Unit-1

Introducing Curriculum
Meaning of Curriculum:

The term curriculum has been derived from a Latin word ‘Currere’ which means a
‘race course’ or a runway on which one runs to reach a goal. Accordingly, a
curriculum is the instructional and the educative programme by following which the
pupils achieve their goals, ideals and aspirations of life. It is curriculum through
which the general aims of a school education receive concrete expression. Traditional
concept-The traditional curriculum was subject- centered while the modern
curriculum is child and life-centered.

Modern Concept of Curriculum: Modern education is the combination of two

dynamic processes. The one is the process of individual development and the other is
the process of socialization, which is commonly known as adjustment with the social
environment.

Cunningham - “Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the artist (teacher) to mould his
material (pupils) according to his ideas (aims and objectives) in his studio (school)”.

Morroe - “Curriculum includes all those activities which are utilized by the school to
attain the aims of education.

Crow and Crow - The curriculum includes all the learners’ experience in or outside
school that are included in a programme which has been devised to help him
developmentally, emotionally, socially, spiritually and morally”.

T.P. Nunn-“The curriculum should be viewed as various forms of activities that are
grand expressions of human sprit and that are of the greatest and most permanent
significance to the wide world”

Scope of Curriculum
1. Goals: The benchmarks or expectations for teaching and learning often made
explicit in the form of a scope and sequence of skills to be addressed;
2. Methods: The specific instructional methods for the teacher, often described in a
teacher’s edition;
3. Materials: The media and tools that are used for teaching and learning;
4. Assessment: The reasons for and methods of measuring student progress.

Nauter of Curriculum
1. the instructional programme as indicated by the course offerings to meet the varies
requirements of a vast heterogeneous population
2. the courses of study, embodying outlines of knowledge to be taught
3. all the experiences provided under the guidance of the school
4. Close examination of them reveals the difficulty in deciding the basic nature of
curriculum.
5. Is it thought of as a programme and pattern of offerings?
6. Is thought of to be a content of courses?
7. Is it thought of to be experiences through which knowledge is communicated?
8. Curriculum is that which makes a difference between maturity and immaturity,

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between growth and stasis, between literacy and illiteracy, between sophistication
(intellectual, moral, social and emotional) and simplicity.
9. It is the accumulated heritage of man’s knowledge filtered through the prisms of
contemporary demands and pressures.
10. It is that wisdom considered relevant to any age in any given location. It is that we
choose from our vast amount of heritage of wisdom to make a difference in the life of
man.

Characterization of Curriculum

1. The Curriculum is continuously evolving.

1. It evolved from one period to another, to the present.
2. For a curriculum to be effective, it must have continuous monitoring and
evaluation.
3. Curriculum must adapt its educational activities and services to meet the needs of a
modern and dynamic community.

2. The Curriculum is based on the needs of the people.

• a good curriculum reflects the needs of the individual and the society as a whole.
• The curriculum is in proper shape in order to meet the challenges of times and make
education more responsive to the clientele it serves.

3. The Curriculum is democratically conceived.

• A good curriculum is developed through the efforts of a group of individuals from

different sectors in the society who are knowledgeable about the interests, needs and
resources of the learner and the society as a whole.
• The curriculum is the product of many minds and energies.

4. The Curriculum is the result of a long-term effort.

• a good curriculum is a product of long and tedious process.
• It takes a long period of time in the planning, management, evaluation and
development of a good curriculum.

5. The Curriculum is a complex of details.

• A good curriculum provides the proper instructional equipment and meeting places
that are often most conducive to learning.
• It includes the student-teacher relationship, guidance and counseling program, health
services, school and community projects, library and laboratories, and other school-
related work experiences.

6. The Curriculum provides for the logical sequence of subject matter. • Learning
is developmental.
• Classes and activities should be planned.
• A good curriculum provides continuity of experiences.

7. The Curriculum complements and cooperates with other programs of the

community.
• The curriculum is responsive to the needs of the community.

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• The school offers its assistance in the improvement and realization of ongoing
programs of the community.
• There is cooperative effort between the school and the community towards greater
productivity.

8. The Curriculum has educational quality.

• Quality education comes through the situation of the individuals intellectual and
creative capacities for social welfare and development. • The curriculum helps the
learner to become the best that he can possibly be.
• The curriculum support system is secured to augment existing sources for its
efficient and effective implementation.

9. The Curriculum has administrative flexibility.

• A good curriculum must be ready to incorporate changes whenever necessary.
• The curriculum is open to revision and development to meet the demands of
globalization and the digital age.

CURRICULUM AS CULTURAL CONSTRUCT

TRANSMISSION OF CULTURE AS EDUCATIONAL PROCESS

ENCULTURATION
The transmission of cultural traditions from one generation to the next

ACCULTURATION
The transmission of cultural traditions and new knowledge from anybody who
“knows” to anybody who does not know

ASSIMILATION
The process in which an individual entirely loses awareness of his previous group
identity and takes on culture or attitude of another group

Sociological Foundations:
Curriculum designers must consider both the real and ideal order of the things in
society Things to consider in making a curriculum based on the society’s problem 

Needs and problems of the society which the school intends to serve 
 Scientific breakthroughs 
 Technological revolution 
 Unemployment 
 Basic values, beliefs and principles of the people 
 Destruction of the environment 
 Philosophy, points of view and recommendations of educators 
 Social, economic and political conditions
 Careers and vocations open to graduates 
 Cultural changes 
 Legal mandates affecting education 
 Poverty 
 Weakening of family as the basic social unit 

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 Value crises among youths and adults

ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM

A curriculum has five major components:

(1) A framework of assumptions about the learner and the society such as learners’
capacity and ability, aptitudes and potential for learning, motivation, needs, interests
and values as well as society’s orientation to nurturing or using the individual
gainfully.

(2) Aims and objectives (i.e., why education should be provided and towards what
direction).

(3) Content or subject-matter with selection of what is to be taught and learnt, scope
of the subject-matter and its sequence.

(4) Modes of transaction which deals with the process of teaching-learning and
includes methodology of teaching, learning experiences both within the institution
and outside, learning environments, teachers’ material as well as students’ material.

(5) Evaluation methods and techniques for students.

Curricula differ from each other on the basis of the extent of emphasis given to each
of these elements, the extent and manner of linking these elements with each other
and the style of decision-making pertaining to each of these elements.

