PLAN FOR DATA ANALYSIS: QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE

Introduction
Analysis and interpretation of data is the most important phase of research process,
which involves the computation of the certain measures along with searching patterns of
relationship that exists among the data groups.
Data collection is followed by the analysis and interpretation of data were collected data
are analyzed and interpreted in accordance with study objectives. Analysis and interpretation of
data includes compilation, editing, coding, classification and presentation
Quantitative analysis involves the techniques by which researchers convert data to
numerical forms and subject them to statistical analyses.
DEFINITIONS
Analysis: It is the process of organizing and synthesizing the data so as to answer research
questions.
: It is also defined as the process of breaking a complex topic into smaller parts to gain
better understanding of it.
Scales of measurement
Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to variables.
For example: Males and females in a study.
Males would be assigned as 1 and females assigned as 2.
Every variable in research study that is assigned a specific number must be similar to every
other variable assigned that number.
Levels of measurement:
There are 4 levels of Measurement
1. Nominal
- Lowest level of measurement and allows for the least amount of statistical information.
- It involves the assignment of number to represent categories or classes of things.
Examples-
 Gender - Male
- Female
 Residence – Urban
-- Rural
2. ORDINAL
• Used to show relative rankings of variables or events.
• Ranks in order from high to low, but does not indicate how much higher or how much
lower.
• Intervals are not necessarily equal and there is no absolute zero.
• Limited in the amount of mathematical manipulation possible.
Examples
- Health status
• Poor
 • Fair
• Good
• Excellent
3. INTERVAL
• It shows rankings of events or variables on a scale with equal intervals between.
• Zero point remains arbitrary and not absolute.
• Allows for more mathematical manipulation of data.
Examples:
Temperature 10-80 Fahrenheit scale.

4. Ratio
• Shows rankings of events or variables on scales with equal interval and absolute zero.
• Most often used in physical sciences.
• Highest level of measurement, allows for most manipulation of data.
• Number represents the actual amount of the property the object possesses
Examples: Bio-Physical parameters:
- Weight - Volume
- Height - Blood Pressure
Importance of statistical analysis:
Statistical analysis of data is done to
 understand about the data
 give meaning to the data
 describe about the sample
 simplify complex nature of data
 reduce the data
 measure the variable(s)-association or relationship
 test hypothesis
 draw conclusions for the population
 make predictions or estimate for the future
 facilitate communication to others
 make comparisons easier
 make others also understand in a similar way
 determine the success or failure of a programme
 plan and promote for policy making and implementation
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS:
Quantative Data analysis process has the following four steps,
1. Compilation
Compilation process includes gathering together all the collected data in a
manner that a process of analysis can be initiated. While compiling data, care is to be taken to
arrange all the dad in an order so that editing and coding process can be implemented with ease.
2. Editing
 It implies the checking of the gathered data for accuracy utility and completeness. All the
answers have been recorded and all the replies are internally consistent with each other.
3. Coding
Coding is important for analysis as numerous replies can be reduced to a small number of
classes through coding. It is the process of converting data into numerical form
Ex: Male-1, Female -2
4. Classification:
It is necessary as many researchers result in large volumes of raw data which must be
reduced to homogenous groups. In the process of classification, we divide and arrange the entire
data into different categories, classification, groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics. Classification can be,
a. Geographic classification: Ex- Area of residence,District, etc.,
b. Chronological classification: Ex- Monday, Tuesday … etc
c. Qualitative classification: Ex- Type of gender, Religion etc
d. Quantative classification: Ex- Height, weight etc
5. Tabulation
Tabulation is the recording of the classified data in accurate mathematical terms. A
table is tabular representation of statistical data.It is the first step before data can be used for
further statistical analysis and interpretation.
S. Sex In Percentage
No numbers
1 Male 140 70
2 Female 60 30
Total 100 100
Tabulation of data:
Tabulation is a scientific process used in setting out the collected data in an understandable form.
Tables are commonly used in collecting and organizing raw data during a research and also for
representing final data to be included in a paper or report. When a mass of data has been
assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise
and logical order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation.
Objectives of Tabulation
To reduce large volume of data
To facilitate comparison
To conserve the space
To provide basis for statistical analysis
To provide reference
To provide meaning to the data
To facilitate presentation of the data
Parts of a Table
 1. Table Number 6. Body
2. Title of the table 7. Unit of measurements
3. Head note 8. Dividers
4. Caption or column headings 9. Source notes
5. Stubs or Row designations 10. Foot notes
Types of table:
I. On the basis of the number of characteristics, tables may be classified as follows:
Simple or one-way Table: It is the simplest table which contains data of one characteristic only.
A simple table is easy to construct and simple to follow.
Two-way Table: A table, which contains data on two characteristics, is called a two way table.
In such case, therefore, either stub or caption is divided into two co-ordinate parts.
Manifold Table: A table, which has more than two characteristics of data is considered as a
manifold table.
II. On the basis of the content, tables may be classified as follows:
Textual (Word) Tables: When tables have only textual information in the body, it is known as
textual tables
Statistical Tables: These tables can present descriptive or inferential statistics or both
Numerical Tables: These are the most common types of data, which typically represent
quantitative data, but sometimes may present a combination of quantitative and qualitative data.
Mock or Dummy Tables: These are the tables without any content in the body. It is developed
before the data collection and organization to facilitate thinking.
III. On the basis of objectives(purpose), tables may be classified as follows:
General purpose table: It is also known as informative table and provides information for
general use; and usually in chronological order. The detailed table in the census reports are of
this kind.
Special purpose table: It is also called a summary table or analytical table or derived table. It
presents the data for special purpose.
IV. On the basis of Originality, tables may be classified as follows:
Primary table: The primary table contains actual figures or data.
Derived table: It consists figures or numerical values that are derived from the primary data.
DIAGRAMMATIC PRESENTATION OF DATA:
Diagrams are visual representation of data. Diagrams are advantageous than the tables for its
attractiveness and it is easily understood by anybody with a single glance. Diagrams are used
either alone or with the tables.
Parts of a Diagram
Figure Number: Each diagram should be numbered for easy identification and reference.
Title: The diagram should be given appropriate title. It can be written at the bottom of the table
and it should be short and self explanatory.
Keys/Index (labels): An index or labels illustrating the different types of lines or different
shades, symbols, colours should be given to make out the meaning of the diagram.
Foot note: It is given at the bottom of the diagram for clarification of any information included
in the diagram which needs further explanation.
Source note: Source note, wherever possible, should be appended at the bottom of the diagram.
It is given to indicate the source from where the data have been taken.
Types of Diagrams

