Chapter Report Group 6
Chapter Report Group 6
CHAPTER REPORT
Lecturer:
Prof. Hj. Nina Nurmila, M. A., Ph. D
Eva Meidi Kulsum, M. Pd.
Group 6
Teaching or handwriting and writing skills tradisionally occupies a great deal of the
time of primary, pre premary and grade school teachers. The methods vary but usually
involve the teachers presentation of the desired form of a symbol, letter, and the like, the
students attempt at faithfully copying or reproducing the symbol, the teachers correction of
that attempt, the students observation of his errors and their correction, and a repetion of the
process untill the student is able to reproduce the symbol correcty from memory.
“correctly”, of course, means that the students representation is sufficiently precise as to be
meaningful to another person who has knowledge of the correct form of the symbol which is
to be communicated (Burrhus F. Skinner 1969).
1. Skills Writing
To master writing skills, students must have a number of microskill that are very
important for an effective writer, namely:
a. Produces English handwriting or orthographic patterns
b. Produce writing with an efficient level of speed in accordance with the goal.
c. Produces a series of words that can be understood and uses the right word sequence
pattern.
d. Using grammatical systems that can be accepted (eg tense, agreement, pluralization,
pattern, and rule).
e. Express special meanings in various grammatical forms.
f. Use cohesive signs in written discourse.
g. Use forms and rhetorical rules for written discourse.
h. Achieve communicative functions of written text precisely in accordance with the
form and purpose.
i. Linking events and communicating these relationships as the main ideas, ideas
j. Support , new information, existing information, generalizations, and examples.
k. Distinguish between explicit and implicit meanings when writing.
l. Convey specific references in the context of correctly written texts.
m. Develop and use a series of writing strategies, such as appraising readers'
interpretations appropriately, using pre-writing procedures, writing fluently on the
first draft, using paraphrasing and synonyms, asking for feedback from lecturers and
friends, and using feedback for revision and editing
2. How To Teaching Writing
Considerations for Selecting Learning Methods. The principles of using learning
methods are things that must be considered in using learning methods. The teacher must
be willing to choose a method that fits the situation. Therefore, teachers need to
understand the general principles of using the learning methods as follows:
Goal oriented
Purpose is the main component in the learning system. This is very important,
because teaching is an objective process. By the freedom of the results of learning
methods can determine the success of students achieving learning goals.
Activities
Basically, learning is doing, use the experience in accordance with the expected
goals. Therefore, the learning process must be able to encourage student activities.
Individuality
Teaching is an effort to develop each individual student. Even though we teach
to a group of students, but in the essence we want to achieve, each student.
Integrity
Teaching must be seen as an effort to develop the entire personal student.
Teaching is not only developing cognitive abilities, but also developing affective and
psychomotor aspects. Therefore learning methods must be able to develop all aspects
of student personality in an integrated manner.
3. Category Of Writing
In the process of learning to write, there are several categories of writing activities
that can be used as tasks when doing activities in the classroom proposed by Brown.
a. Copy (imitative writing)
At the beginning of writing, students will only "copy" the letters, words, and
possibly sentences when learning the rules of orthographic code. Some forms of
dictation fall into this category, although dictation can also be taught in the higher
writing process. Dictation usually involves the following steps:
1) The lecturer reads a short paragraph one or two times at normal speed.
2) Lecturers read paragraphs phrase by phrase with each of three or four words,
and each phrase followed by a pause.
3) During the break, students write down what they hear.
4) The lecturer then reads the entire paragraph once again at normal speed so
students can check their writing.
5) Subjecting the writing of students can use a number of criteria to give points.
Usually spelling and punctuation errors are not classified as grammatical errors.
b. Intensive or controlled (Intensive / Controlled Writing)
Writing is sometimes used as a way to learn, strengthen, or test grammatical
concepts. Intensive writing can be done through written and controlled grammar
exercises. This type of writing does not require a lot of creativity from the author. A
general form of writing controlled is giving paragraphs to students where they must
change the entire structure of the sentence in the paragraph; for example changing
from the present tense becomes past tense. Guided writing relaxes lecturer control
but still provides a series of stimuli. For example, the lecturer can ask students to
write a story with a series of questions from the lecturer: Where does the story take
place? Describe the principal character. What does he say to the woman in the car?