For example, one institution places more emphasis on the intellectual development of
students whereas another institution emphasizes developing ideal, democratic citizens.

The selection of subject-matter will, therefore, different these two institutions with the
first institution incorporating programmes and activities aimed at developing
rationality and thinking.

Thus, both these institution; would believe in different theories of learning and
teaching thereby differing in the nature and sequence of subject-matter and learning
experiences.

Elements of Curriculum Development

There are five key elements of curriculum development , according to  Tyler “it is
essential as a part of comprehensive theory of organization to show just what are the
elements will serve satisfactory as organizing elements.” According to Herrick and
Tyler, following are the components and elements of curriculum development

1. Situational analysis
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of content, scope and sequence
4. Activities, strategies and method of teaching
5. Evaluation

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Situational Analysis
Situational analysis means the analysis of different conditions such as emotional,
political, cultural, religious and geographical condition of a country. This will help the
curriculum planners in the selection of objectives, selection of organization of
learning materials and in suggesting appropriate evaluation procedure.

Formulation of Objectives
There are four main factors for formulating the objectives of education. These are 

1. The society
2. The knowledge
3. The learner
4. The learning process
All of these factors are to be considered while selecting and formulating the
educational objectives.

Selection of Content
One of the important elements is the selection of content for a subject. At the time of
subject matter selection, the following factors are to be kept in mind:

1. Available sources and resource

2. Demand of the society
3. International needs
4. Level and age of the learner or student
5. Methods of content organization
6. Number of courses offered
7. Quantity and qualification of teaching staff
8. Scope of subject matter
9. System of examination
10. Type of society and culture
Strategies and Method of Teaching
These are strategies and methods of teaching adopted by the teachers during
instruction and learning experiences. This will certainly not fair to ask a teacher for
achieving certain objectives without giving any guidelines. In most of the countries
curriculum development is a centralized process. Teachers are not directly involved in
this phase. Most of the teachers do not know the process of achieving desired goals.
After determining the goals and objectives the next problem is the selection of
strategies and methods of teachers. What we should give to our students. Should a
curriculum be fixed or flexible, constant, common or differentiated?

Evaluation
Evaluation is one of the dynamic process, which needs a continuous research and
evaluation for its betterment in order to cope with the variable demands of the society
and bring about desirable changes. Curriculum evaluation is not a student evaluation.
It is a broader term being used to make judgment about the worth and effectiveness of
it.  With the help of evaluation phase experts can modify the curriculum by bringing
about desirable changes

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 UNIT 2
CURRICULUM PRESAGE
Foundations of Curriculum
Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of curriculum developers.
In this way they affect the content and structure of the curriculum.
The curriculum reflects the society and culture of a country and this is the desire of a
society that their children should learn the habits, ideas, attitudes and skills of the
adult society and culture and educational institutional are the proper way to impart
these skill. This duty of teacher and school to discipline the young of the society and
provide them the set of experiences in the form of curriculum. The needs, knowledge
and information of the society provide foundation in the formation of curriculum
Philosophical/ ideological foundation

It is concerned with beliefs.

What is real --- ONTOLOGY
What is true --- EPISTEMOLOGY
What is good – AXIOLOGY
                                                                                                               
Philosophy means the love of wisdom, it search for truth, not simple truth, It search
for eternal truth, reality and general principles of life. Curriculum help in the practical
use of knowledge in real life situations and understanding realities and ideas of life
and this world that why curriculum is called the dynamic side of
philosophy.                                                                                                                        
       
Curriculum is used for the modification of the behavior of the students and
philosophy help in the process of finding new ways and basis for teachers and
curriculum planner to modify their behavior. Philosophy also helps in the exploring
new methods of teaching and how to apply in the classroom situation for better
achievement of the teaching learning process. It also provides new ways and methods
for the evaluation of student’s achievement and evaluation of curriculum.
Philosophers of the past have made major influence in clarifying the association in the
nature of knowledge and curriculum development process and also provide a
foundation for curriculum; Plato presented a curriculum in his book “republic” at that
times and it is still the core of the curriculum of today. Knowledge is given the high
role in human life.
Today world economics and societies are changing very rapidly; it needs depth in
every discipline of education in this high
time.                                                                                          
                       
Today the world emphasis on finding new ways through which man develops new
concepts of reality and knowledge and to form a new structure of knowledge in this
dynamic and changing time therefore a high value is given to discovery, invention and
restructuring of knowledge  and curriculum in new patterns. Now the new curriculum
is open to new experiences, logical and critical thinking, and to bring about the
concept of knowledge out of interpreted experience.
Philosophy and ideology of education provide rules and principles which lead the in
decision-making regarding educational practices and polices planning. It Guides the
curriculum planner on the basses of the philosophical and ideological belief of the
society in the constructing of subject matter keeping in view the future demands and
needs of the schools and help in the promoting of human life through social change in

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the behavior of the students. In Pakistan the ideological beliefs of the society is based
on
Islam…                                                                                                                              
                            
.
Therefore they are looking for curriculum planner to introduce such curriculum in
education system, which inculcate true knowledge of Islam and preserve the culture
of Muslim society in new generation that why they believe that Islamic curricula
should be based on the ideology of Islamic laws and principles.
Philosophical/ ideological Implications on Curriculum
Philosophy and ideology has direct effect in curriculum planning because it guides the
curriculum planner in the selection of the objectives and. As it provides guidelines in
the selection of objectives, Learning experiences and content of the curriculum, and
how to evaluate the curriculum, learning experiences and achievements of the
students. Some justification provided for the implications of curriculum given by
different researcher are as under (Rud Yard K. Bent and Urruh, n.d.);
  Various customs values, traditions and knowledge need to be preserved by
transfer them to the next generation.
 The students also needed the knowledge of past and present in which they live,
it help them in the process of adaptation and adjusting their self to new changes and
new situation in life.
All those content of a subject who helps in intellectual development rather than
practical value. It teaches student how to reason, develops mental ability to solve the
problems in practical life situations. It helps in using different methods for search of
eternal truth and how to analyze the knowledge and methods of inquiry.
 The Secondary school curriculum should designed for developing maximum
potentialities  of the students by including variety of leaning activities to educate each
students to its highest.
 Schools should be a tool and leader in directing new changes in the curriculum
rather than maintainers of curriculum.
 Students need skills and for that purpose some subject matter must be included
in the curriculum to help them in acquiring these skills like experimentation and the
use of laboratory techniques so they advance the knowledge.
 Psychological foundations
Psychological foundation is based on the individual differences, every student has its
own unique personality and they have differences in their leering and skills. They are
different in nature so they can’t be treated alike in teaching learning process, some
may be fast learner while other slow. Therefore the curriculum should be based on the
above facts, and it should be design to support the capacity and potentialities of all the
students.
Psychology play a vital role in the teaching learning process it is the foundation for all
type of educational related programmed. The methods of teaching, the selection of
content of subject and the methods and theories of learning, the overall development
of the students and to inculcate the norms of the society in the students. Psychology
helps in all the processes above in the development process of the curriculum.
In the past curriculum for child development and learning was developed in
traditional ways without keeping in view the psychological implication in the
development of curriculum.
Today psychology is the core and foundation element of all the learning processes;