(b)Multiple Bar Diagrams

The diagram is used, when we have to make comparison
between more than two variables. The number of variables may
be 2, 3 or 4 or more. In case of 2 variables, pair of bars is
drawn. Similarly, in case of 3 variables, we draw triple bars. The
bars are drawn on the same proportionate basis as in case of
simple bars. The same shade is given to the same item.
Distance between pairs is kept constant.
(c) Sub-divided Bar Diagram
The sub divided or component bar diagram is formed by dividing a single bar into several
component parts. The data which is presented by multiple bar diagram can be presented by this
diagram. In this case, we add different variables for a period and draw it on a single bar. The
components must be kept in same order in each bar. This diagram is more efficient if number of
components is less i.e. 3 to 5. Each component occupies a part of the bar proportional to its share
in the total.
60
40
Percentage 20 Hydrabad
0 Bangalore
2000 2005 2010 Chennai
Years

(d) Duo-directional Bar Diagram

In this case the diagram is on both the sides of base line i.e. to left and right or to above or below
sides.

(e) Broken Bar Diagram

This diagram is used when value of some variable is very high or low as compared to others. In
this case the bars with bigger terms or items may be shown broken.
IV. Pictogram: Pictogram is a device of representing statistical
data in pictures. For the purpose of propaganda, the pictorial
presentations of facts are quite popular and extensively used by
the government and private sector organizations.
Frequency polygon
Frequency polygon is another method of representing
frequency distribution graphically. Draw a histogram for the
given continuous data. Mark the middle points of the tops of
adjacent rectangles. If we join these middle points successively
by line segments, we get a polygon. This polygon is called the
frequency polygon. Frequency polygon can be constructed in
two ways. (i) Using histogram and (ii) without using histogram.
DESCRIBING THE DATA:
1. Descriptive Statistics
• Data collection procedures that allow researchers to estimate how reliably they can make
predictions and generalize findings.
• Allows us to compare groups and test hypothesis.
• It allows the researcher to interpret the data meaningfully, so that research question can
be answered completely and appropriately.
Measures of central tendency
 Mean
 Mode
 Median
Measures of variability
 Range
 Standard deviation
 Correlation
DRAWING THE INFERENCE OF DATA:
The inferential approach helps to decide whether the outcome of the study is a result of factors
planned within design of the study or determined by chance. It is a process of inductive
reasoning based on the mathematical theory of probability
 The commonly used inferential tests are Z-test, t-test, ANOVA, chi-
square test etc..
 Inferential statistics helps the researchers to determine if the difference
found between two or more groups such as Experimental and Control group.
 Null hypothesis is what can actually be tested by the statistical methods.
Inferential statisticss use the null hypothesis to test the validity of a scientific hypothesis.
( Inferential statistics)
 DRAWING THE INFERENCES OF
DATA
( INFERENTIAL STATISTICS)

INFERENCIAL STATISTICS:
Probability- the notion that in a repeated trial/study under the same
conditions we would get the same results.
Statistical probability is based on sampling error. The tendency for statistics
to fluctuate from one sample to another is known as sampling error.
There are 2 types of errors in statistical inference.
Type I- researcher rejects a null hypothesis when it is actually true.
Type II- researcher accepts a null hypothesis that is actually false.
• Type I errors are considered more serious because if a researcher declares that differences
exist when none are present the potential exists for patient care to be adversely affected.
• Type II errors occur when sample is too small.
LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE:
• The probability of making a type I error.
• Minimum accepted level for nursing research is 0.05.
• “ If I conduct this study 100 times, the decision to reject the null hypothesis would be
wrong 5 times out of 100”
• If wanting to assume smaller risk level will be set at 0.01.
• Meaning researcher is willing to be wrong only once in 100 trials.
 • Decision to use alpha level 0.05 or 0.01 depends of the study significance.
• Decreasing the risk of making a type I error increases the risk of making a type II error.
Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics are used to determine significance.
• Parametric tests have 3 attributes:
1. Estimation of at least one population parameter.
2. Require measurement on at least an interval scale.
3. Involve certain assumptions about the variables being studied.
• Variable is normally distributed in the overall population.
• Most researchers prefer parametric statistic when possible because they are more
powerful and more flexible. Nonparametric Statistics are used to determine significance.
NONPARAMETRIC:
• Not based on the estimation of population parameters; usually applied when variable
measured on a nominal or ordinal scale, or distribution of scores is severely skewed.

