Statistics for Textile Engineers

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 Statistics
for Textile Engineers

Prof. J. R. Nagla

WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD

New Delhi • Cambridge • Oxford • Philadelphia

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CRC Press Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.
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Version Date: 20150227

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 Dedicated to
DKTE and My Family

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 Contents

Preface xiii

1 Introduction and need of statistics 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Nature of textile industry today 1
1.3 Need for SQC techniques 2
2 Statistics and basic concepts 5
2.1 Introduction of statistics 5
2.2 Methods of data collection 7
3 Classification and graphical representations 9
3.1 Introduction 9
3.2 Frequency distribution table 10
3.3 Cumulative frequency distribution table 16
3.4 Graphical representations of the frequency distribution 18
3.5 Graphical representations of the cumulative frequency
distribution (Ogive Curve) 20
3.6 Exercise 22
4 Measures of central tendency 25
4.1 Introduction of the central tendency 25
4.2 Measure of central tendency 25
4.3 Arithmetic mean 25

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4.4 Computation of AM for the frequency distribution 26

4.5 Median 31
4.6 Computation of median 31
4.7 Graphical determination of median 32
4.8 Mode 35
4.9 Determination of mode 35
4.10 Determination of mode graphically 36
4.11 Exercise 38
5 Partition values 40
5.1 Introduction 40
5.2 Quartiles 40
5.3 Deciles 45
5.4 Percentiles 50
5.5 Exercise 54
6 Measures of dispersion 56
6.1 Introduction of the dispersion 56
6.2 Range 56
6.3 Quartile deviation 58
6.4 Mean deviation 61
6.5 Standard deviation 65
6.6 Relative measures of dispersion 72
6.7 Exercise 76
7 Skewness and kurtosis 80
7.1 Introduction 80
7.2 Skewness 80
7.3 Symmetric frequency distribution 80
7.4 Skewed frequency distribution 81
7.5 Measures of skewness 82

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 Contents ix

7.6 Interpretation of the coefficient of skewness 83

7.7 Kurtosis 85
7.8 Measures of kurtosis 86
7.9 Exercise 88
8 Correlation and regression 90
8.1 Introduction 90
8.2 Bivariate data 90
8.3 Correlation analysis 90
8.4 Coefficient of determination 93
8.5 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient 95
8.6 Regression analysis 100
8.7 Exercise 108
9 Multivariate analysis 111
9.1 Introduction 111
9.2 Multivariate data 111
9.3 Multiple correlation analysis 111
9.4 Multiple regression analysis 114
9.5 Exercise 117
10 Probability 119
10.1 Introduction 119
10.2 Basic concepts 119
10.3 Definition of the probability (classical approach) 122
10.4 Laws of the probability 122
10.5 Results of permutation and combination 123
10.6 Exercise 129
11 Probability distributions 131
11.1 Basic concepts 131
11.2 Probability distribution of a random variable 132

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11.3 Some properties of the random variable

and its probability distribution 136
11.4 Some standard probability distributions 138
11.5 Exercise 138
12 Standard discrete probability distributions 140
12.1 Binomial probability distribution 140
12.2. Poisson probability distribution 143
12.3 Poisson approximation to the binomial distribution 146
12.4 Fitting of binomial and Poisson probability distributions 147
12.5 Exercise 151
13 Standard continuous probability distributions 154
13.1 Normal problem distribution 154
13.2 Standard normal variable and standard
normal probability distribution 157
2
13.3 Chi-square probability distribution (χ distribution) 162
13.4 Student’s t-probability distribution 164
13.5 F-probability distribution 166
13.6 Exercise 168
14 Testing of hypothesis 170
14.1 Introduction 170
14.2 Large sample tests (Z-tests) 172
14.3 Small sample tests 185
14.4 Exercise 216
15 Estimation 220
15.1 Introduction 220
15.2 Point estimation 220
15.3 Interval estimation (confidence interval) 222
15.4 Exercise 229