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 curriculum development, Child mental development, teaching methods, learning
theories, administration of education system and planning, character building of the
students,  attitude of students and teacher, the society, the use of different
technologies.
Today the researchers and Scholars using experimental approach to find new ways of
teaching learning process, how students learn under different conditions. They are
finding new ways and materials from the analysis of teaching learning problem and
formulating new approaches for teaching and learning process.
Psychology helps in all fields of education, it not just add to knowledge, psychology
is applied in practical class room situation as well as in the curriculum development
process by defining teaching methods and origination of the
In the process of using psychology in curriculum development process some positive
concepts or ideas about teaching learning process emerged, it is reflected in the work
produced by different authors.
•       The traditional readiness concept for a difficult subject which require children
maturity has been rejected by the modern researchers, now the researchers formed a
new principle that the child can teach any subject on the condition that it provided
keeping in view the principle of from simple to complex and that the students have
the previous experience.
•       When the importance is given to basic concepts and the process of inquiry for
teaching learning and curriculum development process the transfer of learning and
future learning are improved.
•       the guided discovery of  the relationships in the student learning outcomes, subject
matter and in teaching methods play a very important role in the teaching learning
process compare to those approaches in which the curriculum planner used the views
and conclusions of other for  developing curriculum.
 The Interest and motivation  level of the students may be generated using the
discovery method within the subject itself, the content of the subject should be
interesting and appealing to generate curiosity  in the students to find more. In this
way the student engage in finding the relationships in the subject matter presented to
him, and engage the students in the process of inquiry.
 Meaningful conversation involves the students in the organizing or structuring
of facts into conceptual system which help the students to generate new ideas, make
new interpretations and raise new questions.
 The researchers prefer the use of inductive methods because it helps in
the discovery through inquiry and help in the formulating of hypotheses and
interpretation of information.
 To study a topic in depth or more helpful in the discovering the relationships
between them than try to cover the whole material in once.
 The Depth of learning could be attained by applying different ideas, processes,
theories, and models.
 Learning is improved when there is relationship order in the continuity
of unit to unit from simple to complex in the instruction programme.
 The solving of problems helps the students in acquiring the concept
development, and how to use different principles which lead the students to a higher
level of mental development.
  
                 It put emphasis on the organizing of ideas which helps the

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 students to develop the skills to identify the relationships, improves their skills,
remembers and retrieves old ideas; it provides a foundation for generating new ideas
and concepts, and helps in the transfer of learning.
Therefore it is said that the impact of psychological sources on the foundations of
curriculum is more than significant and still on the rise. The scope of the psychology
for applying in curriculum construction and its principles, concepts, processes. The
role of psychology in the development of curriculum is vast and with each day it is
becoming increasingly more meaningful and unavoidable.
The purpose of psychology and psychologist is the study of human behavior, the
study of living being. Investigate and explain the behavior of animate creatures.
Therefore, curriculum needs educational psychology to provide information
particularly in five areas:
•       Prepare objectives of education.
    Characteristics of the students.
    The leaning processes.
    The methods of Teaching.

Socio Cultural Foundation

According to Murray print (1993). The society and culture exercise massive powers
on the formation curriculum and the reason behind that it was society who created
schooling to safeguard the survival of their cultural heritage, and survival of their
species.
The purpose of curriculum planner and developers to translate traditional norms,
philosophies, ethics, knowledge and attitudes in the objectives of curriculum, the
content, learning processes and the evaluation of  elements of the curriculum.
Sociological factors have highest impact on the content of curriculum and that is the
reason that curriculum developers and planner both reflect and transfer their own
culture in curriculum. Therefore a curriculum without the reflection of culture is not
possible for that reason one should consider what characteristic of the culture should
be the part of curriculum and what not.
The social and cultural inspirations that affect curriculum designers consciously and
unconsciously are apparent from the curriculum and their influence is deep. For
example in Pakistan the curriculum is more reflective of the society and curriculum is
design in a way that leads society to change. The society manifest through the
curriculum and education, and the outcomes of the curriculum developers display the
role of both of the above in curriculum development.
Because curriculum developers are the part of the society therefore they indirectly
effected by the society and culture.  Their cultural standards, attitudes and beliefs
leave deep impact on the individuals because the curriculum designers influence the
selection of objectives, subject matter, teaching learning methods and the process of
evaluation.
Example: A group of teacher formulated a new course for teaching in schools to
enhance the quality of the subject in curriculum. After the completion of the subject
matter when analyze again one could not determine some lesson were eliminated and
some were included in the course, how the old content was evaluated even the teacher
who constructed the curriculum for the subject was unable to clearly say what was the
basis of their decisions. If story reading was a component of the revised curriculum,
what proportion would be real reading? And Why? And what would be the method
for the assessment of that lesson? What stories were selected and why these are
questions need to be asked from the curriculum developers

