts its ripening period to the
crop over a wide varietal range. This type of mimicry is called phenotypic mimicry.
Need for specific micro climate : Requires shady, moist & cool micro climate and which is
available in Lucerne & Berseem. Eg. Cichorium intybus (chicory) and Coronopus didymus
( Swinecress)
Ready contamination with the crops: If the crop seeds mature at the same time & same
height of the crop having similar seed size and shape then it contaminates the crop (also
morphologically same) easily .Eg. Little canary grass – Phalaris minor and Wild onion, Wild
garlic – Allium spp

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Write weeds associated with different crops
S.No. Name of the crop Name of the weed associated

1. Rice

2. Wheat

3. Jowar (sorghum)

4. Maize

5. Sugarcane

6. Cotton

7. Tobacco

8 Barley

9. Chickpea

10. Blackgram

11. Groundnut

13. Mustard

14 Potato

15

Ref : Principles of agronomy S R REDDY

Crop Weed Competition
Competition is struggle between two organisms for a limited resource that is essential for
their growth and development
Critical period of weed competition is that part in the life cycle of a crop plant when
weeding results in highest economic returns. Usually, CPWC ends when crops cover 80 per
cent of the soil. The length of CPWC depends on the nature of crop, its competitive ability,
cultivar and growing condition. In the case of quick growing crops such as maize, sorghum
and sunflower-critical period of weed competition is short; whereas in crops where the initial
growth is slow such as sugarcane, potato and cotton, critical period of competition is longer.
Tall growing cultivars cover the soil earlier and therefore critical period of competition is
shorter. However for dwarf cultivars, critical period of weed competition is longer. In the
case of upland crop, CPWC is longer because of slow growth. However for Irrigated crop,
CPWC is shorter. The total effect of competition is related to crop growth and yields and
results from competition for nutrients, moisture , sunlight and space.

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Write critical period of crops

S.No. Name of the crop Critical period

1. Rice

2. Wheat

3. Jowar (Sorghum)

4. Maize

5. Ragi

6. Bajra

7. Sesamum

8. Sunflower

9. Castor

10. Groundnut

11. Redgram

12. Greengram

13. Blackgram

14. Sugarcane

15. Cotton

16. Tobacco

Estimation of critical period under field condition

In the life cycle of a crop during the early seedling days, presence of weeds may not
pose much yield reduction. In other words, competition may not have started as the
immediate supply of the resources is well above the combined demand of crop seedlings and
weed seedlings. However, after a certain period, competition starts and if weeds are kept
uncontrolled, yield reductions may occur. This period usually end when the ground is
completely covered by the crop canopy. Any weeding given after this stage will not
compensate for the losses already occurred. This period between the early and later stages of
a crop when the crop is sensitive to competition from weeds in known as the critical period of
weed competition.
More specific information on beginning and end of the critical period of competition
is possible by carrying out experiments along the lines first presented by Nieto (1968). The
finding of such trials can be generalized in the model generally referred as the Nieto model.
Function A
In the beginning, there is no yield reduction. Weeding during the pre-critical period is
not necessary, as it makes the cultivation of crops less profitable.
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Function B
In the end of crop life, by keeping the weeds not removed, there is no yield reduction.
In other words, there is no need to remove weeds after the “critical period of weed
competition” (CPWC). Weeds emerging after CPWC do not compete with the crop plants to
the extent of reducing crop yield, but they create problems at harvest and replenish weed
seeds to the seed bank of soil.

To determine the extent of weed competition and yield losses of crop in field, experiment
is conducted with the following treatments.
Note: Refer at the end of the manual.

Exercise: Prepare 12 plots Select a crop of about 75 days duration and arrange the
treatments as follows.

Weedy for the x days Weed free for the x days

T1 – 0 Days T7 – 0 Days

T2 – 15 Days T8 – 15 Days

T3 – 30 Days T9 – 30 Days

T4 – 45 Days T10 – 45 Days

T5 – 60 Days T11 – 60 Days

T6 – 75 Days T12 – 75 Days

The treatments are to be imposed in the field duly observing the randomization,
replication, local control. The recommended packages of practices for the crop selected are to
be followed.

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The following data on the crop and weed has to be recorded:-
1. Initial and final plant stand
2. Crop dry matter, grain yield (kg/ha) dry matter have to be recorded at 15 days interval
by destructive sampling.
3. Day to 50% flowering.
4. Yield attributes and yield at harvesting stage.

Weed data
1. Weed flora
2. Weed density / m2
3. Weed dry matter (kg/ha) at 15 days interval.
Tabulate both crop and weed data and draw the conclusions of critical study of tabulated
information.
Exercise
Q. Differentiate between crop bound and crop associated weeds?

Q. How a critical period vary with the crop (Sugarcane & greengram)

Q. Mimic weed in rice.

Q. Grassy weeds associated with wheat.

Q. The weed that severely parasites many species of ornamental trees, hedges and crops?

Q. An example of crop bound weed.

Q. The parasitic weeds are effectively controlled by which management practice?

Q. How much period is considered as critical period for most of the crops 

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 Estimation of weed flora and calculation of WCE and WI
(Visit to weed control experimental plots)

Exp no: Date:

Objectives:
1. To find out the number of monocot and dicot weeds associated with the particular crop.
2. To compute the weed indices.

Need to measure weed density

It is necessary to know the number and nature of weeds competing with the crops.
The weed density gives the biological stress that the crops are subjected to.
It is easy to measure weed density during early stages (or) critical period of crop-
weed competition.
Measurement of weed density:
There are two methods normally adopted for the measurement of weed density.
1. Counting method: Here different species of weeds are counted by using the quad rat in a
crop field.
2. Dry matter weight: By this method, the weeds are cut at the base and record the fresh
weight immediately and the dry weight, after drying in an oven are taken to compute the
weed density.

Precautions
1. The weed count should be taken after the emergence of weeds but at the initial stage of
crop growth itself to facilitate the placement of quadrate.
2. Take care to note the name and number of weeds immediately.
3. Select at random, the location (or) site for placing quadrate in different places of the crop
field.
Materials required
Quadrate of 0.5 m x 0.5m size.
Observation note book.
Pencil.

Procedure
Select a field with young crop plants and weeds for taking weed count.
Place the quadrate at randomly selected place in the field.
First pull out all the dicotyledonous weeds inside the quadrate taking simultaneous
counting.
Record the number of dicotyledon weeds the observation note book.
Then pull out and count all the monocotyledons and record it.
Multiply the number of monocotyledonous weeds by 4 to find out the number of weeds
m-2

  25
 In the same way, calculate the number of dicotyledonous weeds/ha
Calculations
On the basis of above observations, calculate the following:

• Area of the quadrate = 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25 m2

• No.of monocot weeds/sq.m =

• No.of dicot weeds/sq.m =

• The percentage of monocot. weds =

• The percentage of dicot weeds =

• No.of monocot weeds/ha =

• No.of dicot weeds/ha =

Evaluation of herbicide effects
The efficacy of herbicide can be assessed the following methods
Weed index
X-Y
Weed index (W.I) = ---------- X 100
X

Where X = Yield from weed free (hand weeded plots) kg ha-1

Y = Yield from treatment plots kg ha-1
Lesser the W.I. better is the efficiency of that herbicide. We can also compare the
efficacy of 2 herbicides with the help of weed index.
Ex:- A weed free plot of Sorghum has given yields of 1500 kg ha-1 where as atrazine
and simazine treated plots have given yields of 1400 kg and 1450 kg ha-1 respectively,
Calculate the weed index and give which herbicide as better in the two?
1. W.I for atrazine = 1500 – 1400 x 100 = 6.66
1500
2. W.I. for simazine = 1500-1450 x 100 = 3.33
1500
Since the weed index is less for simazine is better than atrazine
Based on weed control efficiency: (W.C.E)
W.C.E = X–Y x 100
X

  26
Where X = Dry matter production of weeds in un weeded plot.
Y = Dry matter production of weeds in treatment plot.
*Higher the weed control efficiency better is the herbicide.
Ex: - In a weed control experiment in Groundnut, dry weight of weeds in control plot
was 620 kg / ha where as x and herbicide treated plots y, The dry weight was 230 and 360
kg/ha respectively. Find out which herbicide is better amongst two ?
1. W.C.E for X = 620 – 230 x 100 = 62.9
620

2. W.C.E. for Y = 620-360 x 100 = 41.9

620
Since the weed control efficiency is higher with x, hence it is better than y.
Importance value index : (I.V.I)
In-order to express the dominance and ecological success of any species’ with a single
value only the concept of importance value index (I.V.I.) has been developed.
*The (I.V.I.) is defined as the sum of relative density, relative frequency and
relative dominance.

The relative density, relative frequency and relative dominance are calculated by the
following formulae.

1. Relative density (RDe) = Number of individual of a species x100

Total number of individuals

2. Relative frequency (RF) = Frequency of a species x100

Sum frequency of all species

Where, frequency of a species = No. of quadrates occurrence of a species

Total no. of quadrates.

3. Relative dominance (Rdo) = Dominance of a species x 100

Dominance of all species

Dominance (Do) = Absolute density of a species X 100

Number of quadrats in which the species occurred     

  27
Table : Take the observation from weed control experiment
Treatment No.of No.of dicot Name of the major weeds.
Monocot weeds/0.25
weeds/0.25 sq.m.
sq.m.

Write down the weed control treatments

  28
Ex:- A weed free plot of maize has given yields of 4800 kg ha-1 where as atrazine and
pendimethalin treated plots have given yields of 4620 kg and 4600 kg ha-1 respectively,
Calculate the weed index and give which herbicide is better in the two?

Take the weed count by quadrat method and estimate the weed dynamics by using
different formulae.

