CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of biodiesel
Biofuels are fuels achieved from biomass. Biomass is natural matter
collected from plants or animals. The different raw materials which can be
utilized for obtaining biofuels are mainly classified into three categories, sugar
and starchy crops, cellulosic biomass and oil-producing trees. First group of
raw materials is sugar and starch crops. These are plants like starchy crops
and sugarcane, which can be stored by converting the energy from the sun
into simple sugars by photosynthesis. Due to the requirement of discovering
alternative energy sources, these products are used to produce biofuels,
especially ethanol as gasoline blends or substitutes. The second group is
cellulosic biomass. Cellulosic biomass includes huge amount of
heterogeneous matter in solid form. The third feedstock group consists of oil-
producing trees. There are numerous plants that give oils, especially
nonedible oils, which can be utilized to create optional fuels which can be
used as blends diesel or substitutes. The general features of these oils are
that they can transfer into fatty acids and glycerin.
B.C. (Before Christ) 10th century Assyrians first used biogas to heat
bath water. In Common Era, 17th century Helmont experienced that natural
matter discharges combustible gases. Mid 1800's transesterification of
vegetable oil is used to distill glycerin during soap manufacture. Conversion of
vegetable oil to methyl ester using transesterification process was first
performed by E. Duffy and J. Patrick in 1853. The first successful internal
combustion engine is manufactured in 1876. February 27, 1892, Rudolf Diesel
has applied for a new efficient heat engine patent, "Working method and
design for combustion engines a new efficient, thermal engine". The patent
was approved with Patent No. 67207. The diesel engine model designed by
Rudolf Diesel fueled with peanut oil was first operated in Augsburg city,
Germany in August 10, 1893. Attempts have been made to promote ethanol
as a fuel for automobiles in the 1920's and 1930's. Anaerobic bacteria
responsible for methane creation have been identified in this decade. August
31, 1937 G. Chavanne a researcher of Belgian got a patent for “Procedure for

1
the transformation of vegetable oils for their uses as fuels ". The theory used
these days as "biodiesel" was projected at first time.
In1942 a scientist ‘Seddon’ investigated the engine outputs of various
vegetable oils by using the diesel engine model with satisfactory outcomes.
Investigations had shown that natural oil can be utilized in CI engines for
normal working situations. In 1977, Expedito Parente a Brazilian scientist filed
the first patent of biodiesel industrial process. Engelman (1978) performed a
sequence of engine tests with 10% to 50% blends soybean oil with D100, the
blend containing a vegetable oil concentration of 60% or more is a cause of
engine sputtering due to fuel filter plugging. In 1979 investigation on the use
of transesterified sunflower oil was began in South Africa. Biodiesel fuel
tested on the engine was completed and was issued globally in 1983. In1981
Schoedder noted mixed outcomes by using rapeseed oil blended with diesel
fuel in a sequence of investigations. In 1982 Pryde observed the reports of
different experimentations on the use of renewable oil as substitute for diesel,
the entire short-term engine test shows satisfactory results, and long-time
engine ran reveal a serious problem of lubricant oil contamination and carbon
accumulation. It was reported that it is necessary to chemically modify
vegetable oil or to mix with diesel fuel to prevent early engine failure problem.
Researchers concentrated on use of various blends of vegetable oils instead
of diesel fuel. Therefore, it can be reported that 100% unmodified vegetable
oil is unacceptable as a fuel for diesel engine. In same year Peterson and
Wagner observed engine scratched performing short-term tests using 100%
rapeseed oil as an alternative fuel and no measurable improvement was seen
by heating the oil prior to burning.
The greater part of investigations related to a range of uses of direct
plant oils or mixtures of plant oils with diesel fuels showed that in shorter
duration experimentation pure plant oils will give engine outputs that are
approximately similar or superior to mineral diesel. However, in long duration
tests, linear vegetable oils creates some problems to engine parts such as
coking of injector nozzles, oil dilution of crankcase, stick of piston rings,
lubricant contamination with additional working issues. Many of these issues
were due to the triglycerides polymerization with double bonds; it leads to the
creation of deposits inside the engine as well as lower volatility and more
kinematic viscosity than pure diesel fuels. Plant oils are 11-17 times thicker
than diesel, resulting in poor atomization pattern. If the fuel is too dense, the
fuel injector can’t spray properly in the combustion chamber and fuel will not
burn properly. Therefore, the general trend is directed to the utilization of
chemically treated plant oils by transesterification. The transesterification
reaction reduces the viscosity of plant oils and gives high featured biofuels. In
the transesterification reaction, plant oils react with alcohol in the existence of
a catalyst. In this process triglycerides are broken and it forms methyl esters,
generally known as biodiesel and glycerin, after which they are separated and
purified.
November 1987 Austrian manufacturing industry Gaskoks began the
first pilot plant of biodiesel. In 1989 Gaskoks installed the first commercial
factory of biodiesel. In 1991 Austria's first biodiesel standard was formed.
International standards such as the German standard DIN 51606 in 1997
were formulated in order to strengthen quality control requirements for engine
manufacturer's using biodiesel fuel. 2002 ASTM D 6751 (USA and Canada)
were first time presented, and October 2003 an updated European biodiesel
standard DINEN 14214 was published. In the Minnesota State in September
2005 included biofuels in total diesel sold in their state and was the first US
state to oblige to require at least 2% biodiesel. The current version of the
biodiesel fuel standard (EN 14214 and ASTM D 6751) was announced in
November 2008 and replaced all olds standards [1, 2]

1.2 Feedstock for biodiesel production

An important parameter of biodiesel is the quantity of oil that can be
obtained or created with every unit region of land cultivated with oil-containing
plant. Some fruits or seeds may produce more oil per unit mass of fruit or
seed but due to the lesser amount of seed or fruit produced per acre of land,
Oil gaining from one acre of cultivated land is less. The perfect condition
would be to have the trees that give fruits or seeds with larger oil proportion
with giving higher amount fruits or seeds per acre of planted area. Tab No. 1.1
represents the distinctive yields of different vegetable oils per acre space of
planted land. It showed that palm oil tree gives the maximum quantity of oil
per acre; it produces 2023 kg of oil per acre, followed by babassu which
produces 1000 kg of vegetable oil in one acre. Corn has the minimum yield of
59 kg of oil in one acre. The jatropha plant normally gives 643 kg of oil in one
acre. However, it was observed that yield is one parameter and others need
to evaluate total productivity considering the other agricultural input required,
like fertilizer, water, labor, processing, especially harvesting and energy
demand.

Tab. No.1.1 Typical yields of various plant oils (1 ha=2.47105 acre)

Sr. no Crop Kg oil/acre Liters oil/acre
1 Corn 59 70
2 Cashew Nut 60 71
3 Oats 74 88
4 Lupine 79 94
5 Kenaf 93 110
6 Calendula 104 123
7 Cotton 110 132
8 Hemp 123 147
9 Soybean 152 180
10 Coffee 156 186
11 Linseed 163 193
12 Hazelnuts 164 195
13 Euphorbia 178 212
14 Pumpkin Seed 182 216
15 Coriander 182 217
16 Mustard Seed 195 231
17 Camelina 198 236
18 Sesame 237 282
19 Safflower 265 315
20 Rice 282 335
21 Tung Oil Tree 320 380
22 Sunflowers 324 385
23 Cocoa 349 415
24 Peanuts 360 429
 Sr. no Crop Kg oil/acre Liters oil/acre
25 Opium poppy 396 471
26 Rapeseed 405 482
27 Olives 412 490
28 Castor Beans 481 572
29 Pecan nuts 609 725
30 Jojoba 618 736
31 Jatropha 643 766
32 Macadamia Nuts 764 909
33 Brazil Nuts 813 968
34 Avocado 897 1068
35 Coconut 915 1088
36 Babassu 1000 1190
37 Oil Palm 2023 2407
38 Chinese tallow 2226 2649
39 Algae 32307 38445