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on the other hand, may be curriculum developers are well aware of society needs and
they have planned intention to incorporate all those things in the curricula which the
society need in the curriculum but the question is that the curriculum should student
centered or society. Curriculum should be a tool for guiding the student’s
potentialities in directions or to develop those potentialities without any restrictions.
Some Social values, changes and conditions are included into some extent in some of
the curriculum projects in the context of current social issues and problems, such as
rapid growth of population, democratic values, urbanization, and management
problems could be found in proposed program. Some vital problems and topics are
considered in relation to concepts and key ideas drawn from the disciplines.
In another way in which the social situation is used as a source of content and
information for the curriculum formulation may be found in the present-day situations
that are selected to light up the concepts and main ideas from the selected disciplines
e.g.  In mathematics program there may be some problems of social significance, for
which student may use mathematical concepts to solve the problem. Or in others
societal science program, socially important situations may be used to encompass and
expand concepts and generalizations.
Therefore it can be concluded, that social and cultural forces have deep effect upon
the curriculum. To find how much and to which degree the society and culture affect
the education system of that society is controversial issue. Curriculum developer are
the part of that society and culture therefore they should keep in mind that there
decision could affect their culture and society. Therefore their decision should be
culturally related to the society need and values
Guideline given by Rud Yard (1969) related to curriculum planning decision-making,
it derived from societal needs and goals.
 The goals of education emerge from the needs  and wishes of the society
 When a society urge a need or a goal it becomes an educational objective and
the school accepted that demand and they attempt to attain that goal by putting it into
school objectives.
And when a societal goal become an educational objective then the school, teacher
and student must make their efforts to achieve it and for that purpose appropriate
educational facilities and methods must be planned.
If there is a conflict between the objectives and aims of majority and minority groups,
the aims of larger group is accepted.
Educational aims are based on the study of sociological and political condition of the
society and the main purpose of the curriculum is preservation and advancement of
the that society
Historical Foundations
It includes
1. Role of curriculum in achievements of nations.
2. Guides future plans
3. Factors that influence development of nation e.g. unity
4. Eliminates the useless traditions.
Role of the History of curriculum in the development of curriculum
History of the curriculum plays a very important role in the development of the
nation. It takes long and tedious time to formulate a good curriculum which represents
the need of the society and the experiences of the past. The history of the curriculum
tell the curriculum planner how to develop and modify the curriculum, what to teach
and what should be the core material of the subjects, what objectives they want to

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achieve through the curriculum. History also tell them how the teacher should teach,
what are the best practices they need to incorporate in curriculum teaching and what
kind of teaching need to be avoid.
                                                                                                                               
The history of the curriculum also explains the teacher psychology at different time
and how to improve their teaching styles. The history also provides a detail about the
learner behavior at different times. It also provides information about the psychology
of the students, how they learn and what they want to learn. In times curriculum
changed its shapes and patterns from teacher center curriculum to learner center
curriculum due to the long history of the curriculum development process from Plato
to modern curriculum. the history of the curriculum also changed the teaching
methods, now every researcher are finding new ways to teach and it is also becoming
the part of curriculum  an history.
Today majority of the develop countries are those countries who have a long history
of freedom and proper education system. They achieved their successes through
education and implementation of time needed curriculum. They modified their
curriculum according to the need of time. Some of newly born countries also achieved
that status because they adopted successful model of other developed countries and
modified according to their own needs and culture.
History Guides future plans
The history of the curriculum guides the future plans because curriculum is always
based on the future demands of the country and the lesson learned through history, tell
the curriculum developer not to repeat the mistake of the past and develop a
curriculum which is based on the future need of the society and international
demands. History is the profile of past successes and failures. 
   History helps in the eliminations of useless traditions
The history of education tells the curriculum developer what not to include in the
curriculum. What of lessons can bring no good to the curriculum and what type of
contents material are good for the teaching learning process, so history of the
curriculum eliminate all those useless traditions from the modern curriculum and help
the developer to incorporate what is needed for the curriculum.
A short history of the curriculum and curriculum development process
Plato was the earliest most important Greek Philosopher and educational thinker.
Plato thinks education as a key for a society and he stress on education, for this
purpose he want to go to the extreme level even removing children from their mothers
and rise them by the state, he want to identify the skills of the children and give them
proper education for that particular skill which they have so they could be become a
suitable member of the society and fulfil their duty in society.
 Plato describes different stages of education in his republic. According to Plato the
education of child should be start at the age of seven year and before this stage the
child should stay with their mother or elders and learn moral education from them.
After the age of six years both girls and boys should be separated and boys should
play with boys and girls with girls and they should be taught the use of different arms
to both sexes. This stage goes up to the age of seventeen years. During these years
they should teach them music and early education. After the age of seventeen years
the youth should be brought to battle field to learn real life experiences.
The fourth stage start at the age of twenty five to thirty years and in this age they get
the training of Mathematical calculation and last for another ten years, after the
completion the selected one’s are admitted in the study of dialect.
 

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 During fifth stage they study dialect for another five years and after that, at the sixth
stage one is ready to become a ruler and philosopher and the one enter in practical
life.
The 11th century was a dark era for education. Few people in Western Europe were
receiving any kind of schooling and across the globe; contributions were being made
to the future of education.  In China, printing by movable type was invented in 1045,
and proved to be one of the most powerful inventions of this era which affect the
curriculum development process and bring huge change in the improvement of
curriculum and contents of the curriculum around the world. With future educational
systems focusing on the written word, the invention of type printing set the path for
future publications. The first paper mill was built in France in 1338. Paper was a
Chinese invention (c. 600 AD), brought to Europe by the Arabs in the 11th century.
The great educator of Islam, Imam Ghazali was born in 1059 AD near Tus in
Khurasan, a part of the then Persia.
His educational philosophy based on his personal experience. The philosophy, which
he formulated over a period of 10 years, resembles to the Philosophy of Plato. He
used his personal experience and concluded the reasons
According to Ghazali, there are four categories of Knowledge;
1.  Prophetic
2.  Rulers
3.  Philosophers/scholars    4. Preachers
 Curriculum:
 Ghazali strongly criticizes the curriculum of his time. He raises the basic question of
criteria for selection of subject matter for curriculum. He studied the various
curriculums in his times and reached the following conclusions:
. More time is spent on religious education and worldly education is completely
ignores
.  Worldly education is equally important
.  While teaching religious education, a great number of differences arise among the
teachers, which result in mudslinging on each other
.
There is no Prioritization and it is only left to the interest and opinions of the teachers
to concentrate on certain subjects, while ignore others.
.   No place for character building in curriculum
Ghazali included industrial education, textile, agriculture, tailoring and hair cutting in
the curriculum

Methods of Teaching and Techniques:

