THE AIRCRAFT

PROPULSION
 Aircraft propulsion

Contact:

Ing. Miroslav Šplíchal, Ph.D.

[email protected]
Office: A1/0427
 Aircraft propulsion Organization of the course
Topics of the lectures:
1. History of AE, basic of thermodynamic of heat engines, 2-stroke and 4-stroke cycle
2. Basic parameters of piston engines, types of piston engines
3. Design of piston engines, crank mechanism,
4. Design of piston engines - auxiliary systems of piston engines,
5. Performance characteristics increase performance, propeller.
6. Turbine engines, introduction, input system, centrifugal compressor.
7. Turbine engines - axial compressor, combustion chamber.
8. Turbine engines – turbine, nozzles.
9. Turbine engines - increasing performance, construction of gas turbine engines,
10. Turbine engines - auxiliary systems, fuel-control system.
11. Turboprop engines, gearboxes, performance.
12. Maintenance of turbine engines
13. Ramjet engines and Rocket engines
 Aircraft propulsion Organization of the course
Topics of the seminars:
1. Basic parameters of piston engine + presentation (1-7)- 3.10.2017
2. Parameters of centrifugal flow compressor + presentation(8-14) - 17.10.2017
3. Loading of turbine blade + presentation (15-21)- 31.10.2017
4. Jet engine cycle + presentation (22-28) - 14.11.2017
5. Presentation alternative date
Seminar work: Aircraft engines presentation

A short PowerPoint presentation, aprox. 10 minutes long.

Content of presentation:
- a brief history of the engine
- the main innovation introduced by engine
- engine drawing / cross-section
- engine performance
- operational use
- derivate version
- technical attractions
 Aircraft propulsion Organization of the course
List of engines:
• Wright Flyer (4-cyl): First engine to fly • Pratt & Whitney TF30 turbofan: First
afterburning turbofan
• Anzani Three-Cylinder Engine
• Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 Engine
• Anzani (6-cyl): First two-row radial engine • CFM56 Engine

• Curtiss OX-5 Engine

• Rolls-Royce Trent Engine
• Continental A-40 (4-cyl): Ancestor of current opposed engines
• General Electric GEnx Engine
• Jendrassik Cs-1 Engine

• SMA SR305-230 Engine

• Allison V-1710 (12-cyl): Most highly developed U.S. V-12
• Daimler-Benz DB 605 Engine
• Continental O-300 Engine

• Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp

• Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 Engine

• General Electric J35 turbojet: First U.S. production axial-flow

• Garrett-Honeywell TPE331 Engine
jet
• Klimov VK-1F turbojet: Last large centrifugal-flow engine
• Franklin Six-Cylinder Engines
• Rolls-Royce Dart.
• Williams FJ44 Engine
• Bristol Centaurus (18-cyl): Last large British radial
• Rolls-Royce Conway • Honeywell TFE731 Engine

• Pratt & Whitney J57 • Pratt & Whitney Canada PW600 Engine
 Aircraft propulsion Organization of the course
End of course:

1. Seminars syllabus and presentation complete.

2. Exam
– written form
– 15 test question 1 (select a,b,c,d) questions reflect the fundamentals
working principles and terminology corresponds to ATPL theoretical
question
– one simple computational example ( for example computing engine
power or thrust from given values) Only from memories no additional
materials allowed
– 45 minutes

Exam terms:
– First term: 12.12.2017
– Second term: 19.12.2017
 Aircraft propulsion Materials
Course materials:
1.
File name: OLE-A_1, OLE-A_2, OLE-A_3 …etc
Location: http://ulozto.cz
Password: LU2017
 Aircraft propulsion
Source materials:
WARD, Thomas A. Aerospace propulsion systems. Singapore:
John Wiley & Sons, c2010, xxvi, 527 s. ISBN 978-0-470-82497-
9.

CUMPSTY, Nicholas. Jet propulsion: A simple guide tio the

aerodynamic and thermodynamic design and performance of jet
engines. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, 276 s.
ISBN 0-521-59674-2

Rolls-Royce engineers "The Jet Engine, 5th Edition"

Technical Publications Department, Rolls-Royce, Derby,
England | 1996 | ISBN: 0902121235

https://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/ANASAGUIDETOENGINES[1].pdf
Aircraft propulsion

1.Lecture
 History of aircraft propulsion
The aircraft engines always want more power, more
durability, and more efficiency.
They also want it in the smallest, lightest package
possible.
And it should be easy to manufacture and not cost
too much.

More than 100 years to the engineers trying

achieve this.
 History of aircraft engines
Steam engines – first attempts
at powered flight

1894: Hiram Maxim – 180hp

Boiler
weight steam engine+boiler aprox 1000kg
Airplane TOW aprox 3200gr
 History of aircraft engines - piston
• Application of Internal combustion engine
• Flyer Wright - 1903

The engine was

modern
designed with
valve gear
Power - 18 hp , weight aprox 82 kg
Historie leteckých motorů
 History of aircraft engines - piston

1908
Cooling was
problem first
generation of
aero engine

Rotary engine Gnome – 50hp at 1200 rpm

Weight aprox. 80kg
Crankshaft with cylinders rotate for good cooling
 History of aircraft engines - piston

Antoinette Engine 1909 - 1910

50hp weight. 50kg. Liquid cooled
Engine with very good weight /power ratio,
but the reliability was not good.
 History of aircraft engines - piston

Liberty (Curtiss J2 „Jenny“) 1917 First engine for serial production

 History of aircraft engines - piston

modular design allowed create engines

with different outputs power
Many manufacturers use the same
strategy

Liberty engine 12V – 400Hp 1919

Engine of many WWI airplane. Currtis „Jenny
„ is most known. More than 30 000 unit was
made
 History of aircraft engines - piston
Pratt &Whitney - Double Wasp engine – 1943
The end of 2250 hp – 2800hp
piston engines
45883 ccm,18 cylinders
era.
For large
aircraft it has
been difficult to
design more
powerful
engines
 History of aircraft engines - piston
Allison Division engine V-1710 engine : maximum power 1325 hp at 3000 rpm and 51,0 in Hg
nominal power 1150 hp at 3000 rpm and 42,0 in Hg

28021 ccm, 725 kg

The large piston

engines have
two major
groups - radial
air-cooled
engines and
ordinary liquid
cooled engines

first run 1930

 History of aircraft engines - piston
Low TBO of large engines
The Lycoming XR-7755 was the
caused the rapidly transition to
largest piston-driven aircraft turbine engines after technology
engine ever produced, with 36 maturing
cylinders totaling about 7,750 in³
(127 L) of displacement and a
power output of 5,000 horsepower
(3,700 kilowatts).
 History of aircraft engines - turbine
First jet engine Heinkel-Strahltriebwerk 1, engine prototype 1936. First
flight at 1939. Fuel was hygrogen based gas.