Chi-square- used when

data is at the nominal level,
determine difference between
groups. Robust and used with small
samples.
Fisher’s exact
probability.
Mann-Whitney test
Spearman’s Rank correlation
COMPUTER ANALYSIS OF QUANTITATIVE DATA:
Manual handling of data consumes lot of time and it is a laborious work.
Computers are used for the analysis of data and to draw the inferences. Several computer
packages are available for the statistical analysis. Among them commonly used are Microsoft
Excel, SPSS, Epi-Info,SAS,Minitab,Stat etc.
1.Microsoft Excel:- It is very popular and useful spreadsheet programme used for data entry. It
is used to calculate Mean, Range, Standard Deviation and ANOVA.
2. SPSS:- SPSS is short for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, and it's used by
researchers for complex statistical data analysis
3. SAS:- It is a command-driven software package used for statistical analysis and data
visualization. It is available only for Windows operating systems. It is arguably one of the most
widely used statistical software packages in both industry and academia.
4. Minitab:-Minitab is a software product that helps to analyze the data. It provides a simple,
effective way to input the statistical data, manipulate that data, identify trends and patterns, and
then extrapolate answers to the current issues.
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS:
Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes and procedures
where by we move from the qualitative data that have been collected into some form of
explanation, understanding or interpretation of the people and situations where investigating.
QDA is usually based on an interpretative philosophy.
Points of focus in analyzing text data
• The primary message content
• The evaluative attitude of the speaker toward the message
• Whether the content of the message is meant to represent individual or group-shared
ideas
• The degree to which the speaker is representing actual Vs hypothetical experience
PLAN FOR QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS:
Terms used in Qualitative data analysis
• Theory: A set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that presents a
systematic view of events or situations by specifying relations among variables
• Themes: idea categories that emerge from grouping of lower-level data points
• Characteristic: a single item or event in a text, similar to an individual response to a
variable or indicator in a quantitative research. It is the smallest unit of analysis
• Coding: the process of attaching labels to lines of text so that the researcher can group
and compare similar or related pieces of information
• Coding sorts: compilation of similarly coded blocks of text from different sources into a
single file or report
• Indexing: process that generates a word list comprising all the substantive words and
their location within the texts entered in to a program
FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS:
• Analysis is circular and non-linear
• Iterative and progressive
• Close interaction with the data
• Data collection and analysis is simultaneous
• Level of analysis varies
 • Uses inflection i.e. “this was good”
• Can be sorted in many ways
• Qualitative data by itself has meaning, i.e. “apple”
PROCESS OF QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS:
• Step 1: Organize the data
• Step 2: Identify framework
• Step 3: Sort data into framework
• Step 4: Use the framework for descriptive analysis
• Step 5: Second order analysis
ORGANIZE THE DATA:
• Transcribe the data (you can use hyper TRANSCRBE software)
• Translate the data (You can use language translation software like SYSTRAN)
• Data cleaning
• Label the data Structuring
• Familiarizing
IDENTIFY A FRAMEWORK:
• Read, Read, Read...
• Identify a Framework
--- Explanatory –Guided by the research question
– Exploratory-Guided by the data
• Framework will structure, label and define data
• Framework=Coding plan
SORT DATA INTO FRAMEWORK:
 Code the data
 Modify the Framework
 Data entry if used computer packages
USE FRAMEWORK IN DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS:
• Descriptive analysis
--- Range of responses in categories
– Identify recurrent themes
– Stop here if exploratory research
SECOND ORDER ANALYSIS:
• Identify recurrent themes
• Notice patterns in the data
• Identify respondent clusters
-- Search for causality
-- Identify related themes
• Build sequence of events
• Search data to answer research questions
• Develop hypothesis and test
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS:
 Content analysis
 Narrative analysis
 Discourse analysis
 Framework analysis
 Grounded theory
Narrative analysis
• Narratives are transcribed experiences
• Every interview/observation has narrative aspect-the researcher has to sort-out and reflect
upon them, enhance them, and present them in a revised shape to the reader
• The core activity in narrative analysis is to reformulate stories presented by people in
different contexts and based on their different experiences
Discourse analysis
• A method of analyzing a naturally occurring talk (spoken interaction) and all types of
written texts.
• Focus on ordinary people method of producing and making sense of everyday social life:
How language is used in everyday situations? Sometimes people express themselves in a
simple and straight forward way.
– Sometimes people express themselves vaguely and indirectly
– Analyst must refer to the context when interpreting the message as the same
phenomenon can be described in a number of different ways depending on
context
Framework Analysis
• Familiarization: Transcribing & reading the data
• Identifying a thematic framework: Initial coding framework which is developed both
from a priori issues and from emergent issues
• Coding: Using numerical or textual codes to identify specific piece of data which
correspond to different themes
• Charting: Charts created using headings from thematic framework (can be thematic or
by case)
• Mapping and interpretation: Searching for patterns, associations, concepts and
explanations in the data
Grounded Theory
• Analytic induction:
Starts with an examination of a single case from a ‘pre-defined’ population in order to formulate
a general statement about a population, a concept or a hypothesis
Then the analyst examines another case to see whether it fits the statement. If it does, a further
case is selected. If it doesn’t fit there are two options
Either the statement is changed to fit both cases or the definition of the population is changed in
such a way that the case is no longer a member of the newly defined population. Then another
case is selected and the process continues.