One other form of guided writing is dicto-comp. The paragraph is read at
normal speed, usually two or three times; then the lecturer asks students to rewrite
the paragraph. Sometimes the lecturer writes a number of keywords in order to help
students.
c. Self-Writing
The most proportion of writing assignments in class is possible on self-writing,
or writing only with yourself as an audience. The most obvious example of this
form is recording lecture material delivered by the lecturer. Diary (diary) or journal
writing is also included in this category. In the journal, students record thoughts,
feelings, and reactions, and the lecturer responds to comments about their writing.
d. Scientific Writing (Writing Display)
For all students who study English, question and answer exercises , essay
exams, and research reports will involve display elements. In relation to the
academic field, one of the academic skills they must master is a series of display
writing techniques.
e. Authentic writing (Real Writing)
This type of writing aims to really communicate the desired message to the
reader. There are three categories:
1) Academic. Groups of students in the class generally exchange information in
written form. Group assignments, especially those related to current issues and
topics, may have a writing component in which information is really sought and
delivered.Another activity is peer-editing.
2) Vocational / technical. Writing should also be done by people who learn English
because of the demands of work. These writings are usually in the form of letters
, blank filling, or making procedures for operating a device.
3) Personal. This type of writing includes diaries ( letters ), letters , postcards,
notes, personal messages, and other informal writings.
4. Principles Of Writing Engineering Design
There is no activity that can be implemented well if it is not planned and designed
well. Likewise learning activities. Maximum results will be achieved if the learning
activities to be carried out are well designed. For this reason, it is necessary for a teacher
or lecturer to refer to certain principles when designing classroom learning activities. In
writing class, there are a number of principles put forward by Brown that can be used as
a basis for designing writing techniques, including :
a. Apply activities carried out by "good" authors
When using a writing technique, consider several things that effective
writers do, for example:
Focus on the main goals or ideas in writing
Smartly trying to measure their audience
Take advantage of time (but not too long) for writing planning
Let their first ideas flow on paper
Follow the general plan of organizing when writing
Search for and use feedback on their writing
Not bound to certain surface structures
Revise the results of their writing seriously and efficiently
Make revisions as needed
b. Balance of processes and products
Because writing is a process of composing and usually requires several
drafts before an effective writing product is produced, ensure that students carefully
go through the right stages of the compilation process. This stage involves paying
attention to your role as a guide and as a respondent. At the same time, don't be too
fixated on the steps towards the end result that cause you to ignore the final
achievement: a clear, critical, well-organized and effective writing. Make sure
students know that whatever process is going towards the end result is a valuable
effort.
c. Consider cultural / literary background
Make sure that the techniques used do not assume that students know the
rhetorical rules of English. If there are, a number of real contradictions between the
traditions of the student's origin and what you are about to teach, try to help
students understand the conflict and slowly bring them to acceptable rhetorical use
of English.
d. Connect between reading and writing activities
Clear that the students learn to write in part by observing what is written.
So, they learn by observing or carrying written words. By reading and studying the
various types of relevant text, students can gain insight into critical knowledge
about how they have to write and about subjects that might be a topic of their
writing.
e. Provide as much authentic writing as possible
Whether writing is real writing or for display, the writing remains authentic
if the purpose is clear to students, the audience is clear, and there is an intention to
convey meaning. Working on the task of writing together with other students in the
class is one way to add authenticity. Make class reports, write letters for people
outside the classroom, write scripts for drama presentations, write resumes, write
advertisements - all of which can be considered authentic writing.
f. Arrange your writing techniques in the pre-writing, drafting, and revising stages
The approach to writing processes tends to be done in three stages of
writing. The pre-writing stage encourages the emergence of ideas in various ways :
1) Read a discourse
2) Skimming (speed reading) and / or scanning (reading details)
3) Do research
4) Brainstorming
5) Make a list individually
6) Grouping (starting with keywords, then adding other words using free
relationships)
7) Discuss a topic or question
8) Questions and tests from lecturers
9) Free writing
The drafting and revising stage is the core of the writing process. In the
traditional approach to writing learning, students are given the task of composing in
class to write from beginning to completion during lectures or given homework.