The principles of jet propulsion had

been known, but there was no
technology required for the
construction of up to thirty-20th
century

Improved engine was HS3 –

Weight 360kg
Thrust 450 kg
 History of aircraft engines - turbine
Jet engine Rolls-Royce Nene: thrust 22600N at 12 400 rpm
weight 726 kg , first run 1944

Successful engine,
manufactured
under license in
many countries
 History of aircraft engines - turbine
First turboprop engine Jendrassik Cs-1 (1937)
First run at 1940
Power: 400hp

Efforts to
overcome the
weaknesses of
powerful piston
engines
Development was not completed due to war.
 History of aircraft engines - turbine
Turboshaft engine - Garrett TPE331 (1961)
Power: 575hp at 2000 rpm (shaft), gen 41700 rpm
Dry weight: 153kg

Turboprop engines are dominated in category of regional aircraft

 History of aircraft engines - turbine
Turbofan - first commercial motor low bypass ratio
Rolls-Royce RB.80 Conway Turbo fan represents a certain
combination of advantages of
Trust 50 – 70 kN efficient propeller propulsion
Bypass ratio 3:1 with speed of jet propulsion
weight 2000 kg
Build year.1950
B707,DC-8
 History of aircraft engines - turbine
General Electric CF6 ( 2000) – High bypass ratio engine
Thrust 234 – 274 kN
Higher fuel efficiency, low emissions
Fan diameter 2,6m
Bypass ratio 4,4

First high bypass ratio engine was Pratt & Whitney JT9D on
Galaxy C-5 prototype build year 1968
 History of aircraft engines - turbine
General Electric Genx ( 2000) – High bypass ratio engine
Thrust 240 – 330 kN
Higher fuel efficiency, low emissions
Fan diameter 2,8m
Bypass ratio 19:2

First high bypass ratio engine was General Electric CF6 on DC

10-10 prototype build year 1971
Airlines JET development
SUBSONIC ENGINE SFC TRENDS
(35,000 ft. 0.8 Mach Number, Standard Day [Wisler])
Future …..???

Still looking for the perfect

propulsion unit
History of aircraft engines in the Czech rep.
Walter - traditional Czech
manufacturer of aircraft
engines from 1923

Scolar 1936
Power: 180 hp at
2200 rpm
volume: 7800 ccm
weight: 155kg
History of aircraft engines in the Czech rep.

Mikron III – 1938

Power: 65 hp at
2600 rpm
Volume: 2400 ccm
Weight (dry): 60kg

For light aircraft or motorgliders like L- 13SW

History of aircraft engines in the Czech rep.

1951
Minor 4-III
Power: 80hp
volume: 3981 ccm

Light training airplanes - Zlín Z-126

History of aircraft engines in the Czech rep.

Walter M337 – 1959

Power 210 hp at 2700 ot.min-1, stroke volume 5970 ccm
History of aircraft engines in the Czech rep.

Walter M 601 - successful turboprop for L410 airplane family

Types of engines and working
principles
 Type of power plants for airplane

• Piston engines + propeller

• Turbine-powered

• Ramjet

• Pulse jets

• Rocket engines
Speed range and applications of different
types of engines
 Aircraft propulsion - terms

• Thrust is the force which moves an aircraft through

the air. Thrust is used to overcome the drag of an
airplane.
• Thrust is generated by the engines of the aircraft
through some kind of propulsion system.
• Thrust is generated most often through the reaction of
accelerating a mass of gas.
 Aircraft propulsion - terms

Propulsion

• Propulsion means to drive forward. Therefore a

propulsion system is a machine that produces a
thrusting force to drive an object forward.

Thrust
• Most aerospace propulsion systems produce
Thrust (FN) by applying Newton’s Third Law of
action/reaction.
•Thrust is produced by accelerating a working gas
 Thrust of aircraft engines

From Newton’s Second Law:

• The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to
the resultant force applied and is in the direction of the resultant force.
The resultant force is equal to the rate of change of momentum.

 m.a  F  c2  c1   m c2  c1 

c2  c1 m
F m
t t
Mass flow
m   .S .c
steamline

Kinetic energy

F  m c2  c1   H 2  H1
production rate

Thrust:
 Thrust of aircraft engines

Thrust of propeller propulsion unit:

m  S1c1  S 2 c2
R   F  m c2  c1 

Control area 1 Control area 2

Increasing of airstream speed outside engine
 Thrust of aircraft engines

Thrust of jet engine:

m  S1c1  S 2 c2
R   F  m c2  c1 

Increasing of airstream speed inside engine

 Thrust of aircraft engines

Thrust of rocket engine:

H1  m .c1  0
H 2   .S 2 .c2  m .c2
2

H 2  H1  m .c2

R  m .c2

Increasing of propellant speed

 Thrust of aircraft engines

• In aircraft's propulsion system's, performance is

measured by:

• Propulsive Force (Thrust)

– The force resulting from the velocity at the nozzle exit
• Propulsive Power
– The equivalent power developed by the thrust of the engine
• Propulsive Efficiency
– Relationship between propulsive power and the rate of kinetic
energy production
 Thrust of aircraft engines

Propulsive Force (Thrust) Propulsive Power

The power developed from the

in (a) exit (5) thrust of the engine
 mV
   mV
  W p  FVaircraft
F    
g
 c exit g
 c in
 m 
W p   V5  Va   Va
F  V5  Va 
m

 gc 
gc
In this equation, the velocities
are relative to the aircraft
(engine). For an aircraft
traveling in still air,
Vaircraft  Vin  Va

http://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/SPRING/propulsion/notes/node81.html
 Thrust of aircraft engines
Propulsive Efficiency
Propulsive power

W p  m air / g c V5  Va Va 2 V5  Va Va

 propulsive   
m air  ke5  kea 
V5  Va2 
m air 2 V5  Va V5  Va 
Kinetic 2 gc
energy
2Va 2
  propulsive 
production

V5  Va V5 / Va  1
rate
 Thrust of aircraft engines
Do 328

Do 328 jet
 Thrust of aircraft engines
Do 328 Air stream velocity: 30 m/s

Full thrust
cond. 2x 1,625 kW ( 26,9) kN
Cruise speed: 620 km/h
Range: 1,852 km
Max payload 3,404 kg
Takeoff Field Length– MTOW 1075 m

Do 328 jet
Air stream mass flux: 120 kg/s

2x 26.9 kN thrust
Cruise speed: 750 km/h
Range: 1,600 km
Max payload 3,266 kg
Takeoff Field Length– MTOW 1367m
 Thrust of aircraft engines

Propulsion fundamentals
• Thrust depends on both the amount of gas moved and
the velocity, we can generate high thrust by accelerating
a large mass of gas by a small amount, or by
accelerating a small mass of gas by a large amount.

• Because of the aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and

fans, it is more fuel efficient to accelerate a large mass
by a small amount.