  29
  30
 

  31
 Study of commonly available herbicides in the market,
their nomenclature and label information
Exp no: Date:
The information on a pesticide label is very important. It helps applicators make
sound decisions on pesticide storage, handling, application, and disposal. Every pesticide
container carries certain information on its label. This information includes the trade name,
technical name, composition, manufacturer’s address, registered uses, date of packing, date of
expiry, and toxicity label, and is mandatory under the Insecticide Act, 1968
Material safety data sheets (MSDSs) are developed by product manufacturers. These are a
major source of information on pesticides. MSDSs are not legal documents. The information
on a MSDS is based on research data. This supports label information. MSDSs also have
information to protect human health and the environment. MSDSs help applicators to make
informed decisions on handling, applying, and storing pesticides.
Objectives
1. To acquaint with the information on pesticide product labels.
2. To use the information on Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs).
Components of a Label
A pesticide label has two parts 1. The front or principal display panel 2. The back or
secondary display pan
Principal Display Panel
The principal display panel is the front of a pesticide product label. This panel
contains information to identify a pesticide in a number of ways. There are nine items on the
principal display panel
List of items on principal display panel
1.  Trade name or product name
2. Class designation
3. Use or purpose
4. Registration number (P.C.P. Act number)
5. Guarantee statement
6. Directions to read the label
7. Precautionary shapes, symbols, and pictograms
8. Net contents
9. Name and address of the registrant

Trade name or Product name:  

The trade or product name includes

A. The brand name or trade name registered with the Pest Management Regulatory Agency
B. The formulation of the pesticide (this is either printed in full or shown as an abbreviation
C. A description of use. This pesticide is a herbicide used to control weeds.
2. Class designation

  32
There are four classifications (Domestic, Commercial, Restricted, Manufacturing).
Domestic Class
Domestic class pesticides are registered for home use. They are packaged in small containers
for a single application or use season. Domestic class pesticides pose a low risk to users or
the environment

             

Commercial class (Agricultural or Industrial)

Commercial class pesticides are designed for use in farming, forestry, industry, or other
commercial uses. Commercial class pesticides can pose a greater risk because of the greater
concentration of the active ingredient or larger container size
Restricted class
Restricted class pesticides have more limits than Commercial class pesticides
Manufacturing class
Manufacturing class pesticides are used in manufacturing, formulating, or repackaging. They

  33
are not designed for general use.
3. Use or Purpose
The use of a pesticide refers to the type of pest it is intended to control. This use (e.g. as an
insecticide, a herbicide, or a fungicide) will always be clearly stated on the principal display
panel of a pesticide label.
4. Registration number (P.C.P. Act Registration number)
It can appear as REG. NO. 12345 P.C.P. ACT or registration number 12345. This number
can be used to find a pesticide’s Chemical nature, poisoning symptoms, first aid treatment
information, and environmental toxicity.
5. Guarantee
The guarantee gives the common name of the active ingredients and the concentration
of each. The active ingredient is the part of the pesticide that controls the pest.

6. Directions to “Read the Label”

READ THE LABEL BEFORE USING. The label contains key information on proper
storage, handling, and use
7. Precautionary Shapes, Symbols and Signal Words
Symbols (shapes and pictograms) and signal words indicate the type of hazard posed by a
given pesticide. These are regulated under the Pest Control Products Act and must be
included on the label.
A toxicity label on a container conveys the toxicity hazard of the pesticide to mammals,
mainly human beings, which is shown in a square or a diamond, divided into two equal
inverse triangles. . The lower triangle is brightly coloured whereas the upper contains
warning words and signals.

There are four toxicity classes of pesticides, which are represented by bright red,
yellow, blue and green colours in the lower triangle—their toxicity decreases in that order.
The hazard ratings or the toxicity classes, are based on the acute toxicity represented by
LD50 (median lethal dose) values. The LD50 value is nothing but "the dose of the pesticide
(active ingredient) required to kill 50 per cent of the test population, generally rats, when
orally treated," and is expressed as mg/kg of the body weight.

Lesser the LD50 value more toxic the pesticide is and vice versa; e.g a pesticide with a LD50
value of 10 will be more toxic than the pesticide having an LD50 value of 100—in other
words, for a person weighing 60 kg a dose of 600 mg of active ingredient of the former
category of pesticide will prove fatal, whereas in the latter case a dose of 6000 mg is required
for the same.
Except for Bt (Dipel, Halt, etc.) and plant-based formulations (neem formulations), and
some new generation herbicides are provided with a green label.
8. Net Contents
The net contents indicate the amount, by weight or volume, of pesticide in a package. This is

  34
given in metric units (ml, L, g, kg, etc.).

Draw the precautionary shapes, with information’s

             

Draw the precautionary pictograms

 

  35
Categorization of pesticides ( Fill the required information)
Dipction

Color of the
lower triangle

Toxicity class

Oral LD50
value mg / kg
body weight

Signal words
(Upper half)

Warning words
Outside the
diamond

9. Name and address

The name and address of the company or organization that registered the pesticide
(registrant) must appear on the label

Secondary display panel

The back or side of a label is called the secondary display panel. The secondary display panel
may be a small booklet attached to the label
List of items on secondary display panel
10 Directions for use

11 Precaution statements
12 Disposal methods
13 First aid
14 Toxicological information
15 Notice to user
16 Notice to buyer

Material safety data sheets (MSDSs)

  36
A  Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) provides information on health hazards, personal safety, and
environmental protection for hazardous products. They are divided into nine sections.

1. Product information

Product information gives the trade name, chemical name, and primary use of the

Product

2. Hazardous ingredients

The active ingredient is listed in this section

3. Physical data

Physical data includes information on a product’s appearance, odour, specific gravity, pH, boiling
point, etc.

4. Occupational procedures and prevention measures

Occupational procedures and prevention measures provide information on safe handling and
storage.

5. First aid and emergency procedures

First aid and emergency procedures explain what to do if someone is exposed to the product.
6. Fire and explosion hazard

7. Reactivity data
Special chemical properties of the product are given in this section. Acceptable storage
temperatures are listed for the product.
8. Preparation date and group
This section tells who prepared the MSDS and when it was done. MSDS s must be updated
at least every three years, or within 3 months if a pesticide is changed.
Class exercise
Q.. What is LD-50 value?

Q. Substantiate how a pesticide is less toxic even though it is having higher LD-50?

Q. Expand MSDS and mention uses of MSDS sheets?

  37
Q. Which color of the triangle will indicate the extreme toxicity of the herbicide?
Q. Give example for the pesticide with green label?

Q. On what basis pesticide toxicity levels (classes) are classified

Examine a few commercial herbicides containers and classify based on toxicity classes
 

 
  38
Note down the information available on the labels each item in the table given below.

Item Herbicide

1. Chemical name 1 2 3 4

2. Common name

3. Trade name        

4. Manufacturers address        

5. % of a.i.        

6. % Carrier, filter & adjuvant

 

7. Difference between products containing the same a.i.        

type of formulation

  39
8. Net content if given

9. Treatment for accidental exposure to poisoning        

10. Date of manufacturer        

11. Date of expiry        

12. Directions for use if any

13. Storage and disposal of the product if any        

14. Warrant statement if any        

15. Precautionary statements if any        

16. Name of the crops for which the herbicide is        

recommended

  40
 Computation of herbicide doses
Exp no: Date:

Herbicides are not substitution for physical, biological or good crop husbandry methods.
They are used to bridge the gaps in these methods and herbicides are act as added production
tools in agriculture.

Herbicides have ample scope to use on both croplands and non-cropland. On croplands
total quantity of chemical reaching the target area, where as in non-cropped area herbicide rates in
terms of their spray concentration.

Over rates of herbicides may injure the leaf vascular tissues and there by reduce the
translocation of the applied herbicide to the weed roots. Under rates reduce control of all types of
weeds. Uneven application of a herbicide may result in “hot spots” of localized over rates
causing injury to the crop plants and “cold spots” of localized under rates, where poor or no weed
control is obtained.

Objectives

1) To calculate correct dose of herbicide

2) To study the different aspects (carrier, spray volume) related to herbicide dosage calculations.

Rate of application: It is the amount of active ingredient or acid equivalent of herbicide applied
to a unit area of land or water body. It is usually given in terms of kg ai / a.e / ha.

Active ingredient (ai): A chemical in commercial product that is directly responsible for its
herbicidal effect is called active ingredient.

Active ingredient of each herbicide concentrate or formulation is displayed by the

manufacturers on the containers. The above ingredient may also give as percent by weight or
volume. Eg. Herbicide concentrate 40% w/v contains 400g of active ingredient per litre of the
liquid product.

The amount of commercial product to be used = Recommended dose x 100

active ingradient in product (a.i/a.e)

Acid equivalent (a.e): Refers to that part of a formulation that theoretically can be converted to
the acid. Eg. Some herbicide structures are active organic acids.

Eg. Phenoxyalkanoic, picloram, chloramben, cacodylic acid. But they are prepared in the
form of their salts and esters for the ease of their field application. Eg: For instance 2,4-D in acid
form is water insoluble then we have to use its sodium and amine salts and esters. The acid
equivalent (a.e) of sodium salt of 2,4-D is 92.5%. It indicates that 2,4-D dichloro phenoxy acetic
acid is 92.5% in sodium salt of 2,4-D.

Liquid formulations may indicate both per cent active ingredient or acid equivalent on
weight per litre. In such cases, the concentration in terms of acid equivalent may be considered. A
commercial formulation of 2,4-D containing 700 g of deiethanolamine salt per litre would have a
concentration of a.i 70 per cent, but the concentration in terms of acid equivalent will be a

  41
concentration of a.i 70 per cent, but the concentration in terms of acid equivalent will be:

70 x Molecular weight of 2,4-D acid = 70 x 221 = 47.44 per cent

Molecular weight of 2,4-Deiethaianolamine 326

The acid equivalent of a concentrate is always less than its content of a.i.

Career (Diluents)

It is solid or liquid material used to increase the volume of a chemical compound. So it

can be applied uniformly over the target area. The universal career of herbicide is water because
of its negligible cost and freedom from interactions. Sometimes career oils are also used for a
quick knock down effect of weeds in non-cropped area .Career oils having low surface tension
(40), creep on the sprayed vegetation and enter into the crowns and rosettes of the grasses and
sedges. Water with its high surface tension (75.0) proves superior on the dense growth of weed.
Hard water should not be used for spraying as it may precipitate the herbicides.
In recent years air has been used as career. Motorized ground or aerial sprayers equipped
with specially designed exhaust nozzles. The air atomizes the liquid concentrate into 30-150
micron diameter droplets and ejects them out of the nozzle. These are easily prone to drift by air
but this can save labour, time and spraying cost.