These activities / methods do not provide opportunities for students to focus on the
drafting stage. In the process approach, drafting is seen as a series of important and
complex strategies, mastering it requires time, patience, and trained lecturers. Some
strategies and skills that can be applied to the drafting / revising process in writing:
It is usual to start by teaching everyday words which are already familiar to the
children. The teacher shows the children the word and says it while pointing to the
object. The children repeat the word. This happens several times with each word. The
introduction of the words easily takes a short time, and goes quite quickly, so the
teacher may spend five minutes of a thirty minute lesson on four new words. There are a
lot of word recognition games which can be done this stage - matching words and
pictures, pointing to the object on the card, guessing which card Tedy has picked out of
the hat - so this approach encourages recognition of a range of words and phrases before
reading the text.
3. Whole sentence reading
Here the teacher teaches recognition of whole phrases and sentences which have
meaning in themselves. This often means the story which the children read for the first
time themselves after the whole text is familiar to them. The words are not presented in
isolation, but as whole phrases and sentences. Since we think that reading for meaning
should be encourage as soon as possible, we will look at this approach in more detail
below.
4. Language experience approach
This approach to reading is based on the child's spoken language. The teacher
writes down the sentence for the child to read the which is based what on the child has
said. For example :
This is me.
My sister is nine. She is in class 3F.
This is a postcard from my uncle in Milan.
Again, since we think that this is a good, pupil - centered approach to reading, we will
go into it in more detail below.
Which method to choose?
Clearly, if there was one correct method for teaching all children to read, there only one
would exist. We favour an approach which concentrates on meaning from the
beginning. However, if your pupils have a mother tongue which is not based on the
Roman script, you will probably find that you will have to spend quite some teaching
phonics and word recognition first.
No matter which approach to reading you take as your basic approach, you should
remember that all these approaches are a way in to reading and are not an end in
themselves. You will probably want to make use of all the methods described at some
stage in the process in leaning to read.
Five to seven year olds
Five to seven years olds are likely to take longer to learn to read in a foreign
language then eight to ten year olds. Some children starting school are not
familiar with books or what they used for. They have to go through the process
of doing reading-like activities first - 'reading' from left to right, turning the
pages at the right place, going back and reading the same pages again, etc.
Picture books with and without text are invaluable at this stages.
If your pupils have not learnt to read in their own language, many will not yet
have understood what a word is, nor what the connection is between the spoken
and the written word.
Sentence structure, paragraphing, grammar - none of this means anything to
most pupils at this stage.
Decoding reading - making sense of what we see on the page - is a very involved
process, and adults make use of all sorts of clues on the written page -
punctuation, paragraphing, use of special words, reference to things which
happened, hints as to what can happen. What five to seven year olds have
instead is often a visual clue and this clue vital to meaning.
Eight-to ten-year-old beginners
The majority of eight to ten year olds will already be able to read a bit in their own
language and most seem to have little difficulty in transferring their reading skills to
English. This means that you can spend much less time teaching the mechanics of
reading, and concentrate more on the content. Children whose mother tongue is not
based on the Roman alphabet will still have to spend more time on the mechanics of
reading, but they know what reading is about, and this speeds up the process.
Starting off
Let us take as our example a class of six year olds who have English for three short
lessons a week. Let's look at four possible starting points.
1 Reading a story from a book
Look back what we said in Chapter 3 about reading stories. Some of the stories which
you read aloud will become the stories that your pupils read. Let's take Belinda's Story
as your example. The whole text of the story is as follows :
That's a bird. It's green.
That's a butterfly. It's red.
That's a fish. It's blue.
That's a crab. It's yellow.
That's a cat. It's white.
I'm an elephant and I'm grey.
That's an elephant. It's super.
I'm an elephant and I'm super.