One of the main purpose for making production of biodiesel more

sophisticated as it is an energy substitute and the accessibility of raw
materials of biodiesel all over the world. The nature of the biodiesel raw
material depends on one location, feed and geographical conditions. There
are over 350 kinds of potential oil crops. It is very important that raw materials
with potential for biodiesel production are abundantly available at the lowest
price compared to competitive market diesel. Generally, feedstocks are
classified into four main categories as follows:
(a) Non-edible vegetable oil
(b) Edible vegetable oil
(c) Animal fats-tallow, yellow grease and chicken fat.
(d) Recycled or waste oil.
Despite the identification of 350 species of oilfield crops, only a few
species are potential. Currently, there has been a high interest in creating
biodiesels by using microalgae. The attention is increasing depends on the
report that microalgae had capacity to produce biodiesel higher than other
non-edible oil producing plants and does not involve farming property or
freshwater. Microalgae contain oil more than 80% of its dry biomass weight. In
addition, 15 oilseed crops in India were recommended as biodiesel sources.
Other non-edible oil seeds are cotton, neem, rubber, polanga have probable
production capacity of 20 megatons or more. European mostly use methyl
ester of soybean (SME) and methyl ester of rapeseed (RME) widely in the
United States, collectively referred fatty acid methyl esters. The yield and
quality of biodiesel are depends on the raw material quality, especially water
content and free fatty acid (FFA) percentage in oil. In order to produce low
cost biodiesel, it is generally necessary to use low cost raw materials with
high FFA. Along the coast of Thailand, many seafood manufacturers and
many restaurants discard scallop shell as waste and most of them are
disposed of in landfill sites. Currently, many researchers focus on non-edible
oils as a source of fuel for transportation due to food problems and fuel
problems. Non-edible plant oils can be utilized for production of biodiesel.
Potential non-edible raw materials of biodiesel are carefully considered for
continuing production of biodiesel without adversely affecting the food
problem. Cow and sheep's fats, pork oil, poultry oil, edible oil are the
important resources of biodiesel feedstock. There are number of other
biodiesel raw material resources. Jatropha is an non-edible oil containing with
ecological benefits, It found to be one of the renewable optionl resource of
biodiesel. For the creation of biodiesel, any other fatty acid containing
resource can be utilized. Thus, plant lipids must be substrate for the creation
of biodiesel. The application of edible plant oils and fats of animals for
biodiesel is a big concern currently, because it competes with foodstuffs
against food and fuel conflict.
There is issue that raw materials of biodiesel may battle with supply of
food over the long period. From the financial view, biodiesel production is
highly correlated to raw materials. The price of raw materials calculated nearly
88% of the whole production price. Out of total price 80% or higher of the
manufacturing costs are related with feedstocks like waste cooking oil.
Recyclying of waste greases and oils not only decrease the trouble on the
country for waste disposal, maintenance of sewers and treatment of oily water
but also drastically reduces the total cost of the biodiesel .Raw materials
originating from Greece such as sunflower oil and cottonseed oil and biodiesel
derived therefrom, or bioethanol of the fleet. The cotton oil boidiesel was
employed as a substitute fuel for DI CI diesel engine showing improved
thermal efficiency, reduced smoke opacity, and increased NOx emissions.
The methyl esters of Neem oil, Pongamia oil and Jatropha oil were obtained
by a transesterification reaction. The world is headed in the direction of
optional power era, with prominence on energy effectiveness and the use of
optional energy resources. Fuels bio origin are renewable as extracted from
natural raw materials and aprooved to be superior as a petroleum reserve for
automobile and farming. These fuels are globally accepted as a resolution to
ecological deterioration, import restrictions, energy security, agricultural
economic and employment problems. Significant research investigation have
been intended for using plant oils derivatives as fuel for CI engines. Non-
edible plant oil in a natural state called direct vegetable oil (DVO), their ethyl
or methyl esters identified as treated plant oils; esterified plant oils called
biodiesel whch is in the group of biofuels. Estimated availability of rubber
seeds as a feedstock is about 30,000 MT / year. Rubber seeds have 50 to 60
percent of seeds containing 40 to 50 percent yellow colored oil. The yearly
rubber seed producing capacity of India is nearly 61 kg per acre. Currently, oil
extracted from rubber seed does not find any important uses, so the normally
produced of seeds leftovers inadequately utilized. The tobacco seed is a by-
product of the production of leaves which is another feedstock for biodiese. As
oil obtained from tobacco seed is non-edible, it can not utilized as a
commercial product. Mahua oil showed that it is the more efficient than
Jatropha, Karanja and Polinga biodiesel in diesel engines. [4-11]
The difference between oil and fat is primarily a physical appearance. If
the material is frozen at normal atmospheric temperature then it is considered
as fat and if it is liquid state at normal condition then it is considered as oil.
This difference is just for expediency as all oils get frozen at the low
temperatures and fats liquefy if its temperature increases. This temperature
dependant difference between fats and oil is not specific as atmospheric
temperatures changes with locations. The feedstock utilized for different
nations rely on the accessibility of oil seed for biodiesel production. Tab. No.
1.2 shows several feed stocks for biodiesel production in few countries.
 Tab. No. 1.2 Feedstock for biodiesel production in some countries
Sr. Country Feedstock
No.
1 Russia, USA, France Rape seed
2 Italy, Southern France Sunflower
3 U.S.A., Canada Soya bean
4 Malaysia, Philippines Palm Oil
5 Malaysia, Philippines Coconut
6 Brazil, India Castor
7 Spain Linseed & Olive oil
8 Greece Cotton Seed Oil
9 Nicaragua, India Jatropha Curcas Oil
10 Ireland Beef Tallow
11 India Mahua, neem, Karanja
12 Australia Used frying Oil
113 Southern Arizona, Jojoba
California, Mexico
14 Brazil Babassu oil
15 Canada Canola

Nations in the northern part have less atmospheric temperatures where

as nations near to equator had more temperatures. Therefore what may be
generally considered “fat” in cold region may be considered “oil” in a warm
region. Additionally, it is more accurate to use a liquefy range for vegetable
oils than a melting point as the fat liquefy into oil in a certain temperature
range. Fats and oils have a several familiar chemical and physical properties.
Common physical characteristic are: (a) Low density and are not soluble in
water; (b) Lubricating properties and greasy and (c) they leave less or no
residue. Their familiar chemical property is that they can change into glycerin
and fatty acids.
When fats and oils are converted into fatty acids and glycerin, the
obtaining mixture restrain three fatty acid molecules for every glycerin
molecule. It is due to this concentration of glycerin and acid other chemical
compounds formed in the fat or oil is known as triglycerides. Oils and fats are
fundamentally combinations of different quantity of triglycerides. Triglycerides
of oils include edible as well as non edible plant oils and fats like flaxseed oil,
castor oil, and tung oil, which are normally used in paints, lubricants,
perfumes and other pharmaceutical products. Even though vegetable oils are
normally considered as esters of glycerol and a changeable mixture of fatty
acids, generally it contains diglycerides and free fatty acids. Although there
were a huge amount of triglycerides naturally available, the acids, namely,
myristic, lauric, palmitic, oleic, stearic, linolenic, and linoleic, constitute the
greater part of natural oils and fats. In certain oils and fats, one triglyceride
generally predominates, and other triglyceride in another oils and fats. But in
some oils and fats, number of triglycerides can be available in major
concentration. The characteristics of oils and fats, based on the properties of
the triglycerides of which they are combined and the concentration of the
triglycerides exists. As oils and fats are simply physical combinations, it is
probable in nearly all situations to split them more or less totally into
triglyceride parts by normal mechanical way like cooling and varying the
pressure. [12-19]

1.2.1Types of vegetable Oils

There are two different types of vegetable oils one is fixed oils like
castor and coconut oils, it cannot directly evaporate on contact to air; and
another is essential oils like cinnamon and citronella oils, normally it can
evaporate in contact to air. Fixed oils are obtained by press and crushing,
boiling and using chemical solvents. Whereas, essential oils are mostly
extracted with distillation, most of them by flowers like sampaguita oil and
ilang-ilang oil. The oils which are in liquid state at comparatively warm
atmosphere turn into solid from in normal and lower atmospheric
temperatures. The fixed oils are more important oils as probable substitute for
mineral diesel whereas essential oils are used as supplement in the creation
of pharmaceuticals and perfumes. Coconut oil, palm oil and soybean oil are
the mainly applied oils, followed by sunflower seed oil, groundnut oil,
cottonseed oil, rapeseed oil, and olive oil [20-23].
1.2.2 Concentration and Composition of Plant Oils
The oil from plants is typically concentrated in the seeds and fruits. The
stalks, roots, leaves and branches, also contain some oil; generally the
quantity is very less. The oil concentration of several fruits and seeds can be
up to 35 per cent. In dry coconut meat the oil content can be up to 60 to 65
percentages. Sometimes the oil is majorly stored in the embryo, which usually
constitutes a little part of the fruit. Regarding the olive seed, main fraction of
the oil is stored in the pulp neighboring the kernel and a small fraction in the
fruit. However in the palm, both the kernel and the pulp include huge quantity
of oil. Generally, the oil obtained by the pulp has properties slightly dissimilar
from fat obtained from the fruit. It reveals that copra, sesame seed and castor
seed yield the maximum concentration of oil per unit mass of raw material (up
to 62%) whereas soybean and cotton seed have low concentration (up to
14%). The palm kernel gives more oil relative to the fruit.
The oil extracted per unit mass of seed being considered is significant
while evaluating the comparative cost of extraction and processing necessary
to obtaining the preferred product that is oil. The more the oil portion in the
fruit or seed to be processed, the higher the oil obtained per unit mass of fruit,
and normally the processing cost is lower. Moreover, these figures must be
understood as indicative and useful for general guide. Copra can give the
maximum output of 62 kg oil for each100 kg of raw material. But to obtain
copra from the nut of coconut, various stages are needed. Conversely, other
seeds may need less pre-processing before the obtaining the oil, therefore
compensating for the low oil per unit mass of seed or fruit. Other economically
significant factors are the quantity of oil which can be obtained unit space of
farm cultivated to the oil-giving plant. Even though the seed of few trees may
give higher oil per unit mass of fruit, it may be change, moreover, that the
quantity of seeds produced per acre of land is less and thus yield a lesser
quantity of oil per acre of planted land. The better condition is to have plant
that gives fruits with more oil percentage with giving more amount of fruits per
acre of planted area. The oils from various crops contain fatty acids in
different ratios. Palm kernel oil and coconut oil contain mostly myristic and
lauric acids; peanut oil, olive oil, and cottonseed oil contain largely linoleic and
oleic acids, even though this oil also includes higher quantity of palmitic acid;
and soybean oil and linseed oil include mostly linoleic acid. Rapeseed oil has
moderate quantity of linoleic acid.
When the fatty acid includes the highest feasible concentration of
hydrogen, that acid is known as saturated fatty acid. Lauric, Myristic, stearic,
and palmitic acids are the saturated fatty acids. This acid is normally frozen at
room temperature. Natural palm oil is usually in frozen form at room
temperature as it includes higher quantity of palmitic acid. On the other hand,
if the molecule does not include the highest quantity of hydrogen, the acid is
known as unsaturated fatty acid. Linoleic, linolenic and Oleic acids are typical
unsaturated fatty acids. They are normally in liquid state at atmospheric
temperature. Flaxseed oil includes about 65% linoleic acid so it is liquid form.
The value of unsaturation of oils and fats is indicated by the iodine value (IV).
The IV is a numerical value which shows the concentration by mass of iodine
captivated by the oil in normal state. Vegetable oils with less IV are additional
saturated with few double-bonds, for example coconut oil and palm oil.
Conversely, vegetable oils with higher IV are unsaturated with high double-
bonds, like soybean oil and linseed oil. [24-29]