Volume
It refers to total quantity of liquid applied per unit area. The quantity of toxicant reaching the
target weed or soil is more important than spray volume as much as.The toxicant is uniformly
distributed over the target area. The spray volumes for herbicides have been classified into 5
classes from high volume to ultra low volume sprays.
The high volume spray provides thorough coverage of target plants to the point of runoff
or drip. Eg: contact herbicides.
But translocated herbicides should be applied in low or medium volume sprays, because it
is not necessary to wet the foliage completely. In dry weather, high spray volumes may prove
superior to low volume sprays. High volume sprays are necessary to improve the solubility or
suspend ability of a herbicides.

Lately CDA (controlled droplet application system) have been developed to apply
herbicides in as low as 10 l ha-1 with droplets of 250 microns diameter. This is not susceptible to
drift hazard.

Table: Classification of spray volume as per Indian standard institute norms

Class Volume

High Volume (HV) or full coverage spray

Medium Volume (MV) or semi-low volume

or semi concentrated spray

Low Volume (LV) or concentrated spray

Ultra Low Volume (ULV) spray

Ultra-Ultra Low volume (U-ULV) spray

  42
Q. Differentiate hot spot and cold spot?

Q. Define acid equivalent?

Q. When do manufacturer will go for acid equivalent type of herbicide preparations?

Q. When would we recommend oil as a career and why?

Q. When do we go for low volume sprays?

Q. Name recently developed herbicide application method with less drift hazard?

Q. Why spray fluid subjected to drift? When air used as carreer?

Q. Define spray drift?

Unsolved exercises
Q1. A herbicide formulation contains active ingredient of 0.4 kg/l and the desired rate of
application is 1.5 kg/ha. Calculate the volume of herbicide formulation required for 1 ha area.

  43
Q2. You want to apply a herbicide in a 30 cm band with 90 cm crop rows. How much material
would you need to cover a hectare area at recommended application rate of 1 kg/ha?

Q3. You are applying a pre-emergence herbicide and find that 4 litres have been applied on
sixteen, 100 cm rows, each 440 m long. What is the application rate?

Q 4. You have to conduct one experiment for weed control with nitrofen at rates of 1, 2 and 3 kg
a.i. ha. You have with you liquid Tok-E-25 that contains 250 g/l nitrofen in it. If the plot size in
the experiment is 1/250 ha, calculate the total quantity of Tok E-2 you need for four replications.
Also, indicate the manner in which you will distribute this quantity in each plot.

  44
Q5. Calculate the amount of Eptam-6EC containing 0.6 kg of active ingredient (S-ethyl
dipropylthiocarbomate) per litre, for an area of 5 ha. The application rate is 1.5 kg a.i./ha.

Q 6. Calculate the amount of lorax-a wettable powder of linuron containing 50 % a.i.- required
for 30 plots, each 20 sq m in size. The desired rate in the experiment is 2 kg a.i. per ha.
 

Q.7. Calculate the amount of wee done Concentrate – 48 containing 34.2% 2,4-
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid by weight, or 0.3 kg of the acid per litre required for plots of maize,
30 sq m each. The desired rate of 2,4-D is 2.0 kg/ha.
 

Q.8. How much area can be covered with 3 kg of amiben granules containing 21.6%3- amino-2,5
dichlorobenzoic acid equivalent by weight applied at 2 kg a.e./ha? The treatment is to be made
on 15 cm wide band in crop rows spaced 30 cm apart.

  45
Q.9. Arrange the following herbicide formulations in decreasing order of preference, from
there cost point of view:
_______________________________________________________________
Formulation Price per kg (Rs.) a.i.
_______________________________________________________________
A 50 60%
B 70 90%
C 40 50%
D 75 80%
______________________________________________________________
 

Q.10. You want to apply 2% solution of 2,4-D to ditch-bank weeds. It is estimated that
1000 l per ha of the spray volume will be needed to wet the weeds completely. Calculate the
active herbicides needed to treat a 4 m wide and 2.5 km long ditch-bank.

Ref : for answers refer modern weed management – O P Gupta

  46
 Study of herbicide application equipment and calibration

Exp no: Date:

Objectives

1. To study the different Sprayers and functions of different parts of equipment

2. To calculate correct amount spray liquid needed per unit area.

Major components of sprayers

The important components of a sprayers are (i) pump (ii) powers source (iii) tank(v)
agitator (vi) distribution system (vi) pressure gauge and (Vii) pressure regulator.
Pump
Any spray liquid must be atomized before it leaves the spray nozzle. A pump provides the
necessary pressure for this purpose. Two kinds of pumps are generally used in herbicide sprayers.
Air compression or pneumatic pumps: These pumps force air into an airtight tank containing
the spray liquid .The air pressure moves the spray liquid into the nozzle where it gets atomized
before leaving the sprayers as fine spray.

Hydraulic or positive Displacement pumps: These pumps take in a definite volume of spray
liquid and force it through the delivery system under pressure. The pumps differ in the pressure
they produce.

Source of power
A source of power is needed to run the sprayer pumps this source of power may be (a)
manual (b)traction (c) motor or (d) tractor and aircraft engines.
Spray tank
A sprayer has either a built in tank or separate tank to carry the spray liquid. The tank
should be large enough to avoid frequent refilling.Depending upon the kind of sprayer, the tank
size varies from 25 to 2250 liters and sometimes even more. A tank is provided with a large
opening, fitted with strainer and a cap to fill the spray liquid. Small tank opening can make filling
and cleaning of the tank difficult.
Agitator
Most spray tanks carry an agitator. It may be either a mechanical or hydraulic type .The
agitator keeps the spray liquid components in homogenous mixture. The mechanical agitators are
usually made in the shape of metal rod with a fan or rings at its distant end.
In hydraulic agitation, there is a pipe with several side holes but closed at its free-end. It
is placed in the spray tank and is fed under pressure with the spray liquid from the pumps .The jet
of liquid thus formed provides the necessary agitation to the spray material. Hydraulic sprayers
are provided only in large, tractor-mounted spray tanks. Agitators are most essential for the
application of herbicide emulsions and suspensions.

  47
Distribution system
A distribution system of sprayer includes nozzles, spray lance (or spray boom) and hose.
i) Nozzle: The function of spray nozzle is to break the pressurized spray liquid into droplets for
application to the target. Nozzles are identified by their (1) droplet size, (2) delivery and (3) spray
pattern that they produce. Of the three characteristics, the spray pattern is fixed for a given nozzle
(except triple action nozzle).
There are at least six major types of nozzles in use for the application of herbicides. These
are (a) flat-fan nozzles, (b) solid cone nozzles, (c) flood-jet nozzles, (d) low volume nozzles, (e)
centrifugal nozzles, and (f) blast nozzles.
Draw the diagrams of nozzles

  48
 The droplet size and delivery of the nozzle will vary with the pump pressure. These
droplets are classified according to their Volume Mean Diameter (VMD)* as follows:
Aerosol = below 50 micron
Mist = below 100 micron
Fine spray = 101-200 micron
Medium spray = 201-400 micron
Coarse spray = Over 400 micron
*In general, smaller the spray droplet size, more the herbicidal phytotoxicity. The flat-fan
nozzles are again of two types, (a) the ‘tapered edge’ and the ( b) rectangular pattern’ nozzles.
The tapered edge nozzles provide an even application of herbicides on the soil surface; the
rectangular pattern nozzles are good for their band applications. The flat-fan nozzles of both
kinds lack the vegetation penetrating capacity. These are, therefore, preferred for the pre-
emergence application herbicides. However, these can also be used for post emergence
application of the translocated type of herbicides which do not require penetration of the weedy
vegetation.
The solid cone nozzles provide good vegetation penetrating ability to the sprays, these are
useful for application of the contact type of herbicides on dense, weedy patches as spot
treatment
The flood-jet nozzles produce medium droplet sprays, reducing their drift hazard
potentials. These nozzles are commonly used for sub-surface application of herbicides.
The low volume nozzles are designed to apply herbicide concentrates without much
dilution.
The centrifugal nozzles are meant for spraying viscous spray liquids like invert
emulsions. Motorized mist blowers employ blast nozzles which feed the spray liquid into the air
stream to split it into droplets and carry them as mist, off the delivery pipe.

(ii) Lance: It is a brass rod, about 90 cm long, attached to delivery hose of the sprayer and fitted
at its free-end with a replaceable nozzle. In many cases the spray lance is bent at the nozzle end to
form a goose neck. At the hose-end it is provided with various types of trigger mechanisms to
shut-off the flow of the liquid. For specific purposes, the spray lance may be fitted with plastic
shields at its nozzle end to prevent spray drifts.
(iii) Boom (or spray bar): A boom is essentially a horizontal pipe with two to several
nozzles on it. Usually, these nozzles are spaced 50 cm apart. The boom length (distance
between nozzles at the two ends of the boom) may vary from 1 m to 15 m. Short booms with 2 or
3 nozzles are used with manual sprayers, while the longer ones are attached to the tractor-
mounted sprayers. A spray boom obviously covers in each trip a wider spray swath than a lance.
(Spray swath is the total width of land wetted by a boom. It is slightly more than the boom
length). The vertical height of the boom and nozzle spacing on the boom can be adjusted to
obtain uniform overall spray, or a directed spray, or a band spray of the herbicide, as per

  49
requirement.