• That is why we find high-bypass fans and turboprops on

cargo planes and airliners.
 Engines

- Propulsion system change input energy

into propulsive power

- Engine is a machine designed to convert

one form of energy into mechanical
energy or some kind of output energy. (a
mechanical part of propulsion system)
 Characteristic power quantities engines

Engine Power definition:

• Pe – Effective power or shafthorsepower(shp) can be
measured on shaft, or estimated from the indicated
horsepower and a standard figure for the mechanical
losses
• Pi – Indicated power power equivalent to the indicated work
per cycle , it is completely frictionless
• PN – Nominal power tj. maximum engine power -
time unlimited
• PTOF – Takeoff power or peak power. maximum
engine power - time limited (aprox 3 min)
 Characteristic power quantities engines
Engine Power definition:

• Ps – Specific power (typical for turboprops

engine) is the power generated by the engine
divided by the mass flow through engine
P / Qm (W / kg.s-1)

• Power-per-liter - typical for piston engine

The power per liter is one of the
Pe  kW  fundamental characteristics of the

i.Vz  liter 
efficiency of engine design. The highest
ratings, about 74 kilowatts (kW) per liter
(100 hp per liter).
 Characteristic weight quantities engines
Weight of aircraft engines :

• mDry – Dry weight (engine without

coolers, engine mount, oil, cooling fulid
an another equipments

W 
• Power-to-weight ratio  kg 
 

• Specific power N

 kg 
 
 Characteristic engine performance

Fuel consumption :

• Qm,p – fuel consumption (fuel flow) kg.s 

1

• Cm – specific fuel consumption for jet engine:

3600.Qm , p  kg 
Cm   N . hod 
F
• Ce – specific fuel consumption for a shaft engines
3600.Qm , p  kg 
Ce   W . hod 
Pe
 Characteristic engine performance

Operational performance:
• Nominal power – engien provides long-term maximum usable
power. Typically for climb
• Takeoff power – time-limited maximum power of the engine .
• Cruise power – typically 75 to 90% of rated power time unlimited
power
• Economic – the lowest fuel consumption
• Idle - motor provides the power necessary to overcome internal
resistance and resistance to prop windmilling. In this mode, the engine
operates with minimum speed .
 Basic requirements for aircraft engines:

• Reliability the ability to maintain the engine within

the permissible limits of its properties within a specified
time and a specified operating conditions
• Low weight and minimum dimensions
• High efficiency
• Long service life
• Simple maintenance
• Price
• Other - noise, starting porcedure, aceleration, emision
Piston engines
 Piston aircraft engines

A reciprocating engine, is a heat engine that uses one or more

reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating
motion. Engine with the internal combustion

Piston engines can be categorized:

2 -stroke
• By cycle
4 - stroke

Petrol engine – combustion inciated by ignition

• By fuel
Diesel engine – combustion iniciated by injection of fuel
(Or by iniciation
of combustion)
 Piston aircraft engines

Piston engine types:

Rotary piston
• By mechanical arrangement
Reciprocating piston
 Thermodynamic minimum
for heat engines

Basic variable:
– cp specific heat capacity at constant pressure [J.kg − 1K − 1]
– cv specific heat capacity at constant volume [J.kg − 1K − 1]
– q specific heat [J.kg − 1]
– m mass flow [kg.s − 1]
– r gas constant [J.K − 1mol − 1]
– χ adiabatic exponent
– h enthalpy
 Thermodynamic minimum
for heat engines

 Heat is the random

motion of the
particles in the gas,
i.e. a “degraded” from
of kinetic energy.
 Ideal Gas

Characteristics of an ideal gas :

It remains in the gaseous state at any

temperature and pressure.

Exactly follow the basic laws of ideal gas.

Constant volume and constant pressure heat

capacity are constant.
 Ideal Gas

Ideal Gas:
 An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of many
randomly moving point particles that do not interact
except when they collide elastically. The ideal gas
concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law,
a simplified equation of state.
 An ideal gas can be characterized by three state
variables: absolute pressure (P), volume (V), and
absolute temperature (T). The relationship between
them represent the ideal gas law:
 Ideal Gas

The Ideal Gas Law:

PV = nRT
P = Pressure (in kPa) V = Volume (in L)
T = Temperature (in K) n = moles
R = 8.31 kPa • L
K • mol
R is constant. If we are given three of P, V, n, or T,
we can solve for the unknown value.
 Thermodynamic laws

First Law of Thermodynamics

energy can neither be created nor
destroyed
One form of work may be converted into
another
or, work may be converted to heat,
or, heat may be converted to work.
Every time: final energy = initial energy
 Thermodynamic laws

The net heat taken in by a system is equal to the sum

of the change in internal energy and the work done
by the system.

Q = U + W
final - initial)

•Isochoric Process: V = 0, W = 0

•Isobaric Process: P = 0

•Isothermal Process: T = 0, U = 0

•Adiabatic Process: Q = 0
 Thermodynamic laws

Enthalpy
We can define a new state variable (one where the path to
its current state does not affect its value) called enthalpy:

H = Ei + PV
Enthalpy = Internal Energy + PV

dH = dq + VdP
 Thermodynamic laws

Second Law of Thermodynamics

naturally occurring processes are directional

• Heat flows from higher to lower temperatures

and NOT the other direction.
– i.e., heat flows “downhill” just like water
– You cannot raise the temperature in this room by
adding ice cubes.
• Thus processes that employ heat are
inherently irreversible.
 Thermodynamic laws
Second Law of Thermodynamics

It is impossible to construct an
engine that, operating in a
cycle, produces no effect other
than the extraction of heat
from a reservoir and the
performance of an equivalent
amount of work.
 Thermodynamic laws
Efficiency of a Heat Engine
An amount of heat Qh is supplied from the hot reservoir
to the engine during each cycle. Of that heat, some
appears as work, and the rest, Qc, is given off as waste
heat to the cold reservoir.

The efficiency is the fraction of the heat supplied to

the engine that appears as work.
 Thermodynamic laws
The Third Law of Thermodanymics
Absolute zero is a temperature that an object can get
arbitrarily close to, but never attain.
Temperatures as low as 2.0 x 10-8 K have been
achieved in the laboratory, but absolute zero will remain
ever elusive – there is simply nowhere to “put” that last
little bit of energy.
This is the third law of thermodynamics:
It is impossible to lower the temperature of an object to
absolute zero in a finite number of steps.
* There is a concept of “negative temperature”, but it is
based on a more subtle and general definition of
temperature, and not the average kinetic energy of atoms
 Work in thermodynamic system

Work Done by a Gas

 Work=(Force)x(distance)
=Fy
 Force=(Presssure)x(Area)
 W=P(Ay)
W=PV
 Thermodynamic process
The basic reversible processes in a closed
system:

• Isochoric process– constant volume

• Isobaric process – constant pressure

• Isothermic process – constant temperature

• Adiabatic process – without sharing heat

• Polytropic process – p . vn = const

 Thermodynamic process
Isochoric process at constant volume (v = konst.)
p
p2 T2
p2 2 p2 v  rT2 
p1 T1
The pressure is directly proportional to
q 1,2 absolute temperature.

q1, 2  cv (T2  T1 )

p1 1 p1v  rT1 The added heat increases the

internal energy of the gas. Volume
work is zero!

v
 Thermodynamic process
• Isobaric process– at constant pressure (p = const.)
v2 T2
p  The volume is directly proportional
v1 T1 to absolute temperature.
q 1,2