1.2.3 Fuel-Related Characteristics of Plant Oils

There were various physical and chemical properties of vegetable oils
that influence their use as renewable fuels. The properties affect directly on
the efficiency and the performance of engine. The usual values of these
physic-chemical variables for several vegetable oils are analogous with the
characteristics of diesel and biodiesel. The calorific values of the majority of
vegetable oils vary within a small range, ranging from 39 MJ/kg to 40 MJ/kg.
These values are closer with calorific value of mineral diesel. Conversely, the
FP of majority of vegetable oils, ranging from 2410C to 2770C which is much
more than mineral diesel having FP only 520C. Additionally with these
physico-chemical properties, some other properties that don’t have direct
effect on the real outputs of engine, but are significant for ecological and other
reason. These contain the sulfur, potassium and ash of the vegetable oil.
Vegetable oils with lower IV are normally more efficient and combustible fuels
compared to oils with higher IV. The limitation is that oils having lower IV
show high melting points and they are generally solid at normal temperature.
Palm oil is an example of lower IV oil; it is generally solid at room
temperature.
The methyl ester that is obtained from plant oils with lower IV also
needs a high melting temperature and only appropriate for use in high
temperature countries and at the summer season. High IV oils needs low
melting temperature and are suitable as cold weather fuel. The limitation is
that with more IV plant oils there is possibility of the fuel polymerizing into a
insoluble tough, plastic-like solid. Thus, fuels obtained from plant oils with
higher IV, like linseed oil, sunflower oil and soybean oil must be stored
properly and used early. Fluidity is the vital parameter for using vegetable oils
as it affects lubrication and atomization of fuel. For example, castor oil, have
very high fluidity and so not suitable for blending as a fuel. Other vegetable
oils have viscosity ranging from 31mm2/sec to 54 mm2/sec. With appropriate
processing, these viscosities can be minimized to a level close to mineral
diesel viscosity is about 3-5 mm2/sec. Viscosity is, highly depends on
temperature, higher the temperature, the viscosity is lower. Biodiesels with
higher viscosity may not give required lubrication for the injection pumps,
which results in increased wear and leakage. Preheating of these fuels may
make them suitable for mineral diesel substitute. Atomization of fuel is also
influenced by viscosity. Fuels having higher viscosity forms bigger droplets
which causes poor burning, and more emissions and exhaust smoke. [30-37]

1.3 MOTIVE OF THE TOPIC

Burning of conventional fuels such as natural gas and coal has been
proved as the major cause of the boost in the concentration of pollutants in
the environment. Carbon monoxide and other gases permit maximum solar
rays to come inside the atmosphere of earth, but oppose the quantity of
energy that return to the universe, thus confining energy, global warming
cause. The energy released from natural biomass does not participate in the
intensity of carbon dioxide in atmosphere which increases global warming.
Combustion of any kind of fuels, together with fuels obtained from organic
matter, discharges carbon dioxide. Even if biomass is burned, the
concentration of net carbon dioxide does not increase. The reason is that the
plant utilizes CO2 (photosynthesis) available in the environment and the
carbon dioxide generated during combustion is compensating with what is
utilized at the time of growth of trees used as the biomass. In case of
conventional fuels, the carbon retained of these fuels is present in the earth's
layer before many years. By using these fossil fuels, harmless carbon is
released as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from the Earth's crust, and
the raise in carbon percentage leads to overall warming. Many critics insist
that using grains for energy production instead of food is wrong. The society
should decide advantages of utilizing biodiesel or ethanol as the renewable
energy resource more or less important than the negative impact on present
food contribution of biofuel grain or cooking vegetable oil.
"The world is facing two threats related to energy, which is
environmental damage caused by excessive consumption of fossil fuels and
not having sufficient supply of energy at affordable prices ". The U.S. targets
replace 30 % of 2004 energy level needs with biodiesel at 2030(30-by-30
goal) The European Union (EU) Climate Change and Energy Measures was
accepted by the Council of European on April 2009. The alternative energy
directive (RED) a division of the CCP package, had gave domestic laws of all
Member States (MS) which came into force on 25th December 2010. The
CCP has the goal of "20/20/20" in 2020 include:
• 20% reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) concentration relative to 1990
• 20% increases in energy efficiency forecasts for 2020
• 20% contribution of alternative energy in EU-wide energy mix. Section of this
20% contribution is 10% of the least goal of renewable energy utilized by the
automobile sector accomplished by all MS.
Biodiesel is the only renewable fuel and low percentage of biodiesel
mixtures and pure diesel can be utilized in available engines with no
modifications. It can be kept anyplace where mineral diesel can be stored.
Biodiesel is made by renewable oil seed produced domestically, like corn,
sunflower, and rapeseed. The risk of managing, shipping and storage of
biodfuels is very less compared to that of with petro diesel. Bio-diesel is
biodegradable like sugar and its flash point is higher compared to neat diesel.
Biodiesel can utilize alone or mixed with neat diesel fuel with appropriate ratio.
The most typical mixture is a blend of 20% biodiesel and 80% neat diesel, or
B20 in recent scientific research. Moreover, in Europe, the recent regulation
predicts biodiesel of up to 5.75% and plans to shift to 10% by 2020.
The content of oxygen in methyl esters enhance the burning and
decrease its oxidation capacity. The oxygen molecule inside the fuel
enhances the burning efficiency because of the more homogeneity of oxygen
molecule by than diesel fuel during burning phase. Combustion output of
biodiesel is higher compared to neat diesel. Biodiesel includes about 11% of
oxygen and does not contain sulfur. The utilization of biodiesel can increase
the working span of CI engines, as biodiesels are more lubricating compared
to mineral diesel fuels. The financial benefits of biodiesel is to support
agriculture by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, reduce national
dependence on crude oil imports, provide new business prospects for local
crops, increase lubricity. The majority of economic factors that take into
account the input cost of biodiesel creation are the raw material; it is about 80
percent of the total cost. Additional major costs parameters are methanol,
catalyst and labor which need to add in natural oils. In few nations, fuel filling
pumps sell biodiesel at a lower cost than diesel fuel.
The biodiesel cost depends on the feedstock, location of area, crude oil
price, seasonal crop production variability and other few parameters. In
general biodiesel price is more than twice of mineral diesel. The higher cost of
biodiesel is partially due to the higher cost of raw materials. Moreover,
biodiesel can be produced from different ingredients such as beef tallow, pig
lard, yellow grease. Biodiesel is interesting for companies for commercial
scale production. Biodiesel is marketed in the majority of oilseed generating
nations. Biodiesel is practically possible substitute to petroleum, but now a
day the price of biodiesel is more compared to the cost of fossil diesel in
developed countries. Production of biodiesel is relatively less quantity
compared to petroleum ethanol, but it is more expensive compared to
petroleum materials. Competitiveness of the petro diesel and biodiesel
depend on the level and move toward of fuel taxation. Generally, the
manufacturing cost of biodiesel remains much higher compared to that of
mineral diesel. Hence, biodiesel cannot conflict with diesel with present
financial situations.
 The competitions of biodiesel related to the cost of the feedstock
biomass required for the translation of oil in to biodiesel. The current increase
in the demand of biodiesel is not only the increase plants number, but also the
capacity of the plants. The extraordinary expansion of the biodiesel business
is probable to have a considerable influence on the cost of biodiesel raw
materials. Biodiesel has turn into recent attractive fuel due to its ecological
benefits. However, the higher price of biodiesel is the major barrier for its
commercialization. Whenever vegetable oil is utilized as a feedstock’s, the
possibility of the uninterrupted transesterification reaction and the separation
of better feature glycerol as a by-product of biodiesel is the major alternative
to minimize the price of biodiesel.