Ghazali has recommended the following teaching methods and techniques, which are
based on psychological principles. These methods and techniques are widely used and
educators all over the world agree with their usefulness and today they are the
foundation of curriculum development process.
•        Teaching of lessons to be based on previous knowledge and experience of the
students.
•        Teachers should simplify the difficult concepts by stories, tales etc. otherwise his
teaching will not be effective
      Move from simple to complex.
 This is a very important principle of today curriculum which was presented by
Ghazali at those times. History of curriculum laid down the basic foundation of
curriculum development

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 Proper planning
 Ghazali stresses the importance of planning and advises that teachers should do his
preparation before teaching to make it effective
Abilities of students:
 Ghazali stresses that while teaching the abilities of students should be kept in mind.
Concepts, which are above the mental level of the students, will not make the teaching
effective. Today in modern curriculum teachers are asked to keep in mind the
individual differences.
 In the era of colonist, the colonist came to indo-pack and they set up schools exactly
like the ones they knew in Europe. The curriculum was centered on the learning of
letters, numbers, and prayers. Their strict learning environment did not allow for
crafts nor recess breaks, and only one out of ten children attended school.
There were common characteristics shared by these colonies:
1. Religious Education; its major aim was personal salvation
2         Education was centered on social class, dual system or class system.  The children
of workers should have minimal primary education, they learned the 4 R's (reading,
writing, arithmetic, and religion
3          With the exception of few Schools, education was only for boys
4          Most children in colonial times received their education through informal means
such as the family, the farm, and the shop.
Changes in educational philosophy and curriculum came about in this era as well.  In
1901, John Dewey wrote The Child and the Curriculum, and later Democracy and
Education, in which he shows concern for the relationship between society and
education. Dewey was a philosopher, psychologist, and educator.
His philosophy of education focused on learning by doing rather than rote
memorization. He criticized the old education system which keeps students
busy.  From Dewey’s educational philosophy came the emphasis on experience,
activity, and problem-solving that helped to reshape our thinking about education and
schooling. 
Maria Montessori opened her first school in 1907.  Maria Montessori was credited
with developing a classroom without walls, manipulative learning materials, teaching
toys, and programmed instruction.  Many considered her to be the 20th century's
leading advocate for early childhood education. 
Anna Freud, Jean Piaget, Alfred Adler, and Erik Erikson studied under Montessori
and made their own contributions to education and child psychology
The civil rights movement and technology change the face of the 20th century
classroom.
In the 1990s, the computers invade the classroom around the world and now it the
most important part of the curriculum.
In short history is the foundation of the modern curriculum

Economical Foundations
It focuses on:
•        Job or market oriented curriculum
•        Skill learning
The economical foundation of curriculum gives importance to the vocational aspect of
the curriculum. The economic  condition of a nation or a society guide the curriculum
of the country, because the stakeholder of the education wants to employ such a
curriculum which help them to build their economy and the people have better jobs
when they finish their schooling. In this kind of situations the curriculum become job

13
or market oriented. In this curriculum the curriculum developer gives importance to
skills acquisition which is the demands of the time. Undeveloped nations try to
prepare skill work force and send it to other countries for jobs
Here are some economical factor which influence the curriculum development
process
Economic Factors
1. Allocation of funds
 The financial condition of a country reflects its curriculum because without proper
funding one can’t achieve the outcome of a good curriculum. It is the financial aspect
of a country which guide them to adopt which type of curriculum, for example
activity base or learner center curriculum need more money in the process of the
implementation of the curriculum then subject matter curriculum
                                                                                                                                           
                                    
Because activity base and learner center curriculum need more space and money then
subject matter, for that reason in Pakistan we adopted subject base curriculum because
we have shortage of schools, classrooms in schools, trained teachers. In economical
sound countries they have implemented all kind of curriculums in their schools
according to the need of the school and that society. Without proper funding once
can’t implement a good curriculum in the country and achieve the benefits of that
curriculum.
Lack of resources due to finical constrains effect the developing and planning of the
curriculum. What type of a curriculum should have to support it through proper
funding? There are different factor in curriculum development, planning and
implementation process which need financial support e.g.
Schools lack physical facilities including buildings, classrooms, furniture, Hostel,
Play grounds, mats and even very basic necessities like blackboard, chalk, and charts.
Lack of other resources water, Fan, Electricity
  Lack of skilled manpower
The lack of skilled manpower due to financial restrains, without proper financial
support it is hard to train the people to support the teaching learning process. Only
through proper funding and the establishment of training institutions for teachers and
support staff. Teachers are the core of education system and without proper training
one can’t implement a curriculum and to support the curriculum one need to train the
entire teacher on that style of curriculum. So the skills of the teachers also guide the
direction of the curriculum, and to develop these skills in the teachers need funds.
Lack of labs due to financial problems
The lack of labs and libraries also affect the curriculum development process because
without proper computer labs in cities and villages one can’t implement computer
education curriculum all over the country. In the same way without proper libraries in
all school one can’t implement a curriculum which needs supporting or reference
books.
Also without proper health care system in the schools lot of activities can’t part of the
curriculum due to the risk factor to the health of the students and teachers.
The overburden of the population is also one of the factors that affect the financial
support of the curriculum development, lack of facilities and implementation of the
curriculum in the country.
In short we can say that economic play a vital role in the curriculum development and
implementation process in the country and it is the foundation of the successful
curriculum, without a good economic background a country can’t afford a curriculum

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which needs huge financial support

Conceptions of Curriculum

Unit # 3
The Curriculum Models
Curriculum models Models:
Definition: A simplified representation of reality which is often depicted in
diagrammatic form
1. Models serve as guidline to action.

15
2. Models are found in almost every form of education.
3. The education profession has models of instruction, of administration, of
evaluation, of supervision etc.
4. In curriculum, there are models of curriculum as opposed to models of curriculum
development. Curriculum models Are designed to provide a basis for decisions
regarding the selection, structuring and sequencing of the educational experiences

A continuum of curriculum models Rational/objectives models:

Ralph Tyler
Hilda Taba Hilda Taba 

Hilda Taba (7 December 1902 – 6 July 1967) was an architect, a curriculum theorist,
a curriculum reformer, and a teacher educator. 
Taba was born in a small village in southeastern Estonia. 
Taba was introduced to Progressive education ideas at Tartu University by her
philosophy professors. 
Taba was a student of John Dewey; 
She wrote a book entitled Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice (1962).
Some of Taba’s philosophical ideas on curriculum development 
Social processes, including the socialization of human beings, are not linear, and they
cannot be modeled through linear planning. In other words, learning and development
of personality cannot be considered as one-way processes of establishing educational
aims and deriving specific objectives from an ideal of education proclaimed or
imagined by some authority. 
The reconstruction of curricula and programmes is not a short-term effort but a long
process, lasting for years. 
Social institutions, among them school curricula and programmes, are more likely to
be effectively rearranged if, instead of the common way of administrative
reorganization—from top to bottom— a well-founded and co-ordinated system of
development from bottom to top can be used. 
The development of new curricula and programmes is more effective if it is based on
the principles of democratic guidance and on the well-founded distribution of work.
The emphasis is on the partnership based on competence, and not on administration.