2 Reading a class story
Instead of reading from a book, you might want to use class story as your starting point
for reading. This has advantage that you can photocopy freely, making sure that
everyone has a copy, and the pupils can colour they own copies. There's also the point
that shared stories are always a good starting point simply because they are shared.
In class where Teddy is used, build up a short story about Teddy using the story-tellinh
techniques already described in Chapter 3. If you have already read the story about
Belinda, you and the pupils could make up the story about Teddy who doesn't like being
brown/white/beige or whatever colour he is. This allows you to keep the same structure,
but bring in more colours and animals :
That's a bird. It's orange. That's a fly. It's green. That's a frog. It's green too. That's a
zebra. It's black and white. I'm Teddy and I'm beige. He's Teddy and we love him. He's
great. I'm Teddy and I'm great.
3 Reading texts based on child's language
This approach has proved effective with beginners in both age groups. The idea is that
each individual pupil has his or her to written text which says waht he or she wants it to
say, and it used for both mother tongue and foreign language learning. When working in
the foreign language, it is important that be teacher does not set the pupil a task which
he or she does not have teh words for the in that language. For example, there's no point
in pupils bringing in a picture of the place where they live, if they have no words to talk
about it.
This type of reading is often based on a picture, but can be about something which has
happened, or just about how the pupil is feeling today. It is easier to start off with a
picture.
a) Ask the child to tell you about the picture.
b) If he or she gets stuck, ask either/or questions. 'Is she tall or small?'
c) If this still doesn't work, let the child tell you what he or she wants to say in his or
her own language. If this translate into something familiar, talk about it, make sure the
child understands. Do not write words which are new or unfamiliar.
d) Write a sentence in the child's book based on what the child has told you. It can
be very simple. 'This is me at home.'
e) Let the child see you writing the sentence, and say the words as you write them.
f) The child repeat the sentence after you, pointing to be words as he or she says
them.
g) This is nkw that pupils reading task, which he or she can read aloud to you.
h) It shouldn't take more than a couple of minutes to do this - you have a lot of
pupils in your class.
i) This sentence can gradually be built on. 'This is me at home. It's my bedroom. It's
blue. It's nice. I have fish in my bedroom.'
j) As the child's vocabulary increases, you can gradually build up stories.
The same techniques can be used for making up group/class reading books. This
technique of writing down what your pupils say or the stories they tell you helps the five
to seven year olds to see that print is a means of communication, and that there is a
relationship between the amount of talking that is done and the amount of writing on the
page. For both age group, it is important that the pupils see themselves as writes with
something to say.
4 Reading familiar nursery rhymes or songs
Most children learn nursery rhymes in their mother tongue an in English without having
complete understanding of what they're saying. Some nursery rhymes are produced as
books, so the children can 'read' what they already know off by heart. While you might
say that this isn't real reading, the pupil cam behave like a reader, and it helps to build
up confidence. as we said before, there is also very narrow dividing line between
knowing something off by heart and actually reading the words.
Reading aloud
Let us know move on to look various reading techniques. When we went to school,
most of the reading done in class was reading aloud. Reading aloud is not the same
reading silently. It is separate skill and not one which most people have that much use
for outside the classroom. But it can be useful, especially with beginners in a language.
Traditionally, reading aloud is often thought of as reading round the class one by one,
and although many children seem to enjoy it, this type of reading aloud is not to be
recommended :
• It gives little pleasure and is of interest to the listeners.
• It encourages stumbling and mistakes in tone, emphasis and expression.
• It maybe harmful to the silent reading techniques to the other pupils.
• It is a very inefficient way to use your lesson time.
Silent reading
Reading aloud can be a useful skill to have in the classroom, and one which teachers make good
use of, but silent reading is what remains with most people for the rest of their lives. Nobody can
guarantee that all your pupils will love books, but a positive attitude to books and reading from
the beginning will help. Use the textbook to concentrate on conscious language development, but
let your pupils read books for understanding and for pleasure.
Building up confidence
Some children are natural readers and will want to read books as soon as they can, but you
should spend some time building up confidence with the whole class about silent reading.