Draw the diagram of boom / spray bar

(IV) Pressure regulator: Power-driven sprayers are usually fitted with a pressure regulator so as
to push the liquid at a constant, desired pressure. Without a pressure regulator, a nozzle will
deliver more liquid at one time and less at the other, in the same trip. Moreover, some herbicides
are prescribed to be applied at specific pressures to obtain best results.
Kinds of sprayer
Knapsack sprayers: Knapsack sprayers are loaded on the back of the worker during the
operation. Usually they carry metallic tanks, but these are also available with plastic tanks to
reduce weight. The plastic tanks are prone at damage by rats though. Three types of knapsack
sprayers in vogue today are: (i) hydraulic sprayers, (ii) manual pneumatic sprayers, and (iii)
motorized pneumatic sprayers.
i) Hydraulic knapsack sprayers: A hydraulic knapsack sprayers is a manually operated
sprayer which works under hydraulic pressure. Its tank capacity is up to 15 litres, with provision
for mechanical agitation of the spray liquid. One tank full of spray liquid can cover an area of
about 600 sq m. The worker uses his left hand to operate the lever handle of the sprayer as the
lever maintains constant pressure. The output is usually 0.4 ha per man day But it is possible to
obtain higher output by replacing the lance with a 2-3 nozzle boom. The hydraulic knapsack
sprayer is primarily a high volume sprayer, unless special low volume nozzles are fitted to it. It
can develop a pressure of up to 12 kg cm-2, but with practice one could spray at 3 to 4 kg cm-2
pressure to prevent a possible spray drift. Hydraulic knapsack sprayer is a low cost, easy to
maintain, and a small holding farmer sprayer. It is particularly satisfactory for spot treatment,
band application of herbicides and blanket application if it is provided with boom.
The main drawback of a hydraulic knapsack sprayer is its three way tiring action on man,
viz, a load on the back, one hand engaged in operating the pump, and the other one in directing
the lance.
ii) Pneumatic or compressed system knapsack sprayers: Pneumatic knapsack sprayers
  50
are comparatively easy to work with since they are pressurized before loading on the back of the
worker. This allows a free hand to the operator. The tank is first filled to about 2/3 capacity with
the spray liquid with either a built in pump, separate charge pump or CO2 cylinders. A big
drawback of pneumatic sprayers is the decreasing spray work is advanced. This may cause
uneven spray. Also, the mouth of these sprayers is small which makes cleaning of the tank
cumbersome
The pneumatic knapsack sprayers are useful tools to spray herbicides in odd situations like
paddy fields, jute fields, hilly terrain, and water banks.
iii) Motorized pneumatic sprayers (= Blowers): A motorized pneumatic sprayer is a low
volume sprayer suitable for spraying concentrated spray liquids. The blast of air acts as carrier
of the herbicide concentrates in these sprayers, which are, therefore, also called blowers.
The air is forced-through the spraying jet of the delivery hose of the blower and a nozzle tube
ejects the spray liquid in this blast. The air blast atomizes the spray liquid into fine droplets. Thus,
in these sprayers air acts as the carrier. Faster the air is pumped into the spraying jet, more
vigorous is the atomization. The equipment is fitted with petrol engine of about 1.2 H.P.
Foot operated sprayers

The pump in the foot sprayer consists of a pump barrel and a pressure chamber. The
plunger with a suction cup or piston drives into the pump barrel, thus sucking the liquid into the
pressure chamber and expelling it through the discharge line.

Draw the neat diagram of pneumatic or (compressed system) knapsack sprayer

  51
Draw the diagram of hydraulic knapsack sprayers

Draw the diagram of motorized pneumatic sprayer and foot operated sprayer

  52
Calibration of boom sprayers
Steps in the calibration of sprayers
To determine the exact quantity of water required for an area, adopt the following steps in
sprayer calibration.
Step.1. Prepare the sprayer.
Check the sprayer and its parts and ensure that it is in good working condition. Fill the sprayer
tank with a known quantity of water (say 3 litres.).
Step.2. Mark a test area
Mark out a test area in the field. The land surface used for calibration of sprayer must be similar
to the field to be sprayed. Mark the starting point with a stake.
Step.3. Conduct the test run
Work the lever of the hydraulic sprayer a few times and develop enough pressure. Establish on
optimum spray swath by adjusting the height of the nozzle. Always maintain constant nozzle
height while spraying. After observing these preliminaries, position the nozzle at the stating point
and make the test run. Walking must be at a comfortable pace while spraying, and this speed must
be maintained throughout calibration, and later in actual spraying. When the water in the sprayer
is completely sprayed, measure the length and breadth of the test area sprayed. Check whether
and quantity of water is left in the tank. If so, measure it, subtract it from the original quantity
taken, and arrive at the correct amount of water consumed.
Step.4. Calculate the application rate
Calculate the amount of water required for 1 ha from the following relationship.
Volume of water required (L/ha) = Volume sprayed (l)
Area sprayed (ha)
Area sprayed (ha) = spray swath (m) x distance traveled (m)
10,000
Eg: - The following details have been generated from a sprayer calibration attempt. Spray swath –
1.2 m; distance traveled – 60 ,; and volume sprayed – 3L. Calculate the volume of water required
for spraying 1 ha.
Amount of water required for 1 ha = 3 x 10,000 = 417 litres.
1.2 x 60
As a next step calculate the number of sprayer loads required for 1 ha.
Number of sprayer loads/ha = Volume of spray solution required (l)
Sprayer capacity (l)
In the above example, if the sprayer capacity is 13 litres, then
Number of spray loads/ha = 417 = 32
13
  53
 ..The spray man should adjust his walking speed and discharge rate of sprayer so as to
complete the spraying with the spray loads computed, based on the total volume of water fixed.

Exercise
*Students shall conduct some model spray calibrations and calculate the spray volume
required. Write the procedures adopted and the steps for calculations.

Boom sprayer calibration

Three factors govern the amount of spray liquid applied through a boom sprayer. These
factors are: swath width (W); nozzle discharge rate (NDR); and the ground speed (S). The nozzle
capacity is governed by the size of the nozzle and the pressure developed at the nozzle by the
pump. The nozzle manufacturers provide data sheets showing the nozzle capacities at variable
pressures. Alternatively, a blank run can be made for a minute and the discharge collected at a
constant pressure can be measured. For a given spray pressure, the above variables of application
rate (R) of the spray liquids are related as follows:
R(1/ha) = 600 x NDR (1/min per nozzle) x N (No. of nozzles)
W(m) x S (Km/hr)
Band application rate (1/ha) = Band width (cm) X Broadcast rate (1/ha)
Row spacing (cm)
A(ha) = W(m) x T(hr) x S(km/hr) x 0.1
Area (ha) hr-1 = Walking speed (km hr-1) x m km-1 x Spray width (m)
m2 ha-1.
T (hr) = A (ha) x 10

  54
 W (m) x S (km hr -1)
The area sprayed (sq.m) = Distance traveled (m) x swath width (m)
Q. Why mist, aerosols and fine spray produce more phytotoxicity compared to medium and
coarse sprays? Substantiate.

Q. Differentiate between flat fan and solid cone nozzles?

Q. Define nozzle?

Q. With which nozzles variable spray patterns can be obtained?

Q. Nozzles used to control tubers and rhizomes of Cyprus and convolvulus?

Q. What is spray swath?

Q. What is boom?

Q. How do we keep the spray solution in homogeneous condition?

Q. How a spray liquid gets atomized before leaving the nozzle?

  55
Unsolved exercises on calibration of herbicide applications
Q 1 A sprayer, equipped with two nozzles on a 1m, 50 cm long boom was found to deliver the herbicide
spray at 3 l/mt/nozzle. Calculate its application rate in l/ha when the sprayer was run at a ground speed of
6 km/hr.

Q  2  It is decided to apply a herbicide to wheat with a tractor-mounted sprayer at an application

rate of 200 l/ha. The sprayer has two nozzles placed on a 50 cm long boom. Calculate the nozzle
capacity required in l/m. If the sprayer was to be run at a ground speed of 8 km/hr.

Q 3 A sprayer is equipped with a pump of 30 l/min capacity. It has a 7 m long boom and is run at
a ground speed of 8 km/hr. Assuming a 20% loss in by-pass hydraulic agitation, calculate the
potential application rate of the sprayer in l/ha.

  56
Q.4 What capacity nozzle should be used on a two nozzle boom to achieve an application rate of
200 l/ha, with the sprayer traveling at 8 km/hr? The nozzles are spaced 50 cm apart.
 

Q.5 A sprayer carried a 7 m wide swath. When driven over a distance of 290 m it was found to
spray 90 l of the herbicide emulsion. Calculate the application rate achieved in l/ha.
 

Q.6 It is desired to apply 270 l/ha of a herbicide spray liquid with a tractor-mounted sprayer,
running at an average speed of 6 km/hr. It possesses a boom with nozzles placed 50 cm. apart.
Calculate the required nozzle capacity in l/mt.

  57
Q.7 In the above question No.6, recalculate the ground speed of the sprayer required if the
application rate was desired to be 360 l/ha, using the already calculated nozzle capacity. The
farmer desires to treat the crop in bands of 30 cm width.
 

Q.8 In a test run, a measured course of 110 m length is found to require 54 seconds the traveling
forward, and 56 seconds for returning to the starting point. The sprayer carried a tank of 450 l
capacity and a 12 nozzles’ boom, with nozzles placed 50 cm apart. After completing the run, it
was found it consumed 45 litres water from the tank. Calculate the (i) swath width (ii) area
covered by the sprayer during the test run, (iii) application rate of water, and (iv) area that could
be covered if it was decided to consume the tank full water.

Q. 9 While applying a herbicide spray mixture on a 33.3 cm wide band in a 100 cm wide row
spacing crop, how much spray liquid will be used for l ha crop area, if the application rate for the
broadcast spray was recommended at 18 l/ha?
 

  58
  

Q.10 How fast should a tractor-mounted sprayer travel to obtain an application rate of 400 l/ha,
with nozzle capacity 3 l/m? The sprayer is fitted with a 1.5 m long boom, with nozzles placed 50
cm apart

Q.11 What length of boom is required on a sprayer operating at 8 km/hr to permit spraying in 32
ha crop area in 8 hrs? Calculate 30% time lost in filling the tank and on the turns.
 

Q.12 What minimum size of pump is required to apply a spray at 90 l/ha with sprayer traveling at
8 km/hr and equipped with a 8 m long boom? The spray tank has mechanical agitation.

  59
 Herbicide application methods and precautionary measures

Exp no: Date:

Objectives
To acquaint with different application methods of herbicides
To acquaint with precautionary measures in order to avoid the herbicide injuries

Classification based on methods of application of herbicides

Methods of application of herbicides are decided largely by their mode of action and
selectivity. Important methods of application of herbicides to crop and non-crop lands are given,
as follows
Soil-active and Foliage-active Herbicides
Soil-active herbicide
A soil-active herbicide is one that is applied primarily to the soil rather than to the
vegetation. Therefore, in crop fields a soil-active herbicide eliminates early weed-crop
competition for the period of 4 to 8 weeks, depending upon the herbicide and its rate used. The
soil-active herbicides are applied at the times of planting of crops, and to the weed free inter-rows
of established crops to obtain extended period of weed control. Eg simazine, alachlor,
trifluralin, and EPTC. On non-crop lands, the soil-active herbicides used are soil sterilants and
fumigants
Different soil application methods
Surface application: Soil active herbicides are applied uniformly on the surface of the
soil either by spraying or by broadcasting. Where they may be either left undisturbed or
incorporated into the soil, physically..Eg Many substituted triazines, urea, and anilide
herbicides Eg. EPTC and fluchloralin, trifluralin and nitralin
Sub-surface layering: It is the application of a herbicide in a concentrated band, about 7-
10 cm below the soil surface. The technique has proved effective in controlling perennial weeds
like Cyperus rotundus and Convolvulus arvensis. Eg Carbamate and nitralin herbicides. The is
useful in orchards and vineyards, besides certain wide-row crops like sugar beet and tobacco.