Taba model: 
Taba model is inductive approach. 
Taba model is teacher approach. 
Taba believe that teachers are aware of the students needs hence they should be the
one to develop the curriculum. 
Taba’s is the Grass-root approach. 
The main idea to this approach is that the needs of the students are at the forefront to
the curriculum.
Taba’s inductive approach 
Taba advocated an inductive approach to curriculum development. 
In the inductive approach, curriculum workers start with the specifics and build up to
a general design as opposed to the more traditional deductive approach of starting
with the general design and working down to the specifics.
Steps in Taba model:
1. Diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society. 2. Formulation

16
of learning objectives.
3. Selection of the learning content.
4. Organization of learning content.
5. Selection of the learning experiences.
6. Organization of learning activities.
7. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it.
Diagnosis of learners needs: 
Diagnose of achievement. 
Diagnosis of students as learner. 
Diagnosis of curriculum problems.
Systematic diagnosis process:
1. Problem identification
2. Problem analysis
3. Formulating hypothesis and gathering data.
4. Experimenting with action.
Formulation of learning objectives.
Main objectives of education are: 
To add to knowledge they posses 
To enable them to perform skills which otherwise they would not perform To develop
certain understanding, insights and appreciations. Development of healthy
personality. 
Analysis of particular culture and society which educational program serves.
Function of educational objectives: 
Transmit culture 
Reconstruct society 
Fullest development of individual
To guide on curriculum decision on 
What to cover? 
What to emphasize? 
What content to select? 
Which learning experiences to stress?
Principle of formulation of objectives: 
Objective should useful, cleared and concreteness 
Objective should describe both kind of behavior i.e. expected and content Objective
should be realistic 
Scope of objective should be broad.
Selection and organization of content: 
Content should be rational base 
Validity and significance of content 
Consistency with social realities 
Appropriateness to the need and interest of students 
Making proper distinctions between the various levels of content Organization and
Selection of the learning experiences 
This involves more then applying principles of learning. 
Have you used a variety of teaching methods? 
When using lecture will you make that active with questions and discussion? Are
there opportunities for students to learn from one another? 
Are there opportunities for students to apply what they are learning through solving
real problems or developing projects that could be used in a real work setting?
Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it 

17
Plans need to be made for evaluation. 
How should the quality of learning be evaluated to assure that the ends of education
are being achieved? 
How does one make sure that there is consistency between the aims and objectives
and what is actually achieved by students? 
Does the curriculum organization provide experiences which offer optimum
oppertunities for all varieties of learners to attain independent goals? Taba believed
that: "To evolve a theory of curriculum development and a method of thinking about
it, one needs to ask what demands and requirements of culture and society both are,
both for the present and the future. Curriculum is a way of preparing young people to
participate in our culture."
Application of the Taba model 
Taba model is currently used in most curriculum designs. 
Identifying the needs of the students. 
Developing objectives 
Selecting instructional method 
Organizing learning experiences 
Evaluating
Strengths of Taba model: 
Gives teachers a greater role by not just making them implementers of the curriculum
but also developers 
Uses the inductive method 
Teacher approach is used 
Notes that teachers are aware of the students’ needs therefore they are the ones that
should develop the curriculum 
Sees curriculum as a “plan for learning” 
Gives importance to objectives in order to establish a sense of purpose for deciding
what to include, exclude and emphasize in a curriculum.

WHEELER Cyclical Model of curriculum Process

Cyclical models on the other hand are an extension of the objective model as
tyler lays a foundation for most curriculum models.

a. They are logical and sequential in approach.

b. They present the curriculum process as a continuing activity, which is
constantly
in a state of change as new information or practices become available.

• the content,
• methods of learning activities and
• evaluation are liable to change once new information or practices become
available. Importance of Cyclic Model
a. The Cyclical model is responsive to needs, which are on-going,
necessitating constant updating of the curriculum process.
b. They are flexible.
c. These models view elements of the curriculum as interrelated
and interdependent. They accept a degree of interaction
between the various curriculum elements.
d. The Cyclical models involve Situational Analysis, which involves the

18
 analysis of those factors, which exist in the environment where the
curriculum is going to be
introduced.

In cyclical model, D. K. Wheeler, who developed and extended the ideas

forwarded by
Tyler.

Wheeler suggested five interrelated phases that should developed

logically as it is demonstrated in his diagram.

Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls also had to put in their input into the cyclical
model. The Nicholls model emphasises the logical approach to curriculum
development, particularly where the need for new curricula emerges from changed
situations.

The cyclical models can be further described in terms of the structure that
they follow generally and its flexibility.

The Differences between Objectives and Cyclical model should not be under
estimated. Firstly, difference is that cyclical models are flexible while the objectives
models are rigid. Whenever there is new information, which needs to be incorporated
in the curriculum, the cyclical models readily incorporate it while it will be very hard
for it to be included in the objective model.
econdly, Cyclical models view curriculum elements as interrelated and
interdependent while in the objectives models, the elements are linear, where one
leads to another.

19
The third is that cyclical models present the curriculum process as a continuing
activity, which is constantly in a state of change as new information, and practices
become available. Cyclical models accommodate change over the years while in the
objective model it’s not clear whether this could happen or not.

Cyclical models emphasise the importance of Situational Analysis, so that

the subsequent curriculum will accurately reflect the needs of the learners for
whom it is intended.

Dynamic Model
The basic tenet of the dynamic or interactional models of curriculum development is
that curriculum development is a dynamic and interactive process which can begin
with any curriculum element (Print 1989, Brady 1990). 
Walkers Model of Curriculum develop by Decker Walker 1971. 