1.4 Origin and Biological Aspects of Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis)

Tree
Even though it’s technical given name is Simmondsia chinensis, the
plant is not originated from China. The scientist Johann Link given name to
this species as Buxus chinensis, because his mistake in reading a label "Calif”
referred to California, as "China." Plant was described one more time by
Thomas Nuttall in 1836 who describes jojoba as a fresh species and genus in
1844, giving name Simmondsia californica, However main concern rules
needed that the original precise epithet be employed. The general name
"Jojoba" comes from name Hohowi. It has other popular names such as
quinine nut, gray box bush, coffee berry, goat nut, deer nut, pignut, wild hazel.
In India jojoba is pronounced as ho-ho-ba, it is cultivated commercial purpose
for its high quality oil, a liquid wax ester obtained by its seed. These plants are
used to prevent desertification in some parts of India. Jojoba trees grow to a
height of 1-2 m and it has a wide and dense top. Leaves are elliptical shape
with a length of about 2-4 cm and a width of 1.5 - 3 cm. They are thick, waxy
grotesque grayish green. The seed contains about 40% to 50% by weight of
oil having a fatty acid composition of 43.5% to 66% oleic acid and 25.2 to
34.4% linoleic acid.
Jojoba, [Simmondsia chinensis] is an innovative oil-creating
commercial tree that showing more interest in current time. Oil from jojoba
seed is distinctive in natural world. No other crop can give oil like jojoba tree.
It is utilized for the cosmetic, medical, pharmaceutical, automotive industries,
food products, and manufacturing. It is a source of renewable energy. It is
interesting to note that, regardless of the inconsistency in dimension or
location of growth, seed of jojoba tree contain an approximately 50% of
natural oil. Jojoba’s origin is the southern Arizona’s semiarid regions which is
part of northwestern Mexico and, California. Now a day’s people started to
cultivate jojoba in Rajasthan, India and Israel to make available a renewable
resource of distinctive good-feature oil.
Major interest with jojoba plant all over the world the world is due to its
capability to continue exists in harsh dry environments. It can be cultivated as
an economical crop for jojoba oil production. This tree is very strong and can
grow on surrounding land exclusive of changing existing crop. Fully developed
shrubs and plants can grow up to a height of 15 feet having typical life of 100
to 200 years depend on geographical circumstances. For maximum creation,
plants need irrigation, a good cultivar and care. All the dried land reason of
Rajasthan state is set to lead the revolution of agriculture in India and planned
large-scale cultivation of jojoba plants. The government of Rajasthan
allocated 110 hectares of dry land, with 70 hectares in Fatehpur city of the
Sikar district, also nearly 40 hectares in Dhand city near to Jaipur district in
jojoba farms. The farm plan was prepared in 1995 for five years, and central
sponsorship modifies the fiscal expenditure of approximately US $ 670,000.
The country's Jojoba cultivated area is about 500 hectares and it is changing
each year. The creation of this cultivation is approximately 25 million tons.
Approximately 90% of jojoba cultivation of India is only in Rajasthan. Many
researcher believes that oil from jojoba seeds have a lot of promises as an
optional fuel supply. It has high proportion of energy in combustion. The
inspiration to investigate such an energy resource comes from the necessity
to discover optional renewable fuels for diesel. Additionally, its renewable
capability is eye-catching and can decrease pollutants from engine exhaust.
Jojoba oil is challenging, and it is regarded as promising even in relatively hot
cultivation. Considering the possibility of jojoba as an oil seed raw material for
biodiesel, Centre for Jatropha Promotion & Biodiesel(CJP) is honored to set
up this undeveloped source as a substitute resource for the future biodiesel
generation plant. [38-42]
1.5 Origin and Biological Aspects of Babassu (Attalea speciosa) Tree
Babassu (Orbignya phalerata, babassu palm, cusi, babacu, Orbignya
barbosiana, Orbignya barbosiana Burret, motacu, motacuchi, Attalea
speciosa Mart.) is a palm that found in the Amazon rainforest region of the
South America. This tree has economical significance as its seeds gives more
oil called Babassu Oil which can be utilized for skin related products and
cleaners. Fruits are useful to generate products related to pharmaceuticals,
beauty supplements, and beverages. Babassu flour is produced from fruits in
the traditional community of the Maranhaan region, which is commercialize as
a dietary substitute. Leaves of this tree are useful to make the roof for homes
and can be natural fiber into rugs to build walls of houses. Babassu stems are
useful for wooden material and furniture.
Babassu plant is a palm of an isolated stem with a stem diameter of 20
- 50 cm and more than 30m height. The crown contains 10 to 25 erectly
pinnate leaves. The sheath of the leaves has a length of 40 to 120 cm, a
petiole of 10 to 40 cm, and a leaf of 550 to 850 cm. Rachis has 300-400
leaflets, each with a length of 20 to 185 cm and a width of 1 to 6 cm. It
depends on location and tree health condition and age. The fruits are wide
and oval in the range of 6 to 13 cm in length, 4 to 10 cm in width and 40 to
440 g in weight (dry weight). The epithelium is fibrous and has a thickness of
1 to 4 mm. The middle bud is dry and it is a cereal with a thickness of 2 to 12
mm. The endocarp is a woody substance with a diameter of 35 to 75 mm and
contains oval seeds (rarely 1 or 2, or 6 or more, up to 11) of 3 to 6 cm in
length with oily white endosperm. The kernel includes 60-70% of oil rich in
lauric acid and has the composition similar to coconut.
Babassu palm seeds give a kind of oil known as babassu oil. To extract
oil seeds from spontaneously grown palms taken and grinded them with a
hydraulic press or a chemical solvent. This oil looks transparent, has a walnut-
like scent, turns into a liquid at 20 - 30 ° C, Otherwise it's somewhat creamy.
Bubassu oil is widely used to prepare cosmetic products (body and hair oils
and creams, soaps etc.) because they have noticeable softening properties. It
is also used for high nutritious purposes for producing margarine, sometimes
used as lubricant in diesel engine. [43-55]
1.6 FUEL PROPERTIES OF SELECTED OILS
Most liquid fuels are obtained from currently existing crude oil or
petroleum from various parts of the world. Liquid fuels are divided into two
major groups: liquid fuel which are easy to vaporize and another can be
treated like a gas inside the cylinder in the form of a spray. The previous
group is used by the SI engine and the latter is used by the CI engine. The
most important liquid fuels used in engines are gasoline (gasoline), gasoline
Fuel oil (diesel), kerosene and alcohol. Characteristics of fuel consist of
chemical and physical properties of the fuel like viscosity of biodiesel, pouring
point, fuel heating point, fuel heating value, cetane number. A common
perceptive of the different chemical properties of the biodiesel is necessary to
investigate its implication in CI engine use, safety, storage space and
management.
1.6.1. Mass Density
The molecular mass of fuel is one of the parameter that impact on the
raise in density of biodiesel. Density of any fuel is determined by the ASTM
standard test process. As per ASTM standard specification, mass density
must be evaluated at 15 0C temperature. Jojoba biodiesel has the lower
density ranging from 863 kg/m3 to 866 kg/m3. Density of biodiesel is
measured by simple concept of ratio of weight and volume. Biodiesel is
relatively heavier than petro diesel. This allows using splatter mixing by
addition of biodiesel on upper side of petro diesel to make blend of biodiesel-
diesel. Biodiesel must be always mixed from upper side of diesel. If initially it
is placed at the bottom, after which diesel fuel is added mixture will be no
homogeneous. Pure diesel has a density range of 816–840 kg/m3.
1.6.2Specific Gravity
Specific gravity or relative density is the proportion of the mass density
of fuel to mass density of water (1000 kg/m3). Specific Gravity of diesel and
biodiesel is always less than 1.
1.6.3 Viscosity
Viscosity is the major vital property of biofuel that should be measured
to retain engine operation near to diesel performance. It is an essential
property of diesel fuel. Higher kinematic viscosity causes less fluidity of fuel
blend in the cylinder of CI engine at the time of intake stroke and needs more
time to merge with air. Thus, its outcome is delay in combustion of fuel.
Inappropriate viscosity leads to failure of proper combustion, resulting in
power loss and unnecessary exhaust smoke. As mineral diesel has less
viscosity may not offer enough lubrication for intimately fitting injector plunger
and pumps. It results irregular wear and can results in leakage of injector
pump that leads to loss of power. Diesel fuel with more viscosity is also
disagreeable as high viscous fuel raises losses while pumping reduces
injection, inefficient atomization and inappropriate combination with the air
disturbing the burning action. Viscosity of biodiesel has been observed to
reducing with the increase in hotness. Kinematic viscosity is measured by
ASTM or EN test methods. Jojoba oil viscosity that ranges about19.2 mm2/s
is more than that of mineral diesel.
1.6.4 Flash Point (FP)
The flash point of the fuel is major significant property that should be
considered in calculating the general flammability hazard of a substance. The
FP of a fuel means the minimum temperature at which point it catch the fire
when comes in contact with flame or spark. At this hotness, vapor stop
flaming if the ignition source is detached. Each biodiesel has its individual
flash point. Flash point of biodiesel is higher than petroleum mineral diesel.
FP the biodiesel mixture depends on the FP of the pure diesel fuel used for
blending, and increases with increase in proportion of biodiesel in the mixture.
The flash point of biodiesel is more than 130 °C, thus, for storage concern,
biodiesels and their mixtures are safe than mineral diesel. Alcohol utilized in
the creation of biodiesel may not properly eliminate. Remaining alcohol in the
biodiesel greatly decreases its FP and is damaging to pumps and seals. The
combustion quality also decreases due to residual alcohol. Furthermore, FP is
predisposed by the chemical formulae of the biodiesel, with the count of
carbon atoms, double bonds, and so on. The FP for biodiesel is determined
using the ASTM D93 test method. The ASTM D6751 specification suggested
a lowest flash point of 130 °C expecting all biodiesels meet the ASTM
specification.
1.6.5 Moisture
Biodiesel and its mixtures are subject to microbial growth with
existence of water in the fuel. The solubility characteristics of biodiesel may
clog up the fuel filter by microorganisms. It affects the quality of biodiesel. If
the moisture is higher, the standard condition of biodiesel may be disturbed. It
creates obstacle on the fuel line and the filter.
1.6.6 Cold filter plug-in point (CFPP)
At lower temperature condition, the fuel becomes dense and does not
move appropriately and affects working of fuel line, fuel pump, and injector.
Biodiesel cold filter clogging temperature indicates the fuel limit of filtration
capacity. CFPP have superior correlation than CP of biodiesel fuel and diesel.
As biodiesel thickens at lower temperature it is necessary to have acceptable
CFPP.
1.6.7 Cloud point (CP)
The CP is the maximum hotness at which liquid crystal clouds shows
in the liquid considered for test. It is important for low temperature operation of
engine. CP of biodiesel is normally more compared pure diesel. Cloud point is
determined using ASTM D2500 test method. Jojoba oil has the more cloud
point in the range of 6 0C to 16 0C.
1.6.8 Pour point (PP)
Pour point is normally specified by biodiesel specifications in France
and Italy .The others countries use CFFP, as CFFP precisely reflects the
condition of biodiesel in cold weather. Biodiesel has more CP and PP than
mineral diesel fuel. PP is determined by D97 test method.
1.6.9 Cetane number (CN)
The CN of any fuel shows its ease of burning behavior. CN is most
significant property of fuel that straightforwardly affects its combustion
superiority. Higher CN has superb ignition characteristics. Higher CN gives
minimum delay for ignition. The CN of biodiesel is more because of long chain
fatty acid carbon and the occurrence of diffusion in its molecules. CN is
depends on hexadecane and heptamethyl nonane compounds. The CN of
biodiesel is calculated by the EN ISO 5165 and ASTM D613 test methods.
Cetane number affects the engines, stability, combustion, driving capability,
smoke, CO and HC concentrations and noise. Biodiesel has a superior CN
compared to mineral diesel. This results in better burning efficiency with
smooth ignition of fuel. Karanja, polanga and Jojoba, typically have more CN
than remaining biodiesels; thus, they are more advanced.
1.6.10 Neutralization value/ Acid value
The neutralization value/ acid value are determined by the appropriate
aging characteristics of the engine fuel or a good production procedure. Acid
value shows the existence of FFA or acids utilized for biodiesel production. It
also shows the decomposition of biodiesel because of heat effect. During the
span of injection many times a lot of fuel comes back from injector which is
higher compared to the fuel transmitted into the cylinder. The temperature of
this returned fuel is very high, which may increase the decomposition of
biodiesel. Thus resulting higher acid number may be damage to the injector,
causing deposits in the fuel system; it affects the working range of filters and
pumps. Sulfuric acid and Sodium hydrogen peroxide are more corrosive and
many times causes serious injury. It is depends on various factors like type of
feedstock used for fuel manufacturing process and its respective extent. High
fuel acidity increases corrosion and deposit formation inside the engine.
1.6.11 Free fatty acid (FFA)
If the oil have higher FFA content or moisture content, then chemical
process will be ineffective because of reaction between ester, moister and
metal base. It produces soap, making separation of glycerin difficult after the
chemical process. The FFA percentage of crude oil shows the capacity of final
amount of biodiesel yield. The lower content of FFA (<0.2) can give 100%
complete yield. Jatropha oil content high level of FFA it is essential for viable
production it should be less than 2.5. The seeds are stored at a temperature
of 40 ° C. or higher on a sunny dry day. The amount of FFA also depends on
seed quality, storage and transport.
1.6.12 Calorific value
The total amount of thermal energy released by fully burning of unit
mass fuel is the calorific value (CV) of that fuel. CV is the measure of heat
energy contented inside the fuel. It is also called as heat of combustion. The
heat of combustion of a substance is the total of energy supplied by that
substance when it is completely burned up to finishing state. Superior heat of
combustion of fuel is preferred, as it releases more heat and accordingly
improves engine performance during work. Biodiesel has less calorific value
than diesel because of its high oxygen molecule content. The CV of jojoba is
40.76–47.38 MJ/kg. This is close to that of diesel value of 42–45.9 MJ/kg.
Jojoba biodiesel has the calorific value of 43.38 MJ/kg, it is higher than other
biodiesels; this value is greatly higher compared to pure diesel. Therefore,
jojoba can gives enhanced engine performance than other biodiesel fuels.
1.6.13 Ash percentage
This indicates the quantity of inorganic contents like catalyst residues,
abrasive materials and the percentage of metal soap contained in the fuel.
These chemical compounds are oxidized at the time of combustion reaction to
form the ashes linked with the engine deposits.
1.6.14 Content of Carbon Residue
It gives relations between the free fatty acids, respective amounts of
glycerides, catalyst residues and soaps. This term is an indication of the
capacity of the tested fuel to generate deposits on tip of the injector and inside
the cylinder. It also affected by high density polyunsaturated fatty acid methyl
ester and polymer.
1.6.15 Oxidation stability
Insufficient oxidative stability can cause thickening of fuel creating
sediment and gums, it can cause filter clogging and foul of the injector. Iodine
value represents affinity of fuel to become unbalanced which gives the
existence of a C═C bond which can be easily oxidized. Typically Instability
increases with a part of 1 for each C = C bond of the fatty acid chain. The
oxidation steadiness of oil measurement is an important parameter for
biodiesel production.
1.6.16 Iodine value
Type of the oil is the main parameter influences the iodine value (IV) of
esters which affects the engine function adversely. It is associated with
cetane number and viscosity which decreases with increasing unsaturation.
When the iodine value fuel is used it forms deposits on injection nozzle, the
piston ring groove and a piston ring when temperature increases.
1.6.17 Saponification value
Saponification value is an indication of the amount of fatty acid
saponifiable substance in the fuel. It gives data related to the nature of fatty
acids of fat and Solubility of soap in water. The higher the degree of
saponification of fat means it is free of moisture and unsaponification
substance, the soap made from it will be more soluble. This information is
particularly important for soap manufacturers. The saponification value is also
used for product specifications for additives and lubricants.
1.6.18 Free Glycerol
The degree of completeness of the conversion of the plant oil to ester
depends on the amount of total and free glycerol present in oil. If the actual
value is greater compared to the specified value filter clogging, engine fouling
may occur. Control of the development process is important to confirm lower
amount of the total and free glycerin. Glycerin content represents the quality
of biodiesel. Higher the content of free glycerin and total glycerin it will
accumulate in the fuel tank and clogs the fuel system injector. Ideal diesel
molecules are saturated hydrocarbon with carbon chain lengths ranging from
12 to 18, while plant oil molecules are generally triglycerides with different un-
branched chains of various degrees of saturation and length. Vegetable oils
contain predominantly triglycerides (90-98%) and little quantity of
monoglycerides and diglycerides. Triglycerides are esters of glycerol
molecules and three fatty acids because vegetable oils are biodegradable,
less toxic, and clean fuel, which can be used as an alternative fuel. Plant oils
and the derivatives of these oils as diesel engine fuels significantly reduce,
CO, sulfur, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, particulate emissions and
smoke. The number of plant oils such as rapeseed oil, Karanja oil, rice bran
oil, cottonseed oil, jatropha oil, sunflower oil, is tested as fuel for diesel
engines. Studies have shown that clean vegetable oils work satisfactorily in
unreformed diesel engines for a short period of time. Vegetable oils have high
viscosity due to their higher molecular weight and bulky structure of
molecules. The viscosity of the liquid fuel influences the flow characteristics
as well as the spray atomization, the vaporization, and the formation of the air
and fuel mixture.
Higher viscosity also adversely affects the combustion of vegetable oil
in existing diesel engines, injectors and fuel pumps. Temperature greatly
affects the viscosity of vegetable oil. It has been reported that the viscosity of
fats and oils decreases almost linearly with temperature. The important fuel
related characteristics of the plant oils listed in Tab. No.1.3, it shows that the
kinematic viscosity of plant oil varies from 27 and 67 cSt at 40 ° C. The more
viscosity of vegetable oils is because of higher molar weight in between the
600 to 900, which is nearly four times higher than pure diesel molecule.
The FP range of oil is very high (more than 180 ° C) and the calorific
value is in the range of 36 to 40 MJ/kg relative to diesel fuel of about 42-45
MJ/kg. The existence of bonded oxygen molecules in oils reduces their
thermal values around 10%. The CN ranges from 30 to 45. Plant oils have
more density, CN, evaporative heat, and needs stoichiometric air-fuel ratio
comparable to that of pure diesel. These oils can be mix with pure diesel in
any proportion and can be utilized successfully in engines.