In such a way one should be able to arrive at a statement that fits all cases of a population-as-
defined. This method is only for limited set of analytic problems: those that can be solved with
some general overall statement
STRATEGIES FOR ANALYSING OBSERVATION:
• Chronology: describe what was observed chronologically overtime, to tell the story from
the beginning to the end
• Key events: describing critical incidents or major events, not necessarily in order of
occurrence but in order of importance
• Various settings: describe various places, sites, settings, or locations in which
events/behaviours of interest happen
• People: describing individuals or groups involved in the events
• Process: describing important processes (e.g. Control, recruitment, decision-making,
socialization, communication)
• Issues: Illuminating key issues –how did participants change
COMPUTER ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA:
• Uses of computer software in Qualitative Studies
1)Transcribing data
2)Writing/editing the data
3)Storage of data
4)Coding data (keywords or tags)
5)Search and retrieval of data
6)Data linking of related text
7)Writing/editing memos about the data
8)Display of selected reduced data
9)Graphic mapping
10)Preparing reports
INTERPRETATION:
• Interpretation is the act of identifying and explaining the core meaning of the data.
• Organizing and connecting emerging themes, sub-themes and contradictions to get the
bigger picture-what it all means
- Think how best to integrate data from multiple sources and methods
Make generalization-providing answers to questions of social and theoretical
significance
Ensuring credible or trustworthy interpretations
 Discussion:
 The findings of the study will be compared with the supporting studies conducted
previously by various researchers. The previous study will support the findings or it may
contradict the findings. At the end of the discussion it should be concluded appropriately.
 Summary:
The summary should highlight the entire work of the study briefly. It should
clearly convey the whole essence of the research study.
PILOT STUDY:
DEFINITION:
• A small scale version or trial run done in preparation for a major study.
• It is a trial study carried out before a research design is finalized to assist in defining the
research question or to test the feasibility, reliability and validity of the proposed design
MEANING AND CONCEPTS:
A pilot study is a small study designed to gather information prior to a large study, in order to
improve the quality of final study
It can reveal deficiencies in the design of a proposed research proposal
A good research strategy requires careful planning
VALUE OF THE PILOT STUDY”:
According to Welman and Kruger (1999:146) many novice researchers are disillusioned when
they find out that the guidelines for research are only valid in an ideal environment, and not in
the practical research environment where they conduct their research study.
This might be the main reason why a pilot study is needed.
• It is needed to detect possible flaws in measurement procedures (including
instructions, time limits, etcetera) and in the operationalisation of independent
variables.
• A pilot study is also valuable to identify unclear or ambiguous items in a
questionnaire.
• The non-verbal behaviour of participants in the pilot study may give important
information about any embarrassment or discomfort experienced concerning the
content or wording of items in a questionnaire.
REASON FOR CONDUCTING THE PILOT STUDY:
In general, the rationale for a pilot study can be grouped under several broad classifications
- process, resources, management and scientific.
Process:
This assesses the feasibility of the steps that need to take place as part of the main study.
Examples include determining sample recruitment rates, retention rates, etc.
Resources: This deals with assessing time and budget problems that can occur during the main
study. The idea is to collect some pilot data on such things as the length of time to mail or fill out
all the survey forms.
Management: This covers potential human and data optimization problems such as personnel
and data management issues at participating centers.
Scientific: This deals with the assessment of treatment safety, determination of dose levels and
response, and estimation of treatment effect and its variance.
PURPOSE OF THE PILOT STUDY:
1.5.1.To test and assess proposed study processes and procedures
• Identifying and recruiting sufficient number and diversity of eligible study participants
• Assess the degree to which participants receive the intervention
• To gain familiarity in working and applying the procedure
• Obtaining, using, maintaining and storing any instrument and equipment needed
• Testing data collection instruments ( reliability and validity)
• Testing randomization, blinding and concealed allocation procedures for the study
• Assessing feasibility, accuracy, completeness of data collection and entry
• Identifying, recruiting, obtaining consent from retaining study participants (sampling
frame)
• Analyzing data
• If applicable, identifying, recruiting monitoring additional study scales
• Obtaining, using maintaining and storing any instruments and equipment needed
• Choosing between 2 or more possible data collection methods
1.5.2.To evaluate the safety of the proposed main study
• Is it safe to use the study drug/ intervention?
• What is the safe dose level?
• Do patients respond to the drug?
• What is the estimate of the treatment effect?
1.5.3.To evaluate the acceptability of the main study
Acceptability by person:
• Stakeholders
• Participants
• Parents
• Research collaborators
• Health care providers
• Institutional managers
• Community leaders
• Acceptable in terms of
• Kind and amount of data collected
• Frequency and length of study visit
• Intrusiveness of outcome
1.5.4.To test and assess the potential and proposed outcome measures
Identifying, testing and assessing proposed and potential outcome measures by
“Objectives can be achieved or not”
1.5.5.To estimate the resources
Staff: co-investigators and assistants
Supplies( equipments): available
Budget : to conduct the study
Time: to fill the study form and process time
1.5.6.To provide evidence of feasibility and worth of full study
• Finding of study provide the end of worthiness
• Provides evidence of feasibility
1.5.7.To provide the data to assist in planning the proposed study
• What challenges do study personnel have?
• Are there any problems in entering data in the computer?
• Whether any important data values forgotten about?
ADVANTAGES:
• It permits preliminary testing of hypothesis that leads to testing more precise hypothesis
in the main study.
• It often provides the researcher with ideas, approaches and clues the researcher may not
have foreseen before conducting the pilot study
• It permits a thorough check of the planned statistical and analytical procedures, giving a
researcher a chance to evaluate their usefulness to the data
• It can greatly reduce the number of unanticipated problems because the researcher have
all opportunity to design parts of his/her study to overcome difficulties that the pilot study
reveals.
• It may save lot of time & money
• In the pilot study, the researcher may try out a number of alternative measures & then
select those that produce the clearest results for the clearest result for the main study.
• It can give advance warning about where the main research project can fail
• It indicates where research protocols might not be followed
• The pilot study can also identify practical problems of the research procedure
• It indicates whether proposed methods or instruments are inappropriate or too
complicated
Challenges of and Common Misconceptions about Pilot Studies:
Quite often the emphasis is wrongly placed on statistical significance, not on feasibility -
which is the main focus of the pilot study.
Most of the pilot projects are not well designed: i.e. there are no clear feasibility objectives;
no clear analytic plans; and certainly no clear criteria for success of feasibility
In many cases, pilot studies are conducted to generate data for sample size calculations.
• This seems especially sensible in situations where there are no data from previous studies
to inform this process.
• However, it can be dangerous to use pilot studies to estimate treatment effects, as such
estimates may be unrealistic/biased because of the limited sample size
 • The first common misconception is that a pilot study is a small single-centre study. For
example, researchers often state lack of resources for a large multi-centre study as a
reason for doing a pilot.
• The second common reason is that a pilot investigation is a small study that is similar in
size to someone else published study
Sample size for pilot studies
• It is important that the sample for a pilot be representative of the target study population.
• It should also be based on the same inclusion/exclusion criteria as the main study.
• As a rule of thumb, a pilot study should be large enough to provide useful information
about the aspects that are being assessed for feasibility.
• 10% of the main study sample.
ETHICAL ASPECTS:
REB- Research Ethics Board approval is necessary
Clear outline of proposal to be submitted
Suggestions from REB should be incorporated in pilot study
REPORTING THE PILOT STUDY:
Title and abstract: should indicate that the study is a “pilot” or “feasibility”
Background: Scientific and specific one
Objectives: Same as main study
Methodology: Setting, participants details, interventions, sample size, outcomes must be
same as main study
Discussion and interpretation: Focus on feasibility of the main study

How to Interpret the Results of a Pilot Study: Criteria for Success:

The criteria should be based on the primary feasibility objectives. These provide the basis
for interpreting the results of the pilot study and determining whether it is feasible to proceed to
the main study.
In general, the outcome of a pilot study can be one of the following:
continue, but modify protocol - feasible with modifications;
Stop - main study not feasible;
Continue without modifications, but monitor closely - feasible with close monitoring and
Continue without modifications - feasible as it is

REPORTING AND UTILIZATION OF RESEARCH REPORT:

INTRODUCTION:
• To stay abreast of best practices in their field, nurses are encouraged to
research, analyze, and present new evidence-based findings to patients or others in their
field.
 • Scientific communication is to communicate and to acquaint the common
masses with scientific knowledge aiming to inculcate scientific temper among the
common level.
MEANING:
• Research Communication / Dissemination: The communication of meaningful research
findings through various strategies.
• Research Utilization: Research utilization is the process of “transferring specific
research-based knowledge into actual practice”.