Band application: The band application of a herbicide constitutes its application to a

restricted band along the crop rows, leaving an untreated band in the inter-rows. The band
application of herbicides is primarily a cost saving device since it reduces the quantity of
herbicide in the ratio of the treated band width to the crop row width.

Soil fumigation: Herbicides used for fumigation are called as fumigants. Depending upon
the nature of the soil fumigant, it can be applied either (1) by soil injection (Example,
chloropicrin); (2) by releasing it under sealed, plastic covers (Example, methyl bromide) ; or (3)
by direct soil surface application (Eg. Metham).
Herbigation : Application of herbicides with irrigation water both by surface and
  60
sprinkler systems. In India farmers apply fluchloralin for chillies and tomato, while in western
countries application of EPTC with sprinkler irrigation water is very common in Lucerne.

Methods of application of foliage-active herbicides

A foliage-active herbicide is applied to weeds after their emergence from the soil. They
are absorbed by the plant foliage and these are translocated to the other plant parts. Eg 2,4,5-T,
paraquat, diquat, MCPB, amitrole, and herbicidal oils are common examples of foliage-active
herbicides.
*There may be some herbicides that are both soil-active and foliage-active, for example, 2,4-
D, picloram, and atrazine.
Blanket application: Blanket (or over-the-top) it is uniform application of herbicides to
standing crops with disregard to the location of the crop plants. Only highly selective herbicides
are applied by this method, e.g. 2,4-D in wheat. rice , MCPB in pea, 2,4-DB in Lucerne, and
picloram in sugarcane

Directed Spraying: It is the application of herbicides to weeds growing in the inter-rows

of crops, avoiding the crop foliage as much as possible. Orchards and plantations are good venues
of directed herbicide sprays. Usually, the directed spraying is adopted with herbicides that are
partially selective to the treated crops.

Protected Spraying: Non-selective herbicides can be employed to obtain selective weed

control in distantly planted vegetables and ornamentals by covering the non-target plants before
application of the herbicide with plastic or metallic covers. This method is called protected
spraying.

Spot treatment: Spot treatment is the application of herbicides to small patches of weeds,
leaving the weed-free gaps untreated. This is used for treating patches of noxious, perennial
weeds in certain crop fields with potent herbicides. Spot treatment is of value also in the non-crop
areas to prevent wastage of herbicide in the weed-free spaces.

Methods of treating brush and trees

Brush weeds and unwanted trees are treated with herbicides by different methods,. Foliage
treatment is the most common method of treating brush.
i) Foliage treatments: when the brush leaves are fully expanded, growing actively.
ground sprayers can cover up to 2.5 m high brush
ii) Basal bark treatment: A better method of dealing with tall brushes Basal – 30 cm of
stem bark. is peeled off then spraying is done to the point of liberal run-off
iii) Cut stump treatment: It comprises sawing of the tree above the ground followed by
liberal application of the herbicide on the cut surface.

Other ways by which the concentrated herbicides are applied to unwanted trees are, frill,
notch, and injection methods. The frills and notches are made with sharp tools into the sapwood
at convenient stem height and filled with herbicides.
The herbicide injections are made into holes made in the tree trunk. Usually, one herbicide
injection per 2.5 cm stem thickness is adequate. The frill, notch, and injection methods are
  61
adopted on thick stem trees which are 8 cm or more in diameter.
Other methods of herbicide application
D.C.A.(Direct contact application): D.C.A includes all techniques involving wiping, rubbing,
and smearing of herbicide onto the target plant surfaces.
It may be achieved by using herbicide wax bars, herbicide cloth mulch, herbicide rouging
gloves, etc.
The herbicide laden wax bars are dragged against weeds growing much taller to the crop plants.
Herbicide cloth mulches are spread in the crop inter-rows.
The rouging gloves carry arrangement to smear herbicide on to the weed gripped by the worker.
Many other ways of DCA of herbicides can be designed to suit specific situations.
Soil injection: Herbicides like ethylene, carbon bisulphide, and vernolate are applied by soil
injections, at prescribed spacings, before planting of the crops.

Precautions in storage and handling of herbicides

Store herbicides away from fertilizers, seeds, food, feed, and children, in cool and well
ventilated places.
The left-over herbicides must be retained in original, well labeled containers.
The container must be closed airtight to avoid herbicide caking, oxidation and fuming.
The herbicide stores must be checked periodically for possible leaks.
While preparing to use a herbicide, read the label carefully. Do not transport herbicides
from store to the field on body; better use a hand trolley
Prepare herbicide dilutions in open spaces, away from source of irrigation water.
Wear rubber gloves, a pair of eye glasses, and cover your nose with a cloth.
Always use a stick to stir herbicide solutions, and never your hand.
Bury the empty containers deep in any wasteland.
Keep lots of fresh water and soap handy to meet any emergency.
In the tropics, a pair of shoes, gloves, sunglasses, a light head dress, and a cloth put
around the mouth and nose, can be considered adequate precautions;
Each worker must wear a long sleeve shirt and full trousers.
Do not smoke or eat during and in-between the spray intervals.
Also, never use mouth to blow the clogged nozzles.
Bathe and wash the clothes thoroughly as soon the spray work is over for the day.
If there is an accident, provide first aid to the patient and contact the nearest doctor at the
same time.
Lie down the patient in shade and remove his all tight clothings and masks.
Wash the affected body parts immediately with plenty of fresh water and soap (do not use
soap in the affected eyes).

  62
 In the case of oral intake of a herbicide, induce quick vomiting by any locally available
method.
When a toxic herbicide has been inhaled, wash the nose and ask the patient to gargle with
fresh water.
Do not surround the patient, give him artificial breathing, if needed.
When the doctor arrives, he must be shown all available literature of the herbicide in
question to enable him to choose a proper antidote.
Usually antidotes are available
Common names Trade name Percentage Soil /foliage
applied
Alachlor Lasso 50EC
Anilofos Aniloguard 30EC
Atrazine Atrataf 50WP
Butachlor Machete
Clomozone Command 50EC
Ethoxysulfuron Sunrise 15 WG
Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl Whipsuper 10EC
Glyphosate Glycel / Roundup 41SL
Metolachlor Dual 50EC
Imazethypr Persuit 10EC
Oxyfluorfen Goal 25EC
Oxadiargyl Raft SC, Topstar WG 6EC
Paraquat Gramoxone 24SL
Pendimethalin Stomp 30EC
Pretilachalor Rifit 50EC
Pretilacholar-S Sofit 30.7% EC
Pyrazosulfuron-ethyl Saathi 10WP
Quizalofop-ethyl Turgasuper EC
2,4-D Fernoxone 80WP
2,4-DEE Agrodon 48EC
Glufosinate Basta -
Isoproturon arelon 75%WP
Propanil Stam F 34 34%EC
Thiobencarb Saturn 50%EC
Trifluralin Tip top 48%EC
Metaxuron Dosanex 80%WP
Cinmethylin Argold, Cinch
Bis -pyribac sodium

Exercise
Q. Why spraying should not be carried against the wind direction? Substantiate?
-

  63
Q. While spraying the herbicide one has to walk back. Why?

Q. Precautionary measure when person taken the herbicide orally?

Q. Differentiate between band application and directed herbicide application methods?

Q. Precautionary measures while storing the herbicides?

Q. Precautionary measures while preparing the herbicide spray solutions?

Q. Precautionary measures while spraying the herbicide?

  64
 Study of phytotoxic symptoms of herbicides in different crops
Exp no: Date:
Objectives
1. To study the toxic effects of herbicides on weeds and crop plants.
2. To know the differential ratings of herbicide phytotoxicity.

The herbicides are generally applied either on foliage (post emergence) or soil (pre
emergence) upon the application of herbicides the herbicide effects are generally studied both on
weeds and on the crop in which it is used for weed control. The observations are generally made on
crop starting from 3-4 days of sowing on the germination of crop later on the stand of the crop.
These effects on crops could be grouped as quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative observation: These are related observations on the plant height, number of
leaves, leaf area, dry matter, time of flowering, ear head size, yield etc.
Qualitative observations: These are visual observations on greenness of crop/weeds yellowing
necrosis, damaged parts.
On the weeds, the observations are quantitative and also qualitative. Quantitative
observations are related to weed species associated, their initial numbers and their increase in
number (or) frequency, predominant / and dry matter at different time intervals.
Qualitative observations like discoloration of leaves, drying of leaves, stunted growth,
scorching of leaves, necrosis and drying of entire plants etc. and on their intensity.
Some of the characters on the crop plants are also rated with the observations visually made on
the effect of herbicide applied. Another way of rating of damage to herbicide (in %) is given by
European Weed Research Council (1976) ratings both on the crops & weeds and is presented in
table.
Table –

Ratings % of crop injury Verbal description

1. 0 No injury, no reduction in crop plant number

2. 1-3.5% Slight discoloration in the crop

3. 3.5-7% Moderate but not lasting damage

4. 7-12.5% Moderate and more losing, they need more

time to recover

5. 12.5-20% Medium and lasting

6. 20-30% Heavy damage

  65
 7. 30-50% Very heavy in reduction in crop stand

8. 50-90% Nearly destroyed

9. 100% Completely destroyed

To quantify the herbicide effect like phytotoxic symptoms either on crop or weeds are
generally projected with rating starting from 0 to 10 as indicated below: (European weed
Research Council (1976)
Table