Tab. No.1.3 Properties of various vegetable oils [4, 5, 35, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48]
Oils Density Viscosity CV PP CP FP ° Carbon CN
3
kg/m cSt MJ/kg °C °C C Residue
40°C (%)
Diesel 835 2.75 42.25 -20 -15 66 0.001 47
Karanja 929 46.5 38.8 6 13.2 248 0.64 40
Jatropha 921 49.9 39.7 8 16 240 0.64 40-45
Neem 938 57 39.4 2 8 295 0.96 47
Rapeseed 911 37 39.7 -31 -3.9 246 0.30 37.5
Sunflower 916 33.9 39.6 -15 7.2 274 0.23 37.1
Coconut 915 27.7 37.1 - - 281 0.13 52
Soybean 914 32.6 39.6 -12 -3.9 254 0.27 38
Cotton 914 33.5 39.4 -15 1.7 234 - 42
Peanut 902 39.6 39.7 -6.7 12.8 271 - 42
Rice Bran 937 28.7 38.9 1 13 200 0.24 30
Linseed 923 27.2 39.3 -15 1.7 241 - 34.6
Corn 909 34.9 39.5 -40 -1.1 277 0.24 37.6
Palm 918 39.6 36.5 -15 27 271 0.043 42
Thumba 905 31.52 39.78 - - 201 - 45
Tallow - - 40 - - 201 6.1 -
Babassu 946 30.3 - - 20 150 - 38
 Due to the molecular similarities between biodiesel and diesel fuel
compounds, this alternative fuel may meet the requirements of diesel engines.
The biodiesel fuel engine emits less contaminated species without the need
for additional emissions control instrument. As biodiesel's properties are close
to diesel, biodiesel is a powerful alternative to diesel fuel. Translation of
triglycerides to biodiesel by the transesterification reaction lowers the
molecular weight to 1/3 of the molecular weight of triglyceride and decreases
the viscosity near about 8 times with slightly raise in the level of volatility.
Biodiesel’s viscosity is near to that of conventional diesel fuel. These esters of
vegetable oils contain about 11% by weight of oxygen and because of this it
promote combustion process than conventional diesel fuel in engines.
Biodiesel has a lower heat of combustion (about 10-12%) compared to diesel
fuel, but it has a higher CN and FP. Some of the attractive fuel characteristics
of biodiesel fuel from various plant oils are shown in Tab. No.1.4. It
represents properties of biodiesel related to fuel produced from various
vegetable oil [50-55].

Tab. No. 1.4 Properties of biodiesel generated by various oils [50-55]

Biodiesel Densi Viscos Heatin Pour Clou Flas Carbo Cetan
ty ity g Point d h n e
3
kg/m cSt40° Value °C Poin Point %(w/w Numb
C MJ/kg t°C °C ) er
Diesel 835 2.75 42.25 -20 -15 66 0.001 47
Karanja 897 6.87 37.9 -1 - 187 0.05 49
Jatropha 879 5.65 38.5 - 13 175 - 50
Rapeseed 883 7.2 37.37 -12 - - - 51
Sunflower 868 4.6 40.58 - 1 183 - 45-52
Neem 882 15 38.5 - - 180 - 47
Soybean 872 4.5 39.76 -7 1 178 1.7 37-45
Peanut 883 4.9 - - 5 176 - 54
Coconut 866 3.36 36.1 -4 - 122 0.03 56
Palm 880 5.7 - - 13 164 - 62
Thumba 889 3.8-5.8 39.37 - .5 174 - 53
Babassu 879 3.6 - - 4 127 - 63
Tallow - - - 9 12 96 - --