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16 Analysis of variance 231

16.1 Introduction 231
16.2 One-way analysis of variance 232
16.3 Two-way analysis of variance 238
16.4 Exercise 249
17 Design of experiments 253
17.1 Introduction 253
17.2. Completely randomized design 254
17.3. Randomized block design 255
17.4. Latin square design (LSD) 257
17.5 Factorial experiments 262
17.6 Exercise 274
18 Statistical quality control 278
18.1 Introduction 278
18.2 Process control 279
18.3 Control chart 279
18.4 Interpretation of control chart 280
18.5 Specification limits 281
18.6 X chart 281
18.7 R-Chart 282
18.8 np-Chart 284
18.9 p-Chart 285
18.10 C-chart 288
18.11 Lot control 290
18.12 Some basic concepts related to rectifying
single sampling plan 291
18.13 Exercise 294

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Area under standard normal curve from Z = 0 to Z = z 296

tn,∝/2values for t-distribution 298

χ2n,∝ values for χ2-distribution 300

Fm,n, 0.05 values for F-distribution 302

Fm,n, 0.01 values for F-distribution 304

Statistical constants for control charts 306

Index 308

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 Preface

The inspiration of writing this book is the result of great need from textile
engineering students, textile engineers and textile professionals working in
the textile industries for the book on statistics in simple and easy language,
which will guide and help them to use different statistical methods in decision
making.
I hope this book will meet all the needs of textile professionals and textile
industries in their decision making as it discusses everything related to
statistics right from basic data collection to up to design of experiments with
suitable illustrations. Though this book is written for textile-related people
only, it is also useful for engineers or researchers of any discipline.
The statistical tables of the book are created using Microsoft Excel
functions.
I am thankful to Shri. K. Venkatrayan (BITRA Mumbai) for his guidance
in writing this book. I am very much thankful to Professor S. D. Mahajan
(TEI Ichalkaranji) for writing the introductory chapter, also editing and
proof reading the book. I am thankful to my student Raghav Bhala for his
help in checking calculations. I am very much thankful to our principal
Dr. P. V. Kadole and the management of DKTE Society for their support
and help in completing this book. Finally, I am thankful to those who have
inspired and helped me directly or indirectly in writing this book.
I will be happy if the readers point out mistakes and give feedback about
the book.

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 1
Introduction and need of statistics

1.1 Introduction
From many angles textile industry holds unique position in the Indian
industries and economy. It is next to farming in providing employment (direct
and indirect) to the people. Share of textile industry in industrial products is
almost fourteen percent. Thirty to thirty-five percent of our foreign exchange
earning is thorough textile products. It is the only industry linking all states
and union territories. It will be appropriate to say that our country our vast
country is tied together by the threads of textile industry.
Thus, well being of Indian economy depends to a large extent upon well
being of textile industry. And, if judiciously used statistical quality control
(SQC) can be of good help in maintaining well being of Indian Textile
Industry.

1.2 Nature of textile industry today

Cloth was, is and will be the primary need of the civilized mankind – for
protection from heat, cold, rain etc. and also for decoration of human body.
Art of converting natural fibers like cotton, silk, wool, jute and flax into cloth
was known to man from centuries. Before industrial revolution in Europe
textile industry was more in the form of decentralized cottage industry and
‘Art’ element was playing major role.
But, industrial revolution totally changed the nature of textile industry all
over the world. Concept of ‘Mass Production’ took over the charge and to that
extent ‘Art’ element receded. First major change was establishment of big
capacity mills – change from decentralized sector to centralized, organized
sector. Second change was drastic increase in the production rates because
of use of high-speed machines. This necessarily put forward the challenge
of maintaining reasonable consistency in quality of mass production. In
addition with the developments in science and technology many new areas
got introduced in textile industry with stricter demands on quality. Manmade
textile industry, development of garment sector and fast developing field of

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 2 Statistics for Textile Engineers

technical textiles are some examples of new areas. All these developments
have put enormous pressure on textile industry for achieving quality standards.
Today’s textile industry has really become divergent and all serious efforts
are being made to satisfy divergent quality demands from all these sectors.
One thing can be certainly said – nature of today’s textile industry was beyond
imagination even few decades back.
Today textile industry can be divided in the following well-defined sectors:
1. Sectors processing and preparing natural fibres for further processing
[Ginning and pressing of cotton, breeding of cocoons and reeling in
case of silk are the examples of this sector.]
2. Units manufacturing manmade fibres like viscose, nylon, polyester,
polypropylene, acrylic etc.
3. Spinning mills converting fibres into yarn.
4. Sizing units converting coned yarn into warp beams for weaving.
5. Weaving units manufacturing cloth. In India this sector is further
divided in four sub sectors – hand looms, non-automatic power
looms, automatic power looms and shuttleless looms.
6. Knitting units manufacturing hosiery products.
7. Latest sector in fabric forming is of non wovens. This is a high tech
industry with high growth potential.
8. Process houses for chemical treatments on cloth to make it more
attractive and suitable for use. Bleaching, dying, printing and
finishing are the common chemical treatments carried out.
9. Units manufacturing ready-made garments from the finished cloth.
10. A relatively new sector is of manufacturing textile composites for
industrial applications.
11. Vast and fast growing sector of technical textiles.