Effect or damage Ratings Description of Phytotoxicity

observed
Weed Crop

No effect 0 No weed control No injury

Light effect 1 Poor control Slight leaf discoloration

2 Poor control Some stanch has lost

3 Poor deficient control Injury root prohounced,

recovery is possible

Moderate 4 Deficient Control Moderate injury, injury is

distinct, but recovery is
possible

5 Deficient-moderate Recovery is doubtful, near

control sever injury

6 Moderate control No recovery is possible

Severe 7 Satisfactory control Sever in dry and stand

least

8 Good control Almost destroyed s very

few plants left

9 Good excellent control Plant may be removed or

ploughed

10 Complete control Complete crop destruction.

  66
 Field study and control of problematic weeds - nutsedge and
bermuda grass
Exp no: Date:

Scientific name: Cynodon dactylon

Common name: Doob grass , bermuda grass, star grass
Family : Poaceae

Biology and habitat

It is one of the world worst weed. It occurs throughout tropics and subtropics and semiarid
regions of world. A fine to robust stoloniferous perennial, mostly with rhizomes. Rhizomes can
penetrate 40-50 cm in clay soil and 70-80 cm in sand. Foliage dense, 10-40 cm tall (rarely to 90
cm). Leaves vary greatly in length from 3-20 cm. smooth or hairy on upper surface Inflorescence
consist of 4-5 slender purple spikes of 10 cm long. Some varieties used as lawn grass/ it
propagates vegetative more than by seeds. It is susceptible to competition and shading. Bermuda
grass reproduces by seed production and through runners and rhizomes. A single shoot from a
rhizome may cover 2.5 square m of soil surface in 150 days after its emergence
Management:
1. Deep tillage during summer (desiccates by 7-14 days).
2. Bermuda grass growth can be reduced by increasing shade from trees and tall shrubs
3. Small patches can be dug out but all rhizomes and stolons must be removed. Solarization
by plastic sheet is used in sunny locations
4. Bermuda grass can be controlled by grass-selective herbicides like sethoxydim (Grass
Getter), fluazifop (Fusilade, Ornamec, and Grass-B-Gon), or clethodim (Envoy).
5. Deep tillage can be improved by application of dalapon, glyphosate (1.0 - 2.0 kg / ha) and
amitrole T.
6. Glyphosate and amitrole T are having less residual effect
7. Paraquat and diquat are more suitable under more intensive cropping as they are non
residual type.
8. These chemicals could be applied one week before deep tillage.

Cyperus rotundus (Purple nut sedge): Cyperus esculentus (Yellow nut sedge)

Family: Cyperaceae

It is very persistent perennial sedge. It is considered as world’s worst weed as it occurs in

  67
52 crops in 92 countries. It is native of India and widely distributed throughout tropics and
subtropics. The slender underground runners grow out from the base of stem and form series of
black irregular shaped or nearly round tubers which may growth up to 2 cm length. The tubers
often sprout to produce new plants while still attached to the parent plant. Yellow nut sedge
propagate through seeds whereas purple nut sedge propagates through tubers. In mixed stands,
purple nut sedge is distinguished by its red, reddish-brown, or purplish-brown loosely
arranged inflorescence, dark green leaves which grow low to the ground with boat-shaped leaf
tips. Yellow nut sedge has a yellowish-brown or straw-coloured inflorescence which is arranged
along an elongated axis in the shape of a bottle brush. It has pale green leaves which grow upright
with long needle-shaped leaf tips.

Draw the diagram of Bermuda grass

Draw the diagram of the nut sedge with tubers

  68
 Each spike let is made up of 10-30 small closely crowded florets which ripen to form
black triangular nuts, roots are fibrous and extensively branched. The rhizomes give rise to under
ground tubers which proliferate intensively. Rhizomes do not give rise to new growth except
through tubers. Most of the tubers grow in top 10 cm to 30 cm of soil Tubers store food for other
parts of plants and they are effective means of propagation. New tubers are produced within 3
weeks after spouting of an individual tuber. It also propagates through seed. It is sensitive to
shade and grows well in wet and dry soil and warm climates. It is a serious weed in many dry
land irrigated crops.
Management
1. Mechanical methods kill only top growth with little effect on tubers. Herbicides which
translocates rapidly into tubers to prevent regeneration are most effective in controlling
this grass.
2. Summer deep tillage
3. Solarization with 1000 guage black film
4. 2,4 –D & MCPA at 2-5 kg/ha could control this grass.
5. Application of these in addition to trifluralin and exposing tubers or desiccation was more
effective than herbicide alone.
6. In arid areas it was found that deep cultivation in summer supplemented by 2,4 – D
Sodium salt at 2-4 kg/ha before onset of monsoon completely controls this grass as it
checks the regeneration.
7. In humid areas fallow tillage should be shallow and it should be repeated at 18-20 days
interval as it is at pre-flowering stage when the food reserve are at low
8. Glyphosphate 1 kg/ha is more effective than many foliage applied herbicides.
9. Paraquat kills the top but repeated application would deplete the tubers of food reserves
and gives better control.
10. Atrazine is particularly good for the control of seedling nutsedge.

11. Soil fumigation with metham or MB for treating nurseries and pot weeds

Exercise

Q. If farmer is having non selective contact type of herbicide how will he control these
grasses?

  69
Q. How fertilizer improves the efficiency of glyphosate?

Q. The recommended time of spraying of herbicide in nut sedge is 4-6 leaf stage or 21DAS
substantiate?

Q. Bio agent used for the control of nut sedge?

Q. Cultural practice used to control these grasses?

Q Why farmer has to use 1000 guage plastic sheet to control nut sedge substantiate?

  70
Ref: O P Gupta

Field study and control of problematic weeds

Parthenium and Celosia
Exp no: Date:

Scientific name: Parthernium hysterophorus

Common name: Carrot grass, congress grass
Family: Asteraceae

Biology and habitat: It is a noxious exotic weed which has spread to many parts for
country covering 5 million ha. It is annual plant (thermo and photo insensitive). reaching 2m tall
in good soils, usually 50 to 150cm, germinating after rain at any season, flowering in 6 to 8
weeks, and senescing with drought or frost. the stem is branched and covered with trichomes.
Leaves are pale green, lobed, hairy, initially forming a basal rosette of strongly dissected
leave that are up to 30 cm in length. Young roselles with their radial leaves closely press to the
ground, allow no other species to come up in their vicinity. The number of leaves per plant ranges
from 6 to 55. Flower heads are creamy white, about 4 mm across, arising from the leaf forks.
Reproduces by small seeds lasting up to 20 years in soil, induced dormancy on burial The
plant is capable of flowering when one month old and remains in flower for 6 to 8 months It
produces 5000-10000 seeds/plant. The toxin parthenin is responsible for allergic dermatitis and
mental depressions in human being. Plant prefer moist shady and organic rich habitat they have
remarkable adaptation to environment extremes which exerts allelopathic influence on the
neighboring plant species, the seed leachates inhibit germination of other weed seeds cause
allergies and skin diseases. Seeds are light in weight and armed with pappus and disseminated by
wind, water, birds and animals. It is not only an agricultural weed but also a municipal weed.
Management
1. Mechanical and cultural: Manual uprooting of Parthenium before flowering and seed
setting is the most effective method. A plant in flower will aid in the dispersal of pollen
grains, resulting in allergic reactions.
2. Ploughing the weed in before the plants reach the flowering stage and establishing
pastures or other plants may be effective
3. Competitive replacement of Parthenium can be achieved by planting species like Cassia
sericea, C. sparsiflorus, Amaranthus spinosus, Sida acuta, Tephrosia purpurea,
Stylosanthes scabra and Cassia auriculata, which will compete with the weed and reduce
its population.
4. Similarly, planting Cassia tora will help to cover and suppress the growth of Parthenium.
In certain parts of India, crop rotation using marigold (Tagetes spp.) during rainy season,
instead of the usual crop, is found effective in reducing parthenium infestation in
cultivated areas.
5. 2,4-D, paraquat provide effective control of weed.
  71
 6. Pre-em application of atrazine, alachlor, butachlor prevent seedling emergence up to 2-5
months.
7. Chlorimuron @0.2-0.4kg/ha and metasulfuron @0.003-0.0045 kg/ha as pre-em.
8. Already established vegetation: in non cropped areas 2,4-D esters @2-5kg/ha or common
salt @ 15-20% at actively growing stage.
9. Biological. The leaf-feeding beetle Zygogramma bicolorata and the stem-galling moth
Epiblema strenuana are widely used in several countries to manage Parthenium. Z.
bicolorata is now widely used in India to control Parthenium. The moth significantly
reduces flower and seed production of the weed, especially at a young age.
Draw the diagram of parthenium

  72
Ref : O P Gupta
White cock’s comb

Scientific name: Celosia argentia

Common name: White cock’s comb.
Family: Amaranthaceous

Biology and Habitat:- It is a plant of tropical origin and it is very bright colour and grow well in
full sunlight. It is a tender annual i.e often grown in gardens. It is propagated by seeds. The seeds
are very small upto 4300 seeds per ounce. The flower head can last up to 8 weeks and further
growth can be promoted by removing dead flowers. The stem is some what glaborous some what
angled and striate. Leaves are simple alternate. Ex:- Stipulate linear lanceolate up to 5” long either
sessile or base tappers into short petioles.

Management
™ Cut of the flowering tops with gram cutting sward whenever they appear.
™ Hand pulling is certainly effective but it is not always practicable.
™ Methods for weeds destruction should have to be used before spike matures and no plant
should be spared to prevent seedling.

Draw the diagram of Celosia argentia

  73
Q. Why parthenium has to pull before flowering substantiate?

Q. Example for the anthrophyte

Q. Bio agent used for control of parthenium?

Q. Celosia is predominant weed of which crop?

  74
 Field study and control of problematic weeds - parasitic weeds

Exp no: Date:

Scientific name: Orobanche cernua

Common name: Broom Rape
Family: Orabanchaceae

Biology and habitat

It is a complete root parasite. O. cernua on tobacco and sunflower

O. ramosa and O. aegyptiaca on tomata and like crops
O. crenata on legumes eg broadbean
O.ramosa is menace in brassica crops.

Lossess due to Orabanche in tobacco is 30-35%.

It is a annual parasitic herb propagating by seeds. The host root exudates induce
germination of broomrape seeds within the soil. The parasitic seedlings then infect the near by
host roots by forming haustoria’s on them. Each plant may produce over half million seeds in
short period of 8 weeks. They disseminate by wind, birds and farm animals. They remain
dormant for 2-12 years in the soil. Orabanche infests only fibrous roots of tobacco. It is first seen
in tobacco main fields 45 DAT. It flowers 4-5 days later and ripens its seeds in another 20-25
days.

Control
1. Sunflower hybrid- Sunbred 254 shows genetic resistance to this parasite.
2. Crop rotation with paddy
3. Pepper, chilli, castor, maize and sesamum regarded as trap crops for some species of
Orabanche.
4. Hand weeding at weekly interval is effective preventive measure.