1.7 METHODS OF BIODIESEL PRODUCTION

Biodiesel is formed by a sequence of chemical action of the seeds, or
part of oil-containing crops. The initial stage generally related to the
withdrawal of oil. This stage may include various types of processes depend
on the type of raw material. For example, the operation of removing oil
through jatropha seeds may need only one or few simple processes while the
removing oil from the coconut may need more operations. The substitutive to
conventional diesel fuels should be environmentally and scientifically suitable
and cost-effectively viable. From the point of view of these necessities, plant
oils, and derivatives animal fats should be treated as feasible substitute for
pure diesel. The troubles with mixing triglycerides with diesels are mainly
related with their lower volatilities, polyunsaturated behavior and high
viscosities. The major disadvantage of plant oil use in engines is their upper
viscosity because of phospholipids and heavier triglycerides, because of
which troubles arises in atomization and pumping, ring-sticking, deposits of
carbon on cylinder head, etc. Directly plant oils are not useful as fuels in CI
engines; as they need to be transfer to obtain their burning characteristics
specially viscosity near to the mineral diesel. Pyrolysis or Heating, micro-
emulsification, dilution or blending and transesterification are some methods
exists to conquer viscosity problems related with the utilization of plant oil in
CI engines and to prepare them suitable like the petrolium-based diesel [35,
49, 50, 56].
1.7.1 Pyrolysis or Heating
It is the method by which higher molecular mass compound divided
into smaller compounds by heating with or without catalyst. The fluid portions
of the chemically decayed oils are about to get transformed in liquid oils.
Many researchers have considered the heating of triglycerides for obtaining
biodiesel to use in CI engines. After the pyrolysis oils have nearly same FP,
viscosity and PP like that of conventional diesel. The CN of the pyrolyzate oil
is less than normal oil. The heated oils normally contain water and sediment,
sulphur and shows limited copper corrosion, but intolerable carbon residue
and ash. Method for the chemical disintegration of triglycerides is somewhat
complex due to various structures and diversity of probable processes of
triglycerides.
1.7.2 Micro-Emulsification
The creation of emulsions is possible solution for avoid the issues of
normal oil viscosity. Micro-emulsion system includes a liquid isolated, with an
emulsifier, in non homogeneous liquid, generally in drops lesser than colloidal
dimension. Micro-emulsions are transparent, isotropic, thermally stable
dispersions of water, and surfactant and with a small amphiphilic molecule,
known as co-surfactant. The size of droplets in micro-emulsions ranges from
100 to 1000 Å. Microemulsions can be done with plant oils, esters of
vegetable oils with alcohols and surfactants and cetane improvers and
dispersants (co solvents) with or without diesel fuel. Although microemulsions
have a less heat of combustion than diesel due to their alcohol content, but
alcohol has more latent heat and tends to cool the cylinder, which decreases
nozzle coking.
1.7.3 Dilution or Blending
High viscosity fuel such as plant oil can be mixed with less viscous
fuels like petroleum based diesel to conquer the higher viscosity. The
mixtures can be utilized as diesel engine fuel. Dilution of the plant oil can be
carried out by solvent or ethanol. Plant oil can be used straightly with mineral
diesel and can be useful for operation of engines. Mixing of plant oils with
diesel has been effectively attempted by many scientists. The mixture of oil
and diesel cannot be used for long-time operation with DI CI engines.
1.7.4 Transesterification
Transesterification is the most appropriate process to convert animal
fats, oil or grease in to the biodiesel. It is the most common reaction used to
convert vegetable oils to biodiesel to decrease the viscosity of plant oils. This
is the reaction of alcohol (in most cases methanol) with triglycerides present in
oils or fats to form biodiesel and glycerol. This process needs a strong
catalyst like potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide and heat. The
transesterification method involves reaction of plant oil with the alcohol such
as methanol in the existence of a catalyst at around 60-70 ° C to obtain the
biodiesel and byproduct as glycerin. Methyl esters of plant oils can give better
outputs than pure plant oils.