1 2 a1, 2  p (v2  v1 )

p1v1  rT1 a1, 2  r

p2 v2  rT2 The gas constant is equal to the volume
of work done by one kilogram of gas
heated by one Kelvin at constant

a 1,2
pressure

q1, 2  c p (T2  T1 )  I 2  I1
The supplied heat at constant pressure
v1 v2 v is consumed to increase the enthalpy
 Thermodynamic process
• Isothermic process– at constant temperature (T = const.)
p 2 v2
p  1  p.v  konst
p1v1
1 p1v1  rT1

Internal energy id. gas does not change. The supplied

heat is converted into a volume work

q 1,2 p2 v2  rT2 p1
q1, 2  a1, 2  p1v1 ln
2 p2

a 1,2

v1 v2 v
 Thermodynamic process
• Adiabatic process– without heat exchange with the environment

p1v1  p2 v2  p.v   konst

 
p

p1 1 p1v1  rT1

internal energy id. gas varies at volume work

p2 v2  rT2   1

1   p2  

a1, 2  p1v1 1   
2  1   p1  
p2  
a 1,2 izotermic

cp
v1 v2 v Poisson constant 
cv
 Thermodynamic process

• Polytropic process– p . vn = konst 1 n  

p2  V1 
n

p   
p1  V2 
1 p1v1  rT1 n 1
T2  p2   v1 
n 1

     
n

T1  p1   v2 
q 1,2
p2 v2  rT2
2 Volume work

 n 1

a 1,2 1   p2  
 p1v1 1   
n
a1, 2
n 1   p1  
v1 v2 v  
 Carnot Equation: Efficiency

• Any heat engine, the maximum work that can be

produced is governed by:

Wmax Tcold
 1
Qhot Thot
.

• This ratio is called the Carnot efficiency, .

• Importance Carnot cycle to compare the effectiveness
of various cycles of heat engines
 The Carnot Principles

• The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always

less than the efficiency of a reversible one operating
between the same two reservoirs. th, irrev < th, rev

• The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating

between the same two reservoirs are the same. (th, rev)A=
(th, rev)B

•The Carnot heat engine defines the maximum efficiency

any practical heat engine can reach up to.
Working Cycles of piston engines
 Cycle of gasoline engines

Ideal cycle assumptions:

• The working fluid is an ideal gas
• Combustion is replaced by a supply of heat from
outside
• The exhaust is replaced with heat dissipation from
the cylinder
• Compression and expansion are Isoentropic
• Specific heat capacity of the working fluid are
temperature independent,
• There are no losses
• Not considering valve timing
 Ideal cycle of gasoline engines 4 - stroke
TDC BDC
3
P T Heat convert 3
to work
q23

2 q2,3 - q4,1
2 Wo – cycle work
4
4

q14
1 1

Vc Vd V S
Vcylinder
 Cycle of gasoline engines

Real cycle:
• The working fluid is a real gas,
• Poisson constant is changing after burning
• Including chemical losses, e.g. thermal dissociation
at temperatures above 2000 ° C
• considering valve timing losses
Real cycle investigations
 4 - stroke engines
Woking cycle of 4 stroke piston engine:

1 – Induction:

2 – Compression

3 – Power / expansion
4 – Exhaust
 4 - stroke engines
Working cycle of 4-stroke engine:
1 – Induction
Unsteady flow a real mix accompanied by heat and evaporation of fuel.
Opening the intake valve starts before top dead center in order to reduce suction
losses.
Closing the intake valve is behind bottom dead center to utilize the kinetic
energy stream. This will improve cylinder filling .

2 – Compression (polytropic)
Complex process with variable value of polytropic exponent. In calculating the
mean value is considered in interval 1.27 to 1.39.
At the end of compression is created a homogeneous mixture to facilitate
ignition and rapid combustion of the fuel without detonation
 4 - stroke engine
Working cycle of 4-stroke engine:
3 – Expansion
The moment of ignition has great importance. It is necessary to choose the
moment of ignition for achieve a maximum of gas pressure in interval 10 to 15
degrees after TDC.
The expansion of gases acting on the piston and changing heat into mechanical
energy. Expansion proceeds according polytropy with variable exponent. In
calculating the mean value is considered in interval 1.15 to 1.30.
4 – Exhaust
The exhaust valve opens before the bottom dead center. After opening the valve
quickly escape 2/3 combustion gases and the pressure drops rapidly. When
piston is moving toward the top dead center, piston pushes the residual
combustion gases. The exhaust valve closes after top dead center, utilizes the
kinetic energy of exhaust gas for better exchange of the cylinder charge.
Angle, which exhaust and intake valve are open, is indicates as a valve overlap
angle.
 4 - stroke engine

Indicator diagram 4-stroke petrol engine :

Valve overlap suction

TDC BDC

exhaust
 Engine design parameters

Cylinder Terms:
The geometry of cylinders is described by specific
terms:
Stroke (s) – The total length of
piston movement from the top
dead center (TDC) position to
bottom dead center (BDC)
position.
Bore (b) - Diameter of the piston
 Engine design parameters
Cylinder Terms:
The geometry of cylinders is described by specific
terms:
• Clearance distance (sc) - The
piston cannot travel the entire
length of the cylinder. There
has to be room at the top for
the compressed mixture.
This is called the clearance
volume or combustion space.
The clearance distance is the length from the top of
the cylinder to the piston top dead center (TDC)
position.
 Engine design parameters

• Stroke volume

 .D 2
Vz  L
4
• Stroke ratio
L

D
• Mean piston speed

cs  2.L.n On aircraft engine usually 8-14 ms-1 and has an impact on

engine life
 Engine parameters - overview

• Type of engine power:

– Indicated Power (Horsepower) Pi
• The power developed in the combustion chamber without reference to
the friction losses within the engine

– Brake Power (Horsepower) (BHP) Pe

• The power delivered from the engine to the propeller for useful work

– Friction Power (Horsepower) Pm

• Indicated horsepower minus brake horsepower
 Engine parameters - overview

• Engine working pressure:

– Mean Effective Pressure
• Pressure used to create frictionless power

– Indicated Mean Effective Pressure pi

• is a fictitious constant pressure that would produce the same work per
cycle if it acted on the piston during the power stroke. IMEP does not
depend on engine speed, just like torque.

– Friction Mean Effective Pressure

• The pressure used to overcome internal friction

– Brake Mean Effective Pressure pe

• The pressure used to produce useful work
 Engine parameters - overview

• Engine efficiencies:
– Thermal Efficiency t
• The ratio of useful work done by an engine to the heat energy of the
fuel it uses, expressed in work or heat units

– Mechanical Efficiency m
• The ratio that shows how much of the power developed by the
expanding gases in the cylinder is actually delivered to the output shaft.