Overview of the Research Process

Step 17:
• Research Presentation
• Research Abstract
• Publication of Research
GOALS OF DISSEMINATING EVIDENCE IN NURSING:
• To increase the scope of knowledge in the nursing field.
• To ensure the nursing field remains up-to-date with the latest and most effective evidence
and practices.
• To ascertain that nursing decisions are made based on evidence that optimizes quality
care and cost-effectiveness.
• To increase motivation for nurses to apply evidence-based strategies with their patients.
• To increase patient motivation to utilize and follow through on evidence-based
interventions that will help with their own healthcare.
WAYS TO DISSEMINATE EVIDENCE:
There are many platforms through which nurses can disseminate evidence:
• Social media
• Brochures
• Journals
• Web sites
• Presentations
• Conferences
• Press releases
• Nurse team meetings
• Nurse managers can promote dissemination of evidence with their nurses by establishing
a reward for the nurse who contributes most to her colleagues, patients, and the field of
nursing through dissemination of evidence.
RESEARCH REPORTS:
SCIENTIFIC PODIUM PRESENTATION
SCIENTIFIC POSTER PRESENTATION
Poster presentations may not seem as prestigious as oral presentations, but
they are a great opportunity to interact with other scientists in your field in a reasonably
structured way.
Tips for making your poster stand out
1. Less is more
• The text of a poster should have its own visual appeal.
• The text must be neatly arranged in 2 to 4 columns on a poster that's about 91 cm by 122
cm.
• The font should be consistent throughout, and must be clear and easy to read (not
something like Comic Sans), and should be at least 24 points.
• The poster should be printed to the maximum size allowed by the conference, and
• the title should be large and legible from a distance.
• The subheadings — which should also be clear and visible — should say
something more dynamic
• Results- The heading for the results section should hint at that finding.
• Visually attractive posters tend to have substantial borders and significant gaps between
text blocks.
2. The right tool for the job
• Use vector-based graphics programs such as Inkscape or Adobe Illustrator.
• Images and text can thus be scaled up without loss of clarity.
• These programs can also smoothly align text and captions. 
3. Presenting the Poster
• Prepare several different versions of one's talking points
• Involve the audience by being open and enthusiastic.
• The combination of a clear poster and passionate presentation works best, because people
will understand your work and get excited.
4. Know your audience and the context
• ▪ Peers
• ▪ Colleagues familiar with your work
• ▪ Experts in your field
 • ▪ Experts in a separate but related field
• ▪ Non-scientific or non-medical community
• Stairwell conversation
• Tea time conversation
• Your thesis dissertation

If they are still listening, asking

questions:

Emphasize the
conclusions/implications
Proceed with the “thesis dissertation”
People read here

Components of a 10 minute oral presentation for scientific meeting

(Leaving 3-5 minutes for questions)
Title page à 1 slide à 30 seconds
Background à 1 (maybe 2) slides à 1-2 minutes
Methods à 2-3 slides à 2-3 minutes
Results à 3-4 slides (figures/ tables) à 4-5 minutes
Conclusions à 1 slide à 1 minute
Implicationsà 1 slide à 1 minute
Acknowledgementsà only if not in title page à 1 slide < 30 seconds
Choose the right color font/ background
Or else you will lose your audience(this font is too small)
Black font / white background
Yellow font/ blue background
Black font/ yellow background
24 point font is the smallest to use
(practice projecting presentation with a colleague before)
 Small icons of university or affiliation
are common in bottom or top corners,
particularly for title pageAA

SCIENTIFIC WRITING
• Framing a scientific paper. The structure of a paper mirrors that of an hourglass, opening
broadly and narrowing to the specific question, hypothesis, methods, and results of the
study.
• Effective papers widen again in the discussion and conclusion, connecting the study back
to the existing literature and explaining how the current study filled a knowledge gap.

The Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America, Volume: 97,

Issue: 4, Pages: 417-426, First published: 03 October 2016,
DOI: (10.1002/bes2.1258)