1.8 Socio-Economic aspects of biodiesel as a fuel

The burning of conventional fuels like oil, natural gas and coals were
identified as a main reason of the increasing pollution in the atmosphere. CO2
and other called greenhouse gases allow solar rays to come into the
atmosphere of earth but minimize the energy that can be reflected back to the
space, therefore holding energy and creating universal warming. Ecological
advantage of replacing conventional fuels with renewable bio-fuels is that the
renewable energy from biomass cannot increase the amount of CO2 in the
environment that causes warming. Even though the burning of all fuels, with
fuels obtained from biomass, discharges CO2 into the air, utilization of
biomass does not cause any net raise in CO2 percentage. This is because the
plants use CO2 from the environment for photosynthesis and the CO2
generated during combustion is compensated by that taken for
photosynthesis and growth of trees used as raw material. In case of
conventional fuels, the carbon has been preset and it is inside the earth’s
crust for thousands of years. By combustion these fuels with the formerly risk-
free carbon inside the earth’s crust is come into the environment as CO2
which results in net raise in the carbon percentage that go ahead with
warming.
Even though fossil fuel-dependant energy also utilized to grow, obtain
and processing of the biomass, the normal net product, depend on several
product life cycle investigations, is still considerably minimized net
greenhouse gas discharge. Even though current, higher yielded corn is
comparatively energy exhaustive; the net emission decline from
manufacturing ethanol by the corn can still up to 20 percent. If ethanol is
obtained by sugar cane where biogases is utilized for generation of steam and
producing power, the net decrease in polluting gas emission is even higher.
And producing biodiesel by soybeans can minimize net emissions about 80
percent. At last, obtaining ethanol from the cellulosic and utilizing the lignin
and some other biomass for creation of renewable energy can decrease net
CO2 emission. As mineral diesel and gasoline includes blends of different
chemicals of various chains of hydrocarbon, most of them are harmful and
toxic. They contain volatile compounds like toluene and benzene that are
recognized as reason for the health harm and contamination related with the
burning of mineral fuels. CO is released when burning is incomplete, NOx is
released when burning occurs at higher temperatures, sulfur oxides is
released when elemental sulfur is exist in fuel, and particulates that are
released during burning process are again specific emissions of
apprehension. A significant ecological and health advantage of utilization of
biofuels as replacement of conventional automobile fuels is a decrease in
these polluting discharges, especially particulates and sulfur oxides. As both
biodiesel and ethanol include oxygen molecules in their chemical structure
they can be utilized as oxygenates to develop burning behavior. The
existence of oxygen molecules results in better burning, which minimizes CO
discharge. This is important ecological benefit which can result from changing
conventional fuels by biofuels.
Ethanol is generally mixed with gasoline to form blend, but it can be
utilized in high proportions like 85% or pure. Biodiesel is generally mixed with
mineral diesel to form B1 mixture that is 1% of biodiesel and 99% of mineral
diesel or B20 that is 20% and 80% of biodiesel and mineral diesel
respectively, even though other ratios can be utilized up to 100 percent
biodiesel. The universal public argues regarding the utilization of ethanol as
the energy source in the world has been just about forty years. However
advocates had explained ethanol will be the fuel for next period. But
opponents inquire the desirability of high-scale ethanol creation relating the
net energy position to more universal ecological and farming effects. The
critics of extensive use as fuel question the use of specific edible sources to
get the total energy demand. In similar way, these critics say that the
requirement for clean fuel resources for health purpose does not totally justify
the utilization of edible oils such as coconut oil and palm oil. Many opponents
also disagree that it is wrong to utilize grain for generating energy in the place
of food. It is society that should take a decision whether the advantages of
utilizing biofuels as an energy alternative compensate the possible negative
cost on existing food contribution by using edible vegetable oils for biodiesel.
In general scientific community and society must also solve the argument
regarding the energy condition and production, with various investigations
indicating either loss or gain when energy inputs to creation of ethanol are
compared with the yield. The future of farming and soil utilization policy is
complex by this rising capacity for huge-scale energy creation. The
requirement for clean fuels is increasing, to make variations in undeveloped
farming structures and managing the land. It will have influence on the
atmosphere, probably frightening the normal source base. Both critics and
proponents of biofuels question how creation decisions and policies
development neighboring the quick development of the biofuel manufacturing
will affect the atmosphere, especially quality of water and soil. In the similar
way, they request whether the environmental advantages arise from the
dislocation of oil utilization will essentially be realized. The respond to this
question is not yet specific. Detailed is that while policy of energy will have a
vital effect on how the market for biodiesel will expand, farming use policies
will considerably affect how market will affect the atmosphere and the health.
India is one of the rapidly expanding economies in the globe. Progress
depends on, equity and financial growth with well-being human. Energy is an
important criteria for socio-economic progress. A country's energy strategy is
aimed to emphasizing efficiency, safety and achieving an optimal combination
of key resources for environmentally friendly access and energy generation.
Conventional fuels will continue with playing an important role in scenario of
energy over the coming years. Moreover, traditional fuel sources are not
renewable, limited and causing pollution, so they required to be utilizing with
care. Conversely renewable resources are locally-grown, less hazardous and
are inexhaustible. India has number of renewable energy sources. Thus, their
application must be promoted in all feasible ways.
Crude oil prices are fluctuating in the global market, which has recently
risen sharply, reaching over $ 140 per barrel. Such an unexpected surge in
prices of crude oil severely pressures the different economies of the globe,
especially the economies of developing nations. Petroleum-based oil provides
approximately 95% of transportation fuels, and demand is continuously
increasing. Domestic crude oil can fulfill only 25% demand of energy, the
remaining is filled with imported oils. Energy security of India will stay
susceptible until optional fuels are developed to replace / substitute
petroleum-based fuels. With biofuels there are expectations to provide energy
security. Biodiesels are eco-friendly and their use will deal with universal
issues regarding emissions control. The transport sector is well-known most
important polluting sector. Therefore, the application of biofuels is interesting
from the viewpoint of tightening the regulation of exhaust gas of automobiles
to suppress air pollution. Since these fuels are derived from renewable
resources, they promote sustainable development and not only meet the
energy demand of the vast rural population in India, but also the rapid
increase in transportation fuel associated with high economic growth. It also
supports increasing requirements of energy.
Biofuels have capacity to fulfill this energy demands in an eco-friendly
and cost effective way with decreasing the reliance on imports of conventional
fuels and supplying higher levels of energy security to the country. Biofuels
growth on a global scale is promoted mainly by energy and pollution
problems, and availability of a huge range of market. Subsidies and
motivation are being made to promote growth of biofuel. Apart from these
considerations, developing countries see biofuels as a capability of stimulating
rural progress and creating jobs. The approach to biodiesel in India is slightly
different from present worldwide approach, which can lead to fighting food
security. This is based only on non-food raw materials grown on degraded or
dry areas that are not appropriate for farming, so issues of fuel-to-food
security are avoided. Planting of non-edible oil producing plants, installation of
petroleum expelling and operating equipment for biodiesel preparation,
creation of proper infrastructure for storing and distribution is the priority field
for taking money by bank and financial institutions. National Bank of
Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) give financial support to
farmers for farms development to increase plantation of biodiesel feedstock.
Financial institutions such as the Indian Renewable Energy Development
Agency (IREDA) and the Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI)
and business banks are actively participated in providing funds to various
activities at various levels throughout the biofuel production at different levels.
Multifaceted and interactive financing is possible where biofuel development
is possible. Carbon financing opportunities will be sought for avoiding CO 2
emissions through forestation and using biofuels for various uses.
1.9 Biofuel policies
1.9.1 India’s biofuel policy
Energy plays major role in the improvement of the nation, and this
collaboration is well recognized. Therefore, the discussion on energy
requirement is justifying the required traction. India is ranked third position in
world for energy utilization after China and the United States. Regarding
crude oil accounts for 29.4% out of which 95% is utilized for transportation
purpose. Imports of crude oil quantity are about 3.8 million barrels every day,
with necessity of 4.1 million barrels. Local supply of crude oil fulfilled just 22%
of the requirement; the remainder had to be achieved by import in 2015.
Moreover, due to climate change, fluctuations in crude oil prices, increased
demand and shrinking supply over the past decade, India has considered
alternative energy sources as an important option.
India expressed his desire to utilize 40% of the energy from non-fossil
fuels by 2030 at COP 21 (Conference of Parties held in Paris in 2015), getting
to become the world's largest green energy supplier country. The country's
policy regarding biofuel has undergone reform / challenge as the revision of
the power alcohol Act, 1948 was imposed. The purpose of these policies was
to mix ethanol by molasses with gasoline to lower prices of sugar and
decrease reliance on imported fuels. Moreover, this policy was in 2000 as it
was supposed to have survived its usefulness and make obsolete. As India is
the third largest sugar cane producer in the world, ethanol, a by-product of the
sugar industry, was a freely available product. In 2003, the government of
Indian launched the petrol blended with ethanol programme with obligation to
mix 5% of ethanol and gasoline in the 9 states and 4 Union territories. But,
due to the sudden deficiency of ethanol, the next phase of programme has
been discontinued since October 2004. After that, compulsory regulation
becomes optional. In spite of the obstacles, the EBPP Phase II was started in
2006, obligating 5% ethanol blend with petroleum fuel in all Indian standards
(8 territories and 20 states, excluding some states in the North East Province,
Jammu and Kashmir). However, because of the market disparity, the oil
company can supply only 440 million liters of ethanol relative to the target of
1,550 million liters for the designated 5% mix. In December 2009, the ministry
of renewable and new energy finalized a countries policy on biodiesels of
mixing at least 20% of biofuels by 2017 for the purpose consuming more
environmentally friendly fuel. In order to promote this, the government in 2014
decided the constant cost of ethanol in the range 48.50 - 49.50 rupees per
liter, regardless of the location of an oil sales company throughout India. In
spite of these efforts, the goals put by the national policy for biofuel have not
been accomplished so far. India announced plans (2016) to expand the
biofuel market in the coming years to strengthen energy security. By mixing
5% of biodiesel with diesel and 10% ethanol with gasoline it is possible to
raise the market size from Rs. 6.5 billion currently(2016) at the Indian to 500
billion rupees (6.7 billion euro’s) up to 2022. India needs to mix 6.7 billion
liters of biodiesel and 4.5 billion liters of ethanol over six years. Shifting the
fuel consumption profile to biofuels derived from domestic feedstock leads to
a drop in dependence on imports of crude oil. In India at year of 2015-2016 a
lot of work has been completed, including the ethanol mixing program,
promotion of biodiesel, development of efforts from waste to energy.
India's energy utilization is rapidly increasing towards largest consumer
in the world. Indian biofuels program has the ability to improve farmer’s
compensation, environmental issues, support foreign exchange savings and
reduce import dependency. The government is willing to provide a supportive
policy environment to support the development of biofuels but imports of raw
materials or waste for this purpose are not permitted. He said that the
Viability Gap Funding Scheme for the sector can be evolved in consultation
with stakeholders. In addition, the Minister has set a vision for growth and
development of the biofuel sector. He invited international stakeholders under
the umbrella of MoPNG, MNRE, and the Biotechnology Department (DBT) to
brainstorm and develop innovative technologies in the field of biofuels. The
speed, skill and scale are important to the success of any program and should
also be included in the biofuels program. It is noted that biofuels are closely
related to improving the quality of life of "common human beings" in order to
provide a sustainable way to convert the waste material into energy and
reduce pollution. Ministry noted that the big challenge facing this area is the
sustainable availability of raw materials for biofuel power plants.
Investment schemes were made by private equity and public division
oil marketing industries. Indian Oil Corporation, BPC India, engineering
companies and others have identified 10 places to establish a second
generation ethanol plant. India has undertaken a number of initiatives in the
area of biofuel in the last two years. Several policy interventions and
elimination of many challenges in the implementation of national blending
goals are undertaken by the Government of India. The Ministry of Petroleum
and Natural Gas in India has given great promise for the ethanol blending
program and it is close to achieving a 4% blend during the current sugar
year2015-2016. The biodiesel mixing program started in August 2015 as a
pilot in 5 cities is now expanded to six states. The government declared that
blended biodiesel is currently being sold through approximately 2,200 retail
stores in the country. The government also allows ethanol production from
alternative routes.
1.9.2 US biofuel policy
Biodiesel made from recycled cooking oil, vegetable oil, animal fats
and oils is the first and only EPA designated high performance biofuel
commercially produced throughout the country. Until now, it accounts for the
majority of advanced biofuels shipped based on Renewable Fuel Standard
(RFS). With refineries in almost every state of the country with tremendous
untapped production ability, the industry is poised for enlargement under a
strong and growing RFS. In May2016, the US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) planned a 2018 RFS volume for biodiesel (Biomass-based
Diesel) of 2.1 billion gallons, which is increases just 100 million gallons over
the 2017 volume of 2 billion gallons. This proposal significantly understates
the industry’s capability for growth. The industry is on pace to exceed 2.1
billion gallons in 2016, and National Biodiesel Board (NBB) is addressing to
the EPA to make stronger the suggestion with a biodiesel quantity of minimum
2.5 billion gallons for 2018, along with further growth above the projected 4
billion gallons in the overall Biofuel category. RFS was created to promote
investment and economic activity in the creation of renewable fuels, especially
advanced biofuels such as renewable biodiesel.
Biodiesel production creates jobs in the country because factories
are located in almost every state. Every 100 million gallons biodiesel
production gives job to3, 200 people. Producers nationwide are preparing to
hire new workers who will expand production and grow steadily under RFS.
According to EPA, biodiesel decreases life cycle greenhouse gas exhaust by
57% to 86% more than to mineral diesel. The California Air Resources Board
recently backed up this analysis with similar findings. As biodiesel uses more
than 10 billion gallons by 2015, reduces 93.7 million metric tons of carbon
contamination as it like to remove more than 19.7 million passenger cars from
the US road. In addition, EPA consistently lists exhaust gases from mineral
diesel fuel in automobiles as major national air pollution. Replacing more
biodiesel for conventional diesel is the simple and most efficient method to
directly decrease the emissions.
The biodiesel industry is not susceptible to international oil market and
refining bottlenecks due to increased domestic energy production,
diversification of fuel supply, expansion of domestic refining capacity, etc. This
enhances U.S. energy safety regardless of raise in oil creation capacity,
petroleum is a universal product, and U.S. customers will continue to be at the
kindness of heavily manipulated international fuel prices until we have variety
in the market. Present decisions by Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) to turn these markets indicates continued danger for
economy and national security from economic dependence on oil. Biodiesel is
a domestic EPA-designated advanced biofuel that provides important
quantities under RFS. Still, biodiesel imports are on the rise, and market
experts expect that imports will increase significantly in future after restructure
of biodiesel import from Argentina based on RFS. EPA has to account for this
increase in supply by further growing biodiesel and overall advanced
standards. In the biodiesel market, we cannot establish an efficient renewable
energy policy without dealing with the diesel market. Also, the growth of
biomass-based diesel pools does not supply ethanol "blend walls".
Biodiesel is a low cost, renewable optional to conventional diesel,
saving diesel consumer money with the help of renewable fuel specification
(RFS). Renewable Identification Number (RIN) credit is attached to each
gallon of RFS certified biodiesel as per the Energy Security Act of 2007.
Biodiesels are the world's major varied fuels created using a wide range of
feedstocks such as recycled edible oil, agricultural oil, animal fats and oils.
This has led to the formation of a light industry continuously searching for new
techniques and raw materials. Industry order for new options stimulates and
often funding investigation on different feedstocks likes algae and camelina.
Direct and indirect subsidies to the current fossil fuel are necessary for energy
distortion and acceleration. Development and use of biofuels will support
policy purposes. Suitable financial and economic conditions are sometimes
considered support to promote and development of biofuels, and its
applications in various sectors.
Regulations that affect the use of biofuels in biofuel and heat and
electricity market are outlined in the EU Energy and Climate Change Package
(CCP) and the Fuel Quality Directive (FQD). CCP includes the essential goal
of 2020. One is the 20% share of renewable energy among the EU-wide
energy mix. In the Renewable Energy Directive (RED), certain sustainability
requirements are specified for liquid biofuels. This includes minimizing
greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), land use and protection for the conversion
of high carbon containing land, economic and social standards with other
environmental standards. Execution of harmonized sustainability necessities
for biomass was postponed up to after 2020. Among the broader 10% target
set by RED and FQD they introduced a 7% upper limit (energy standard) to
food crop-based (traditional) biofuel share in EU's transportation fuel by 2020.
Revision of it included a national target of 0.5% advanced (non-food) biofuels.
The EU wants to implement it until September 2017 to enact the revised law.
In order to express fulfillment with EU sustainability condition, biodiesels must
be verified by the national certification system or any one of 20 EC unpaid
schemes granted by the EC and applicable in the EU. Sustainability condition
should be fulfilled by all biodiesels, whether produced in the EU or imported
from other country, and should have a 35% GHG emission reducing
constraint relative to diesel. As of 2017, the doorstep is started to rise to 50 %
to 60 % by 2018, for new biodiesel plant installation.

1.10 Quality Standards of Biodiesel

Standards are very important for the manufacturers, suppliers and
customers of biodiesels. Standards are needed for the environmental
protection and estimation of risk and safety. Standards are essential for the
sanction and guarantee assurance for automobiles running with biodiesel and
therefore, a precondition for the business opening and commercialization of
biodiesels. Establishment of regulations helps to enlarge the business for
renewable resources of energy in India. Traditionally codes and standards for
yield have been developed, mainly by testing the present codes and
standards in various countries and then deciding standards for individual
country. A global review of bio-fuel pattern was carried out and an attempt
was made to recognize the justification about them before establishing
regulations for India. The worldwide followed biodiesel standards are ASTM
D6751 and EN 14214.