Draw the diagram of broom rape

  75
 5. Plant hole application of neem cake 25 g / plant or drenching of copper sulphate 5%
provides partial control of Orabanche in tobacco.
6. Spraying of MH @ 0.75kg/ha about 40 DAT controls the 60-85% of Orabanche shoots.
7. Allyl alcohol @ 0.1 – 2.0% spray about 2-4 weeks after transplanting proved to be
effective for suicidal germination.

Scientific name: Striga

Common name: Witch Weed
Family : Scrophulariaceae

   It is an annual parasitic herb propagating from seeds. Witchweed is a small (3-18

inches tall), erect, annual, parasitic plant on the roots of various plants. It has small scale-like
leaves, green in the summer and turning black in winter, contrasting with the brown, tan, or green
of other plant material. Flowers are reddish to purplish or white. Seeds are extremely small. Striga
seeds require stimulus continuously for 24 -28hrs from host plant to trigger the germination of
striga seeds. After germination it produce 2-3 mm long radicles. These radicles form haustoria’s
and harm the host roots involving the whole root system of host plant. The affected crops look
drought affected despite the presence of adequate soil moisture. After 20 days of subterranean
life as a total parasite, it emerges through the soil as green plant . At this stage the plant become a
partial parasite. Each Striga plant may produce a million seeds within 30 days of after
emergence. Seeds are produced in enormous numbers and they are generally dispersed by wind,
water, livestock and man. Striga causes a reduction of 15 -75% in the yield of sorghum and
pearlmillet. It also attack ragi ,maize ,sugarcane ,tobacco, groundnut and sweet potato.

Striga leutica or Striga asiatica, Striga hermonthica, S. Densiflora are primarly attaching
sorghum and pearl millet. Where as S. gesneriodes is a problem in cowpea.

Draw the diagram of Striga

  76
Management

1. Catch crops (short duration susceptible crops to be planted and destroyed before planting
main crop.
2. Trap crops: Cotton sunflower, cowpea, groundnut and castor.
3. Application of FYM and compost tends to decrease the incidence of Striga
4. Striga invasion usually less in wet season and in densely sown crops.
5. Directed application of 2,4-D amine salt @ 0.5-0.75kg/ha 2-3 times during the crop
season to destroy the flushes of striga in its vegetative phase.
6. Suicidal germination by strigol containing compound like GR 45 and GR 7 @0. 1-
1.0kg/ha as pre-plant incorporation.
7. Ethylene @ 0.4 to 2.0 kg/ha is also used for suicidal germination.
8. The reduction in seed production from gall-forming Smicronyx spp.

Scientific name: Cuscuta Chinensis

Common name: Dodder
Family               :  Colvolvulaceae 

Biology and habitat

It is a complete stem parasite, twining , golden yellow, wiry stems, rudimentary scaly
leaves and small clusters of minute, bell shape flowers. The dodder stems contain carotenoid
pigment capable of conducting only limited photosynthesis. Lucern is the main host of the
dodder besides this it also parasitizes many species of treeses, hedges and ornamental
plants. We have C. compestris, C. reflexa and C. hyaline are most common. Recently C.
Chinensis invaded niger in Orissa, lentil. In Hyderabd it parasitizes blackgram.
Germination of dodder seeds does not require any stimulation from the host crop. A single
dodder seedling can grow 2 km or more in length. Dodder is a prolific seed producer; each plant
is capable of producing several thousand seeds. It can be disseminated by seeds and fragments
with man and animals.

Draw the diagram of cuscuta

  77
 Management

1. Use of clean crop seeds and crop rotations with wheat and gram.
2. Crop has been susceptible to pre-emergence application of fluchloraline, pendimethaline
and metalachlor
3. Granular application of chlorpropham @ 2kg/ha or pronamide @1.7kg/ha will prevent
dodder development in lucern for 3-5 weeks.
4. The lucern plant at the time of treatment atleast 10cm tall and foliage should be dry.
5. Diclobenil @2kg/ha and DCPA upto 10kg/ha are used to control dodder in lucern grown
for seed production not for forage production.
6. On trees and perennial hedge a high volume spray of 0.1% paraquat will kill dodder.
7. Pronamide @2kg/ha about 25 DAS in niger crop found to be effective to control the
dodder.

Scientific name:
Common name:       Loranthus (Bird vine)  
Family                : Viscaceae

It is semi stem parasite on trees like mango, teak, casuarinas, sapota and jack fruit.

Copper sulphate and 2,4-D combination applied in the holes on the stem of the trees are useful.
Copper sulphate 8g and 1.0g fernoxone per tree is is effective. This treatment free the tree from
nfestationfor a period of up to 4 years.

  78
Exercise
Q. what is catch crop?

Q. What is trap crop?

Q. What is suicidal germination?

Q. In USA commonly used chemical for suicidal germination?

Q. Chemical which is extracted from cotton roots for suicidal germination?

-
Q. which weed does not require stimulus for its germination?

Q. Mode of dissemination of loranthus weed ?

Q. The parasitic weed associated with blackgram and greengram in rice fallows of Andhra
Pradesh?

Q. Cuscuta is ----------------

Q. The trap crop used for the control of striga weed?   

  79
Q. Weed that propagates through stem fragments?

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  80
 
 
 
 
 
 
Field study and control of aquatic weeds

Exp no: Date:

*Aquatic weeds are unwanted plants, growing in or near aquatic bodies such as canals,
ponds, lakes, rivers, reservoirs etc*.

Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) Salvinia molesta (water fern) Salvinia natans (Water fern)
Nymphaea odorata (water lily), Nelumbo lutea (lotus) Hydrilla verticillata (hydrilla), Valisneria
spiralis (tape grass or eel weed) Typha angustata (cat tail) Nympholdes, Potamogeton spp. (pond
weed) pistia stratiotes (water lettuce) and algal weeds like Chara sp. Nitella sp. and bloom-
farming blue-green algae are some important aquatic weeds.

Scientific name: Eichhornia Crassipes

Common name : Water hyacinth
Family:                       Pontederiaceae
 
It is free flouting aquatic weed. It is a freashwater species
Introduced to India in 1986 from Brazil . Water hyacinth is a free-floating perennial aquatic
plant native to tropical South America. With broad, thick, glossy, ovate leaves, water hyacinth
may rise above the surface of the water as much as 1 meter in height. The leaves are 10–20 cm
across, and float above the water surface. They have long, spongy and bulbous stalks. The
feathery, freely hanging roots are purple-black. The inflorescence is a distinct aerial spike
growing to 30 cm An erect stalk supports a single spike of 8-15 conspicuously attractive flowers,
mostly lavender to pink in colour with six petals, the flowers have six stamens, and the fruit is a
3-chambered seed capsule. It reproduction mainly through vegetative propagation i.e stolons.
The seeds remain viable for over 15 years in the bottom of soil each flower produce 3000 to 4000
seeds. Single plant is capable of infesting an area of one acre in a year.

Management

1. Installation of sieves at the entry points of water from canals into paddy fields, to
prevent infestation of free-floating weeds like water-hyacinth.
*Draw the diagram of Water hyacinth

  81
 2. Mechanical methods like manual removal, cutting, chaining, dredging, netting, picking by
machine, mowing burning and some of the mechanical methods to deal with aquatic
weeds. However they are not economical
3. 2,4-D, paraquat,diquat and amitrole are effective
4. 2,4-D sodium amine and easter formulations are most effective @ 2-8 kg ha-1
5. 2,4-D (4kgha-1) + paraquat (0.5kg ha-1) is more effective than 2,4-D alone.
6. Paraquat @ 0.5% solution with 200L spray solution/acre
7. Amitrole-T @ 0.5 to 1.5% concentration.
8. Bio agents like Neochetina eichhorniae (weevil), N. bruchi and Sameodes albigultalis
(moth) are used

Scientific name: Typha angustata

Common name : Cat tail
Family:                       Typhaceae
 
The height is 1.5 - 2 m, and its leaf and stem standing erect. Leaves are thick, 5 -12 mm
wide. It is perennial, tall grass like having no mid-vein. The spike resembles the tail of cat. Male
and female flowers develop in dense, complex spikes on the same vertical stem. The male flower
spike develops at the top of the vertical stem, above the female flower spike. The dense cluster of
female flowers forms a cylindrical spike from 10 cm to as much as 40 cm long and 1 to 4 cm
broad. Seeds are minute (about 0.2 mm long), and attached to a thin hair or stalk, which effects
wind dispersal. This is propagated by rhizomes and by small air born seeds.Each spike produce
10,000-20,000 seeds and seeds have longer viability. It is predominant in marshy area, ditch
banks, Irrigation channels, waterlogged, drainage channels and brackish waters.
Management
1. Dessication of ponds and tanks heavily infested with aquatic weeds by draining out water
during summer.

*Draw the diagram of Cat tail

  82
 2. Certain plants sp are very competitive in suppressing specific weeds. Typha sp can be
controlled by Panicum purpurascens or Brachiaria mutica (Para grass)

3. Dalapon @ 2% concentration with spray volume of 1000 to 2000 1ha-1.

4. Dalapon + amitrole (15+3 kg ha-1)
5. Amitrole + TCA (5 + 10 kg ha-1) are very effective
6. Pre-emergence application of simazine or diuron to prevent seed germination on ditch
banks, and drainage channels.