– Volumetric Efficiency v
• A comparison of the volume of fuel/air charge inducted into the
cylinders to the total piston displacement of the engine
– Combustion Efficiency ch
• The combustion efficiency is defined as
actual heat input divided by theoretical heat input:
 Engine cycle parameters

• Compression ratio: Vcylynder


Vcompresion
– The normal value is 7-11 restricted the emergence of detonation combustion

• Theoretical Heat efficiency :

q2,3  q4,1
t 
q2 , 3
– Utilized heat is equivalent work of cycle Wo and can be expression:

1
t  1 

for Diatomic gases and air χ = 1,4
 1
 Engine cycle parameters
Parameters influencing overall efficiency:
• Chemical (combustion) efficiency
• The time for combustion in the cylinder is very short so
not all the fuel may be consumed or local temperatures
may not support combustion

• A small fraction of the fuel may not react and exits with the
exhaust gas. The combustion efficiency is defined as
actual heat input divided by theoretical heat input.

Qrel
 ch  The ratio of the heat released by the combustion Qrel of the
Q fuel theoretical heat content of the fuel Qfuel
 Engine cycle parameters
Parameters influencing overall efficiency:
• Thermal efficiency

t = work per cycle / heat input per cycle

t = W / Qin = W / (c mf QHV)

Where Qin = heat added by combustion per cycle
mf = mass of fuel added to cylinder per cycle
QHV = heating value of the fuel (chemical energy per unit mass)

• thermal efficiencies are typically 50% to 60%

• depend on compression ratio a temperature of combustion
 Engine cycle parameters
Parameters influencing overall efficiency:
• Volumetric Efficiency v
• Due to the short cycle time and flow restrictions less than ideal
amount of air enters the cylinder.

• The effectiveness of an engine to induct air into the cylinders is

measured by the volumetric efficiency which is the ratio of actual
air inducted divided by the theoretical air inducted:

v = ma / (a Vd) = nR ma / (a Vd N)

where a is the density of air at atmospheric conditions

• Typical values for WOT are in the range 75%-90%, and lower when
the throttle is closed
 Engine cycle parameters
• Fullness ratio of indicator diagram
Represent a specific reference value in

Qi
internal combustion engines.
3
p 
Qt Is used to describe the effectiveness of the
Pmax actual working cycle of the engine, to the
theoretical model.
Calculated from the ratio of the value of work
corresponding to the theoretical circulation in
the same conditions and indicated work
calculated from the measured-indicated
pressure values directly in the combustion
chamber of the actual circulation.
Wi
2

vz
 Engine cycle parameters

• Indicated efficiency
Qi
i 
Conversion efficiency of energy released by burning fuel Qfuel to the
indicated work which corresponds to heat Qi
Q pal

Qi
i   ch .t . p
Qrel Qt
 ch  t   
Q fuel Qrel Qt
p

• Overall efficiency

 e  i . m Current internal combustion engines achieve

effective efficiency in the range of 0.3 to 0.4
Engine cycle parameters
 Engine cycle parameters
Indicated Work
Given the cylinder pressure data over the operating
cycle of the engine one can calculate the work done
by the gas on the piston.

The indicated work per cycle is

Wi   pdV

Compression Power Exhaust Intake

W<0 W>0 W<0 W>0
 Engine cycle parameters

• Indicated power (horsepower)

• multiplying indicated work by the number of revolutions per
second

Only for 4 stroke engine

1
Pi  Vz . pi .n
2
Power can be increased by increasing:
• the engine size, V
• compression ratio, rc
• engine speed, n
 Engine cycle parameters

• Effective power
– Output decreased by mechanical losses

Pe  Pi . m  m - mechanical efficiency

Determination:
-Numerically from the low pressure part of the P-V diagram
-Engine brake
-By measuring the time to stop from a certain speed
 Engine cycle parameters
Mean indicated power – derivate from indicator
diagram

pi
Wi  Vz . pi
Pi  Vz . pi .n
 Engine cycle parameters

• Effective power
1
Pe  Pi . m 4 stroke engine Pe  Vz . pi .n. m
2

• Mean effective pressure

The pressure (assuming it is constant) of the piston in
the power stroke is called the mean effective pressure
pe  pi . m Pe for 4 stroke engine 0,6 - 0,9 MPa

Pe  Vz . pe .n For one cylinder

it is a useful figure of merit for comparing the performance of different

engines and operating conditions because it normalizes out the effects of
engine size, rotational speed, and cycle
Other concept of piston engines in aviation
 2 - stroke engine
In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events i.e.,
suction, compression, power and exhaust are completed in two
strokes of the piston i.e. one revolution of the crankshaft. There is no
valve in this type of engine. Gas movement takes place through
holes called ports in the cylinder. The crankcase of the engine is air
tight in which the crankshaft rotates .
 2 - stroke engine

Upward stroke of the piston (Suction +

Compression)

When the piston moves upward it covers two of the

ports, the exhaust port and transfer port, which are
normally almost opposite to each other. This traps the
charge of air- fuel mixture drawn already in to the
cylinder. Further upward movement of the piston
compresses the charge and also uncovers the suction
port. Now fresh mixture is drawn through this port into
the crankcase. Just before the end of this stroke, the
mixture in the cylinder is ignited by a spark plug (Fig 2 c
&d). Thus, during this stroke both suction and
compression events are completed.
 2 - stroke engine

Downward stroke (Power + Exhaust)

Burning of the fuel rises the temperature and pressure

of the gases which forces the piston to move down the
cylinder. When the piston moves down, it closes the
suction port, trapping the fresh charge drawn into the
crankcase during the previous upward stroke. Further
downward movement of the piston uncovers first the
exhaust port and then the transfer port. Now fresh
charge in the crankcase moves in to the cylinder
through the transfer port driving out the burnt gases
through the exhaust port. Special shaped piston crown
deflect the incoming mixture up around the cylinder so
that it can help in driving out the exhaust gases . During
the downward stroke of the piston power and exhaust
events are completed.
 2 - stroke engine
Indicator diagram 2-stroke petrol engine :
TDC exhaust

TDC

BDC

suction
 2 - stroke engine
Indicator diagram of real 2-stroke petrol engine :
TS 510 7500 min-1; full load, 3.8 kW; INDICATOR DIAGRAM; High Pressure Part

2.5

2
Pressure [MPa]

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Cylinder Volume [dm^3]
 2 - stroke engine
Scavenging in two-stroke engines is performed mainly by one of three
methods:

a) Cross scavening – Simple but not suitable for larger filling pressures

b) Loop scavening – the most commonly used

c) Uniflow scavening – complicated, requires camshaft

 2 - stroke engine
Weaknesses:
Imperfect scavening
Loss of stroke volume, a lower compression ratio
Higher thermal load
Irregular running at low revs
worse emissions
About 30% more fuel consumption
Benefits:
Simplicity of design
Low weight
Easy maintenance
Low price

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-w9TV3EfVfkc/TqLpVfrbCvI/AAAAAAAAAtA/ntwGcZYRos4/s400/yr+tu.jpg
2 - stroke engine
 2/4- stroke engine comparation

Rotax 912 80Hp 4T Rotax 582 65Hp 2T

 2 - stroke engine
An example of modern 2- stroke aircraft engines:

ROTAX 582 – 45kW, 36 kg

HIRTH F30E - 61kW, 42 kg

 Diesel engines

Differences :

• Ideal cycle diesel engine - the heat is supplied

at constant volume and partly at constant
pressure.