1.10.1 ASTM standards

ASTM D6751 gives standards and specifications for pure biodiesel.
These standards specified different test procedures to be used for finding
certain properties for biodiesel and its blends.
Tab. No. 1.5 ASTM D6751 standards of biodiesel
Test
Property Unit Lower limit Upper limit
Method
Kinematic viscosity,
D445 mm2/s 1.9 6.0
40°C
Cetane number D613 47 -
Pour point D2500 °C -16 -15
Cloud point D2500 °C -12 -3
Flash point D93 °C 130 -
Acid number D664 mg KOH/g - 0.50
Water & sediment D2709 % volume - 0.050
Oxidation stability EN15751 hrs 3
Carbon residue D4530 % mass - 0.050
Sulfur D5453 % mass - 0.0015
Sulfated ash D874 % mass - 0.020
Phosphorus D4951 Mass% 0.001
Methanol content, EN14110 mass% - 0.2
Monoglycerides D6584 % mass - 0.40
Free glycerin, D6584 % mass - 0.020
Total glycerin, , max D6584 % mass - 0.240
 These standards are set by the standards organization 'ASTM
International'. ASTM International is the biggest charitable fuel regulations
expansion organizations in the world. It establishes standards for fuel
products, materials, services and systems. ASTM has a vital contribution in
the data development that guides manufacturers internationally. The ASTM
was started before hundred years ago, when an engineer’s group and
researchers came collectively to deal with normal rail breaks in the railroad
company. Their effort leads to standardization of the steel required in rail
development, finally increasing railroad security for the country. In 2008,
ASTM established new modified biodiesel mixtures regulations. Biodiesels
that obey the rules of this specifications for its specific grades can be run in
compression ignition engines. It is normally equivalent to the European
standard EN 14214 and the National Standard of Canada CAN/CGSB-3.524.
The specifications are regularly updated and modified. The table indicates
preferred requirements for B100, 100% biodiesel, as published in ASTM
D6751-15a.

1.10.2 EN 14214 standards

EN 14214 is a standard established by the European Committee for
Standardization which describe the necessities and test procedures the most
common type of biodiesel. Biodiesel fuels can be formed using some
alcohols, like ethanol to manufacture ethyl esters, these biodiesels are not
enclosed by EN 14214 which apply for methyl esters that is biodiesel formed
by methanol. The European regulations are available in three authorized
editions – German, French, and English. The present report of the standard
was established in 2008.
Variations are exists among the national version the EN 14214. These
variations are due to climate conditions and are described in the national
annex of every standard. Blends are commonly nominated as "B" followed by
a value showing the proportion of biodiesel.
 Tab. No. 1.6 EN 14214 standards of biodiesel
Lower Upper
Property Test-Method Units
limit limit

Viscosity at 40°C EN 14105 mm²/s 3.5 5.0

Density at 15°C EN12185. kg/m³ 860 900

Flash point EN 2719 °C > 101 -

Iodine value EN 14111 - - 120

Acid value EN 14104 mg KOH/g - 0.5

Cetane number EN ISO 5165 - 51 -

Oxidation stability, 110°C EN 14112 hours 8 -

Sulfated ash content ISO 3987 % (m/m) - 0.02

Water content EN ISO 12937 mg/kg - 500

Water content EN ISO 12937 mg/kg - 500

Ester content EN 14103 % (m/m) 96.5 -

Class Class
Copper band corrosion EN ISO 2160 rating
1 1

Total contamination EN 12662 mg/kg - 24

Methanol content EN 14110 % (m/m) - 0.2

Linolenic Acid EN 14103 % (m/m) - 12

Monoglyceride content EN 14105 % (m/m) - 0.7

Polyunsaturated Methylester EN 14103 % (m/m) - 1

Free Glycerine EN 14105 % (m/m) - 0.02

Diglyceride content EN 14105 % (m/m) - 0,2

Triglyceride content EN 14105 % (m/m) - 0,2

Total Glycerine EN 14105 % (m/m) - 0,25

Phosphorus content EN14107 mg/kg - 4

1.11 Biodiesel Standards in India
Development of analysis technique, protocols and procedures would
be taken up on main concern with implementation of certification and
standards for various biodiesel and engine uses. The Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS) had previously established regulations (IS-15607) for
biodiesel; it is the national version of the ASTM D-6751 and European
Standard EN-14214. They also established IS: 2796: 2008, it includes
standards for engine gasoline mixed with 5% ethanol and motor gasoline
mixed with 10% ethanol. The BIS would evaluate and modify the current
regulations, as well as implement revised regulations after certain time for
systems and devices for assorted users applications for which still standards
not made with global standards. Guiding principle for fuel reliability and
performance should be created and used in discussion with all related
stakeholders. Specifications would be exactingly enforced and appropriate
checks would be done by a selected agency on the superiority of the biodiesel
being supplied. The biodiesel mixing must have to obey a rules and
documentation procedure, and confirm to BIS standards and specification, for
which the OMCs and manufacturing industry required to collectively set up a
suitable system and the necessary facilities. Motor Vehicles Act Section 52
already allows alteration of an operating engine to use biodiesel. Engine
producers required to correctly change the engines to confirm suitability with
biodiesel, whenever essential.

Tab. No. 1.7Biodiesel standards in different countries

Parameters France Austria Germany Malaysia Italy Korea
(general (ON) (DIN) (UNI)
official)
Viscosity at 40 3.5-5 3.5-5 3.5-5 4.415 3.5-5 1.9-5.5
2
mm /s
Density at15 0.87–0.89 0.85– 0.875– 0.8783 0.86– 0.86–
1C g/cm3 0.89 0.89 0.90 0.89
Flash point 0C 100 100 110 182 100 >120
Cetane number ≥49 ≥49 ≥49 56 - -
Pour point 0C -10 - - 15 0 to -5 -
Iodine number ≤115 ≤120 ≤115 58.3 - -
Carbon - 0.05 0.05 - - -
Residue %
Methanol mass ≤0.1 ≤0.2 ≤0.3 - ≤0.2 <0.2
%

1.12 Objectives
1.12.1 General Objective
The objective of this research project is to prepare biodiesel from
jojoba oil and babassu oil and find its suitability as an alternative renewable
fuel source for CI engine by testing its performance, emission and combustion
characteristics.
1.12.2 Specific Objectives:
To study the different properties of jojoba oil and JME.
To study the different properties of Babassu oil and BME.
To study the various methods of biodiesel preparation and optimize the
preparation process.
To explore the possibility of Jojoba oil methyl ester (JME) by using
Jojoba oil.
To explore the possibility of Babassu methyl ester (BME) by using
Babassu oil.
To find out the influence of compression ratio on engine characteristics.
To study the influence of blending percentage on engine behavior.
To analyze the effect of biodiesel on performance characteristics of
engine.
To analyze the effect of biodiesel on emission characteristics of engine.
To analyze the effect of biodiesel on combustion characteristics of
engine.
To compare engine performance, emission and combustion testing
data of biodiesel blends with pure diesel.
To investigate suitability of JME as an alternative transportation fuel.
To investigate suitability of BME as an alternative transportation fuel.
 To evaluate the implication of the results of this experimental study with
proposed and current standards for the use of biodiesel and its blends
as fuel for diesel engines.

1.13 Organization of Thesis

This thesis consists of six chapters. The research work regarding on
biodiesel preparation, optimization of transesterification and experimentation
on diesel engine described in detail, including the experimental setup, data
acquisition systems and instrumentation used for the testing.
Chapter I
The first chapter includes the most important categories of biofuels
covering a brief explanation of ethanol from agricultural products. As an
introductory section, the content is not in-detail but presents to the reader a
better knowledge of the major biofuels including historical background. This
chapter explains the feedstock’s available for biodiesel and the background
and scientific information of selected oils. It presents the properties of various
biodiesels. It also describes the methods of biodiesel preparation followed by
international standards and specification of biodiesel. India’s biodiesel policy
is explained with socio-economic aspects of the biodiesel. At the end of
chapter general and specific objectives of current research work are
explained.

Chapter II
The second chapter describes the general survey of the different types
of crops having oil seeds. The characteristics and nature of these vegetable
oils are studied, mainly those characters which are significant for as diesel
fuel alternative. The problem formulation is done by the literature review.
General literature on chemical structure of biofuels and transesterification, fuel
properties, C. I. engine performance, combustion, emission and financial
possibility of tested fuel are studied. Later in this chapter benefits and problem
formulation is explained. A review research work in the area of biofuel with
relation to fuel properties and production method is described. The engine
performance, exhaust emission and combustion behaviors of VCR diesel
engine are also compared in this chapter. The past investigational reports of
methyl esters from different non-edible oils are also compared and discussed
which reflects that these fuels can be efficiently used for diesel engine. At the
end of this chapter benefits of biodiesel over conventional diesel are
described.

Chapter III
The third chapter covers, the material used for performing research
such as purchasing of non-edible oils, catalysts, sample bottles, methanol and
diesel. It describes the experimental setup utilized in the testing with images
and accuracy of measurement. The comprehensive study of optimization of
fuel using various parameters, fuel properties is also described. It also
explains engine exhaust emission, performance and combustion
characteristics using C. I. engine. It provides a short outline of chemical
methods involved in preparation of biodiesel. It also shows the specific
processes used to produce the biodiesel samples. The entire experimental
apparatus are described including apparatus for properties measurement.

Chapter IV
The fourth chapter presents various studies and trials for biodiesel
production. It describes the outcome of such studies and its use together with
the reason of failure and the situation required for accomplishment. It explains
optimization of biodiesel from jojoba and babassu oil is described with
experimental results. It presents properties of preferred oils and its biodiesels
which reflects the suitability of this biodiesel for CI engine. It represents the
outcomes and discussion of the experimental results. It describes various
performance characteristics of engine fuelled with biodiesel blending. It
represents the effect of blending percentage on the engine emissions. The
combustion factors such as HRR, combustion pressure, ID, combustion
duration are analyzed comparing with diesel fuel and described in graphical
form. It indicates the effect of blending percentage and compression ratio on
engine characteristics. It explains the optimum percentage of blend and
engine parameters.
Chapter V
The fifth chapter presents summary and conclusions of relevant
scientific data and information getting from the experimental work. It is
associated with the future scope of work, and recommendation. It assesses
the future scope of biodiesel and presents the emerging and new techniques
for its production.