Symetric Groups PDF
Symetric Groups PDF
Symetric Groups PDF
Sn = Perm({1, . . . , n})
G × S → S, a · b := ab
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Note. The only cycle of length 1 is the identity element in Sn .
Proof. Exercise.
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Proof of proposition 21.8. Consider the action of Z on the set [n] given by
k · i = σ k (i)
Orb(i) = {σ k (i) | k ∈ Z}
σ = σ i1 · . . . · σ ir
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given by σ × σ(i, j) = (σ(i), σ(j)). Define
is a homomorphism.
sτ σ ≡ sτ + sσ (mod 2)
Let [n]+ := {(i, j) ∈ [n] × [n] | i > j}. Define subsets Pσ , Rσ , Pτ , Rτ ⊆ [n]+
as follows:
Notice that sσ = |Rσ | and sτ = |Rτ |. Notice also that (i, j) ∈ Sτ σ iff either
(τ (i), τ (j)) ∈ Pσ ∩ Rτ or (τ (j), τ (i)) ∈ Rσ ∩ Pτ . This gives
sτ σ = |Pσ ∩ Rτ | + |Rσ ∩ Pτ |
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On the other hand we have:
2) Exercise.
An = {σ ∈ Sn | σ is even}
Note. We have
Sn /An ∼
= Z/2Z
n!
Since |Sn | = n! thus |An | = 2
.
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Proof. If σ = τ1 . . .τm where τ1 , . . . , τm are transpositions then
m
X m
X
sgn(σ) = sgn(τ1 . . .τm ) = sgn(τi ) = 1
i=1 i=1
σ = σ1 σ2 . . .σr
where {−1, 1} ∼
= Z/2Z is the multiplicative group of units in Z.
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22 Simplicity of alternating groups
τ σ = (i j k)(j k l)
τ σ = (i j k)
σ 0 = τ στ −1
for some τ ∈ An
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If ω ∈ An we can then take τ := ω.
Assume then that ω 6∈ An . Since n ≥ 5 there are r, s ∈ [n] such that (r s) and
σ = (i1 i2 i3 ) are disjoint cycles. Take τ = ω(r s). Then τ ∈ An . Moreover,
since (r s) commutes with σ we have
Proof. By Lemma 22.3 H contains all 3-cycles, and so by Lemma 22.2 it contains
all elements of An .
Let (1) 6= σ be an element of H with the maximal number of fixed points in [n].
We will show that σ is 3-cycle. Take the decompositon of σ into dosjoint cycles:
σ = σ1 σ2 · . . . · σm
τ στ −1 σ −1 ∈ H
Check:
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2) τ στ −1 σ −1 fixes every element of [n] fixed by σ
3) τ στ −1 σ −1 fixes i, j.
Thus τ στ −1 σ −1 has more fixed points than σ which is impossible by the definition
of σ.
Otherwise σ must move at least two more elements, say p, q. In such case take
τ = (k p q). We have
τ στ −1 σ −1 ∈ H
Check:
1) τ στ −1 σ −1 6= (1) since τ στ −1 σ −1 (k) 6= k
2) τ στ −1 σ −1 fixes every element of [n] fixed by σ
3) τ στ −1 σ −1 fixes j.
Thus τ στ −1 σ −1 has more fixed points than σ which is again impossible by the
definition of σ.
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4) 26 sporadic groups (the smallest: Mathieu group M11 , |M11 | = 7920, the
biggest: the Monster M , |M | ≈ 8 · 1053 ).
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23 Solvable groups
{e} = G0 ⊆ . . . ⊆ Gk = G
{e} = G0 ⊆ . . . ⊆ Gk = G
such that for every i the group Gi /Gi−1 is a simple abelian group (i.e. Gi /Gi−1 ∼
=
Z/pi Z for some prime pi ).
23.2 Example.
{(1)} ⊆ An ⊆ Sn
{e} = H0 ⊆ . . . ⊆ Hl = G
Proof. Exercise.
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Recall.
1) If G is a group the [G, G] is the commutator subgroup of G
[G, G] = h{aba−1 b−1 | a, b ∈ G}i
23.4 Definition. For a group G the derived series of G is the normal series
· · · ⊆ G(2) ⊆ G(1) ⊆ G(0) = G
where Gi+1 = [G(i) , G(i) ] for i ≥ 1. The group G(i) is called the i-th derived
group of G.
Proof. Exercise.
23.6 Theorem.
1) Every subgroup of a solvable group is solvable.
2) Ever quotient group of a solvable group is solvable.
3) If H CG, and both H and G/H are solvable groups then G is also solvable.
Proof.
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Therefore if G(n) = {e} then (G/H)(n) = {e}.
3) Assume that H C G, and that H (m) , (G/H)(n) are trivial groups. Consider
the canonical epimorphism f : G → G/H. We have
Proof. See:
W. Feit, J.G. Thompson, Solvability of groups of odd order, Pacific Journal of
Mathematics 13(3) (1963), 775-1029.
23.8 Corollary. There are no non-abelian finite simple groups of odd order.
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