Give pupils only half the story, and discuss what happens next in the mother tongue. then let
them read the rest of the story to see if they were right. From the beginning encourage this
type of anticipating. Good stories put the reader in the mood of wanting to know what
happens next.
For the eight to ten year olds who are beyond the beginner level, If the book is written in
dialogue form, then they may want to act some of it out for the rest of the class. If the book
is a story, then the pupils will have to work out their own roles and what they say.
Tahap penyusunan dan revisi adalah inti dari proses penulisan. Dalam
pendekatan tradisional untuk belajar menulis, siswa diberi tugas menulis di kelas
untuk menulis dari awal sampai selesai selama kuliah atau diberikan pekerjaan
rumah. Kegiatan / metode ini tidak memberikan kesempatan bagi siswa untuk fokus
pada tahap penyusunan. Dalam pendekatan proses, penyusunan dipandang sebagai
serangkaian strategi penting dan kompleks, untuk menguasainya diperlukan waktu,
kesabaran, dan dosen terlatih. Beberapa strategi dan keterampilan yang dapat
diterapkan pada proses penyusunan / revisi secara tertulis:
Biasanya dimulai dengan mengajarkan kata-kata sehari-hari yang sudah akrab bagi anak-
anak. Guru menunjukkan kepada anak-anak kata dan mengatakannya sambil menunjuk ke
objek. Anak-anak mengulangi kata itu. Ini terjadi beberapa kali dengan setiap kata.
Pengenalan kata-kata dengan mudah membutuhkan waktu singkat, dan berjalan cukup cepat,
sehingga guru dapat menghabiskan lima menit dari tiga puluh menit pelajaran pada empat
kata baru. Ada banyak permainan pengenalan kata yang dapat dilakukan pada tahap ini -
mencocokkan kata dan gambar, menunjuk ke objek pada kartu, menebak kartu yang dipilih
Tedy dari topi - sehingga pendekatan ini mendorong pengakuan berbagai kata dan frase
sebelum membaca teks.
3. Pembacaan kalimat utuh
Di sini guru mengajarkan pengenalan seluruh frasa dan kalimat yang memiliki makna dalam
diri mereka sendiri. Ini sering kali berarti kisah yang dibaca anak-anak untuk pertama
kalinya setelah seluruh teks menjadi akrab bagi mereka. Kata-katanya tidak disajikan secara
terpisah, tetapi sebagai keseluruhan frasa dan kalimat. Karena kami berpikir bahwa
membaca makna harus didorong sesegera mungkin, kami akan melihat pendekatan ini secara
lebih rinci di bawah ini.
4. Pendekatan pengalaman bahasa
Pendekatan membaca ini didasarkan pada bahasa lisan anak. Guru menuliskan kalimat agar
anak membaca yang didasarkan pada apa yang dikatakan anak itu. Sebagai contoh :
Ini saya.
Adik perempuan saya sembilan. Dia berada di kelas 3F.
Ini adalah kartu pos dari pamanku di Milan.
Sekali lagi, karena kami berpikir bahwa ini adalah pendekatan membaca yang berpusat pada
siswa, kami akan membahasnya secara lebih rinci di bawah ini.
Metode mana yang harus dipilih?
Jelas, jika ada satu metode yang benar untuk mengajar semua anak membaca, hanya ada satu
yang akan ada. Kami menyukai pendekatan yang berkonsentrasi pada makna sejak awal.
Namun, jika murid Anda memiliki bahasa ibu yang tidak didasarkan pada aksara Romawi,
Anda mungkin akan menemukan bahwa Anda harus menghabiskan cukup banyak
pengajaran fonetik dan pengenalan kata terlebih dahulu.
Apa pun pendekatan membaca yang Anda ambil sebagai pendekatan dasar, Anda harus ingat
bahwa semua pendekatan ini adalah cara membaca dan bukan tujuan akhir. Anda mungkin
ingin memanfaatkan semua metode yang dijelaskan pada tahap tertentu dalam proses belajar
membaca.
Usia lima hingga tujuh tahun
Usia lima hingga tujuh tahun kemungkinan akan membutuhkan waktu lebih lama untuk
belajar membaca dalam bahasa asing yang berusia delapan hingga sepuluh tahun.