THE IMRAD FORMAT FOR SCIENTIFIC PAPERS

• Introduction: What was the question?
• Methods: How did you try to answer it?
• Results: What did you find?
And
• Discussion: What does it mean?
A More Complete View
• (Title)
• (Authors)
 • (Abstract)
• Introduction
• Methods
• Results
• Discussion
• (Acknowledgments)
• (References)
TITLE
• The fewest possible words that adequately indicate the contents of the paper
• Important in literature searching
• Should not include extra words, such as “a study of”
• Should be specific enough but not overly narrow
INTRODUCTION
Content outline
• Research problem
• Significance of the problem
• Research purpose / objectives, hypothesis if applicable
• Brief literature review, frame work
• Any underlying assumptions
• Introduction is written in a funnel shaped structure (Broad to specific)
• End point of introduction should be concise delineation of the research question /
hypothesis
• Extensive literature review in thesis / dissertation
• Concise for journal articles (10 – 15 sources, 2 – 3 paras)
• Framework - Major concepts
- Relationships described
- A map or a model to clarify the logic
METHODS SECTION
• Describe how the study was conducted
• Description of research methods used
– Detailed in dissertation / thesis
– Concise in scientific papers
• Content outline
– Research design
– Sample & setting
– Data collection instruments
– Procedures
– Data analysis
• Begins with description of design with rationale
 • Population, criteria for sample selection, size & characteristics, sample size calculation
(power analysis)
• Experimental design – method of assigning to groups, no. of subjects in each group,
ethical considerations
Data collection & instruments
• Describe the study instruments & rationale for use
• If developed by the researcher, describe process of development, methods used, pre
testing, revisions made, scoring procedure
• Information regarding validity and reliability
PILOT STUDY:
• Explain the planning and implementation briefly
• Specify any modifications made
Procedures – Data collection process
• Steps used to collect data
• In observational study – explain the process, who conducted, where was it conducted, and
what duration.
• In Experimental study – Explain intervention, how and by whom was it carried out
• Specify steps taken to protect human subjects
ANALYSIS
• Describe analytical procedures used
• Mention the statistical tests used
• State the level of significance
RESULTS
Heart of the report and a Summary of statistical analysis
• Present descriptive statistics first & then inferential next
• Description of subjects – Number & demographic data
• Order of results according to importance
• Include three pieces of information
– Value of the calculated statistic
– Degrees of freedom
– Significance level
• Report exact p level
Results: Three parts
• Text- used to highlight the major thrust of the table
• Tables and
• Figures to present large amount of information concisely & clearly
Tables & Figures
• No. of tables & figures : (As per author guidelines)
– Maximum 3 each manuscript
– General rule: one table/figure per 1000 words of text
 • Principles for using tables
– Do not use tables when information can be conveyed easily and concisely in the
text
– Use tables when large amount of data need to be reported
Parts of a table
 Table number - (Table 1.)
 Title - (brief & clear)
 Body - (organize into rows & columns)
 Column headings
 Row headings
 Foot notes – (general note, specific note & probability note)
Figures
• Display trends in the data
• Make comparisons
• Show equipment, procedures and other objects described in the text
DISCUSSION
Conveys significance and meaning
Content
1. What were the main findings ?
2. What do the findings mean ?
3. What evidence is there that the results and interpretation are valid ?
4. What limitations might threaten validity ?
5. How does the results compare with prior knowledge on the topic ?
6. What can be concluded about the findings ?
7. What are their use in nursing practice, nursing theory and in future research ?
Major Findings
• Findings related to research problem, objectives or hypotheses
• Comparison of findings with relevant research and with existing theoretical base
• Never conclude saying data proved, confirmed or hypothesis correct or incorrect
• Correct way of stating : hypothesis supported or not supported, accepted or rejected
Limitations
• Include factors such as the inherent weakness
• Acknowledging limitations strengthen the presentation of the findings
• Generalizability of findings is influenced by the limitations
Conclusion
• Generated from findings
• Provide brief rationale for accepting certain conclusions and rejecting others
• Concluding statements help the reader to comprehend the significance
Implications
• State implications for Nursing knowledge, theory and practice
 • Recommendations
– For further studies
– Ways to eliminate or minimize the limitations of the current study
References
• References cited in the text alone are listed using an approved reference style
• Include only resources that is used in the presentation of the report
• The style must be consistent with the guidelines for writing the report
APA (AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION)STYLE
Eg:Book
• Morales, L. (1987). The history of Cuba. New York: Franklin Watts.
• Ellington, W., Jr., & Henrickson, E.B. (1995). The elements of dance (3rd ed.). New
York: Macmillan.
Book Chapter
• Tizol, W.P. (1976). Brain function and memory. In J.M.O. Corney & H.L. Center (Eds.),
An inside look at what we think we know. (pp. 154-184). Springfield, IL: American
Psychiatric Press.
Journal Article
• Bauza,R.H. (1982).Manitobanematodes. Journal of Cool Nematodes, 10, 252-264.
• Gillespie, R.C., & Tupac, R.M. (1976). How confident people dance. American Dancing,
225, 82-90.
Magazine Article
• Pozo, E. R. (2008, November 19). The way she loved me. Personal Literature, 290, 1113-
1120.
VANCOUVER STYLE OF REFERENCE WRITING
Books :
• Author/editor AA. Title: subtitle. Edition (if not the first). Vol. (if a multivolume work).
Place of publication: Publishers; Year. Page number(s).
Parts of a Book:
• Author of part, AA. Title of chapter or part. In: Editor A, Editor B, Title: subtitle of
Book. Edition (if not the first). Place of publication: Publishers; Year. Page number(s).
Journal Articles:
• Author of article AA, Author of article BB, Author of article CC. Title of article.
Abbreviated Title of Journal. Year; Vol.(issue): page number(s).
E – Books
• Author A, Author B. Title of e-book (format). Place: Publisher; Date of original
publication (cited year abbreviated day). Available from: Source. URL.
CAMPBELL STYLE
Book:
• Cronon, William. 1991. Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West. New York:
W. W. Norton.
Edited Book:
• Fainstein, Susan S., and Scott Campbell, eds. 1996. Readings in Urban Theory.
Cambridge, MA and Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Chapter in an Edited Book:
• Fishman, Robert. 1996. Bourgeois Utopias: Visions of Utopia. In Readings in Urban
Theory, edited by S. S. Fainstein and S. Campbell. Cambridge, MA and Oxford, UK:
Blackwell.
Harvard style of referencing…
• Author’s name followed by its initials.
• Year of publication.
• Article title with single quotation mark followed by full stop.
• Name of Journal in italic form.
• Volume followed by a comma
• Issue no. in bracket.
• Page no.
Example
1. Padda, J. (2003) ‘creative writing in coventry'. Journal of writing studies 3 (2), 44-59.
2. Lennernas, H. (1995) ‘Experimental estimation of the effective unstirred water layer thickness
in the human jejunum & its importance in oral drug absorption’. Eur. J. pharm sci (3), 247-253.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH REPORTS
• IMRAD format can be followed
INTRODUCTION
• Begins with statement of the problem
• If ethnographic – explain study’s cultural context
• If critical or feminist - explain sociopolitical context
• If phenomenological or grounded – explain philosophical context
• Information on personal experiences relevant to study
• Research purposes and questions – concluding paragraph