The proponents of this approach to curriculum development argue that the curriculum
process does not follow a lineal, sequential pattern. Dynamic models have emerged
from a more descriptive approach to curriculum where researchers have observed the
behavior of teachers and developers as they devise curricula. Consequently the
analytical and prescriptive approach, the very basis of the objectives and cyclical
models, is not prominent in the dynamic models.

According to Print (1989) the major proponents of the dynamic or interaction model
are Walker (1971) and Malcolm (1976). Decker Walker argued that the objectives or
rational models of curriculum development were neither popular nor successful.
Walker contended that curriculum developers do not follow the prescriptive approach
of the rational sequence of curriculum elements when they devise curriculum but
proceed through three phrases in their natural preparation of curricula. Walker's
model of curriculum development is shown bellow

Dynamic Model of Curriculum usually used in school based settings

A. Walkers Model of Curriculum develop by Decker Walker 1971

It starts with belief, theories, conceptions, points and views, aims, objectives under of
it is Platform under of it is Deliberation under of it is Curriculum Design

B. Skilbeck’s Curriculum Model in 1976

It start with the Situational Analysis followed by the Goal Formulation followed by
Program Building Interpretation and Implementation followed by Monitoring
Feedback, Assessment and Reconstruction.

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 Unit #4
Curriculum Designs

Curriculum design is a term used to describe the purposeful, deliberate, and

systematic organization of curriculum (instructional blocks) within a class or course.
In other words, it is a way for teachers to plan instruction. When teachers design
curriculum, they identify what will be done, who will do it, and what schedule to
follow.
Purpose of Curriculum Design
Teachers design each curriculum with a specific educational purpose in mind. The
ultimate goal is to improve student learning, but there are other reasons to employ
curriculum design as well. For example, designing a curriculum for middle school
students with both elementary and high school curricula in mind helps to make sure
that learning goals are aligned and complement each other from one stage to the next.
If a middle school curriculum is designed without taking prior knowledge from
elementary school or future learning in high school into account it can create real
problems for the students. 
Types of Curriculum Design
There are three basic types of curriculum design:
 Subject-centered design
 Learner-centered design
 Problem-centered design
Subject-Centered Curriculum Design
Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a particular subject matter or
discipline. For example, a subject-centered curriculum may focus on math or biology.
This type of curriculum design tends to focus on the subject rather than the individual.
It is the most common type of curriculum used in K-12 public schools in states and
local districts in the United States.
Subject-centered curriculum design describes what needs to be studied and how it
should be studied. Core curriculum is an example of a subject-centered design which
can be standardized across schools, states, and the country as a whole. In standardized
core curricula, teachers are provided a pre-determined list of things that they need to
teach their students, along with specific examples of how these things should be
taught. You can also find subject-centered designs in large college classes in which
teachers focus on a particular subject or discipline. 
The primary drawback of subject-centered curriculum design is that it is not student-
centered. In particular, this form of curriculum design is constructed without taking
into account the specific learning styles of the students. This can cause problems

21
with student engagement and motivation and may even cause students to fall behind
in class.
Learner-Centered Curriculum Design
In contrast, learner-centered curriculum design takes each individual's needs,
interests, and goals into consideration. In other words, it acknowledges that students
are not uniform and adjusts to those student needs. Learner-centered curriculum
design is meant to empower learners and allow them to shape their education through
choices.
Instructional plans in a learner-centered curriculum are differentiated, giving students
the opportunity to choose assignments, learning experiences or activities. This
can motivate students and help them stay engaged in the material that they are
learning. 
The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it is labor intensive.
Developing differentiated instruction puts pressure on the teacher to create instruction
and/or find materials that are conducive to each student's learning needs. Teachers
may not have the time or may lack the experience or skills to create such a plan.
Learner-centered curriculum design also requires that teachers balance student wants
and interests with student needs and required outcomes, which is not an easy balance
to obtain.
Problem-Centered Curriculum Design
Like learner-centered curriculum design, problem-centered curriculum design is also a
form of student-centered design. Problem-centered curricula focus on teaching
students how to look at a problem and come up with a solution to the problem.
Students are thus exposed to real-life issues, which helps them develop skills that are
transferable to the real world. 
Problem-centered curriculum design increases the relevance of the curriculum and
allows students to be creative and innovate as they are learning. The drawback to this
form of curriculum design is that it does not always take learning styles into
consideration. 
Curriculum Design Tips
The following curriculum design tips can help educators manage each stage of the
curriculum design process.
 Identify the needs of stakeholders (i.e., students) early on in the curriculum
design process. This can be done through needs analysis, which involves the
collection and analysis of data related to the learner. This data might include
what learners already know and what they need to know to be proficient in a
particular area or skill. It may also include information about learner
perceptions, strengths, and weaknesses. 
 Create a clear list of learning goals and outcomes. This will help you to
focus on the intended purpose of the curriculum and allow you to plan
instruction that can achieve the desired results. Learning goals are the things
teachers want students to achieve in the course. Learning outcomes are the
measurable knowledge, skills, and attitudes that students should have achieved
in the course. 
 Identify constraints that will impact your curriculum design. For example,
time is a common constraint that must be considered. There are only so many
hours, days, weeks or months in the term. If there isn't enough time to deliver
all of the instruction that has been planned, it will impact learning outcomes. 
 Consider creating a curriculum map (also known as a curriculum matrix) so
that you can properly evaluate the sequence and coherence of

22
 instruction. Curriculum mapping provides visual diagrams or indexes of a
curriculum. Analyzing a visual representation of the curriculum is a good way
to quickly and easily identify potential gaps, redundancies or alignment issues
in the sequencing of instruction. Curriculum maps can be created on paper or
with software programs or online services designed specifically for this
purpose. 
 Identify the instructional methods that will be used throughout the course and
consider how they will work with student learning styles. If the instructional
methods are not conducive to the curriculum, the instructional design or the
curriculum design will need to be altered accordingly. 
 Establish evaluation methods that will be used at the end and during the
school year to assess learners, instructors, and the curriculum. Evaluation will
help you determine if the curriculum design is working or if it is failing.
Examples of things that should be evaluated include the strengths and
weaknesses of the curriculum and achievement rates related to learning
outcomes. The most effective evaluation is ongoing and summative. 
 Remember that curriculum design is not a one-step process; continuous
improvement is a necessity. The design of the curriculum should be assessed
periodically and refined based on assessment data. This may involve making
alterations to the design part way through the course to ensure that learning
outcomes or a certain level of proficiency will be achieved at the end of the
course.