• The compression ratio is approximately 2

times greater than the petrol engine. The
diesel engine has a higher thermodynamic
efficiency than a gasoline engine.

• Combustion of fuel in real cycle is realized by

isochoric and isobaric process.
 Diesel engines
Indicator diagram 4-stroke diesel engine :

Q2,3  Q3, 4  Q5,1

t 
Q2,3  Q3, 4

fuel injection

Real cycle
 Diesel engines
Indicator diagram 2-stroke diesel engine : :

Two-stroke diesel
engines are used
more often in
aviation due to
better weight to
power ratio
 Diesel engines
Example of diesel aircraft engine with opposed pistons:

Junkers – Jumo 205

2 stroke diesel engine
Power: 647kW
weight: 595 kg suchá
bore: 105 mm
stroke: 160 mm
Cylinders: 12
Compression ratio: 17:1
First run: 1932
 Diesel engines
cut of the engine:

Junkers – Jumo
 Diesel engines
cutaway of the engine:

Junkers – Jumo
 Diesel engines
Example of modern diesel aircraft engine with opposed pistons:
JUMO – redesing
www.keros.in
Fuel: JET A1
Power: 420hp @2900ot.min
Dry Weight: 180kg.
Displacement: 3000 ccm
Compression ratio : 20:1
 Diesel engines
Example of modern 4 stroke diesel aircraft engine

Centurion aircraft engines

 Diesel engines
Example of modern 4 stroke diesel aircraft engine
Centurion 4.0
Power: 257 kW
Weight: 272 kg suchá
consumption 40 – 50 l/hr

Engine was derived from the Mercedes car's engine

 Diesel engines
Comparison of diesel and petrol aircraft engine:

Diesel engines Petrol engines

+ higher efficiency = less fuel consumption -
+ lower speed = smaller gearbox -
- weight to power ratio +

- Hardness running due to higher pressures +

- The technological complexity +
- Price +
 Diesel engines
Comparison parameters of diesel and petrol aircraft engine:
Centurion 2.0 Lycoming O-320-A

displacement 1991ccm 5200 ccm

power 99 kW at 2300 RPM 112 kW at 2700 RPM

weight 134 kg 110,7 kg

bore 83 mm 130 mm

stroke 92 mm 98 mm

consumption 15 –20 l hrs-1. JET A1 20 – 30 l hrs -1 LB 100

specific consumption 220 g / kWh 200 g / kWh (Other specific density of fuel.)

Weight to Power ratio 1,35 g / W 1,011 g / W

 Piston engines - Another concepts
The Wankel engine:

Using an eccentric rotary design to convert pressure into

rotating motion.
 Piston engines - Another concepts
Advantages of the Wankel engine are :
• A far higher power to weight ratio than a piston engine
• It is approximately one third of the weight of a piston engine
of equivalent power output
• It is approximately one third of the size of a piston engine of
equivalent power output
• No reciprocating parts
• Able to reach higher revolutions per minute than a piston
engine
• Operates with almost no vibration
• Not prone to engine-knock
• Cheaper to mass-produce as the engine contains fewer parts
• Superior breathing, filling the combustion charge in 270
degrees of mainshaft rotation rather than 180 degrees in a
piston engine
Continue
 Piston engines - Another concepts
Advantages of the Wankel engine are :
• Supplies torques for about two thirds of the combustion
cycle rather than one quarter for a piston engine
• Wider speed range gives greater adaptability
• It can use fuels of wider octane ratings
• Does not suffer from "scale effect" to limit its size
• On some Wankel engines the sump oil remains
uncontaminated by the combustion process requiring no oil
changes. The oil in the mainshaft is totally sealed from the
combustion process. The oil for Apex seals and crankcase
lubrication is separate. In piston engines the crankcase oil is
contaminated by combustion blow-by through the piston
rings.
 Piston engines - Another concepts
Disadvantages:
Many of the disadvantages are in ongoing research with some advances
greatly reducing negative aspects of the engine. the current
disadvantages of the Wankel engine in production are:
• Rotor sealing. This is still a problem as the engine housing has vastly
different temperatures in each separate chamber section.
• Apex seal lifting. Centrifugal force pushes the apex seal onto the
housing surface forming a firm seal. Gaps can develop between the apex
seal and troichoid housing in light-load operation when imbalances in
centrifugal force and gas pressure occur.
• Slow combustion. The combustion is slow as the combustion chamber is
long, thin, and moving.
• Bad fuel economy. This is due to seals leakages, and the "difficult"
shape of the combustion chamber, with poor combustion behavior and
mean effective pressure at part load, low rpm.
• Poor emissions. As unburnt fuel is in the exhaust stream, emissions
requirements are difficult to meet.
 Piston engines - Another concepts

Mazda has had substantial success with two-rotor, three-rotor, and

four-rotor cars.
 Piston engines - Another concepts
• Wankel engine should be ideal for light aircraft, as it is light,
compact, almost vibrationless and has a high power-to-
weight ratio. Further aviation benefits of a Wankel engine
include:
1. Rotors cannot seize, since rotor casings expand more than rotors;
2. A Wankel engine is less prone to the serious condition known as
"engine-knock", which can destroy the plane's engines in mid-
flight.
3. A Wankel is not susceptible to "shock-cooling" during descent;
4. A Wankel does not require an enriched mixture for cooling at high
power;
5. Having no reciprocating parts, there is less vulnerability to damage
when the engines revolves higher than the designed maximum
running operation. The limit to the revolutions is the strength of the
w bearings.
main
Piston engines - Another concepts

Austro-engines AE5
Power arpox 40Hp
 Piston engines - Another concepts
Rotationskolbenmaschine (RKM))
Despite their apparent geometrical
The machine's inventor is Boris similarity, the RKM and the Wankel
I. Schapiro, along with co- engine are quite different in design
inventors Lev B. Levitin and The Wankel engine working
Naum Kruk. chamber is mobile while the RKM
chamber is stationary. The axis of
rotation in the Wankel engine
moves in a circle while that of the
RKM is fixed (in the single power
shaft version, temporarily with two
possible positions). In the RKM
motor, the ignition takes place in a
compact recess, while the Wankel's
is in the work chamber itself. The
RKM's sealing elements are in
surface contact with the work
chamber and pistons, as opposed
to the Wankel's line contact.

Although developed in the 1960s, today there are no runnable RKM engine demonstrated
 Piston engines - Another concepts
A nutating disc engine :
 Piston engines - Another concepts
A nutating disc engine :

A nutating disc engine (also sometimes called a disc engine) is

an internal combustion engine comprising fundamentally of one
moving part and a direct drive onto the crankshaft.