Scientific name: Ipomoea aquatica

Common name: Swamp Morning glory Chinese water-spinach or morning-glory,
water bindweed 
Family:                       Convolvulaceae

It is floating aquatic weed, herbaceous trailing vine with milky sap. Stems hollow, 3 m
long or more, rooting at nodes, floating in aquatic situations Leaves alternate,simple , leaf blades
generally arrowhead shaped but variable. Flowers showy, funnel form like morning - glory
blooms, solitary or in few-flowered clusters at leaf axils; petals white or pink-lilac.Fruit an oval or
spherical capsule, woody at maturity, about 1 cm (1/2 in) wide, holding 1-4 grayish seeds, these
often short-hairy. The extensive weed growth hinders pisciculture, navigation, sanitation etc

Control measures

1. Certain fresh water Carp fish consume large quantities of aquatic weeds. Eg: Whiteamur
(Chines grass carp) – Ctenopharyngodon idella is promising spp for aquatic weed
control

2. Controlled by 2,4-D sodium salt (4 kg ha-1) + paraquat (0.5 kg ha-1) on activity growing
vegetation.

  83
Q. Dredging comes under which method of weed control?

Q. The weed used in bio gas production?

Q. A free floating aquatic weed grown in fresh water?

Q. The best herbicide recommended for control of algae?

Q. The fish, which is more effective in controlling aquatic weeds?

Q. Use of living organisms to control weeds is known as?

Q. Substantiate high rate of multiplication is not suitable criteria for Chines grass carp

Q. Runners of floating aquatic weeds are called?

Q. Aquatic weed grown swampy / marshy conditions?

  84
 Weed control in non-cropped areas

Exp no: Date:

Both mechanical and chemical methods are available for the weed control in non-crop
areas. The choice will depend upon a number of factors. Probably, the most important of these is
the situation of the operational area. Herbicides, for instance, will impart repulsive appearance to
highways by browning the vegetation, whereas mowing and cutting will maintain the natural
green look by letting the low grasses grow. High power rotary mowers are used for vegetation
management on highway and ditch banks. But in many other non-crop situations, such as railway
rights-of-way, petroleum farms, pavements, and air strips, herbicidal control is more convenient
and desirable. In these situations, physical methods cannot reach the weeds easily, and their
effects are not sufficiently long lasting. Herbicides are also important where bare soil is desired,
for instance, under fence-rows and pipe lines, around electric and telegraph poles, observatory
structures, forest fire-breaks, and asphalt and gravel walks. Such herbicides are called soil
sterilants.

Herbaceous vegetation management

Chemicals Dosage Vegetation controlled Remarks
kg/ha
Dalapon and 0.5 to 1%.  Grasses, sedges, cattails and Chemical mixtures persi
2,4-D  broadleaf’s  in soils for 4 weeks 

Picloram 1-4 kg/ha Deep rooted broadleaf weeds Without undue injury
grasses.

Paraquat and 0.1-0.2% Vegetation on ditch banks, Non-residual herbicides

Amitrole-T 1.0 % irrigation channels

Prometryn 5-8 kg Perennial grasses and broadleafs Follow-up is necessary

Glyphosate 1.12-3.36 Roots and rhizomes of many Non-residual herbicide

perennial weeds
Asulam 6.72 kg Sorghum halepense, Brachiaria, Allow low growing grass li
Digitaria Cynodon dactylon

MH: Retard the growth of roadside An alternative to freque

grasses mowing

Imazapyr 0.5-1.5 kg Non-selective control of perennial weed control for 3- months

weeds

  85
 Chlorsulfuron 0.09-0.67 Difficult annual and perennial A long persistent herbicide
weeds, both broadleafs and grasses
Petroleum oils 2% Grasses and sedges Non-residual weed control

Phenols 1-% Deep irrigation ditches or under

tall trees

Brush weed management

Brush weeds refer to weedy plants, under wood thickers, and small tress and shrubs. There
are at least four brush killers which can be used on non-croplands It may be pointed out here that
the mixture of 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D is still the cheapest brush killer and it often forms the first choi
to deal with a brush problems in countries where this use is not restricted.Amitrole 0.2% aqueo
foliage spray proves superior to 2,4,-T and silvex in killing a brush weed like Rhus sp. AMS 50
aqueous spray is (stump or frill ) an effective arboricide to kill large trees. Karbutilate 3-3.5 g (10
granules) per cm stem diameter as frill treatment kills 99% of woody species on industrial sites.

Soil sterilants
The aim of using soil sterilants is to obtain bare soil. Depending upon the length of time,
can be classed as permanent, semi-permanent, or temporary soil sterilants. A permanent soil sterilan
sterilizes the soil of 24 months; semi-permanent for 4-24 months; and temporary sterilants for le
than 4 months. While on non-cropland permanent and semi-permanent soil sterilants are used, t
temporary soil sterilants are useful on crop lands.
The four substituted urea herbicides fenuron, monuron, diuron, fluometuron @ 0.16-0.5
100,-2 (dry granules or foliage spray with surfactant) sterilize the soil 1- years. Fenuron is preferred
low rainfall areas and monuron in heavy soil conditions. Diuron can be used against only shallo
rooted vegetation. Fenuron, monuron, and diuron are good for sterilizing drainage ditches. T
ditche should be wetted before the treatment and kept under flood for 48 hours. Simazine @ 0.0
0.12 kg 100m-2 is suitable for high rainfall regions. Its mobility in soil being low, it is safer th
prometone to nearby useful trees. It must be applied preemergence to the weeds. Metribuzin @ 0.
kg 100m-2 provides as complete control of a mixed stand of perennial grasses and broadleaf weeds
diuron, bromacil, and amitrole mixtures, mentioned above. TCA @2 kg m-2 as soil sterilants is und
pavement control of grasses. The treatment must extend 1 cm on either side of the payment. Fenac
0.045-4.0 kg 100m-2 aqueous spray or dry granules) is almost immobile laterally. This makes it sa
to the nearby trees. At low rates it is effective against annual weeds and at high rates against t
perennials and other hardy species. Fenac sterilizes the soil for a year of more.

Exercise
Q. In which places herbicidal control is more convenient and desirable substantiate?

Q. Which method used for vegetation management on highway and ditch banks?

  86
Q. Where do we use soil sterilants to control weeds in non cropped areas?

Q. Give the persistent chemicals which control grasses, sedges, cattails and broadleaf weeds?

Q. Herbicide used for control of deep rooted broadleaf weeds with out damaging grasses?

Q. Non-residual herbicides, good for treating vegetation on ditch banks, irrigation channels?

Q. Non residual herbicide for treating grasses and sedges?

Q. Chemicals used to control young vegetation growing under partial light conditions?

Q. Long persistence herbicide used for vegetation control on boundaries?

Q. Non selective translocated foliage herbicide used to control roots and rhizomes of grasses?

Q. Herbicide used for control of established Sorghum halepense ?

Q. Herbicide as an alternative to frequent mowing to retard the growth of roadside grasses?

Q. Chlorsulfuron is used to control which type of weeds?

Q. Herbicides used for sterilizing drainage ditches?

Q. Sterilant used for complete control of a mixed stand of perennial grasses and broadleaf
weeds?
Q. What is arboricide?

  87
Q. Example for arboricide?

Field exercise
*Spray Glyphosate on non cropped area with activator and with out activator and observe t
symptoms of damage*

Economics of weed control practices

Exp no: Date:

Any new technology proposed to be introduced in agriculture, or other places, should be

cost-effective, and yield a Benefit-cost ratio (B:C) that is sufficiently high to attract the client
towards its adoption. Introduction of herbicides in cropping plants is no exception to it.

Research work conducted so far with different crops has clearly shown that application of
herbicides for controlling weeds is a very rewarding proposition from its economic point of view,
some data on B:C ratios of this technique are summarized in Table. It may be noted from these
data that, despite the fact that hand-weeding resulted in grater crop yields than herbicides, yet
because of high, and ever increasing wages and comparatively lower herbicide cost, the use of
herbicides resulted in higher B-C ratios. In different crops it varied from 9.0 to as high as 33.5;
The B-C ratios of hand-weeding varied in different crops from 3.5-10.1

It may be pointed out here that B:C ratios of the most popular input in agriculture viz., the
fertilizers, is only between 2.0 and 3.0 Obviously, in comparison to it the B-C ratios of herbicide
use are 5 to 15-folds.

Table 10.1: Economics of Herbicide Use in Different Crops

Treatments Wheat Paddy Soybean Pea Mungbean

Yield B:C Yield B:C Yield B:C Yield B:C Yield B:C

(q/ha) (q/ha) (q/ha) (q/ha) (q/ha)

Unweeded 27.6 - 29.72 - 6.38 - 11.91 - 3.1 -

(Check)

Hand- 41.7 10.1 46.12 4.5 15.13 4.5 19.0 3.5 8.6 3.96
weeded

(twice)

  88
 Herbicide 41.0 33.5 45.70 9.0 11.95 5.7 20.01 9.9 6.9 17.0

(2,4-D) (Butachlor) (Fluchloralin) (Pendimethalin) (Pendimethlin)

Reference Gupta, et al. Sharma, et al. Chandrakar and Kundra, et al.

Urkurkar (1993)
(1969) (1994) (1994)

Table. Economics of weed control practices

Calculate Net returns, Net additional returns and Benefit to cost ratio

S.No Treatment Yields Yield Gross Cost of Total cost Net Net B;C
. G.nut of returns weed of return additiona ratio
Kg/ha Sunflo Rs/ha control cultivatio s l returns
wer n
Kg/ha including
weed
control

1. Control 1613 676 16980 - 3.000 - -

(unweeded
)

2. Alachlor 1750 760 18560 960 3960

3. Alachlor 1900 819 20114 920 3920

& inter
culture

4. Alachlor 1900 819 20114 920 3920

& inter
culture

5. Inter 1650 800 18000 1100 4100

culture

6. Farmers 1700 680 17680 1200 4200

practice

Write formulae

A .Net returns

  89
B . Benefit cost ratio

                  

Precautionary Shapes 

  90
  

  91
                     

  92
Figure Weeds that emerge with the crop must be removed before the end of
Period 1 (maximum weed-infested period) to prevent them from reducing crop
yield. The crop must be kept clean throughout Period 2 (the critical period for
weed–crop competition). Later emerging weeds (Period 3) have little effect on
crop yield. In practice, many vegetable growers endeavor to keep crops weed
free throughout Periods 1 + 2, the minimum weed free period, sometimes called
the “critical weed-free period." Figure credit: Ed Zaborski, University of Illinois
(adapted from Altieri, 1995).

  93
References
1. Crafts, A.S. and Robbins, W.W. 1973. Weed Control. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Co. Ltd., New Delhi.

2. Gupta, O.P. 1984. Scientific Weed Management. Today and Tomorrow Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi.

3. Gupta, O.P. 2004. Modern Weed Management. Agro Bios (India), Jodhpur.

4. Rao, V.S. 2000. Principles of Weed Science. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New
Delhi.

5. Subramanian, S., Mohammed Ali, A. and Jayakumar, R. 1991. All About Weed
Control. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.

6. Tadulingam, C. and Venkatnarayana, D. 1955. A Handbook of Some South Indian

Weeds. Government Press, Madras.

7. Thakur, C. 1977. Weed Science. Metropolitan Book Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

  94