METHODOLOGY
• Type of design
• Design features
• Research setting – for transferability
• Selection of participants
• Characteristics of participants
• Researcher’s connection to participants
• Sample questions, description of data collection method, who collected data, how data
collectors were trained &methods to record data
• Trustworthiness of data
Results
• Summarize themes, categories, taxonomic structure or theory that emerged.
 • Develop a story line before beginning to write the findings, they should know how much
and what to tell.
• Experiences, voices and actions of the participant should considered important – direct
quotes.
• Diagrams and word tables are used to organize and summarize.
Discussion
• Findings and interpretation are interwoven.
• The discussion should link other research results with the present study.
• Should suggest implications for theory practice and future research
• Once the research report is written it is ready for dissemination in the form of
 Thesis or dissertation
 Journal publication
 Electronic publication
 Presentation at conferences
Thesis / Dissertation
• In-depth research report
• Lengthy document
• To demonstrate students’ understanding of research (problem & process)
Organization of Dissertation
• Front Matter: Title page; Abstract; Copyright page; Approval page; acknowledgement
page; table of contents; list of tables; list of figure; list of appendices.
• Main Body:
• Chapter I – Introduction;
• Chapter II – Review of Literature;
• Chapter III – Methods;
• Chapter IV – Results;
• Chapter V – Discussion and Summary;
• Chapter VI -Summary, conclusion, implications, recommendations and limitations.
• Supplementary pages: Bibliography, Appendix
Organization for a Journal Publication
• Traditional journals
• Professional journals :
 Often a good option if you want the paper to be read
 Less prestige that those focused on science & research
 List the key journals in your field:
 What types of paper are included?
 How wide is the subject area?
 Is there an abstracting ‘news’ section?
 Are papers peer reviewed?
 Is it an indexed journal? (e.g. in Medline)
  Is it learned or commercial?
 Who reads it?
(www.iccrjnr.com)
Improving Nursing Research Reporting: A Guide to Reporting Guidelines. Indian Journal
of Public Health Research and Development 9(2):301-306 · April 2018. DOI: 10.5958/0976-
5506.2018.00302.9
Enhancing the quality of the nursing research reporting through structured
approach is the key in solving the problems related to reporting. Complete and transparent
reporting of nursing research with the standard guidelines such as,
• The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE),
• Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT),
• Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA),
• Standards for reporting qualitative research (SRQR),
• Consensus-based Clinical Case Reporting Guideline (CARE) and
• Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ)
will ensure the transparency through the minimum set of items required to reflect what was done.
What are the outcomes? What are the benefits? What are the issues that bring bias and what are
the harms?
Whatever may be the reason writing and publishing high impact nursing and health research is
the need of the day.
SUMMARY:
Scientific communication is to communicate and to acquaint the common
masses with scientific knowledge aiming to inculcate scientific temper among the common level.
Research utilization is the process of “transferring specific research-based knowledge into actual
practice”. Nurse managers can promote dissemination of evidence with their nurses by
establishing a reward for the nurse who contributes most to her colleagues, patients, and the field
of nursing through dissemination of evidence. A reseach until disseminated is of no use. All
nurse researchers should communicate their findings by way of oral presentation, publication,
poster presentation etc.
RESEARCH PROCESS:
Phase V: The Dissemination Phase
Step 18: Utilizing the findings in Practice
“ Evidence Based Practice”
Utilization of finding in clinical area
INTRODUCTION
• EBP is the conscientious use of current best evidence in making clinical decisions about
patient care. In many areas of clinical decision making, research has demonstrated that
“tried and true” methods or practices taught in basic nursing education are not always
best.
 • A basic feature of EBP as a clinical problem solving strategy is that it de-emphasizes
decisions based on custom, authority, opinion, or ritual; the emphasis is on identifying the
best available research evidence and integrating it with other factors
• Evidence informed practice is a concept which has been increasingly cited in policy
development in recent years. It is based on the principle that the development and
implementation of interventions is informed by the most current, relevant and reliable
evidence about their effectiveness.
ORIGIN OF EIP
The origins of evidence informed practice lie in the health field and the development of
evidence based medicine.
This movement was driven by organizations like the Cochrane Collaboration
who undertake systematic research reviews to help ensure that healthcare decisions throughout
the world are informed by high quality, timely research evidence.
A similar organization, the Campbell Collaboration , now exists to prepare,
maintain and disseminate systematic reviews of studies of social and educational interventions.
http://www.bensoc.org.au/uploads
WHAT IS EVIDENCE?
Evidence can be generated from a range of sources including but not limited to:
• Academic journals
• Statistics
• Research and evaluation reports
• Systematic reviews of research
• Data gathered from our own services
• Knowledge of experienced workers
HOW CAN WE ACCESS EVIDENCE?
• Google scholar http://scholar.google.com/
for searching academic literature
• Websites providing alerts about recent policy and research such as Australian Policy
Online www.apo.org.au/
• Colleagues are also a very valuable source of information about latest research and policy
developments.
HOW CAN WE GENERATE OUR OWN EVIDENCE?
• Evaluation of our services
• Undertaking more general research around their effectiveness.
How can we use the evidence?
 Evidence can be used to inform the full cycle of service delivery. Again this can be
evidence generated externally or internally from our own services. Evidence can be used
to inform:
• Service conceptualization and design
• Service implementation and review
• Service evaluation
• Service redesign
DEFINITION OF EIP
EVIDENCE INFORMED PRACTICE
• Evidence-informed practices use the best available research and practice knowledge to
guide program design and implementation. This informed practice allows for innovation
while incorporating the lessons learned from the existing research literature.
EVIDENCE INFORMED PRACTICE
Evidence informed practice = Practice knowledge and experience + Service user and carer
wishes and experience + Research evidence
THE NATURE OF ‘EVIDENCE’ – TAYLOR, 2008
• Evidence-Based Hierarchy
• Guidelines
• Systematic reviews
• RCTs
• Other experiments
• Descriptive
• Expert consensus
• Respected opinion
Evidence-Informed Range
 Organisational knowledge
 Practitioner knowledge
 User knowledge
 Research knowledge
 Policy knowledge
EVIDENCE-INFORMED PRACTICE
Implies
• Asking challenging questions about practice
• Knowing how and where to find research
• Understanding key messages about what works
• Reflecting on experiences in order to learn
• Measuring the impact your work is having for users
• Listening to what users have to say about services
• Being explicit about how all these factors affect proposals and decisions
• Sharing knowledge and best practice with others
SOURCES
• Systematic reviews
• Clinical practice
• Meta analysis
• Professional journals
 •Agency for health care research and quality
•Other pre appraised evidence
 Primary studies
 Synopsis of systematic reviews
 EB nursing journal
ALGORITHM FOR EVIDENCE-INFORMED PRACTICE
K.S., Duran, C. & Fink, R. (2008). Evidence-based policy and procedures:
“An algorithm for success. JONA, 38(1), 47-51.”

STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF EVIDENCE-INFORMED PRACTICE

1. Be willing to say “I don’t know”
2. Pose well formed answerable questions related to your practice
3. Search effectively and efficiently for research findings
4. Critically appraise research findings
5. Use clinical expertise to integrate research findings with other sources
6. Evaluate and learn from what happens

Revised November, 2010 – Doris Sawatzky-Dickson

The evidence informed practice model
 The evidence informed practice model shows how you can use evidence to improve your
practice at all levels, from individual case work and day-to-day decision making, to team and
service planning, the development of strategies and policies and the commissioning of services.
This model shows how you and your team can use evidence to inform your practice.

http://www.sheffield.gov.uk
1. Identify the need for evidence
• Choosing a topic to focus on
• Choosing a specific question
2. Locate the evidence
• Planning your search
• Sources of research evidence
3. Appraise the evidence
• Evaluating the quality of information on websites
• Critically appraising research
4. Adapt and apply the evidence
• Is the evidence relevant?
• Presenting the evidence
• Applying the evidence: changing practice
5. Evaluate the outcome
• Setting measurable outcomes
• Measuring your outcomes
• Presenting the evidence
• Reflecting on practice
ACE STAR MODEL

Stevens, K.R. (2004). Ace Star Model of EBP: Knowledge

Transformation. Academic Center for Evidence-Based Practice.
The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio.
Stetler model
• This model consists of five phases (Stetler, 2001, p. 276):
• Phase I: Preparation
• Phase II: Validation
• Phase III: Comparative Evaluation/Decision Making
• Phase IV: Translation/Application
• Phase V: Evaluation
EBP in Individual nursing practice
• Asking well worded clinical questions
• Finding research evidence
• Appraising and synthesizing the evidence,
• Integrating the evidence
• Assessing the effectiveness of the decision, intervention or advice
EBP in organizational context
• Selecting a problem for an institutional EBP project
• And appraising evidence
• Actions based on evidence appraisal
• Implementing and evaluating the innovation
Criteria for evaluating the implementation potential of an innovation
• 1. Transferability of the findings
• 2. Feasibility
• 3. Cost benefit ratio
Anticipating Barriers to Evidence-Informed Practice
• Lack of time/resources due to heavy workloads
• Lack of organizational support
• Poor communications
• Poor training
 • Lack of networking inside/outside the agency
• Culture of blame can block experimentation
• Insufficient staff development
Key Skills for Evidence-Informed Practice
• Generic skills
• Questioning practices within an environment of accountability
• Effectively summarizing and presenting key messages
• Capacity to access and assess evidence
• Line staff skills
• Critical thinking
• Self-reflection (across caseload)
• Help/consultation seeking
• Systems assessment
• Management skills
• Group facilitation
• Scheduling time, space, and technical assistance
• Web-based access for documenting/sharing staff input
• Articulating/celebrating staff success with EIP
Example – 1
• A study was conducted by one of our PG student based on Mental health model – Alberta
model which implies three way partnership that is, client, community health nurse and
psychiatric nurse, here the community health nurse will identify the risk cases of
psychiatric disorder from the general clinic, where the client will be referred to confirm
the risk factor by the psychiatric clinical nurse specialist with the diagnostic tool. Once
the risk factor is been confirmed then the client will be referred to the psychiatrist and the
treatment will be followed.
MODIFIED MODEL FOR THE INTEGRATION OF MENTAL HEALTH CLINIC AND
COMMUNITY CARE PROGRAM
Example – 2
• Effectiveness of community change agent on knowledge and attitude regarding
reproductive health among women in selected villages.
COMMON OBSTACLES
• Inadequate access to research
• Lack of knowledge/skills about accessing research
• Low levels of critical appraisal skills and lack of guidance on research quality
• Lack of IT skills and access
• Lack of or limited resources
• Lack of support from colleagues – failure to value research at an organisational level
• Culture of acting before reflecting
• Poor communication of research
 • Perceived threats to professional autonomy, practitioner skills and experience
• Beliefs and attitudes
• Lack of professional credit for disseminating research
• Lack of relevant and timely evidence
• Practitioners’ perceptions of research
• Higher value placed on other sources of information
• Statutory requirements/policies
-Barnardo’s Evidence Guide
COMMON ENABLERS
• Accessible, user friendly research evidence focused on practice questions
• Active and timely dissemination of relevant research evidence (eg information-sharing
networks)
• Opportunities for discussion of research findings (eg journal clubs)
• Development of resources to make research more accessible to practitioners (eg e-alerts,
pre-appraised research summaries)
• Training and staff development including opportunities for interaction with colleagues
and experts
• Collaboration between practice and producers of research
• Practitioners engaging in continuing professional development and reflective practice
• Support for practitioners to ‘try out’ research findings and conduct their own research
• Culture of support and enthusiasm
• Strong leadership and commitment to working in an evidence-informed way
-Barnardo’s Evidence Guide
‘FIRM FOUNDATIONS’ FOR EIP
• Giving a strategic lead
• Setting expectations that policy and practice will be evidence-informed
• Encouraging learning from research
• Improving access to research
• Providing support to agency research
ROLE OF NURSE IN USING RESEARCH EVIDENCE
• Read widely and critically
• Attend professional conferences
• Learn to expect evidence that a procedure is effective
• Become involved in journal club
• Pursue and participate in RU/EBP projects
Some tips for developing evidence informed practice
• Sign up to e-mail alerts from policy and research websites
• Schedule slots in meetings to discuss any latest research which you or your colleagues have
read
• Talk to research staff about the resources they have available around latest research and policy
developments in your field
• Talk to colleagues about what they are doing to encourage evidence informed practice
• If you are not doing so already seek support to develop and undertake an evaluation of your
services.
BARRIERS TO USING RESEARCH IN NURSING PRACTICE
• Research-Related Barriers
• Nurse-Related Barriers
• Organizational Barriers
• Barriers Related to the Nursing
• Profession
SUMMARY:
• EBP is the conscientious use of current best evidence in making clinical decisions about
patient care. In many areas of clinical decision making, research has demonstrated that
“tried and true” methods or practices taught in basic nursing education are not always
best. Evidence can be generated from a range of sources. There are facilitators and
barriers of evidence based practice. Nurses should try overcome these barriers and utilize
the best evidence to improve the practice.