The disc wobbles inside a housing and, in its simplest version,

half of the single disc (one lobe) performs the
intake/compression function while the other lobe performs the
power/exhaust function. The disc lobes can be configured to
have equal compression and expansion volumes, or to have the
compression volume greater than or less than the expansion
volume. This means that the engine can be self supercharged
(see supercharger), or operate as a Miller cycle / Atkinson cycle.
Back to basics of piston engines
 Combustion process
• Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short
but finite length of time with the piston near TDC (i.e.,
nearly constant volume combustion).
– It starts near the end of the compression stroke slightly
before TDC and lasts into the power stroke slightly after
TDC.
– Combustion changes the composition of the gas mixture
to that of exhaust products and increases the temperature
in the cylinder to a high value.
– This in turn increases the pressure in the cylinder to a
high value.
Normal combustion is a complex chemical process, it is not
explosion
 Combustion process
• Normal combustion is the burning of a
fuel and air mixture charge in the
combustion chamber. It should burn in
a steady, even fashion across the
chamber, originating at the spark plug
and progressing across the chamber in
a three dimensional fashion. The flame
front should progress in an orderly
fashion. The burn moves all the way
across the chamber and , quenches
(cools) against the walls and the piston
crown. The burn should be complete
with no remaining fuel-air mixture. Note
that the mixture does not "explode" but
burns in an orderly fashion.
 Combustion process
• There is another factor that engineers look for to
quantify combustion. It is called "location of peak
pressure (LPP)." It is measured by an in-cylinder
pressure transducer. Ideally, the LPP should occur at
14 degrees after top dead center.
Depending on the chamber design V
and the burn rate, if one would
C TC
B

initiate the spark at its optimum L

timing (20 degrees BTDC, for B

example) the burn would progress C

through the chamber and reach LPP, s

l

or peak pressure at 14 degrees after

top dead center. q
a
 Combustion process

Petrol

Diesel
 Combustion process
Effect of compression ratio on ignition timing

50°

40°

30°

20°

10°

0°
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Compression ratio
 Effect of ignition timing on engine performance
Setting the correct ignition timing is
crucial in the performance of an engine.
optimum Sparks occurring too soon or too late in
the engine cycle are often responsible for
excessive vibrations and even engine
damage. The ignition timing affects many
variables including engine longevity, fuel
economy, and engine power.
Modern engines that are controlled in real
time by an engine control unit use a
Effective power Pe

computer to control the timing

throughout the engine's RPM and load
range.

Optimum angle of ignition φ

 Fuel mixture and combustion process
Fuel mixture
• Air–fuel ratio (AFR) is the mass ratio of air to fuel present
in a combustion process such as in an internal combustion
engine or industrial furnace. The AFR is an important
measure for anti-pollution and performance-tuning reasons.
• If exactly enough air is provided to completely burn all of
the fuel, the ratio is known as the stoichiometric mixture,
often abbreviated to stoich.
• For pure octane the stoichiometric mixture is approximately
14.7:1, or λ = 1.00 exactly.
• AFR numbers lower than stoichiometric are considered
"rich" λ < 1. Rich mixtures are less efficient, but may
produce more power and burn cooler, which is kinder on the
engine. AFR numbers higher than stoichiometric are
considered "lean " λ > 1 .
 Fuel mixture and combustion process
Effect of speed of burning on the coefficient of excess air

rich lean
Speed of burning

Supplied air
L*

quantity

Lt Theoretical
amount of air

0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2

Air–fuel ratio λ
A stoichiometric mixture burns
very hot and can damage
engine components if the
engine is placed under high
load at this fuel–air mixture.
Due to the high temperatures at
this mixture, detonation of the
fuel–air mix shortly after
maximum cylinder pressure is
possible under high load
(referred to as knocking or
pinging). Detonation can cause
serious engine damage. As a
consequence, stoichiometric
mixtures are only used under
light load conditions.
For aircraft piston engines it is possible mixture
control
 Abnormal combustion
Abnormal combustion like Knocking (also knock,
detonation, spark knock, pinging or pinking) in spark-
ignition internal combustion engines occurs when
combustion of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder does not
start off correctly in response to ignition by the spark plug,
but one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture explode outside
the envelope of the normal combustion front.

External manifestations:
• Engine vibration and knocking
• Loss of power
• The temperature rise in the combustion space
• Black smoke in exhaust
 Detonation combustion

Causes:
Under certain conditionsa subsonic flame may accelerate to supersonic speed,
transitioning from deflagration to detonation. The exact mechanism is not fully
understood,¨and while existing theories are able to explain and model both
deflagrations and detonations.
A deflagration is characterized by a subsonic flame propagation velocity,
typically far below 100 m/s, and relatively modest overpressures, say below 0.5
bar.
 Detonation combustion

Causes:
The main mechanism of combustion propagation is of a flame front that moves
forward through the gas mixture - in technical terms the reaction zone (chemical
combustion) progresses through the medium by processes of diffusion of heat
and mass. In its most benign form, a deflagration may simply be a flash fire.

In contrast, a detonation is characterized by supersonic flame propagation

velocities, perhaps up to 2000 m/s, and substantial overpressures, up to 20 bars.

The main mechanism of combustion propagation is of a powerful pressure wave

that compresses the unburnt gas ahead of the wave to a temperature above the
autoignition temperature. In technical terms, the
reaction zone (chemical combustion) is a
self-driven shock wave where the reaction zone and the
shock are coincident, and the chemical reaction
is initiated by the compressive heating caused
by the shock wave.
 Detonation combustion

Causes:

• Excessive heating of the mixture before ignition.

• The chemical composition of fuel
• Other influencing factors:
– imperfect engine cooling ,
– imperfect fuel mixture (vulnerable is slightly rich λ =0,9
–0,95 mixture),
– ignition timing, the shape of the combustion chamber ,
– higher compression
 Detonation combustion
Detonation combustion – pressure in cylinder
Pre-ingnition

pressure

pressure
TDC Volume BDC

TDC
Detonation combustion
Detonation combustion
 Detonation combustion

Detonation can be prevented by any or all of the

following techniques:
• the use of a fuel with high octane rating, which increases the
combustion temperature of the fuel and reduces the
proclivity to detonate.
• enriching the air–fuel ratio which alters the chemical
reactions during combustion, reduces the combustion
temperature and increases the margin above detonation
• reducing peak cylinder pressure
• decreasing the manifold pressure by reducing the throttle
opening or boost pressure
• reducing the load on the engine
• retarding (reduce) ignition timing
Aviation fuel for piston engine
 Fuel for piston engines
• The most frequently used fuels in aviation are liquid hydrocarbonaceous
fuels that are obtained by fractional distillation of petroleum. The
distillation range separates groups of hydrocarbons into 2 groups of
motor fuels:
– (35 - 200)C - easily vaporisable (gasoline), faction C4 - C10
– (150-360)C - hard vaporisable (diesel), faction C9 - C22
• Desired composition of hydrocarbons in both groups are regulated by
other appropriate technologies (cracking, reforning, hydrogenation,
etc.).
• All fuel must meet the essential requirements, including, in particular :
– high heating value,
– the ability to create quality mixture under the conditions in cylinder
(combustion chamber)
– ability reliable ignition (combustion) of the mixture and an almost complete
burnout
– high purity as a prerequisite for smooth supply of fuel to the engine
– stability properties during storage and transport, still sufficiently for safe
handling
– minimum sulfur content (free and bound).
 Properties of fuels
Composed of hydrocarbon fuel
• Gasoline is composed of a mixture of many
hydrocarbon. Figure represents the
typical gasoline mixture for SI engines.
• The mixture is composed of low and
high molecular weight com-pounds.
• The low molecular weight
compounds aid in the cold starting
of the engine while the high molekular
weight compounds increase the
efficiency by not vaporizing untillate
in to the compression stroke.