1.3 Need for SQC techniques

Out of the above sectors age old sectors are ginning/pressing, silk breeding,
reeling, spinning, sizing, weaving, knitting and chemical processing. All
these sectors are having some common features:
1. Variability in raw materials like fibres, chemicals, water etc.
All natural fibres are characterized by inherent variation in their
properties. For example in case of cotton the basic properties like

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 Introduction and need of statistics 3

length, strength, fineness, colour varies considerably even for

same variety, station, lot, bale. Variations in raw materials become
a major source of variation in the finished product at each stage.
Even chemical process houses feel the impact of variability in
fibres.
2. All these industries are labour intensive with low level of automation.
As such finished product quality depends to a large extent on the
work practices followed by the workers.
3. Many of these industrial units work on three shifts basis. It is almost
impossible to have similar work practices from all workers from
all shifts. Thus the system brings along with it the variability from
person to person.
4. In majority of cases processing of material is done, not in a
continuous fashion, but in a batch wise fashion. One lot is divided
in number of batches depending on the capacities of available
machines. For example, if lot requirement is of 30,000 metres it will
be simultaneously woven on number of looms and even chemical
processing like dyeing is done in 30 batches of 1000 metres each.
One cannot expect exactly same quality of finished material when
processing is done in number of batches. Thus, bath wise processing
is one reason for variations.
5. Another major reason for variability in yarn quality is very high
number of production centers. Every ring frame spindle is a full-
fledged production center having its own check points. And so, yarn
produced on one spindle will differ in properties from yarn spun on
another spindle. Similarly, same cloth variety woven on two looms
will show some variability in properties. In the existing processing
conditions such variations are unavoidable.
6. In textiles number of inputs is too large till the fibre gets converted into
readymade garments. The big list includes fibers, dyes, chemicals,
water, steam, fuels, electricity, machines, workers, maintenance
inventory etc. Their role in controlling finished product quality is
many times quite complex. Perfect quality control to all these inputs
is next to impossible.
Textile engineers are generally interested in studying such variations occurring
from material to material, test to test, sample to sample, machine to machine,
time to time and place to place. Before any type of study textile engineers
generally have following questions.

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 4 Statistics for Textile Engineers

1. How many tests are to be carried out for getting the desired results?
2. How to analyze the results or the data collected for the purpose of
the study?
3. How to interpret the results of analysis?
Answers of all above questions can be obtained with the help of the subject
‘Statistics’. Thus, for studying the variation in the data and interpret them the
textile engineer must know the theory and different methods of the subject
‘Statistics’.
All eighteen chapters of this book discuss various statistical methods and
techniques which are useful for study and analysis of textile data.
Chapter one is about the subject textile technology and need of statistics in
textiles.
Chapter two discusses about the subject Statistics and the basic terminology
used in statistics.
Chapter three discusses about classification and graphical representation of
the data.
Chapter four discusses about the measures of central tendency.
Chapter five discusses about the partition values and its use.
Chapter six discusses about measures of dispersion and their importance.
Chapter seven discusses about the skewness and kurtosis of the frequency
distribution and their interpretations.
Chapter eight discusses about the study of the bivariate data using correlation
and regression.
Chapter nine discusses about the study of the multivariate data using multiple
and partial correlation and the multiple regression.
Chapter ten discusses about the probability theory.
Chapter eleven discusses about the probability distribution of the random
variables.
Chapter twelve discusses about some standard discrete distributions.
Chapter thirteen discusses about some standard continuous distributions.
Chapter fourteen discusses about the testing of hypothesis.
Chapter fifteen discusses about the estimation.
Chapter sixteen discusses about analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Chapter seventeen discusses about design of experiments.
Chapter eighteen discusses about statistical quality control (SQC).

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