Unit #5 The Curriculum process

Elements of Curriculum Development

23
There are five key elements of curriculum development , according to  Tyler “it is
essential as a part of comprehensive theory of organization to show just what are the
elements will serve satisfactory as organizing elements.” According to Herrick and
Tyler, following are the components and elements of curriculum development

1. Situational analysis
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of content, scope and sequence
4. Activities, strategies and method of teaching
5. Evaluation
Situational Analysis
Situational analysis means the analysis of different conditions such as emotional,
political, cultural, religious and geographical condition of a country. This will help the
curriculum planners in the selection of objectives, selection of organization of
learning materials and in suggesting appropriate evaluation procedure.

Formulation of Objectives
There are four main factors for formulating the objectives of education. These are 

1. The society
2. The knowledge
3. The learner
4. The learning process
All of these factors are to be considered while selecting and formulating the
educational objectives.

Selection of Content
One of the important elements is the selection of content for a subject. At the time of
subject matter selection, the following factors are to be kept in mind:

1. Available sources and resource

2. Demand of the society
3. International needs
4. Level and age of the learner or student
5. Methods of content organization
6. Number of courses offered
7. Quantity and qualification of teaching staff
8. Scope of subject matter
9. System of examination
10. Type of society and culture
Strategies and Method of Teaching
These are strategies and methods of teaching adopted by the teachers during
instruction and learning experiences. This will certainly not fair to ask a teacher for
achieving certain objectives without giving any guidelines. In most of the countries
curriculum development is a centralized process. Teachers are not directly involved in
this phase. Most of the teachers do not know the process of achieving desired goals.
After determining the goals and objectives the next problem is the selection of
strategies and methods of teachers. What we should give to our students. Should a
curriculum be fixed or flexible, constant, common or differentiated?

24
Evaluation
Evaluation is one of the dynamic process, which needs a continuous research and
evaluation for its betterment in order to cope with the variable demands of the society
and bring about desirable changes. Curriculum evaluation is not a student evaluation.
It is a broader term being used to make judgment about the worth and effectiveness of
it.  With the help of evaluation phase experts can modify the curriculum by bringing
about desirable changes

UNIT #6
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

25
Curriculum Development at Primary and Secondary Level

Why Curriculum???
Education plays a vital role in nation building.
Ministry of (provisional) Education, is responsible for the cohesion, integration
and preservation of the ideological foundation of the states.

Curriculum Bodies at Primary and Secondary Levels

• IN PUNJAB : PUNJAB CURRICULUM AUTHORTY (PCA)is responsible

to develop curriculum for Punjab Province.

• IN SINDH: BUREAU OF CURRICULUM AND EXTENSION WING

(BCEW) is responsible for develop curriculum for Sindh Province

• IN KPK: DIRECTORATE OF CURRICULUM AND TEACHER

EDUCATION(CTE) is responsible for develop curriculum for
KhyberPakhtunkhwa Province.

• IN BALOCHISTAN: No Curriculum body its in process

• IN ICT, FATA, FANA and AJK: CURRICULUM WING is responsible for

the develop curriculum for these Areas.

Main Functions of these bodies

• Prepare or cause to be prepared schemes of studies, curricula,manuscripts of

textbooks, standards of education and schedules or strategy for their
introduction in various classes of an institution in connection with the
implementation of the education policy of the Government.

Main Responsibilities

Ministry of Education (Curriculum Development Body) is responsible in

making of:

1. Curriculum
2. Syllabus
3. Planning
4. Policy and
5. Development of Educational Standards.

Curriculum Design and Development Process in Pakistan

1. Evolution of Curriculum Objectives.

2. Development of Scheme of Studies.
3. Development of Syllabus of each subject.
4. Development of Textbook, Instructional material.
5. Approval of Textual Material.

26
6. Teacher Training.

Evolution of Curriculum Objectives.

• Prepares the draft of objectives.

(Send to inter-provincial Ministry for discussion curriculum
development).
• Objectives are finalized.
• Translated to the specific teaching objectives.

Factors considered in finalizing the objectives

• Be precise
• Assist in the selection of teaching strategy
• Produce a designated behavior pattern
• Enables teachers to evaluate the quality and
effectiveness of learning.

Developing Objectives
Objectives are derived from
• Recommendation of the Education Policy
• Provisional Level Seminars
• Forums of research studies
• Inter Board Committee of Chairmen

The studies Scheme (Scheme of Studies)

It is based on three key factors:

• The Education policy

• Market Demand
• Global Issues

Task work in this area is undertaken with the participation of:

• Provincial government
• Research organizations and experts
• Feedback of the IBCC

Development of Syllabi

It is based on objectives and scheme of study.

1. Subject specific syllabi is prepared in consultation with:
2. Subject expert
3. Psychologist
4. Serving teacher
Syllabi must satisfy the following conditions:
1. Based on the needs of learner.
2. Take into account the existing knowledge and the
environmental experience of the learner.

27
3. The development level of the learner is considered in the cognitive,
effectiveness and psycho-motor domain.
4. Content should be focused on attaining the objectives.

Textbook Development
• Provisional Text Book Boards are responsible for the development of the
text-books according to the approved syllabi.

How textbook is developed?

1. Establish a list of text book writers.

2. Invitation are sent to the writers to submit the material within
the syllabus parameter.
3. Selection is made on the basis of relevance of material.
4. The selected material is transformed into a textbook.

Review the Approval

Review committee comprises on five or six members:

• At least one expert form the syllabus Formulation Committee. Two

subject experts.
Two school teachers

Textbooks Review Parameter

• The books truly reflects the curriculum.

• It meets the objectives stated in the curriculum.
• Book does not contain any material repugnant to Islamic and
Pakistani ideology.
• In case of approval, textbook is sent for publishing and distribution.
• In case of objection, complaints are relayed with revision
recommendations.

Teacher Training

• Teacher training for curriculum implementation is the responsibility

of the provincial government.
• It is now stressed that each textbook must have a teacher's guide or included in
textbook.
• In some cases assistance in the training of the masters trainers is arranged by
the provincial government.

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