Beberapa anak yang mulai sekolah tidak terbiasa dengan buku atau apa yang mereka
gunakan. Mereka harus melalui proses melakukan kegiatan membaca seperti pertama -
'membaca' dari kiri ke kanan, membalik halaman di tempat yang tepat, kembali dan
membaca halaman yang sama lagi, dll. Buku bergambar dengan dan tanpa teks sangat
berharga pada tahap ini.
Jika murid-murid Anda belum belajar membaca dalam bahasa mereka sendiri, banyak
yang belum memahami apa kata itu, atau apa hubungan antara kata yang diucapkan dan
yang tertulis.
Struktur kalimat, paragraphing, tata bahasa - semua ini tidak ada artinya bagi sebagian
besar siswa pada tahap ini.
Membaca decoding - memahami apa yang kita lihat di halaman - adalah proses yang
sangat terlibat, dan orang dewasa memanfaatkan segala macam petunjuk pada halaman
tertulis - tanda baca, paragraf, penggunaan kata-kata khusus, referensi untuk hal-hal yang
terjadi, mengisyaratkan sebagai untuk apa yang bisa terjadi. Apa yang dimiliki oleh anak-
anak berusia lima hingga tujuh tahun seringkali merupakan petunjuk visual dan petunjuk
ini sangat penting bagi makna.
Pemula berusia delapan hingga sepuluh tahun
Mayoritas anak berusia delapan hingga sepuluh tahun sudah dapat membaca sedikit dalam
bahasa mereka sendiri dan sebagian besar tampaknya memiliki sedikit kesulitan dalam
mentransfer keterampilan membaca mereka ke bahasa Inggris. Ini berarti bahwa Anda dapat
menghabiskan lebih sedikit waktu mengajar mekanisme membaca, dan lebih berkonsentrasi
pada konten. Anak-anak yang bahasa ibunya bukan berdasarkan alfabet Romawi masih
harus menghabiskan lebih banyak waktu pada mekanisme membaca, tetapi mereka tahu apa
itu bacaan, dan ini mempercepat prosesnya.
Memulai dari
Mari kita ambil contoh, kelas enam tahun yang memiliki bahasa Inggris selama tiga
pelajaran singkat seminggu. Mari kita lihat empat poin awal yang mungkin.
1 Membaca sebuah cerita dari sebuah buku
Lihat kembali apa yang kita katakan di Bab 3 tentang membaca cerita. Beberapa cerita yang
Anda baca dengan lantang akan menjadi cerita yang dibaca siswa Anda. Mari kita ambil
Belinda's Story sebagai contoh Anda. Seluruh teks cerita adalah sebagai berikut:
Itu burung. Itu hijau.
Itu kupu-kupu. Warnanya merah.
Itu ikan. Warnanya biru.
Itu kepiting. Warnanya kuning.
Itu kucing. Warnanya putih.
Saya gajah dan saya abu-abu.
Itu gajah. Itu super.
Saya gajah dan saya super.
Ulasan buku
Selalu merupakan ide yang baik untuk mengetahui pendapat siswa tentang sebuah buku,
meskipun mereka berhenti setengah jalan.
a) membantu Anda memutuskan kesesuaian buku,
b) memberi Anda beberapa indikasi mengenai kemajuan yang dibuat murid,
c) membantu siswa lain untuk memutuskan tentang buku,
d) membantu siswa untuk mengembangkan pendekatan kritis untuk membaca materi dan
e) tunjukkan bahwa Anda prihatin dengan apa yang dibaca siswa Anda.
Ketika siswa menjadi lebih tua dan lebih kritis, Anda dapat mendorong mereka untuk
menulis ulasan buku 'nyata', tetapi Anda dapat memulai dengan sangat sederhana.
References:
Burrhus F. Skinner, dll. 1969. "Method and Devices For Teaching Writing Skills." United States
Patent Office.
Scott, Wendy A, and Lisbeth H. Ytreberg. n.d. Taeching English to Children. New York:
Longman.