• The low molecular weight compound is defined as

front-end volatility while high-end volatility
corresponds to high molecular weight compounds.
 Properties of fuels
Octane rating or octane number
• It is determined by tests on a special one-cylinder engine with variable
compression.
• Generally Represents the percentage of isooctane in a mixture of iso-
octane and n-heptane which has the same cardinality of detonations as
the tested fuel.
• Octane ratings are not indicators of the energy content of fuels. They are
only a measure of the fuel's tendency to burn in a controlled manner,
rather than exploding in an uncontrolled manner. Where the octane
number is raised by blending in ethanol, energy content per volume is
reduced.
• There are many methods for determining the octane number as Research
Octane Number (RON), Motor Octane Number (MON), or Anti-Knock
Index (AKI) or (R+M)/2
 Properties of fuels
Octane rating or octane number
• Gasoline used in piston aircraft common in general aviation have
slightly different methods of measuring the octane of the fuel. Similar to
AKI, it has two different ratings, although it is referred to only by the
lower of the two. One is referred to as the "aviation lean" rating and is
the same as the MON of the fuel up to 100. The second is the "aviation
rich" rating and corresponds to the octane rating of a test engine under
forced induction operation common in high-performance and military
piston aircraft.
• For example, 100/130 AVGAS has an octane rating of 100 at the lean
settings usually used for cruising and 130 at the rich settings used for
take-off and other full-power conditions.
 Properties of fuels
Gasoline additives increase gasoline's octane rating or act as
corrosion inhibitors or lubricants, thus allowing the use of
higher compression ratios for greater efficiency and power.
Types of additives include:
– metal deactivators,
– corrosion inhibitors,
– oxygenates and
– antioxidants.
 Properties of fuels
Gasoline additives for octane numbers increasing.
Tetraethyllead (commonly styled tetraethyl lead) TEL was mixed with
gasoline (petrol) beginning in the 1920s as a patented octane booster
that allowed engine compression to be raised substantially. Aviation
gasoline with TEL used in WWII reached 150 octane to enable
supercharged engines such as the Rolls-Royce Merlin and Griffon to
reach high horse power ratings at altitude.
In most industrialized countries, a phaseout of TEL from road vehicle fuels
was completed by the early 2000s because of concerns over air and soil
lead levels and the accumulative neurotoxicity of lead.
Avgas is currently available in several grades with differing
maximum lead concentrations. Because TEL is an expensive
and polluting ingredient, the minimum amount needed to
bring the fuel to the required octane rating is used;
 Aviation Fuel
:
 Aviation Fuel
AVGAS properties :
 Aviation Fuel
Jet fuel properties :
 Aviation Fuel
Aviation fuel marking:
Piston engine construction
 Design of piston engines
Different ways cylinders arrangement :

The most widely used concept:

a) Inline or Straight
upright or inverted
b) V Engines
c) Horizontally Opposed
d) Radial
 Design of piston engines

Different ways cylinders arrangement :

a) Inline or Straight upright or inverted
Mikron
 Design of piston engines
Different ways cylinders arrangement :
b) V Engines with two banks of cylinders with less than 180° between
them driving a common crankshaft, typically arranged upright or
inverted.

Argus As 10C
 Design of piston engines

Different ways cylinders arrangement :

b) Another .

Argus As 10C
 Design of piston engines
Different ways cylinders arrangement :
c) Horizontally Opposed (boxer)
Lycoming

Engines with two banks of cylinders arranged at 180° to

each other driving a common crankshaft,
 Design of piston engines
Different ways cylinders arrangement :
d) Radial
Wasp
 Design of piston engines
Different ways cylinders arrangement :
e)V Merlin
 Design of piston engines
Different ways cylinders arrangement :
e)H Napier Sabre 2000Hp
 Design of piston engines
Main parts of piston engines :
 Design of piston engines

Main parts of piston engines :

Crankcase
The crank mechanism
Cylinders and cylinder heads
Valves and cam shaft
Fuel system
Ignition system
Lubrication system
Cooling systems
Auxiliary devices (carburetor, starter, generator, etc.)
 Design of piston engines
Crankcase :

• Represents a solid foundation for mounting engine

components

• Transmits thrust from the propeller and other forces from

the crank mechanism on the engine mount

• The structure is usually divided for easy mounting of the

crankshaft and other components .

• The main requirements for the crankcase are low weight and
high rigidity
 Design of piston engines
Crankcase :
 Design of piston engines
Crankcase :
 Design of piston engines
Crankcase :

Lycoming O-200A
 Design of piston engines
The crank mechanism

• Converts the linear motion of the piston into the rotary

motion

• It is structurally simple but it is not advantageous for the

difficulties in balancing the effects of moving masses

• The crankshaft is a highly stressed part. A torsional

oscillations represent great danger. Crankshafts are
manufactured from one piece of material for minimizing the
risk of fracture. Steel mostly with the strength of over 1000
MPa (16.440 15.230). Semifinished product is forged, pins
shafts are surface-hardened.
 Design of piston engines
Crank mechanism geometry
L=2r
ω
l
r
v
β α

s l.cosβ r.cosα
r+l
 Design of piston engines
L=2r

ω
l
r
r
k 
β
v
α Crank ratio (0,25 až 0,35)
l

s l.cosβ r.cosα
r+l

s  r 1  cos    k .r. sin 2 

1
s  r  l  r. cos   l. cos   2
 1  1 
s  r 1    cos   cos  

 k  k  v  l. sin   r. sin 
 1  1  sin   k . sin 
s  1    cos   1  k . sin  
2 2

 k  k  sin   cos   1
2 2

1 2
1  k . sin 2   1  k . sin 2  Editing by binomial series
2

2 expressing (first 2 members )

 Design of piston engines
Crank mechanism dynamic

• Piston trajectory
 1r 2 
s  r 1  cos   sin  
 2l 
• Piston speed
Mean piston speed
ds dr  1r 
c .  c  r  sin   sin 2 
d dt  2l  cs  2.L.n L  2.r
• Piston acceleration

dc ds  
a   r
a  r  cos   cos 2 
dt d
2

 l 
 Design of piston engines
Forces in the crank mechanism

• Inertial forces of acceleration moving along a straight line

 R 
F  m p R  cos   cos 2 
2

 L 
• Inertial forces of the rotating masses with crank

F   mr R 2

• The forces from the gas pressure on piston

 .D 2
F  p  p0 
4
 Design of piston engines
Forces: