od rod ‘dition Control SWStems fa A. Anand KumarCONTROL SYSTEMS A Anand Kumar (© 2007 by PI Leaming Private Lime, New Osihi Al ght reseed. No part ofthis book may be reproduced in any form, by mimoograph of any oher moans, witout permission in wing from the publisher. saN-978. -208-3197-6 ‘The expott rights of thie book are vested ‘ole sth the publisher Second Printing 2 Se ‘Septem 2008 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PH! Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus New Dali-110001 and Printed by Rakkamal Ect Press, 35/2 G7 Kamal Road Industial Arma, Delhi 10053,Contents Preface wi 1. Introduction to Control Systems 1-20 1b troduction 1 12 Chassifeation oF Comrol Systems 2 Open-Loop Control Systems 3 Closed-Loop Control Systems 4 1.23 Closed-Loop Sysiem versis Open-Loop System 3 1.24 Linear versus Nonlinear Conteol Systems 7 1.25. Time-lnvariant versus Time-Varying Control Systems 7 1.2.6 Continuous-Data versus Diserete-Data Control Sysiems 7 1.3. What Feedback is and What Its Effects are 8 1.3.1 Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain 9 1.3.2. Effet of Feedback on Stability 9 1,33 Effect of Feedback on External Disturbance or Noise 10 1.34 Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity 11 1.4 Servomechanism 11 1.4.1 Automatic Tank Level Control System 11 1.42 A Position Control System 12 1.43. DE Closed-Loop Control System 13 144 AC Closed-Loop Control System 13. Short Questions and Answers 14 Review Questions 19. Fill in the Blanks 19 2. Mathematical Models of Physical Systems 21-97 2.1 Modelling of Mechanical System Elements 21 2.1.1 Translational Sysiems 24 2.12 Rotational Systems 25 2.2 Electrical Systems 26vi Contents 2.3. Analogous Systems 28 2.3.1 impulse Response and Transfer Functions of Linear Systems 29 2.4 ‘Transfer Function; Single-Input-Single-Output Systems 29 2.4.1 Proper Transfer Function 30 2.4.2 Chameteristic Equation 30 2.5 Transfer Funetion (Multivariable Systems) 31 2.5.1 Sinusoidal Transfer Funetion 32 {6 Procedure for Deriving Transfer Functions 32 7 Servomotors 64 2.7.1 DC Servomotors 65 2.7.2. AC Servomoiors 73 2.8 Synchros 77 2.8.1 Synchro Transmitter 77 2.8.2 Synchro Control Transformer 79 2.83. Synchro as an Error Detector 79 2.9. Gea Trains 80 Shori Questions and Answers $3 Review Questions 90 Fill in the Blanks 91 Objective Type Questions — 93 Problems 95 Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graphs 98-169 3.1 Block Diagrams 98 3.1.1 Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System 100 3.1.2 Block Diagrams and Transfer Functions of Multivariable Systems 101 3.13 Procedure for Drawing a Block Diagram 104 3.14 Block Diagram Reduction 105 Signal Flow Graphs 108 3.2.1 Construction of Signal Flow Graphs 109 3.22 Basic Properties of Signal Flow Graph 113 3.23. Signal Flow Graph Algebra 113 3.24 Construction of Signal Flow Graph for Control Systems 115 Shori Questions and Answers. 159 Fill in the Blanks 163 Objective Type Questions 164 Problems 166 Time Response Analysis 170-271 4.1 Time Response of Control Systems 170 4.2. Standard Test Signals 171 4.2.1 Step Signal 171 4.2.2 Ramp Signal 172Contents vii 4.2.3 Parabolic Signal 172 4.24 Impulse Signal 173 4.3. Time Response of First-Order Systems 174 4.3.1 UnitStep Response of First-Order Systeme 174 2 Unit Ramp Response of FirstOnder Systems 176 433 UnitImpulse Response of First-Order Systems 177 4.3.4 An Important Property of Linear Time-Invariant Systems 177 44 Second-Order Systems 178 4.4.1 Response of Second-Order System to the Unit-Step Input 178 4.42. Time Response Specifications — 182 4.4.3 Derivation of Expression for Rise Time. Peak Time, Peak Overshoot, Settling Time and Steady-State Error 183 4.5. Steody-State Errors and Error Constants 187 4.3.1 Static Pesition Error Constant K, 188 4.5.2 Static Velocity Emor Constant Ky 188 4.3.3 Static Aeceleration Error Constant Ky 188 4.6 Types of Controt Systems 189 4.6.1 Steady-State Error: Type-) System 189 4.6.2 Steady-State Error: Type-l System 190 4.63 Steady-State Error: Type-2 System 190 4.7. Effect of Adding Poles and Zeros to Transfer Functions 192 4.7.1 Addition of a Pole to the Forward Path Transfer Function — 193 4.7.2 Addition of a Pole to the Closed-Loop Transfer Function — 193 4.73 Addition of a Zero to the Closed-Loop Transfer Function — 193 4.74 Addition of s Zero to the Fonvard Path Transfer Function 193 4.8 Dominant Poles of Transfer Functions 193 4.8.1. The Relative Damping Ratio 194 4.82. The Proper Way of Neglecting Insignificant Poles with Considenttion of Steady-State Response 194 4.9 Response with P. PI, PD and PID Controllers 231 49.1 21 492 232 4.93 Derivative Feedback Control 234 4.94 Imegral Control 241 4.9.5 Proportional-plus-Integral Plus Derivative Control {PID Control) 243, ‘Short Questions and Answers 248 Review Questions 286 Fill in the Blanks 257 Objective Type Questions 261 Problems 267Vili Contents 5. 272-334 S.A Introduction 272 $2. Bounded-Input Bounded-Output (BIBO) Stability 273 53. Nevessary Conditions for Stability 277 54 Routh Stability Criterion 282 $$. Difficulties in the Formulation of the Routh Table 283 5.5.1 Difficulty 1283 5.52 Difficulty 2 283 5.6 Application of the Routh Stability Criterion to Linear Feedback Sysiems 298 5.7 Relative Stability Analysis 314 Shor! Questions and Answers 318 Review Questions 323 Fill in the Blanks 323 Objective Type Questions — 324 Problems 327 6. Root Locus Technique 332-404 6.1 Introduction 332 62. Root Locus Concepts 333 63 Construction of Root Loci 337 6A Rules for the Construction of the Root Locus 338 6.4.1 Determination of Roots for a Specified Open-Loop Gain 348 6.4.2 Determination of Open-Loop Gain for a Specified Damping of Dominant Roots 49 65. Elfeet of Adding Poles and Zeros to G(s) 349 6.5.1 Addition of Poles to Gisyifis) 349 6.5.2 Addition of Zeros to Gisyiis) 349 Shori Questions and Answers 394 Review Questions 308 Fill in the Blanki 398 Objective Tope Questions. 400 Problems 402 7. Frequency Response Analysis 405-481 7.1 Introduction 405 7.2 Correlation between Time and Frequency Response 406 7.2.1 Second-Order Systems 407 7.2.2 Higher-Order Systems 413 7.3 Polar Pts 417 7.3.1 Inverse Polar Plots 420 74 Bode Plots 428 7A. Basie Factors of GUw)Hiyj) — 428 742 General Procedure for Constructing Bode Plots 438Contents _ix 7.5. All-Pass and Minimum-Phase Systems 443 7.5.1 Correlation between Phase Margin and Damping Ratio of a Second-Order Undertamped System 445 7.6 Computation of Gain Margin and Phase Margin 446 7.6.1 Determination of Gain Margin and Phase Margin fom Bode Plot 446 7.62. Relative Stability Related to the Slope of the Log Magnitude Curve of the Bode Plot 447 7.6.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Bode Plot compared to the Nyquist Plot 448 7.6.4 Gain Adjustivent in Bode Plot 448 1.7 Experimental Determination of Transfer Functions 449 7.8 Log Magnitude Versiis Phase Plois 450 7.9. Closed-Loop Frequency-Response 451 7.9.) Frequency-Domain Specifications 451 Short Questions and Answers 470 Review Questions 475 Fill in the Blanks 476 Objective Type Questions — $77 Problems 479 Nyquist Plot 482-533 8.1 Introduction 482 82 Principle of Argument 483 8.3 Nyquist Stability Criterion 486 8.3.1 Open-Loop Poles on the ja-Axis 492 $4. Nyquist Stability Criterion Applied to Inverse Polar Plats 85. Effects of Addition of Poles and Zeros to G(s)#(s) on the Shape of Nyquist Plot. 507 8.5.1 Addition of Poles at s = 0 8.5.2 Addition of Finite Non-zero Poles 507 8.53. Addition of a Zem 507 8.6 Assessment of Relative Stability Using Nyquist Criterion $08 8.6.1 Gain Margin and Phase Margin 509 8.7 Constant Mand N Circles. 519 8.7.1 Constant Mf Circles 520 8.7.2. Constant N Circles 521 8.8 ‘The Nichols Chart 523 Short Questions and Answers $24 Review Questions 527 Fill in the Blanks 527 Objective Type Questions $29 Problems S31xX _Contents 9. 10. Compensation 534-569 9 92 03 94 95 Introduction 534 ‘Types of Compensators 535 9.21 Selection of a Compensator $35 Realization of Basie Compensators 536 9.3.1 Lead Compensator 536 9.3.2 Lag Compensator 539 9.3.3 Lag-Lead Compensator S41 Cascade Compensation in Frequency-Domain 543 9.4.1 Lead Compensation — S44 9.42 Lag Compensator $50 9.43 Lag-Lead Compensation PID Controller 558 Shori Questions and Answers $61 Review Questions 365 Fill in the Blanks 365 Objective Type Questions 567 Problems "568 State-Space Analysis 570-693 10.1 10.3 104 10.5 106 10.7 Modem Control Theory 570 10.1.1 Modem Control Theory versus Conventional Control Theory 570 Concepts of State, State Variables and State Model 572 10.2.1 Stote-Space Equations $73 10.2.2 State Model of Linear Time-invariant Systems S74 10.2.3 State Model for Single-Input-Single-Output Lineer Systems $78 State-Space Representation 576 10.3.1 State-Space Representation Using Physical Variables $76 10.3.2 State-Space Representation Using Phase Variables $90 Decomposition of Transfer Functions 603 104.1 Direct Decomposition 604 104.2 Cascade Decomposition 609 10.4.3 Parallel Decomposition 612 Diagoralization 616 10.5.1 Similarity Transformation 617 Solution of State Equations: State Transition Matrix and State Transition Equation 627 ‘Computation of the State Transition Matix 630 10.7.1 Computation of the STM by Infinite Series Method 630 10.7.2 Computation of the STM by Laplace Transformation 631 10.7.3 Computation of the STM using Cayley-Hamitton Theorem 633Contents _ xi 10.7.4 Computation of STM by Canonical Transformation 637 10.7.5 Computation of STM by Sylvester’s Method 642 10.8 Transfer Function from the State Model 651 10.9 Stability 653 10.10 Controllability of Linear Systems 655 10,10.1 Alternative Form of the Condition for Complete State Controllability 686 10,10.2 Condition for Complete State Controllabitity in the Plane 657 10,10.3 Output Controllability 687 10.11 Observability: of Linear Systems 662 1011.1 Definition of Observability 663 10.11.2 Conditions for Complete Observability in the s-Plane 665 10,113 Alternative Condition tor Observability 655 10.114 Observable Phase Variable Form 667 Short Questions and Answers 669 Review Questions 677 Fill in the Blanks 678 Objective Type Questions 681 Problems 682 Index 695-699xiv_Profice ‘The design and compensation of control systems can be carried out in time-domain or frequency-domain, but design and compensation in frequency-domain is much. simpler. In frequency-domain, compensation using Bode plots is much simpler than using other plots and ig diseussed in Chapter 9 State variable approach is the modern direct, time-domain approach for the analysis and design of control systems, Detailed analysis of systems using state variables as well as the controllability and observability of control systems are the topies discussed in Chapter 10, A large number of examples have been worked out to help students understand the con- cepts. Extensive short questions and answers are given at the end of each chapter to enable the students to prepare for the examinations very thoroughly. Review questions, Fill in the blank type questions, objective type multiple choice questions and numerical problems are included fit the end of each chapter to enable the students to build a clear understanding of the subject ‘matter discussed in the text and also to assess their learning. The answers to all these are also ziven, Almost all the solved and unsolved problems presented in this book have been classroom tested, express my profound gratitude to all those who directly or indirectly helped me in the successful completion of tis book. First of all | thank Mr. V. Srinivasa Rao of Adam's Engineering College, Palvancha who drew all the figures and typed some past of the manuscript and Mr. P. Venkateswara Rao of our college who typed the remaining part of the manuscript. Tam grateful to Mr, Burugupalli Venugopalskrishna, Chairman Sasi Educational Society, Velivennu, who encouraged and provided me with all the facilities to carry out this work in this Institue, I thank Mr. N. Tirumaia Rao, Treasurer, Mr. B. Ravi Kumar, Executive Director, Dr. Y. Sudeer Babu, Principal, Mr C, Sesh Rabu, Administrative Officer and Mr. N.V.V. Satish Cashier of Sasi Institute of Technology and Engineering for their encouragement throughout this. work express my sincere appreciation to my friends Dr. K, Koteswara Rao Chairman Gautham concept School, Gudivada and Mr. Ramesh Babu yeluri Detroit, USA for their constant encour- agement during the preparation of the manuscript thank my publishers M/s PHI Leaming for accepting to publish this book. My thanks in particular go to the editor Mr. Sudarshan Das for meticulously editing the manuscript, | also thank Ms. Pushpita Ghosh, Managing Editor and Marketing Director for her encouragement in the early completion of the manus Finally, Iam deeply indebied to my family: my wife A. Jhansi, who is the source of inspiration for this activity and without whose cooperation this work would not have been completed, my sons Dr. A. Anil Kumar and Mr. A. Sunil Kumar, and daughters-in-lew Dr. A. Anureet Kaur and A. Apurupa for motivating and encouraging me constantly to undertake and complete this work, ‘The author will gratefully acknowledge constructive criticism (rom both students and stat for further improvement of this book A. Anand KumarIntroduction to Control Systems 1.1 INTRODUCTION ‘A system is a collection of objects (components) connected together to serve an objective, or a system is a combination of components that act together to perform an objective. A control sysiem is that means by which any quantity of interest in a machine, mechanism. or other equipment is maintained or altered in accordance with a desired mannet, or simply a control system is a system in which the output quantity is controlled by varying the input qua A physical sysiem is a collection of physical objects connected together to serve an objective. No physical system can be represented in its full phy’sical intricacies and, therefore, idealizing assumptions are always made for the purpose of analysis and synthesis of systems. An idealized physical system is called a pftysical model. A physical system can be modeled in fa number of ways depending upon the specific problem to be dealt with and the desired accuracy. Once-a physical model of a physical system is obtained, the next step is to obtain’a ‘mathematical model, which is the mathematical representation of the physical model, through use of appropriate physical laws. Depending upon the choice of variables and the coordinate system, a given physical model may lead to different mathematical models. A control system may be modelled as a scalar differential equation describing the system or as a state variable vector-matrix differential equation, The particular mathematical model which gives @ greater insight into the dynamic behaviour of the physical system is selected, When the mathematical model of a physical system is solved for various input conditions, the result represents the dynamic response of the system. Mathematical models of most pliysical systems are characterized by differe ‘A mathematical model is linear, if the differential equation describing it has coe are either function only of the independent variable or afe constants, If the coefficients of the describing differential equation are functions of time (the independent variable), then the mathematical model is linear time-varying, On the other hand, if the coefficients of the describing differential equations are constants, the model is linear time-invariant. equations. jents which a‘2 contro: systoms ‘The differential equations describing a linear time-invariant system can be reshaped into different forms for the convenience of analysis. For example, for transient response or frequency response analysis of single-input-single-output linear systems, the transfer function representation forms a useful model, On the other hand, when a system has multiple inputs and outputs, the vector-matrix, notation may be more convenient, The mathematical model of a system having been obtained, the aveilable mathematical tools can then be utilized for analysis or synthesis of the system. Powerful mathematical tools like the Fourier and Laplace transforms are available for use in linear systems. Unfortunately, no physical system in nature is perfectly linear. Therefore, certain assumptions must always be made to get a linear mode! which is a compromise between the simplicity of the mathematical model and the accuracy of results obtained from it. However, it may not always be possible to obiain a valid linear model, for example, in the presence of a Strong nonlinearity or in the presence of distributive effects which cannot be represented by lumped parameters 1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS Control systems may be classified in a number of ways depending on the purpose of Depending on the hierarchy, control systems may be classified as (a) Open-loop control systems (®) Closed-toop control systems (©) Optimal conteol systems (d) Adaptive control systems (&) Learning control systems Depending on the presence of human being as a part of the control system, control systems may be classified as (@) Manually conirotied systems (b) Automatic control systems 3. Depending on the presence of feedback, control systems may be classified as (a) Open-loop control systems (b) Closed-Loop control systems or feedback control systems 4, According to the main purpose of the system, control systems may be classified as (@) Position control systems (b) Velocity control systems (©) Process control systems (6) Temperature control systems (©) Traffic control systems, eteInirocucion to Contre systems 3 Feedback control systems may be classified in.a number of ways depending on the purpose of classification. 1. According to the method of analysis and design, control systems may be classified as Jinear control systems and nonlinear control systems. . Depending on whether the parameters of the system remain constant or vary with time, control systems may be classified as time-varying control systems or time-invariant control systems. 3. According to the types of signals used in the system, contro! systems may be classified as (a) Continuous-data control systems and discrete-data control systems (b) ac (modulated) control systems and de (unmodulated) contro! systems. 4, Depending on the application, control systems may be classified as position control systems, velocity control systems, process control systems, traffic control systems, ete. Depending on the number of inputs and outputs, control systems may be classified as single-input-single-output (SISO) control systems and multi-input-mult-output (MIMO) control systems, MIMO systems are also called multivariable sysiems 6. Depending on the number of open-loop poles of the system transfer function present at the origin of the s-plane, control systems may by classified as (a) Type-0 (b) Type-I (6) Type? ete. systems, 7. Depending on the order of the differential equation used to describe the system, control systems may be classified as first-order control systems, second-order control systems, ete. 8. Depending on the type of damping, control systems may be classified as (a) Undamped systems (b) Underdamped systems (©) Critically damped systems (d) Overdamped systems, 4.21 Open-Loop Control Systems ‘Those systems in which the output has no effect on the control action, iz. on the input are called open-loop control systems. In other words, in an opersloop control system, the output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison with the input. Open-loop control systems are not feedback systems. Any contol system that operates on a time basis #§ open-looy In any open-loop control system, the output is not compared with the reference input, ‘Thus, to each reference input, there corresponcls a fixed operating condition: as « result, the accuracy of the system depends on the calibration. In the presence of disturbances, an open-loop control stem will not perform the desired task because when the output changes due to disturbances, it is not followed by changes in input to correct the output. In open-loop control systems, the4 Contras systoms changes in output are correcied by changing the input manually. Open-loop control systems can be used in practice only if the relationship between the input and the output is known and if there are neither intemal nor extemal disturbances. One practical example of an open-loop control system is a washing machine—soaking, washing and rinsing in the washer operate on a time basis. The machine does not measure the output signal, ie. the cleanliness of the clothes. A traffic control system that operates by means of signals on a time basis is another example of an open-loop control system. A room heater without any temperature sensing device is also an example of an open-loop control system. The general block diagram of an open-loop system is shown in Figure 1.1. Reference Actuating -— Contolted input a signal | Controlled | “variable 4] Controller <= proves ao (output) Figure 1.1. General lock ctagram of an openoop system: 1.22 Closed-Loop Control Systems Feedback control systems are ofien referred to as closed-loop eontrol systems. In practice, the terms, ‘closed-loop control” and “feedback control’ are used interchangeably. In a closed-loop control system. the actuating error signal which is the difference between the input signal and the feedback signal {which may be the output signal itself or a function of the output signal and its derivatives and/or integrals) is fed to the controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the system to a desired value. A system that maintains a prescribed relationship betveen the output and the reference input by comparing them and using the difference as a means of control is called a feedback control system. The term “closed-loop control” always implies the use of feedback control action in onder to reduce system error. ‘The general block diagram of an automatic control system is shown in Figure 1.2, Itconsists of an error detector, a controlies, a plant and feedback path elements, Error Reference dawector Error input signal Actuating signal Ourpat Controller Feedback sina! Feedback path ‘elements Figure 1.2 General block diagram ofa claseioop contol sytem ‘The reference input corresponds to desired output. The feedback path elements convert the output to a signal of the same type as that of the reference signal. The feedback signal is proportional to the eutput signal and is fed to the error detector. The error signal generated by the error detector is the difference between the reference signal and the feedback signal. TheInirocucion to Contre systems 5 controller modifies and amplifies the error signal io produce better control action, The modified error signal is fed to the plent to correct its output. An example of a feedback control system is a room temperature control system. By ‘measuring the actual room temperature and comparing it with the reference temperature (desired temperature), the thermostat turns the heating or cooling equipment on or off in such a way as to ensure that the room temperature remains at a comfortable level regardless of outside conditions. The following are some examples of control systems: ‘Traffic control system: ‘Traffic control by means of traffic signals operated on a time basis, constitutes an open-loop control system. The sequence of control signals is based on a time slot aiven for each signal. The time slots are decided based on a traffic study. The sysiem will not ‘measure the density of the traffic before giving the signals. It gives the signals in sequence as per the setting imespective of the actual traflic, Since the time slots do not change acconding, to traffic density. the system is an open-loop control system, This open-loop traffic contro! system can be made as a closed-loop system if the time stots of the signals are based on the density of traffic. In a closed-loop traffic control system, the density of the traffic is measured on all the sides and the information is fed to a computer. The timings of the control signals are decided by the computer based on the density of traffic. Since the closed-loop system dynamically changes the timings, the flow of vehicles will be better than in that of a open-loop system. Room heating system: A room heater without any temperature sensing device is an example of an open-loop control system. In this, an electric fumace is used to heat the room, The output is the desired room temperature, The tempereture of the room is risen by the heat generated by the heating clement. The output temperature depends on the time during which the supply to the heater remains ON. The ON-OFF time of the heater is set as per some calculation. Whatever ‘may be the room temperature, afier the set time, the heater will be OFF, The actual temperature is tot compared with the reference temperature and the difference is not used for correction. ‘The above system becomes 2 closed-loop sysiem if a thermostat is provided to measure the actual temperature, and the actual temperature is compared with the reference, and the difference is used to control the timing for which the heater is ON. Washing machine: A washing machine without any cleanliness measuring system is an example of an open-loop control system. In this, the soaking, washing, and rinsing in the washer operate on a time basis. The machine ON time is set based on some calculation. The machine does not measure the output signal, that is the cleanfiness of the clothes. Once the set ON time is over, the machine will automatically stop. whatever may be the level of cleanliness. ‘This can be a closed-loop control system. if the level of cleantiness can be measured and compared with the desired cleanliness (reference input) and the difference is used to control the washing time of the machine 1.23 Closed-Loop System versus Open-Loop System An open-loop system ean be modified asa closed-loop system by providing feedback. The provision of feedback automatically corrects the changes in output due to disturbances. Hence the closed-loop control system is called an automatic control sysiem6 contraisystoms An advantage of the closed-loop control system is the fact that, the use of feedback makes. the sysiem response relatively insensitive to external disturbances and internal variations system parameters. It is thus possible to use relatively inaccurate and inexpensive components to obtain the accurate control of a given plant, whereas doing so is impossible in the case of the open-loop system. From the point of view of stability, the open-loop control system is easier to build because system stability is not a major problem, On the other hand, stability is a major problem in the closed-loop control system, which may tend to overcorrect errors that can cause oscillations of constant or changing amplitude, It should be emphasized that for systems in which the inputs are known ahead of time and in which there are no disturbances, itis advisable to use open-loop control. Closed-loop control systems have advantages only when unpredictable disturbances ang / or unpredictable variations in system components are present. Note that the output power rating. partially determines the cost, weight, and size of a control system. The number of components used in a closed-loop control system is more than that for a corresponding open-loop control system. Thus, the closed- loop control system is generally higher in cost and power. To decrease the required power of a system, open-loop control may be used where applicable. A proper combination of open-loop and closed-loop controls is usually less expensive and will give satisfactory overall system performance. The advantages and disadvantages of open-loop and closed-loop control systems are summarized in Table 1.1 Table 1.1. Open-lao9 vs closed-loop Oper-loop conwrol system Closed-toop control system 1. The open-loop systems are simple and 1, The closed-loop systems are complex and ‘economical costlier. 2. They consume less power, 2, They consume more power, 3. The open-loop systems are easier to construct 3, The closed-loop systems are not easy t0 because of less number of components construct because of more number of resired. components required, 4. Stability is nota major problem in oper-loop 4, Stability is a major problem in_ closed-loop control sysiems, Generally, the oper-loop control systems and more care is needed to systems are stable osign a stable closed-loop system. 5. The open-loop systems are inaccurate and 5. The closed-loop systems are accurate and: unreliable, more reliable 6 The changes in the output due 19 external 6, The changes in the output due to external disturbances are not corrected automatically. disturbances are corrected automatically, So ‘So they are more sensitive to noise and other they are less sensitive 40 noise and other disturbances disturbances. 7. The feedback reduces the overall gain of the system, 8, The feedback in a closed-loop system may lead to oscillatory response, because it may over cortect errors, thus causing oscillations of constant or changing amplitude,Inirocucion to Contr systems 7 1.24 Linear versus Nonlinear Control Systems The classification of control systems into linear and nonlinear is made according to the method of analysis and design. A system is said to be linear, if the principle of superposition applies. ‘The principle of superposition states that the response produced by the simultaneous application of two different forcing functions is equal to the sum of the two individual responses. Hence for the linear system, the response to several inputs can be calculated by treating one input at a time and adding the resulis. Sirictly speaking, linear systems do not exist in practice, since all physical systems are nonlinear fo some extent. Linear feedhack control systems are idealized ‘models fabricated by the analyst purely for the simplicity of analysis and design. When the ‘magnitudes of signals in a control system ate limited to ranges in which system components exhibit linear characteristics, the system is essentially linear, but when the magnitudes of signals are extended beyond the range of the linear operation, depending on the severity of the nonlinearity, the system should no longer be considered linear. Common nonlinear effects focused in contiol systems are saturation, backlash, dead play between coupled gear members, nonlinear spring characteristics. nonlinear friction force or torque between moving members, and so on. Quite often, nonlinear characteristics are intentionally introduced ina control system to improve its performance, or to provide more effective control, For instance, to achieve minimum time control, an on-off type of controller is used in many missile or spacecraft control systems. For linear systems, there exist a wealth of analytical and graphical techniques for design and analysis purposes. Nonlinear systems on the other hand are usually difficult 10 treat ‘mathematically, and there are no general methods available for solving a wide class of nonlinear control systems, 4.25 Time-invariant versus Time-Varying Control Systems When the parameters of a contro! system are stationary with respect to time during the operation of the system, the syatem is called a time-invariant system. If the parameters of a control system vary with respect to time during the operation of the system, the system is called a time-varying sysiem. In practice, most physical systems contain elements that drift or vary with time, For example, the winding resistance of an electric motor will vary when the motor is first being excited and its temperature is rising. Another example of a time-varying system is a guided missile control system in which the mass of the missile decreases as the fuel on board is being consumed during flight. The analysis and design of linear time-varying systems are usvally much more complex than that of the linear time-invariant systems. 1.26 Continuous-Data versus Discrete-Data Control Systems A continuous-data control system is one in which the signals at various parts of the system are all functions of the continuous time variable and among all continuous-data control systems, the jgnals may be further classified as ac or de. An ae control system usually means that the signals in the system ate modulated by some form of modulation scheme, On the other hand, when a de control system is referred to, it does not mean that all the signals in the system are unidirectional, then there would be no corrective control movement, A de control system simply implies that the signals are unmodulated. but they are still ae signals according to the conventional definition.8 Contraisystoms In practice, not all control systems are strictly of the ac or de type. A system may corporate @ mixture of ac and de components using modulators and demodulators to mateh the signals at various points in the system Discrete-data control systems differ from the continuous-data control systems in that the signals at one or more points of the system are in the form of either a pulse train or digital code. Usually discrete-data control systems are subdivided into sampled-data contro} systems and digital control systems. Sampled-date control systems refér to a more general class of diserete- data control systems, in which the signals are in the form of pulse data. A digital control system refers to the use of « digital computer or controller in the system so that the signals are digitally coded, such as in binary code. In general, a sampled-data control system receives data or information only intermittently at specific instants of time. Strictly, a sampled-data system can also be classified as_an ac system, since the signal of the system is pulse modulated Sampling may be inherent of intentional. There are many advantages of incorporating sampling into a control system. One imporiant advantage of the sampling operation is that expensive equipment used in the system may be time shared among several control channels. Another advantage is that pulse date are usually less susceptible to noise. Because digital computers provide many advantages in size and flexibility, computer control has become increasingly popular in recent years. 1.3 WHAT FEEDBACK IS AND WHAT ITS EFFECTS ARE One use of feedback is for the purpose of reducing the error between the reference input and the systcm output. The reduction of system error is merely one of the many’ important effzets that feedback may have upon a system. Feedback also has effects on such system performance characteristics as stability, bandwidth, overall gain, disturbance and sensitivity. When feedback is deliberately introduced for the purpose of control, is existence is easily identified. However, there are numerous situations wherein a physical system that we normally recognize as an inherently nonfeedback system tums out to have feedback when it is observed in a certain manner. In general, we can state that whenever a closed sequence of cause-and-effect relationships exist among the variables of a system, feedback is said to exist. This view point will inevitably admit feedback in a large number of systems that ordinarily would be identified as nonfeedback dy) +e. ob ou) |p - Mi) Figure 1.3 Feedback system with one feedback lopInirocucion to Contre systems 9 ‘The input-output relation of a single loop control system shown in Figure 1.3 is given by <_G 7 1+GH ay 1.3.1 Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain As seen from Eq. (1.1), feedback affects the gain Gof a nonfeedback system by a factor V/(1_ + GH), The system of Figure 1.3 is said to have negative feedback, since a minus sign is assigned to the feedback signal. The quantity GH may itself include a negative sign, so the general effect of feedback is that it may inerease or deevease the gain. In a practical control system, G and H are functions of frequency. so the magnitude of | + GH may be greater than T in one frequency range but less than 1 in another, Therefore, feedback could increase the sysiem gain in one frequency range but decrease it in another. 1.3.2. Effect of Feedback on Stability Stability is a notion that describes whether the system will be able to follow the input command, or be used in general, In a nonrigorous manner, a system is said to be unstable if its output is out of contol. To investigate the effect of feedback on stability, refer to Eq. (1.1). If Gl =—1, the output of the system is infinite for any finite input and the system is said to be unstable. Therefore, we may state that feedback can cause a system that is originally stable to become unstable. Certainly, feedback is a two-edged sword, when used improperly, it can be harmful In general. GH = —1 is not the only condition for unstability (One of the advantages of incorporating feedback is that it ean stabilize an unstable system, Let us asstime that the feedback system shown in Figure 1.3 is unstable because GH = —. If We introduce another feedback loop through a negative feedback gain of F as shown in Figure |.4, the input-output relation of the overall system is ‘ G £.__¢ _ 12) rp 1+GH+GF bend a * rd rs : C é oe ot * = u Figure 1.4 Feedveck system with two feedback loops10 comeisyeeome tis apparent that sthoug the propetes of Gand Har such that the inne loop feedback sjsem is unable, because CH =~ te overall system can be stable by proper selection of the outer loop feedback gain F. In practice, GH isa function of frquencs, and the stability condition of the clesecloop system depends an the magnitude and phase of GH. So we c= conclude thai feedtack can improve sability or be hanmful to stability if itis aot applied rope: 41.33. Effect of Feedback on Exiernal Disturbance or Notse All physical systems a> subject 10 some types ofextranous signals or noise during operation. Examples of these signls are thermal noise voltage in electronic ciruite and brush ot coramatatortoise in elec motes. Exemtalsisturbanees, for example wind gust sting cn an ntenra, ae aso quite commen is ental systems. Therefore inthe design ofa com systom, considerations shoud be givens tat the syste fs insensitive to nose and dstukance: and ‘sersitve mo input commands. Me eet of feedbuckon nose and disurance depends greatly on where these exaneaes ‘Signals occur in te sytem. No general conclusions can be reached, but in many siuatons, feedback can reduce te effect of aoe and dbturbunce on system performance, Refer 10 Figu 1.5 in which r dmtes the comm sign and» is the mise sigan the absence of feedback, 7 ~ 0, the ouput € due to m astng slone is Gn us) ‘With the presence of feedback, the sysem ouput due to a acting alone is cs an er ay ‘Comparing Egs. (13) and (14), we can conclude thatthe nose companent in the oupat of Eq. (14) is reduced by 3 factor 1+ GiGyt He later is greater than unty and te system is hep sable. wpfaoays ral b ge 13. Foote sysem wm roe snaIntroauction to Gontiot Systems 14 1.3.4 Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity Sensitivity considerations often are important in the design of control systems. Since all physical celements have properties that change with environment and age, we cannot always consider the parameters of a control system to be completely stationary over the entire operating life of the system. For instance, the winding resistance of an electric motor changes as the temperature of the motor rises during operation, In general, a good control system should be very insensitive to parameter variations but sensitive to input commands. Let us investigate what effeet feedback has on the sensitivity to parameter variations, Referring to the general block diagram of a closed-loop control system of Figure 1.3, we consider G to be a gain parameter that may vary. The sensitivity of the gain of the overall system, .M, to the variation in G is defined as yy _@MIM _ Percentage change in. M GIG” Percentage change in. G (hs) where 2M denotes the incremental change in A due to the incremental change in Gi, 9G. yom Gt (16) “OGM 1+GH ‘This relation shows that if GH is a positive constant, the magnitude of the sensitivity function can be made arbitrarily small by increasing Gi, provided that the system remains stable. It is apperent that in an open-loop system, the gain of the system will respond in a on to-one fashion (0 the variation in G. (ie. sf = 1), In practice, Gif is @ function of frequen ‘The magnitude of 1+ GH may be less than unity over some frequentey ranges, so that feedback could be harmful to the sensitivity 10 parameter variations in certain cases. In general. the sensitivity of the system gain of a feedback system to parameter variations depends on where the parameter is located, 1.4. SERVOMECHANISM In modern usage, the term servemechanism or servo is restricted to feedback control systems in which the controlled variable is mechanical position or time derivatives of position, velocity and acceleration. Few servo mechanisms are illustrated below. 1.44 Automatic Tank Level Control System Figure 1.6 shows an automatic tank level control system. The. purpose of this system is to maintain the liquid level A (output) in the tank as close to the desired liquid level as possible, even when the output flow rate is varied by opening the valve V. This has to be done by controlling the opening of the valve Vs. The potentiometer acts as an error detector. The slider arm Ais positioned corresponding to the desired liquid level /¥ (the reference input). The power amplifier and the motor drive form the control elements. The float forms the feedback path element. The valve Vs to be controlled is the plant.12 contr systems ns the slider arm B on the potentiometer. al 10 the ‘The liquid level is sensed by a float and it po When the liquid level rises or falls, the potentiometer gives an error voltage propor change in liquid level. ‘The error voltage actiates the motor through a power amplifier which in turn conditions the plant (i.e. decreases or increases the opening of the valve V3) in order to restore the desired liquid level. Thus, the control system automatically attempts {0 correct any deviation between the actual and desired liquid levels in the tank. Mechanical link Error detector (potentiometers) Mowor |, | Power drive] amplifier | voltage Figure 1.6 Automate tank level control system, 1.4.2 A Position Control System Figure 1,7 shows a servasystem used to position a load shaft. In this, the driving motor is geared to the load to be moved. The potentiometer is used as the error detector. The output and desired 1 | Ample i i Generator Motor constant) i, potentiometer poteatiometer Figure 4.7. A positon control system,Introaucten to Contt Sysioms-_ 13, positions - and O respectively are measured and compared by the potentiometer pair whose oulput voltage Vs is proportional to the error in angular position @p= @ — Be. The vollage Vg= KyOc is amplified and is used to control the field current of a de generator, which supplies armature voltage to the driving motor. The position control systems have innumerable applications, namely machine tool position control, control of sheet metal thickness in hot rolling mills, radar tracking systems, guidance systems, ete 4.43. DC Closed-Loop Control System Figure 1.8 shows a typical de (unmodulated) control system. The output signal @ represents the actual load position and the reference input 6, represents the desired position of the load. A potentiometer error detector is used. The electrical error signal proportional to the difference in the positions of the actual and desired load positions is amplified by the de amplifier and this, output drives the de motor which in turn through the gear box decides the position of the load. The signals are all unmodulated (i.e. de). DC motor Coniolled variable Figure 1.8 Schematic diagram of atypical do closed-loop system, 1.44. AC Closed-Loop Control System Figure 1.9 shows the schematic diagram of a typical ac control system, The output signal 8, representing the load position is applied to the synchro control transformer, The reference input @, representing the desired output is applied to the synchro transmitter. The synchro. pair acts as an error detector, The error signal is amplified by an ac amplifier and drives the ac servomotor which in tum positions the load through the gear box. The signals in this system are modulated (i.e, ac type).14 contr systems Synchro rol miter Synchro tr ( of Figure 19 Schematic diagram of a typical ac clsedloop contol system, SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 1. What do you mean by a system? A. A system is a collection of objects (components) comnected together to serve an objective, ot a system is @ combination of components that act together to perform a certain objective, 2. What do you mean by a control system? A. Acontrol system is that means by swhich any quantity of interest in a machine, mechanism. ‘or some other equipment is maintained or altered in accordance with a desired manner. or A conirol system is a system in which the output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity . What do you mean by a physical system? A physical system is-a collection of physical objects connected together to serve an objective 4. What do you mean by a physical model? ‘A. An idealized physical system is called a physical model What do you mean by a mathematical model? The mathematical representation of the physical model is called the mathematical model.Introauctien to Contot Sysioms-_ 15 When do you say that the mathematical model is linear? ‘A mathematical model is said to be linear, if the differential equation describing it has coefficients which are either functions only of the independent variable or are constants. When do you say that the model If the coefficients of the differential equation describing a system are functions of time (the independent variable), then the mathematical model is said to be linear time varying, near time-varying? When do you say that the model is linear time-invariant? If the coefficients of the differential equation describing a system are constants, then the model is said to be finear time-invariant. How are control systems classified? . Control systems may be classified in a number of ways depending on the purpose of classification, (a) Based on the hierarchy, control systems may be classified as 2) open-loop control systems (Gi) closed-loop contrat systems Gii)_ optimal control systems iv) adaptive control systems (¥) leaming. control systems (b)_ Based on the presence of human being as part of the system, eontrol systems may be classified as, (@) manually controlled systems (i) automatic control systems (©) Depending on the presence of feedback, control systems may be classified as 42) open-loop control systems (Gi) closed-loop control systems or feedback control systems (@) Based on the main purpose of the system, control systems may be classified as, (position control systems Gi) velocity control systems, (ii) traffic control systems iv) temperature control systems, ete. How are feedback control systems classified’? . Feedback control systems may be classified in a number of ways depending on the purpose of classification. (a) According to the method of analysis and design, control systems may be classified as ear control systems and nonlinear control systems. (b) Depending on whether the parameters of the system remain constant or vary with time, control systems may he classified as time-invariant control systems and time- varying control systems.16 Gontvt Systems 1B. M4 15, 16, (©) According to the types of signals used in the system, control systems may be classified as continuous-data control systems and diserete-data control sys ac (modulated) contrat systems and de Cunmodulated) contrat systems, (@) Depending on the application, control systems may be classified as position control systemis, velocity control systems, etc. (@) Depending on the number of inputs and outputs, control systems may be classified as single-input-single-output (SISO) control systems and multi-input-multi-ourput (MIMO) control systems. MIMO systems are also called multivariable systems, (1) Depending on the number of open-loop poles of the system transfer function present at the origin of the s-plane, control systems may by classified as (i) Typed il) Type-l, (ii), Type-2, ete. control systems. (g) Depending on the order of the differential equation used to describe the system, control systems may be classified as first-order control systems, second-order control systems, ete (h) Depending on the type of damping, control systems may be classified as () undamped systems, Gi) underdamped systems, (Gli) criticallydamped systems, and (iv) overdamped systems, What are the two major types of contrat systems? The two major types of control systems are (jt) open-loop control systems and (b) elosed- loop control systems. What do you mean by an open-loop control system? ‘Aa-open-loop control system is one in whick the output quantity has no effeet on the input quantity, that means, the output is not fed back to the input for correction, ie. a system in which there is no feedback is called an open-loop control system. What do you mean by a closed-loop control system? A closed-loop control system is one in which the output has an effect on the input, The ‘output is fed back, compared with the reference input and the difference between them is used to control and bring, the output of the system to a desired level, What do you mean by feedback? Feedback is a control action in which the output is sampled and a proportional signal is xziven to input for automatic correction of any changes in system output. Which feedback is employed in control systems? Negative feedback is employed in control systems. What are the basie components of a closed-loop control system? ‘The basic components of a feedback control system are: plant, feedback path elements, error detector and coniroller,ruse Conte Sams 47 17, Why nesative fedhack i pofered in conta systems? |A. Negative feedhack is invariably prefered in cose-laop come systems because negaive feadback results in beter stcbilty in staly-tace and rjets any disturbance signals. It also hs low sensivity © parameter variations 18, What are the characteris of nogitive Feedsack? A. The chaeterisics of negative feebatk se ws Cullows (a) Accuracy in tacking steady-state value (©) Rejection of disturbance signals (e) Low sensitivity pastel variuions (@ Reduction in gan a the expense of bener stability 19, What isthe efit of postive fedhack on stability” ‘A. The effect of postive ieecback on stability is—pestve feedback increases the or signal and érves the output to insabiiy, but some times positive feedback is used in minor oops in eorro systems to aml certain imemal signals or parameters 20, Compare open-loop and clesedloo contol systems, ‘A. Comparison of oper-oop and closed-loop contrl systems i gives in the following table: Openbop conte sens loseop ont sens Taare and worl “Acct ad eal i 1 2 Consime less poe 2 Cansame mor pow 4. Simple an economical 3. Camplex and eostie: | The ehanges in opt doeto gxial 4, The changes in ctpat fo ecemal ddststanes ae ot eorece itutanes ae seed autora Sacral, 1. Thy are geet ale. 5 font te ned dvign a ale stm 21, Distinguish berween linear and nonlinear eoetal ystems. ‘A. A linzar control system i one fr which ie principle of superposition and the principle of homegenity are valid anc a oalinearconrol stem is one for which the principle of superpston and she principle 9f homogenety are rot valid. 22, State the principle of superposition. 'A. The principle of superposition staes tha the response rrocued by the simultaneous application of two diferent forcing finctons is equal tothe sum ofthe to individual responses. 23, Distinguish betwoun ine-invariant and time-varying contol «yom ‘A. A time-invariant contol system i one in which the parameters of the system are ‘tionary with respec to ime during the operon of he ste. Its ouput characterises donot change with time and i: can be represented by consant coefieatdiflrertial cuatons18 Gontvt Systems 24, 21. 28. 3H. A time-varying control system is one in which the parameters of the sysiem are not Stationary with respect to time during the operation of the system, ie. the parameters of the system vary with time. Its output characteristies change with time and the coe‘ficients. of its differential equation are functions of time. Distinguish between continuousdaia and discrete-data control systems, Acontinuous-data control system is one in which the signals at various parts of the system are all furetions of the continuous time variable A diserete-data control system is one in which the signals at one or more points in the system are either in the form of a pulse train or a digital code. . Distinguish between ae and de control systems. The ac control systems are those in which the signals are modulated. ‘The de contro! systems are those in which the signals are not pure de, but they are unmodulated. Distinguish between sampled-data and digital control systems. 4 sampled-daia control system refers to a more general class of discrete-data control systems in which the signals are in the form of pulsed-data igital control system is one Which uses a digital computer or controller so that the signals are digitally coded, What is the advantage of sampling? ‘One important advantage of the sampling operation is that expensive equipment used in the system may be tiie shared among several control channels, What is the effect of feedhack on overall gain? ‘The feedback affects the gain G of a nonfeedhack system by a factor M1 + GH). Ina practical control system, Gand / are functions of frequency. so the magnitude of 1+ GH ‘may be greater than | in one frequency sange but less than | in another. Therefore, feedback could increase the system gain in one frequency range but decrease it in another. |. What is the effect of feedback on stability? Feedback may cause a system that is originally stable to become unstable. In some cases feedback can stabilise an unstable system. So feedback is a two-edged sword, when used improperly it ean be harmful. What is the effect of feedback on extemal disturbance? The effect of feedback on noise and disturbance depends greatly on where these extraneous signals occur in the system. No general conclusions can be reached, but in many situations feedback can reduce the effect of noise and disturbance on system performance. What is the effect of feedback on sensitivity? In general, a good control system should be very’ insensitive to parameter variations but sensitive to input commands. Feedback could be hermful to the sensitivity to parameter variations in certain cases. In general, the sensitivity of the system gain of a feedback system to parameter variations depends on where the parameter is located,Inroeucien 9 Conta! systems 19 LiMo UN 1. With a neat diagram explain the working of an automatic tank level contro system, 2. With @ neat diagram explain the working of a position control system, 3. With a neat diagram explain the working of a de position control system. 4. With a neat diagram explain the working of an ac position control system Ge 1. A physical system is 4 collection of connected together. 2, An idealized physical system is called a 3. The mathematical representation of the s called the mathematical model. 4. Based on the hierarchy, control systems may be classified as (i) Gi Gi) i) and (v) 5. Based on the présence of human being as part of the system, control systems may be classified as (i) and (ii) 6 Depending on the presence of feedback, control systems may be classified as @)_and Giiy 7. Based on the main purpose of the system, control systems may be classified as a (ii) ci) etc 8. According to the method of analysis and design, control systems may be classified as @ and Gi) 9 Depending on whether the parameters of the system remain constant or vary with time, control systems may be classified as (i) and (ii) 1 Acconting to the type of sigals used in te system, contol systems may Be clase ax a and (ii) or (i) and (i Depending on the application, control systems may be classified as (i) Gp iy) ete, Depending on the number of inputs and outputs, control systems may be classified as (and city Depending on the jumber of open-loop poles of the system transfer function present at the origin of the s-plane, control systems may be classified as (i) i) i) systems, ete. 14, Depending on the order of the differential equation used to describe the system, control systems may be chissified as (i) ( i) ete 18, Depending on the type of damping, control systems may be classified as (i) (i Gi) and (iv) 16. The two major types of control systems are (i) and Gi)20 contr systems 17. An open-loop control system is one in which the has no effect on the 18, A closed-loop conto! system is one in which the has an effeet on the 19, feedhack is employed in control systems 20. The basic components of a feeddack control system are (i) (ii) (i) and (iv) 21. A linear control system is one for which the and the are valid, 22, In ac systems, the signals are Whereas in de systems the signals are. 23. Sampling may be or Answers to Fill in the Blanks 1, physical objects 2. physical model 3. physical model 4. (i) open-loop control systems, (ii) closed-loop control systems, (iii) optimal contro! systems, (iv) adaptive control systems, (v)leaming control systems 5. (i) manually controlled systems, (ii) automatic control systems. 6, (i) open-loop control systems, (ii) closed-loop control systems 7. (3) position control systems, (ii) velocity. control systems, (iii) traffic control systems. ete. 8. (i) linear control systems, (ii) nonlinear contro systems 9. (i) time-varying contro! systems, (i) time invariant control systems 10, (i) continuous-data control systems, (ii) discrete-data control systems, of (i) ac control systems. (ii) de control systems 11. (i) position control systems. (ii) velocity control systems, (ii) traffie control systems, etc. 12. (i) single-input-single-ouiput contro! systems, (i) multi-input-multi-output controt systems 13. (i) type-0, (ii) type ii) type-2 14. (i) firstoorder contrat systems, (ii) second-order control sysiems, (ii) third order control systems, ete. 15. (i) undamped systems, (ii) underdamped systems. (ii) critically damped systems, (iv) overdamped systems 16, (i) open-loop control systems. (ii) closed-loop control systems 17. output quantity, input quantity 18. output, input 19. negative 20. (i) plant, (ii) feedback path elements, (iii) error detector, (iv) controller 21. principle of superposition, principle of homogeneity 22, modulated. unmodulated 23. intentional, inherent.Mathematical Models of Physical Systems || MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEM ELEMENTS ‘Most control systems contain mechanéea) at well as slestrcal componets,slthoush sore sgsters ever hive hydralic ard preumatc elomont. Fram a rathomatical view rein, tne that mest of the conditions of near ae satisfied, TheLsnenaca Meat tyne Systane 28 icon ie thatthe sysiem i basicaly nonlinear or cperted in noninesr gon, butt apply the linear analysis ani design tos, we linearize the system abut a nominal operating post "The analysis is applicable only forthe range of variables in which the Hinearzation is valid. 231 impulse Response ard Transfer Functions of Linear Systems “The slasial way of modeling linear systems f 9 use trmsfer fonctions o represent np ‘ulpa clans betes vaiables, One vy 0 fie the tr fartion to use he impulse response which is dened a fellows Impalse response: Corsider tht linear tesiavaciant system tas the input (and the ‘output ci). The system can be characterized by its Impulse respons gi), whch i defined as the opt wher he ina is «wit injlaeFaeton 9), Oreste nips resyonse of nea system is Known the ouput of the spt, (0), wh any inp (2) can be fend by using the transfer Function, 2.4 TRANSFER FUNCTION: SINGLE-INPUT-SINGLE-OUTPUT ‘SYSTEMS ‘The ransfrfintion of 9 Tinea Hme-invarant yom is defined asthe Laplce transform of the impulse response with all te inal eondhions st ty 210. Let ls) denote the tanser fwpeion of a single-nputsinge-cutpat system, with input (an oust 2) and impulse response (0. Then the ransfer function (3) is defined as Ge) = £ (eo he transfer function (is) i elated to the Laplace tansorm cf he Inpet and the ouput ‘trough the folowing ration ce Gn F0 ‘wth al the intial condone set to zero, and Cs) and Us) are the Laplace vansforns of 40 and 1) eepectvely. Thais the transfer faction it Jfind 8 the rato of te Laplace ransfarm ‘of the cuput the Laplace vans othe inpr wit ll intl conditions neglete. Although the transfer funtien of « linear system is defied in tems of the impulse response, in patie, the input-output eleion ofa near tminsariant sysiem with coninunus ‘ate input is otendescrhe by a diferent] equation, s that it is more conceent to derive the ansferTucton ciel fem the differential equation Let us conser ta! he input-output Felaton ofa Ineer tmesnvarant syste: i cescred bythe Tolling ah oder clfereiat ‘equation with constant rel coef, afte, 4, fe Vet tee en30 comorsyrons ‘Ones the input 1) For 2 fy and the ‘nts eondtions of (and derivatives of o() are specified athe iit time # = the output response «(for 1 is determined by solving Eq. (21), However, te solution of higherarder deena equations is quite tous. So the nals and design of near stems is done using transfer futons, ‘To obiuin the transfer tunction ofthe linear system, simply take the Laplace transfor on both sles of, (2.1) and assume zaro inital conditions The results Ca? ays sg © a) C8) = Cs + BPS 8 + By) ROD ‘The unsfir function bases re) and) ls given by et asl 4 taste RO) agit aa tag eta Ta, The propates of the transfer furction areas fellows |. The wens fantion defined oaly for Enea ine invariant system tis rot defined for eolinae yee 2 The transfer funtion between an input variable end an output vant of system is defined asthe Laplace transform af tha ispalbe response, Alematively, the uansfor function betes a pat of igput and output yiables of & system isthe rabo of (se Laplace tearm of the ouput the Laplace transform the inp 4. Al inal condone of the system ate set to zero. | The traneferTunsion i independent ofthe input of de sytem, 5. The tafe furetion of a cominoourdata sytem is exprosoed only ana Surtion ofthe complen vrible » It not fnstion of the eal vrs time, or ay other veriable tha is wed #8 the indenendert variable. For disretewata systems modelled by diferece equations. the wansfer function isa fancion of = when the :-ransom is sed. ou 244. Proper Transfer Function ‘Te transfer font is said 1a be srety proper, ifthe onder ofthe denominator polyoma jeter than thet of the mune polyoria (Le. > m). The twser Cetin i sd to be proper, if the onfer of the mamerator polyncmial equal t that of the denominator polynomial (12. m ~ 2), The wensfsr‘unction is seid 10 be improper, ifthe order of the ‘numeraioe polynomial greater thn tat of te denominator polynomial (L2.m >) 242 Characteristic Equation ‘The eneracenstc equation of & tear system 4 tines 8 the eqaton tiated by’ setting the denier polyoma ote tear fenton cer, Ths, Ue earacriic eto of he system deserted above isManama Moco of Pata Syste 34 A+ OWEN OE 4 OHH Hy =O 02 qunon (2.2) Is called the characte putin Decaase Wt characterizes the Behav ofthe sytem. ‘The subilty of linear single input sngle-cutpet eeme is governed completly by the rote of the charsteite sqnatins, 2.5. TRANSFER FUNCTION (MULTIVARIABLE SYSTEMS) ‘The definition of @ transfer function is easily extended ta stern with multiple inpsts and outputs. A system of this type i fle referred 28a mulfvariable str. Ina multivariable system, a diferential eyustion of the form deseibed shove may be used to describe the relationship berveen an inpu-ouput pair, when all other inputs are set to 20, Since the srincipl of siperpositin i valid fr lear stems, the total effect on any output due to a the pets acting simultaneously is obsired by edcing up the uxpus due to eee input acting alone. een eee “198 ay SL au eb ew OLY! Ta 7 L o o Faw 25 tual eyens a system has tro inputs ane two catpts as shown in Figure 2 Sia, then the eutputs ae tiven by GU) = G4) KE) | GO) RL 64) = Gl NE) © Gb) KO) ‘The transfer function G(s) represerts the ransfer function between output 1 and inpt 1 ‘when inp 2 is zer, Sambar definitions can be given to the oer transfer fanetons, G6). Galt) and Gi) In genera, if near system has p inputs ant q oupus a stown in Figure 2b), he wransferfuncton Setween the jh put andthe Mh opus define 25 cue) Gir WO Rios) with Ags) = 0,F= 12, gy Hoe: Note tat Gy (sf detinad with only the fh opin eft, Therese the ater inputs are st 0 ze. When al the inp are marion, the hes ‘ansfonm is writen 35 CO) = Gy ~ GALIRIO) = ~ = GYR) In vecormatix form, the ingut-ouput relation of @ mutvarisble system is Gs) = GRE82_comnisyeem Ge oy where cu he Ge isthe g 1 tanfermed out vector, wu] 1 sy=| 2 5,0 ts the p x 1 mansermed inp sector: and GS) Gab) + G67 G0) Gei= G69) Ga) > Gel) fs the g x p transfer feneion mati 254. Sinusoidal Transfer Function “The seny-xnte eaponse of a contol stem to 8 Shue pt is obtained by replacing» vith jo nthe tanaforftion of tho sytem. "The wamfer function lisined 2y replacing + with fo in the orginal tanto fiction ic called the siusoidal anor faxtion, 2.6 PROCEDURE FOR DERIVING TRANSFER FUNCTIONS ‘The following assumpons are made in deriving wansfr functions of physical ystems, 1 Is sssumed that ther sno loading Le. no pone is drawn atthe outpet of he stem. Ifthe sytem has more than one nor-oading elements in easeade, then the transfer fimevon of each elemert can be deteined independertly, and the overall wansfer fneton of the physieal system Is determined by mutipiing te indivicual transter fincons. In ase of ystems ecnsitng oF elemers which Tend each eter, the overall tianserfureton shuld be Jrived by basic analysis without wezard w individual ‘wanser functions 2. The system shueld be syproxinatsl 9 acar lupe, estat puraeter model by risking suitable assumptions “Te isis pao ne, et ws suse (vo ideal AC cuits eamesid in ease 0 tho he euput fora the fist eto is fea input to the second ar chown in Figure 26,Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems. 33 R z j ) ‘ ) “J Figure 2.6 RO cits n cascade The describing equations for this system are as follows: Le =i Rime ZI teri a6 03) ‘Taking the Laplace transform of Eqs. (2.3) and 2.4), assuming zero initial conditions, we obtain G 1 Ble= neo] +RH = 6) Reonganizing. Eq. (2.5), we get 1 iol e+dl=nooe Es)+ hls) zi a) cenit ap Oe EET) @7) za 1+ RCs Reonganizing Eq. (2.6). we get cs] cs oo] Re a}- 4-565) Substituting the value of (6) from Eq, (2.7) in the above equation, we get 19) e+ 2] 1+RC G SEIS) 40) _ pe (9) Car RES) Es) TF RCS CHE RCN) ice ety) Zo(8) [v i(s) = CSE]TRG a ssufesnonsi ta el ii ei £0) Ein PP aaeal T*TeRe eer ree ‘eres no Fong, dhe overall wansfrfuneton of the sWo RC etal connected in cascade The fren inthe transfer factions is du tothe fact tht while Jerving the transfer fanetion ofa single AC’ ciruit iis assumed thatthe ouput is unbaded. However, when the Input of he secon cru Is ob:neé tem the ouput ofthe fst, 2 cern moun of energy fs daa fom the fst cout an’ hese Hs original wax Faction fs mo kniger val, THe degre 9 which the cveral taster function is mocifed From the product of advil anefer fimetions depends npon the amon of lading Example 2 For dhe masispeing dashpot system shown In Figure 2.7(2), tan the wanier funtion. Also obtain the anlagoes cloewial network based on (a) free-vokge aralgy anc Tr le poe cure 27. Expl 21(0) neta, ) Feed agar ard) macaried ratot Solution: The e-bady diagram of the mechanical system o° Figure 27() is shown in igre 2.70), Applying Newton's law of moti tat te algebraic sum of the forces ating or agi body = mass acceleration, the equation of thotenenasca voces Psa Stems 95 F-sB hee wee sg o ie. ren Ba weno Taking the Laps on bo si nd ngs the in oor, 1x44 felt Mis fae Alterraive wa: Forte given mechanical system, frst draw the mechanical neswork showr in Figue 2700. There is only one node Let the mde varile be displacement x or velocity v. One end of ail the three elements i eonected to ground s0 the diplseemen’ ofthat end i 20. The ohor ‘end ofthe thre elements has a displacement x oF velocity ». So the deserting eqeatian is, o ache eet i fea and the analogous clecical nerwork is es shown ia Figur 28(2. Its emetyidemical to the rmecharieal network. Once the mectaniel neiwerk oF ¢ trarcatonl sytem is draw, the snalogcus clerical aework bssel on feree-curent analogy ean be easly drawn like tis: the structure of the electrical nesvork Is exactly the seme as the stucture of the mechanical ‘etvork, Le. acieselewens i dhe melaical network verain ap series clement in the ‘ecrcal network ard shint cements in the mechanical nctwork rin a8 shunt cements the electrical setwork. Just replace the fore FU) hy a curert source {@) (= Fit), mass M by capacitance C (= M, fieton f ty resistance R (= 1) sring K by inductance F/R) Aispncement «by fh 6, and velocity v by voltage e. The node equations of the elerca network ill he analogous to the node equitons of the mechanical network,@ © Faure 24 Exarcle 2; (2) andbvos dete ciel asd on Fanaa and) anaonos lee eck al or Forge “The analogous equation ofthe elec cet based on foreevolage analogy Is Hag t ae i enttbeni ofia nalogous olctical network ses shown in Figure 2.8(). Once a mechanical network [6 avalabe, tie analogous eleical nawork bated on force-volge aralegy can be drawn casily Uke thi. In this, the series slerens ofthe recharical netwcrk become analogous shunt ‘lemons andthe shunt elements ofthe mechanical network become anslogots seis slemente Replace the frce FU) bya vole source ef) (= FU). mass M by inductee Z(= i, fiction by resistance R (= /), sring K by capacitance C (= VA) displacement x by chase q and ‘velocity ¥ by cueret Xi). The loop ecuatons will be snalogous to the rode equotons of rmecharial newark, Example 22 Write the torque equations ofthe rotational sysiem shown in Figure 2. Oban the taster Rtn Ao ebisn the analogous ectiatrework tad on (@) force-voltage analogy and (by force-curent analogy. a @ » « gue 23, Sample 2: (4) ert stn) etd gran ad macail nearomatics Nol Peal yer 97 Solution: ‘The fee-boly diagram ofthe mechanical system of Figure 2.() is shown in Figure 29(0), Applying Newton's law of motion that the algebraic sum of torques en body ‘= memeat of inertia x angular acceleration, the equation of moton of the system is ig tg i ah es Tele spac The rar fant th stem is ret (8) + eek Aerstve way, Tae the Ben echt em fit daw the mere! ned as doesn rote 206) OS ou chaaine QD Ud wanan wre (yn ene aoe Sees oem eset syn Fpl bu byl eee oe Sidhe Sur ed vee las Moen toa led To carole Be ac cere menos aeresemcne Seat hon yom nae Le ae wehbe B00 Sete tng aon ee de raster Gee 20 pen! o rest syorn] oo Thalp in fhe soa to frm agi e,10, east is exety ential tthe ‘mectanical nework. Once the mechan cal network of a rotational system is dawn, the snalogotsclecricl network based on torqueeurert analegy canbe easily dren ike ths the structure of the lecrical network is exsily che same a the strc of the mechaniel retwirk, ia. series elements fn the mechanical nework remain as series elements in the lectical network and stunt elements in the mechanical network, remain 48 sit elements in the electrical network. So the ede equations ofthe eletizal network willbe analogous 0 the ‘ode equations of mcchancal nawork, Just replace te torque Toby cen: souee i) (= 70s% » que 210 Ssaryle 22: (a) aabyous eect nen toed on aUecaTe ay ad (Gy omg ceed neve bse on uevaige erly The analogous equation of the electrical crit based on frcuewollage anlegy is 14, 9 eae 4 « eaten te ‘and the analogous eleical circuit is stown in Figure 2.10(0) Once the mechanieal network ‘of rtational system fs dra, the analogous clerical network based on force-volageansiogy an be easly dawn Ike tls tn his he series elements ofthe mechanical network becrre ‘aalogoin shen element ad te sant clenents of Ce mechanical network become malagons ‘aries elemers. Replace torque Ti) by a volte source <() (= 70), inertia by inductance LE, totion fy reskionce R(= 7). sring K'hy emastarce C= VK), angle depcement {by charge, and angular velocity @ by (1). So the lop equations ofthe electrical network ‘ill be analogous to the rode equations ofthe mechan cal nenserk Example 23. Wrte the ciffrent Figire2.11(a) cemtions for the mechanical system shown in Fete, — Mh i, Sis) Fgur 21 Exon 23 (mecha sto, (mecha neirt a (fen by ogam, adAcne Moto Pra Sytirs 98 Solution: "The mechanical network forthe given mechasical rarslational ster showe in Figue 2.114, The fee body diagram is shown in Figure 211(c} The differential equations fsoverning the behaviou of that sysiem ae given as follows. The node variables may be Aspiacerems or velocities. The diferemal equation for the sytem are a8 follows: es 41) .eaenin i me shog-ne te faa-no Sh +4( 8-4) ea = RO « M2 fin eR fad eR ‘Example 24 Find the transfer fanction aa ‘or the system shown in Figure 2.12(a). T T, i f L, Longe! aT, ‘s “ * Figure 212 ange 24) meal yin) howdy gran) etal et. Solution: The free-body diagram is shown in Figure 2.120). The mectanical network is shown in Figure 2.126). No extemel fre is epplied. The dsplaeemers are due to intial ‘conditions, The difsenial equation governing the behaviour of the system is wo /(Se- Seen Taking the Laplace taser on oth sides MeN) + 8 LXE) — NA +H 1A) — N40] = i (Uo? + +H Ki) = G+ KAKA) The tmnt fc i thee jetk XO) Ms fee k40 comessysers Example 2.6 Obtain the diffrent quetions for the mechanicel system shows ia Figo? 130) en Te eB [ae] a Vi bees KG x t Frqure 2.19 Esenpe 25 mecha sjem,(t) mest rer ant (ested agra, Solution: The mechanical retwork fs shown in Figure 213(H. The tee body diagrams show ia Figure 2.13(), The diffseutal equations for he given mechuskal stan are a MEET Ba TKO qerke « a 2eKfiaen) «mao a Kinaaepfizo é kif ood j= Example 26 Consider the mechancel sjsem shown in Figure 2.14). Suppese the: the system is set inte moticn by wit impulse force Find the resuling osilaion. Assume that he ‘jst 5 at rst inal 0 moat Figure 24 ample 26: (a) mecha yam (2) chan etek and (ho bet dagenone odes ciPrysca Seam 44 Selution: ‘The mechaniza netwok is shows in Figure 2.1400). The five body diagram is shown in Figure 2.14). The diferential ecuation ofthe sytem is antes ? “Taking the Laplace wensform on bth sides end electing th iil conditions. 1 = ss? + Ke) - “Taking the inverse Laplace transform sO>ypeae WK ‘The resuking oscilbtion frequency is = VAT rads. ‘Example 2.7 Assume thatthe ear in Figure 21S(a) le taning il fOr F< 0, w (9 ic the Aiplacement ofthe cot and’ () isthe output. Oban the transer function of the system, bes Oh oak fe» Ea | pd] « Kyo u iy Ton N60 CE 1 © ° gu 215, samp 27 (a mechan ten, | mca nwo ade) Me toy lr. ‘Saltlone The machanieal newer ofthe sytem is shown in Figame 2.15(0). The fie body diagram is shows in Figure 215ic). The diferenial eqation ofthe system is pare Jenne aa “Taking the Laplace transform on both sides end neplesting the initial concn AGH) ~ ALI ~ Ui + KL) ~ Uy) = 0 ie IM? +f + A) 1G) = io +1 OO) ‘Therefor, the iarfer function of the mchansal sete YO). fon UG)" Me +e42 canine Example 28 Write the differentia equctions forthe mechanical system shown in Figure 2.16. Obiin the amogous electrical networks based cn (a) frce-curent analogy and (b) frce- voltage analog. ben ben Figure 216. Carole 20: Machanca ston Solution: ‘The ee-body diagram is shown in Figure 2.1712). The mechanical setwors of the sytem is shown in Figure 2.176, bh nn] | whiny Be 0 i © 1 gure 217 rane 22 (a) eo body dram, and) mecha retork, ‘The iferentalequstions deserting the betaviour of the given mechanical system are " aj dees( B22 Poem Bs fash) ia ee a « yet one ‘The clecical nerwarks hesee on frcecumert and foee-wltne analogies are shown in Figure 218(a) and Figue 2.186) respectively and the earesponingdifereialeqsatons are also given a follows:gure 218 Exape 21 (eka! ma tase on cece nly ab) decrel eta boda touq ng fone ween cite LM Ri + Ral inne se ai tienien Bee Lh os = Rll Asano i, Example 29 Write he differential equations for the mechankal system shown in Figure 21a), Abo draw the analogous electra ctcil based on force-cuent analogs. o » Figure 219, sample 29: recta astm ad 0) rhs, ‘The ssechenicl network s shown in Figue 2 16), No exerral fore nating ‘on the system and the displacements are due te intial condtiors enly “The diferent aquatons forthe system are te-nrer( Mose)o WET TAM neo ~ AE-G)enoeo se +B foar=0 The aralagousclecrca reir based om fors-curent analogy is shown in Figure 2.20, Fie 220, Exampe 29; Anapgots eect netvor bande recur naka The it al equations forthe oetvork of Figure 2.20 we as Follows a9 fe oars farce Fxample 2.10 rie the diferente equmions governing the behaviour cf the mechanical syste shown in Figave 221. Also oan the analogous elec cris based (a) Free Curent analogy and (b) fore vole araogy. Ako find the transfer funtion (eA). Figue 221 Bagi 270: Menara sym, Solution: The diferent equxiors governing the behaviour of the mechanical system ‘an be wien using te ffe-body diagram or the mechanical netwerk. Jus fr illstaton both the fre-bady diagram and mechanical network are drawn as shown in Figure 222) and Fire 2.22() respectivelywa bs oi maps “Ol Ll a Oy ® igure 222, Esarole 210) toy doyam and) mecha re ‘The dtferentialequstions cescrbing the behaviour of the meshanieal system area follows 4S tae) te rome men farenf oe + Kal —4)=9 y)a=0 Ime analogous clerical network aed on force-cunent analogy’ is shown in Figure 223 Figs 223. Crore 210 Argan secticanena bad on racine any ‘The anaepous eecricl equations es fll “faa singe eft fea-naeo “The analogous eleccal network based on frce-volage analogy is shown in Figure 224.4“. Figure 224 Eco 2:16 Argus eed mew asd on eee araony The analogous electri equations are as follow tere L fine tfo,ine ainenchenre fine faa fu aya ona sa-va Example 2.11. Fer the mechenical sysiem shown i Figue 2.25, write the diferent ceauatins desribing its behaviour. White the amlogous electical equations based ca fore=- ‘oliage analy, anc fores-umen: analogy, and draw the comespanding networks. Also draw the ‘mechanical rework ard obtain the taster fencion AUS)/As) Pen no boning bso | ein —f 4 | wb | | \ fk em sett Fest an hee op Seluvon: The fee-boly digg ofthe mechanical systems shown in Figure 2.26 ky [+ kei20 wy bor a [+ Kis gue 236 Carpe 211 Fraebady dog er mechanical en of Fig 225,‘The dexerhing equations are a follow: ra) t 1) cays ype mon 42-2) ore j The dscrbing eats ats of wel re flows A au Be gey-wren fervor Fam Ber sin-memfin 9d “ Kles=n0 4 fla -ny ds h, +K fry deo, 2-0 "he equations oF the analgous elecrical network based 07 Tere-curestana>gy areas fatlows weet sLe-nietfa-ee 1 1 Lal ey denaedfiennartert fear tec ‘The eacspaing clerical elven f show in Figure 227 Fue 227 Bonga 211: Anaogas dtc rot based 2 troeearent nabay48 conisyaume "he equations” the anal electrical network based on foree-voltage analogy are as follows gue 228 somo 211 Anaopas etic roto sed a ee ote anny The mechanical notwosk forthe givan mechanics system i shown fy Figure st cps Bs [= Figure 229, Bmp 211 Mess nto ‘The deserbing equtions a ondes {and 2 of Figure 2.29 areas follows To obtain the transfer function take the Laplace trarsform ofthe describing equations of the mechanical ysten neglecting the intial condos,eset Nol Pn Syms A Fn = MED # F904) ~ MEIN KDHE) HU [My fe 4 KI KUL #K MO) @ MH) + Fs¥2() + RFU) + HALO) HO)) + KIKI H+ AH, RNP) Us + KID ie. Fe yyoy=—— Ls) Me tet HK) Song he vale of (9) fom FE, (i) in E.G), we ast «iy es fk) yoy LEE S OD Fo) : Mas fa foes +R) ‘Therefore, the transfer function is Ko. Mas +6 Hse +k) FL ME Fe RIBS Us ~ fe 4 + KTR EL Mas! HU + fe + +R) FG) MM TM e+ Mahs HOE RAM KA MK, ADP GK A DR? Example 2.12. Wie the difereiel equntons governing the behaviour cf the mechan system shove in Figure 2.30), Tb Tp Te , Figure 230 Bape 2.72 (a mezunca spon and () Kee ay capa.Nemenmesieces erPhanslsisens St Soleton: The fash diagram is shown in Figure 2.330), The mechanical nebo is ‘Soon i Figo 2.38 (t) The deserting uations can he witenMased on any one om Figure 253 Sang 25 (9 foo body Hg ad (2) mathe neti The foe-ods diagram is drain tke this FU) is the eternal ferce applied on mass 44 1 move it by m ditance x from fet te right So disction of FU) is fom ett sgh. Al her Fives aioe on will pose Ais mnion 80 the ections OF ff. 8%, aM fg — 4) tare eppesite that of #0). So they act rom night ol fis connecting Mand Na Theroore “fs &) #16 fom eh 16 gh on This lease placement a Anker fees at Mie fy. and Ky eyaet ina duction opposite w that of Jy (=i), Le bom fight fen "The mechanical network is dug as follows, There ae two masses My and Als One stad fof each mas st be connected se around. Cine end of A) sto Ro connect we ground. The cond end of Fis tobe connected te the sovond end of My /() is between Mand sound So one ond off, ls comecied to giound an the ober and connect the socond end of A K between Mf and ground. So one end of Kyi conteced 10 round and the ether end ‘8 connacted othe cevond er of M, One an of MI tou, fs Dace te second ends OF My and 1s Ky and fare between Me and sroutd, So one ee of Kan connected 16 loud andthe eer and of Kad ee corm Yo the sand end The mechanical etverk is shown in Figure 2.93), The displacements. anny or velocities wand 9 ae the ‘ce warahles the second endef Yat is respective The dfercaial cquaions descbing the Ieluvur ofthe wsshanal stow meas falls Fae hj Bi Boat fal he) fast frvats fils)52_cormsysams [Example 2144 Writ the fers! equtions govsoning the Sohaviour of th mechanical ‘eanslationalsystem shonin Figure 2343), Be agg Li 4 4 ts “ Ly o ® Figeo 234. Exorpt 214 (mechani eton sb) fo body dagen, Solution: The fed siyrany ofthe system stow in Figure 2-246), The maal- eal network forthe given esschanical system is shown in Figure 2.38 Figure 236. Gam 2 Us Macha seis bt the mecha pte of Fare 23) ‘The difereialequtions govern the eins of he stem area Fs fn Ros S. o=m ay +h Ry RO 8 SEL RoyNenenmesitecas erPrana) sens 53, Rem, Bee sy ee] omen. | one BM EB ya fH) Ge) oe Kensie] m-mbeie-weK] ine oan Ps (tetas we o=m. piano] Onn Example 245 Fi the aster funtion X[0)'6s) for he elecrosmestameal sysem chown in Figure 236. lite: Fora simplified onaysis, assume tha the cil has a back ent ey ~ Ky dv and he col umert proces free Fe Ks Jam the mass. AG Soteton: {Lethe the current in oop andthe the cure he Yop having te eo \Weiing the RVL equations around the leaps, “ six fiero54 cor systoms 4 oad ol iheginrbfiar-iena Taking the Laplace wansform cn bath sis, suv nre Ln yard ‘ ele! ora ie woe Lhno-Lue twos muy=tin ws aster euro 1 1 sore kx. tf ([trgy}torenaning oe 8s Ren Kero] 6B a nok] 1s\=€ECP #1) B,CPXG) (RE HLE? HEH KOE KE) HED) Bw) us SS FCEMRECE + B54 V+ UK RE? + KIX (s) o res = RD fon hy (Be Reve ee Fe G= Ms + fos AK INU) = KIO) Me fk ca Subsiiming the valu of fs) Gean Ep. Gi in Bq @), we get 1 xo @ wc) anes? eax (oy Ela) (RLCH s+ RyNenenmesitecaserPrana) sens 55 BLOM! + RLCH © 2RRLCY 4 LM + 2p 4 2K RA? AACA IR RR AEE 4 RK a » Mw Tartare the nf rion 2) & Ei)” RECHs* +(REC/ + LM yo? HORRLC + Uf + RM + KROQ? ORL RY Rae sample 2.46 Obici the waster fmeton ofthe mesianica! ger shown in Figue 2.37 ¥ % U artist) mes 7 Figure 237 Eurple296 Mecha yon, Solution: The ouput Is the angular lsplsament #of shat on ouput side. Let he the tneular displacement of seft en input side, Te fieebody digaram is shown in Figure 238, ‘The mechania! nevwort coesponding to the glen mechanealrtaonal sytem Is den #5 shown in Figure 2.386). One eed of) sto be connected to eround. One eof rrgue sures {sto be grounded, The othr ent nf 7 is connected othe ther 2nd of Ja the nade | Letts exe vale be @ oe One ead of J rounded, and Ais concord between the to fee fs af J, ae. One on aff yrourdod, the othr end off 6 jolne 10 the Tse end Of J, et ere that ole variabh= ae Boo p \ 2 4 HY wo gure 238, vanp 26: (9) tee oty Sgr ane) metas netvon, ‘The dineresil equations desriing the ehavlon of the sssem in Flzwe 2.97 ae a Fallows:56 cor systams 24 £4 Rao fies > sy or Tater fiq-ord o 0, 40 wd =P ROO) or ws ee ee {i tn pin) a a Tig eps rn 2 (Oe Wa Care KBE) —E) Tea) dy? + Ko) KOC) sl 0 =J.s2O(0) + O10) + ROK) KALA) Us + f+ RVI KOO) fs ke) eye? [ESP ny Test, wee eins as) Toy I eA KO, eA find the wane Fanction 2 ops da anognn leew cuts Dased on tongue Te) and trgue-vltae anos Example 217 Wie the torque equations ofthe rostral system sown in Figure 2.38. Ais ub = SEH wm i Figure 238 Exanot 217 Rolo ssa Solution; The fee-body dinaram of the given rettonal sistem is sbown in Fipure 24012), The eoreseting mechanical network is swe fn Figure 2 44),Nemenaesitecas erPrana) sens _ 57 c)4 Figure 240 sang 217 (Yee oly saga ant) means nto ‘The diferertil equations govering the behavior of te given rottiona system areas Fallows: roesffenq-a) © rossMenf cue ol a1 a ns Bhanl oy o snd © KP atmo i “Taking the Laploe wansornt of Eqs. i) and (i and neslctng the intl ection. we get Me = FM C8) RIA) 0.001 [iP + A) KOK) ww and K[a,0) e+ 046 ies enya o ae es) Substiuing the Value of @() ftom By. (is) Eq. ih, we ge A ais pak Sp? +k ged KE? Bek Fey F rR) BO)-KL ~a0f ao) psk Te)” Wai «as rR Teanga eel equans bese on reece ordoy tea flan y= ato) ora (eae neoe ear home Tfa-o ai Lig, as 8 or flab tena rd inane tes — 0 prada a058 cormsytams ‘The analogs eleetricol cre basod on fore-curet analy is shown in Fiore 2.41 fob ® an [ so Se Four 241 Erne 247 Araby stil dre bad on (0) fgu ce! ant ant (o)retevotge som ‘The electcal equations based on foncevokage analogy are a flows ee ee Example 218 | Wet the torque equations ofthe rotational system shown in Figure 242. Find au) 70) the tanter foneton aK te a Flue 242 Sarve 2.18 Rola sen Soteton: The feesdy dngnen of the rctaonal system shown in Plgure 2436). The corresponding macnieal network is shown ia Figure 2.4300) a” % Bake & my Bie Ce 1, 4 Rs fad [x C4 io ‘% gure 243, arp 28 (a analy Saya an) matanet mataMainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 59 ‘The differential equations governing the behaviour of the rotational system are as follows: w and (ii) Taking the Laplace transform on both sides of Eqs. (i) and (ii). we get Ts) = Jys7Q(3)+ KO (8) ~ O(s)] = ys? + K) Gis) ~ KOs) (iii) and 0 = Jys7O,(s) + K[O)(8)- 8,65) ie. (gs? + K) (8)= KG (8) a)=—*_a@) yy Jy + KK Substituting the value of 43) from Eq. (iv) in Eq. Git). we get lap KKK Tins, 8) (5) -< A peak Therefore, the transfer funetion of the system is a he tk Dye tk TE) AS ea AIRS PU Igy? +2 FIR Example 2.19 Write the torque equations of the rotational system shown in Figure 2.44, Find as) Ts) the transfer function Motor I J. Ta) ee Figure 244 Example 2.18; Rotational system Solution: ‘The: free-body diagram of the given rotational system is shown in Figure 2.45(a). The corresponding mechanical network is shown in Figure 2.45(b).GO contr systems @ @) Figure 245 Example 2.18: (a) ftee-body diagram and (2) mechanical network. ‘The differential equations governing the behaviour of the rotational system are as follows: T= 1 + Ky(8, 8) + Kl, 8) “i HO, - Ty kG “ip 2 ae A JB KG -0,)=0 aii) a Taking the Laplace transform of Eqs, (i). (ii) and (iii) and neglecting the initial conditions, Ts) = Jy87By (5)+ Kal O,(8)— 8x8] + Kyl (2) B05] ie, 1 (8) = Uys” + (Ky + Ki)] Oy (8) — K28,(9)— Ks) (iv) Fy378,(8) + K 16,8) 8,,(3)1= 0. ie. [Ups? + Kp] Oy(s) = Ki, (3) © 158°O() + KL (8)~ OS) =0. Ki] (9) = K6,, (8) (i) seek, 5) 3 [tom Eqs. (v) and (vi)] Ast +Ky | Ky Ja +K Ks guy) Ons Tg KK Putting the values of 6,(s) and @(s) in Eq. (iv), we get ast ek, Att, )k. 148)= Lys? + (Ky + Ky) | 28 *® JQ (yy, | 2° > | Ke go) xa, (8)= [us + G af ; 1,5) (2522 |Baw (s)Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems G4 alist + ty Ko + Ky)" +d, Ky? + Ky(Ry + Ky (as? +B) AC) Ky2hy82+ Ky Ky + Keys? + (as +) ‘Therefore, the transfer function is Als) (ys? + KK, TS) Shad 8° + (Kyl + dadiK t dandy Ky + Jody Ky)s HU aK Ky + Ja Ky + AiKy ty Ry +d iy yy? = Jak)? +K) Ky + Kh, -K 7K, - KK, As) _ (D8 + KK, TS) Iba Ty 8° + Kalgdy + SgI\Ry tJ .4)Ky +S g0 yg Ky HOEK K, +I KR + Ig Ki Ry) e Example 2.20 Write the torque equations of the rotational system shown in Figure 2.46. Draw the analogous electrical networks based on (a) torque-current and (b) torque-voltage analogies. “0 ogo 4s Kj hs oe w wT t * * 8x0 Ta Tai) : h 6 Figure 248 Example 2.20: Rotational system. Solution: The free-body diagram and the mechanical network corresponding to the aiven rotational system are shown in Figures 2.47(a) and 2.47(b). 109-8) 0, Sid, " 4 i ; a) o Figure 247 Example 2.20; (a) free-body diagram and (0) mechanical network.62_ cores sysoms The diferent equations for the rational stew area follows fh Boia aed atthe jay en, Wi =0 . ts na faa 8 BO aye fee gM aye0 LS K, J, = a4,)ar=0 a 1,8 pan + fm) ‘The analogous elvricl vetvak based on terquccumentanloay is shown in Figure 2.48 “The onalogous letrical network fused tongues amie is shown fn Figure 29.Nemenmesiecas ererana) sens 83, [Example 221. Wits the ferential equations govsrnng the mechanical rotational stem own i Figure 20 and deverain ihe rnsfer funtion ay) TO) ool 4 tf fe Figure 258. roe 221: Robo aten Solution: The te bey diagram and he meetaniel nesvork coresonding othe given rovatnal spsten ane sbown in Figues 2.81 and 2.52 respectively ee DO YW ENS" 22695 gue 252 Esenle 221, eta mwa, The difexentsh equntions for the station sytem sed on Newtons law of motion (onion sazes that te agebyac sam ot Jonge acting origi body Je pe to He prodat ofthe moment of inet and angular cceeration ofthe bod ars as follows: nino) ta) 2 é ta, wm aot -2)- pos Alen one & fcoy—oe © ee64 corn systoms ‘Taking the Laplace transform of Es: (i) andi) with zero inal conditions, TE) = Ji9 44) fils U9) 9A) FK1A(0)~ BL] ie Ls 4 Fak® RAG eK 24) iy 7a) +0) + Fol HWA] + A) AOD) is 2 +f fat KV (ho KBE fo fon KV to) Fat Substiig the valve of €) flan Ea. Co) Iv Bg. dD, we wer aire ww Hey tay? jor) A PU ves Be) Taye fis +4 TE: Beds! AUS PAP ed HK KA ts hd OK fa REE R= Fast Us +B) te Toye AEE RUaAE EAE Na KH +)? 2K] yy ‘Therene, the Wansfr fiction fy a fish, 0)” Ae MDT AL nd HE RA MFT 2.7, SERVOMOTORS “The contol stems which are used to ccetrol the position or time deviates of postion, Le veloc and acceleration an elle sorenmechaniame, The more nbich ere wed in aromatic ‘contol gets ar called srvomofors, The servormors eased to convart an electrical ig ‘Gono solaye) appled to them into an angular displacement of the shal Dependlog othe fonsnuctin. thy ean operate ethers a continuous duty or step du ‘varie of srvonotor are avsilsble for corrl stom aprons The sabi of a orc Fr 9 pamela apotston depends the characteris of he spe, the Paes of the sytem and is operating conditions Ti gereral @Servmanor shold hive the flowing stre: fe Linear relatnship teteen speed an electric contol sigaal Steady-state abilityNenenmesitecas erPrana) sens 85 1 Wide range of sped contol (2 Lineuy of meshanical charstenstes tug th ene spot range (© Low mechanical and electrical inca Fat response Servomatos ate brovdhy elif! as de seromoters and ae aervometors depending on the power suppl reuied to nm the mol. Eveniough de mors ave cost than te mots, they Fave linear shivtetarisice and eo iesaier to control. They ae nor wed for lange power applications such 2 it machine cools aud robs The advamaass of de servomotors are a5 follows 1. Higher cutpt thon fom an ae moter of th same si Bay schieveme of sar charities ser speed con from aero spel to fll speed fn oth the ection, ‘High tonne ner aio tha wes them pick response to como! Sens ‘The de servemoers kaye lish weighs low inertia an low inducasice armature tht ean respond sickly to commands fora change In postion or pest 5 Lo electrea ae mechanical me constants 7. The de motes are capuble of delivering over 3 tines Use rate equ fr a short pe ampared to the 20 2.5 ines the eat orgie develope by the AP motos. The advantage of as servomatrs ore lve cot higher effciney’ and ess mrinenance since the rashes and commuter ate nol tere, The dhsadvanages of a motors are Ut ‘Shacterstics are quite nonlinear and thess motors are moe sift to control especially or esitioning appears. The ae moors afehest sie ar low power splictons, such as Insnenent servo (eg contol of pon it sy recorder) and computer-related equipment (edie delves ape driv, ints, The theese nhac notes with pulse wi oda. power alii fre cure gaining popubity 5 high power covtelapplicaons 271 DC Servemetors The de servomoters ee realy east int (a) sing contact motos with somata and tne ard (5) brushless‘ contact ks motos th SCRransisior commmutatx The sliding contact metre migy be eased into (a) permanent magne! moles ard (yelestonaunetc Held motors The peat sare ov my (9) ena me mots, 0 (6) ste rmotces. oF (6) moving coil moors The electromagnetic field mets may be (3) armature-cooled mowors oF ¢b) Heide controled moter, oF (6) Frise moter, of (2) elit Fld motors Permanent magnet de motors: In this type of motors, he armature is placed in totor and te fea winding i replaced by permanen! rage! pees fixed ta the Stor Ye produce the ‘oqulted magnetic field. Porwarent magnet motors are econemieal for power teins up 10 a Tea KlowattsThe fllowing ae some of the edvantagss of permanent magnet motos: 1. A simpler and nore reliable mover beaase the eld ower sop is ri read 2 Higher operating effifency asthe motor ha no Feld Sess 3. Fil fos i6 ess affected hy temperate rise 4 Higher torquerineria at 5. Spool neatly dey proportional to imate voltage #2 given toad org 5. more linea toguetspend curve 7 Higher outpst power athe sore dimensions and tempera liao The disadvantages of permanent magnet mors see dhe maknets deteriorate wih ine an magnetized with large curent tartenls “These dravBacks ore ebiiaatad By High giode mazneic materials sich as ceramic magnets and rear ean mayets. But dhe cost of these fmatosal very high [Ekctromagneti Field de motors: Electromagntic molor ate ssonomica for higher power ings generally above 1 KW, This tye of serworoter i sina 40 = conventional de mater contrast has the Tvlowing speci fetes: |. The mumter of sles an commutator segments i ange to improve eoimtion 2 Compote and corpenssing windings ate provide 1 ena sparking 4. The diame to length rato 6 kept low weve nents, 4 ‘Oversize shally we employed to wind the hh frous ses, Eady cuens ave red by complete elimination of the magnetic crit nd by using Jon ss See In this type oF moje, the wrgue ad specs may be cone by varying te arma current andor the fied curt. General, one of thee i aed to contol the sreue and the ftier is held constant. In amatie-contolled mode of operation. the eld curent is held {constant and te amare curren! i ack cool the toque Inte ilsoelled me, te armature cuent is malnained constant aa field cute ie vaied to cont the oegue. In sere angie. de rss are required tn koe rp accelerations fm sani “Therefore, tho physical eoguioments of such a mote ac low ‘pia abd high stating tori ‘ow ineia atalned wih reduced armuaure diane witha conse icteee ame Jeng su tht the dasied power ouput is achived. Thus, except for mince Genoa: in jonsietional features a de Servonowr essentially an onary de moi Tn cnt sptens the ds antares are used nny in Wo iffnent oneol mod: amatue contol mode with Raed fick! carent snd ld contol moe wih Fixed armmore carer Armature-centeolid de servonoior: An semaute-snioled dé seAvom on I a Be shunt moter dosgnad io say the requieneet of seryomet Ite Fld eurent i enstal than soso isdrel'y ropostonel to amature volgen tras is diselly proportional to snare feureet Hence ie ore and speed ea he contoted Hy areatte vlog. Reversible operation in posible by reversing the armatire vi Jn small motors, the armas voice is controled by a sarisble retance. Bet in lags motes in onder to resis poveriss, armate uae coir hy ys,Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems OT Figure 2.53 shows an armature-controlled de motor. 4 : NJ's o Figure 253 Armature-contoled de rotor. In this system, resistance of armature winding (in ohms) inductance of armature winding (in henrys) armature current (in amperes) field current (in amperes) applied armature voltage (in volts) back emf (in volts) = torque developed by motor (in N-m) angular displacement of motor shaft (in radians) equivalent moment of inertia of motor and load refered to motor shaft (in kg-m2) equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and load referred to motor shaft ( Nemfrad/s) In servo applications, the de motors are generally used in the linear range of the magnetization curve. Therefore, the air gap flux ¢ is proportional to the field current, i oe or $= & i 8) where K, is a constant. ‘The torque Ty developed by the motor is proportional to the product of the air gap flux @ and the armature current Ty = Oa ie. Tu Kyipia or Ty = Ky Kp lpia 29) where A, is a constant.6B contr systems In the ermature-conirolled de motor, field current is kept constant, so the equation for Ty can be written as ty= ap (2.10) where Ky is known as the motor torque constant, The motor back emf is proportional to speed, i nai edt 0 or a=k, 2 an Bi aay Where Xj is the back emf constant. ‘The differential equation of the armature circuit is 2.12) ‘The torque equation is Ty = Krig = JP foe 2.13) Taking the Laplace transform of Eqs. (2.11)-2.13). Ey(s) = K,s6(0) 4) E (8) =) + Blah) +E, 6) e153) 1M igs + Ry) = BO)~ Els) ie. 1,45) at (216) 48765) + fo9818) = Ty (8) = Kells) ie. 8 ds? + fos) = Kyl, ls) i sO UU6+ fl = Ky = ee {Substituting the values of /,(s) and B,(s) from Eqs, (2.16) and (2.14)] ie (Ug8+ Rg CIS fu)O68) = Kp EA) ~ Kip Ky s813) ie (Ls + Ry )(As-+ fo) + RyRy 08) = Ky EW) Therefore, the transfer function is, Ry ALS +R, NIS+ fy) + KK)Nemenmesitecasererans) sens 88 The block diggram of the de motor san be obisned as follows, The block digram representation of the eatin =F) se) i show in Fiawe 2-54, whete de cvelar Block reptesenting We dieencag aeons enn a the summing poo The block diagram representation ofthe equation i Ges fi is shove in Figure 254(6). ewe the signal taken fom a fake point aa fed tothe eedback block. The Hack diagram repesenation of he equation Ee) = Bislo) 106) a 1s shonin Fgute 234 Figure 254d) abovts tho somplate block diagram of the sistem under consideration stained by connectig. the block digrams shawn in Figue 2546, Figure 2.549) as Figme ashe an 1 te ee a, gue 254. ek ps of rere Ge mo70 corer sysoms ‘The block Gsgror ofthe syst under consideration can be testy obsined from the plyseat stem of Figure 2.53 by using the mechanical netwurks derived alealy "he volage applied te the armatre circuit is £6) which i eppesed bythe ack emt 3). ‘The vet wolage A) ~ Eis) acta on 2 Linear cru comprised of resistance ard inductance fa Saris, having th Wansfr unetion Tis ~ &). The result an armature cient /f). Since the fel sed, the tongue toes he load a speed ts) against the moneat of inertia and te viscous tion with cooler, The transfer fnetion We). The back emt Sigal Fils) ~ Ks) is ae of fom tho sb apeeé an fad back neatvaly tothe summing point he age sia As) is obsned by inkeyrang Che by muting byt) the spas es Ts resus inthe block ciagram of Figure 2.5, which ie equiva t that of Figure 25%, awe 235 Bek daa af rarest de mot: “The amature ctv induct, is ull gigi, Theron, he ara anton of the ame moter sic ke 0), i am For ata FS) rc inka ee ke oe ee ves (i i+ BER bebe ooctive vious tition ky jscous ction of ho system, Let oulisient. There £9. (2.12) becomes & k wR. ess EQ) ef) Tae T uation (2.18) may be writer as a fs) Has KyMainematcal Models of Prysical Sysioms 74 Field-controlled de servomotor: A field-controlled de servomotor, is a de shunt motor de- signed to satisfy the requirement of @ servomotor. In this motor, the armature is supplied with a constant current or voltage. When armature voliage is constant, the torque is directly propor tional to the field flux. Since the field current is proportional to flux, the torque of the motor is controlled by controlling the field current, The response of a field-controlled motor is how- ever slowed by field inductance. ‘A field controlled de motor is shown in Figure 2.56(a). f,¢eonstant) iG Bu) ey ~ | @ oo) Figure 256 (a) Field controlled dc motor and (b) block diagram of feld consoled de motor In this system, field winding resistance (in ohms) fleld winding inductance (in hentys) field control voltage (in volts) = field current (in amperes) = torque developed by motor (in N-m) = equivalent moment of inertia of motor and load referred to motor shaft (in kg-m?) J = equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and joad referred to motor shaft (in N-mirad/s) @ = angular displacement of motor shaft (in radians) In the field-controlled motor, the armature current is fed from a constant current source. Since the motor is operating in the linear region of the magnetization curve, the flux is proportional to the eld current, i.e. omy Ky or 9 where Ky is @ constant,72 contot systems The tomue developed by the motor Tye Pig Ty Kyighy or Ty = Ky Ky iy p= Kyiy where Kj’ is & constant ‘The equation for the field circuit is (2.19) ‘The torque equation is (220) ‘Taking the Laplace transform of Eqs. (2.19) and (2.20), assuming zero initial conditions, we get (Lys Ry Mts) = EO) Es) ies y= OWT stR; Kr’ E(s) pst) [Substituting the value of /4s) from Eq. (2.21)] ‘Therefore, the transfer function is K, Hs) ky i SHIN 7, 541) EQ) AE S+R, MA) ‘The block diagram of the field controlled de motor is shown in Figure 2.56(b).Mainematcal Models of rysical Systems 73. Comparison of armature-controlled and field-controlled modes: For small size motors, field control is advantageous because only 8 low power servoamplitier is required, while the armature current which is not lare can be supplied from an inexpensive current amplifier. For large size motors, itis on the whole cheaper to use armature control scheme. Further, in an armature-controlled motor, back emf contributes additional damping over and above that pro- vided by load friction, 2.7.2 AC Servomotors An ac servomoior basically a two-phase induction motor except for certain special design features. A two-phase induction motor consists of two stator windings oriented 90° ‘A two-phase servomotor differs in the following two Ways from a normal induction motor, |. The rotor of the servomotor is built with high resistance so that its W/R (inductive reactance/resistance) ratio is small which results in linear speed-torque characteristic, a shown by curve b in Figure 2.57. But the conventional induction motors have lange Y/R ratio which results in high efficiency but in highly nonlinear torque speed characteristics fas shown by curve a in Figure 2.57, Also because of the positive slope for part of the ccharaeteristie, the system using such a motor becomes unstable. 2. ‘The excitation voltage applied to two stator windings should have a phase difference of 90°, ‘Tonue o « Sonal VR ° Syachronous Rotor spesd speed Figure 2.57 Torque-speed characteristics of induction metor Construction of ae servamotor: An ac servomotor is ba cally a two-phase induetion motor with some special design features. The stator consists of two pole pairs (4-B and C-D) mounted on the inner periphery of the stator such that their axes are at an angle of 90° in space. Each pole pair carries a winding, One winding is called reference winding and the other is called control winding, ‘The exciting current in the winding should have a phase displacement of 90°. ‘The supply used to drive the motor is single-phase and so a phase advancing capacitor is connected to one of the phases to produce a phase difference of 90°, The constructional features of an ac se-vomotor are shown in Figure 2.58.TA comes sysams Fgwe 260 Sint constctna fabs oa nhac sews tr) tor ng ‘ns a (tr ‘The totr eonsvuction is usualy squire cage or dag-eup type The aguitel cage oir is sade of laminations. The rotor bus are placed inthe los an shor-cieuted at bah eas by fend rings. The dameter of the stor kat ell in onder to adic aria and to obtin good scceeraing characterises. The drigeip constuction & employed for vey low nenls applestons. in tis pe of omsmition, the mor ill be in the Tamm of & hollow eylinder made of aluminan, The ‘mina linker ists shonccied ener cents Cleealy Bee pes ON, ‘re sent). Working of a two-phase induction motor: Figure 259 shows w seins diene for blamed operat ofthe tworphase faducioa motor The stator windings ant acid by soliages of al mas magnitude and 90° phavedifrenee. This results in eniting cures fan shat are phase displaced by 99° and eve equal ns waht. So ar respectve feds will te 90 apart in both times space roving in a magnetic field of cersant magne robin tal syichonois speed. The deen of raion depends upon pase selainship of the v0 ‘urens (age) AS the field sweeps over the roan, wages are indoced Hn prods eureat ia Ui shortckuited rete The routs magnetic fed iairacis wih tse cuteas Froising tongs c he rotor nthe disstion of lel oF rotition ands he rrr ins moving fa the same diction a that of rotating magic Bld,Nemenmesitecas erPrana) sens 75 | & 3 (ie) gure 260, Stenatedapan of we ees nda noe ‘Working eran ac servomorar: tn servo appsation, the vohages apple to the wo stator svincngs ore tersly bleresd Figure 2.60, show a schematic diaz ofan a servomotor ‘gon system component. As showin Fite 264, cme a the pases wm athe erence hss ie esctal by 4 constant voltage, and the other phe knowen 9 the contol ps is tnecgiad by a wllage whichis 90° out of plse with respect 1 the volaze of te reference Fase The conto! phos volta i supped fromm srko ampifier and t hit 2 variable ‘agitade and polarity (A90" phase angle with respect tothe referee phase, The diction fof retaron of the mor reverses asthe polarity the contol phase signal changes In sgn “The con! signals in contol «pstems are usualy of low Fequens Inthe rengs of 9 12 20 He. For poduction of tating magnetic lel Che coool pase volta mun! be of the sine Iregueney as the rferonce phate votage and in addition the Wo vorges ust bo in tine ‘gaat Henes, the cont siz is modified by a earisn whose frequene iy the sn as at of the efatence voltage and then applied to cool wiedag. The ae supply sel used ‘carrier shal for moculaton process. The 50 phase diffrence between the conto-phase fan! he retereneesase volts fcbisind byte ven of captor reference wing, ase =| [HOW OK 9250 ‘Schone Saran c = wo pe Senso ‘The torquessed curves of iy ae servomotor pote fr fxd reference pase volane and with vara me cote voltages son in Figre 261 Al these curves have a regate ope, Note thi the curve for zero contol olage Bos though the origin. This mean tha ‘when the contol phase voluge becomes 2ea, the mnor develops 4 dcoerzing torque and $0 he motor sts. The curves show slang frst at zero speed, This is @ regurement Fr @78 corer systams servemetor in onde fo provide rapid asscsaton, The trquspesd eves oe servomaors| ae nontiear excep inte fw spe region Llewew E “Transfer function of an ae servemutor: Let Ty = torque developed by seryomotor 6 ~ angular displacement of rior = dd» salar speed 1 =tonque equi by te load J = moment of inet of last and the soe 1K, = slope of console voltage vers torque ebaracerites y= slope of tong speed characters With reference to Fsure 2.61. me can sy that for speeds ear xo all the eUives ae seri lines parallel tothe ehancterstic a rate input vatage (, = £) and ne oqualy spc or equl increments of te inpet voltage. Under this assumption, te torque developed bythe ao Ty = ke 6S The loud torque is given by 40 22) + ex ‘A cquiitrium, the motor torque i equ the foad torque. Therefor, “0 =n 8 22 ears ¢ “Takin the Laplace tarsform on both sides of Cx, 2.24) and nexlsting intl edi, wwe getMainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 77 Iss) + fas) = KyEds) ~ Kys@s) i Us + fe + Kes) As) = KES “The transfer Function ofthe sysiem is therefore as) x K, E.G) Ie + jotKs ie +R 4 SR aR) RMP +R) motor gain constant = motor time constant 2.8 SYNCHROS A sinichro is an electromagnetic ranschiver commonly used to convert an angular position of a shaft into an electric signal, It is commercially known as selsyn or audosyn. It produces an output voltage depending upon the angular position of the rotor. {t works on the principle of an induction motor, 284. Synchro Transmitter The basic synchro unit is usually called a synchro transmitter. ts construction is similar to that of a three-phase alternator. The two major parts of a synchro transmitter are stator and rotor. The stator (stationary member) is of laminated silicon steel and is slotied on the inner periphery to accommodste a balanced three-phase winding which is usually of concentric coil type (three identical coils are placed in the stator with their axes 120° apart) and is Y connected. The rotor is of dumb-bell construction with a single winding and is wound with a concentric coil, A single-phase ac voltage is applied to the rotor winding through slip rings. The constructional features and a schematic diagram of a synchro transmitter are shown in Figures 2.62. and 2.63, respectively Let an ac voltage v0) = ¥, sin (0) (225) be applied to the rotor of the synchro transmitter as shown in Figure 2.63. This voltage causes a flow of magnetizing current in the rotor coil which produces a sinusoidally time varying flu. directed along its axis and distributed nearly sinusoidally in the air gap along the stator periphery. Because of transformer action, voltages are induced in each of the stator coils. As the78 contr systems air gap flux is sinusoidally distributed, the flux linking stator coil is proportional to the cosine of ihe angle between the Fowr and stator coil axes and so is the vollage induced in each stator coil. The stator coil voltages are of course in time phase with each other. Thus we see that the synchro transmitter acts like a single-phase transformer in which the rotor coil is the primary and the stator coils form the three secondaries. Stator Slip rings rT Rovor oil ‘Stator winding Figure 2.63 Schematic ciagram of a synchro transmitter. Let vine Vian and ¥459 respectively be the voltages in the stator coils 5), Sp and S; with respect to the neutral, Then, for the rotor position of the synchro transmitter shown Figure 2.63, where the rotor axis makes an angle @ with the axis of the stator coil $3,Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems. 79) Vian = KE, sin 2 608 (+ 120°) KY, sin @t cos @ (2.26) KV, sin at cos (8 + 240°) Ms ‘The three terminal voltages of the stator are as follows: Vete2 = Yetn ~ Yew = V3 KV, sin (8 + 240% sin ot “san — Veay =V3 KV, sin (0 +120") sin @,t (227) Vesa = Mean Yan = V3 KY, si when @= 0, from the above equations (Eqs. (2.26) and (2.27)] it is seen that maximum voltage is induced in the stator coil Ss, while the terminal voltage v,3,.i8 zero. This position of the rotor is defined as the electrical zero of the transmitter and is used as reference for specifying, the angular position of the rotor. Thus it is seen that the input to the synchro transmiter is the angular position of its rotor shaft and the output is a set of three staior coil 1 coil single-phase voltages. The magnitudes of these voltages are functions of the shaft position. So by measuring and identifying the set of voltages at the stator terminals, it is possible to identify the angular position of the rotor. ésina,t 282 Synchro Control Transformer ‘The constructional features of a synchra control transformer are similar to that of a synchro transmitter except for the shape of the roter. The rotor of the control transformer is made cylindrical in shape so that the air gap is practically uniform. This feature of the control transformer minimizes the changes in the rotor impedance with the rotation of the shaft. Another distinguishing feature Is that the stator winding of the control transformer has a higher impedance per phase. This feature permits several control transformers to be fed from a single transmitter, The output of the synchro transmitter is applied to the stator windings of a synchro. control transformer. ‘Working: ‘The rotor shaft is connected to the load whose position has to be maintained at the desired value. Depending on the current position of the rotor and the applied emf en the stator, an emf is produced in the rotor winding. This emf can be measured and used to drive a motor so that the position of the load is corrected, 2.8.3 Synchro as an Error Detector ‘The synchro ervor detector is formed by interconnection of the synchro transmitter and the synchro control transformer as shown in Figure 2.68, The stator leads of the transmitter are directly connected to the stator leads of the control transformer. The angular position of the transmitter rotor is the reference input and the rotor is excited by a single-phase ac supply. The control transformer rotor is connected to a servomotor and to the shaft of the load, whose position is the desired output, Initially, the transmitter and the control transformer rotor are assumed to-be in their electrical zero position. The angular separation of both rotor axes in this position is 90°. The electrical zero position of a control transformer ina servo system is thatfestion of rotor for which he output voltage onthe roto wining is co with he tans fn select vero posite, Figure 268 Sycee ore date ‘When the waster votr is excited. the rotor Mes se up an ems ae induced in star oi, These induced emf are impressodl on the star cols of the corto! Warsformar. The urease the lar eis Se yp Dus in th conto anshormer: Oue to the sina fa he magne constuction, the tus parm produced In the own syncs wil hehe sam all esses are neglected, Let the to" of he iene Wate though a sRBLE A Tow Ks eter ze poston fn the iscion uated und let the cont tarsformeerolte i he sme dieetionUugh ah ‘nate resling ina net ungular seperation of = 60 ~ 0 + a9 between the tno roars. So fe voltage of he ctor terns of the cand transfer ten Ae) = Vp 005 (90 04 ch sin a= KV 60s (O~@) sin ow 2B) Eguurion (2.28 shows thatthe ouput vollage ofthe synthe eror detactor ia modulatod Senal with cari frequeney ot ‘he syacho tats coniol tusefnmer pale thus acts a6-an etre detest giving @ vole siznal a the roer terminals wf the contol ranscener proportional o the asi tierence betwen the Heer and contol teasoner sha positons, 2.9 GEAR TRAINS Gear tains aroused in cootol sts to aan tho mocha! mathing OF te mec 19 the Toad, Usual. servomoir operates at «high peed bata low krque. To drive a lod with nigh toque and love speedy 10h 2 mote, the orque mageition 28d sped rutin a8 ‘cheved fy sar tess Thus in mechanical syst, goa ins ost ds matching doves he \wansirmers In eetial systeNemenmesiteces erPhanslsisens BL Figure 265 shows a moter diving ood threugh «gee rain which consss of two gears ‘couple togetter The gent wid tei eae the primary guar canalogons tothe primary \wieing ofthe ansformer) and the goor with N; ech is called the seers’ gear, Be ci phi wa. an ar ue (ie at) cexsicuinduy seu TNT TL _Iaguay 2 tahoe Figue 285 Goorin aon The angular dspecomans of shfts and 2 ate denoted by 6 and 0, respectively. the ‘omen of inca and Nscous fiction f ror and gear I re dented by J abl unl hase ff gear 2 ant load by J ant, respectively For the fat shat, the diffrent ex where Tis the torque developed by the moter and 7 th fod torque on gear 1 due othe resto the ger For the sccers! shal can) ie 7 ta i od a a a a2 a ee fe tert th eto prt and rhe aft alg 2 Shee Ia cree ite dong sea of hau ave7il~ 9s Th ber of eto gt SE olaever en ae OM 4» ee hfe ss the ein aso infin an ea ce a Rae pose elke war ds Op ele 1 apa 1 a Gear 2 Tew TG = TiO: en @3:82 contr systems Differentiating twice, we have the following relation for speed and acceleration. ON, 4 Ny, (233) reduces the speed and magnifies the torque. N Thus, i ML 1, the gate ™ & Eliminating 7) and 7 ftom the torque equation using Eo. (232) and then Eq, (230), we get (234) Eliminating 6: using Eg, (2.52), Eq. (2.34) reduces to we{ Mh) 9, ERs) gel Eg Ms Be, N ar Ny aN; ‘Thus, the equivalent moment of inertia and viscous friction of gear train referred to shaft 1 are N i" Ny Jug = +( RLY tas sg = (EY wots) 2 a(R) In terms of equivalent moment of inertia and frietion, the equation for Ty, Le. Eq. (2.29) may be written as Sun + fig a Be ty ae fet ay where | Si}y, is the toad torque refered to shaft 1. Similarly, expressing @ in terms of Bs M the equivalent moment of inertia and viscous friction of gear train referred to load shaft are de, Ny vig tBo (iuMainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 83 2. A . What do you mean by a mechani ORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Most control systems contain which elements? Most control systems contain mechanical as well as electrical components. stems are analogous? iptions of mechanical and electrical systems are there is always an analogous mechanical From a mathematical view point, the descriptions of which » From a mathematical view point, the des analogous. Given an electrical devic counterpart mathematically and vice versa, ‘What are the two types of mechanical systems? ‘The two types of mechanical systems are (a) mechanical translational systems and (b) mechanical rotational systems, What do you mean by a mechanical translational system? ‘A mechanical translational system is one in which the motion takes place along a straight line | rotational system? A mechanical rotational system is one in which the motion takes place about a fixed axis, Using which lavy, the equations of motion of mechanical systems are formulated? Using Newton's law of motion, the equations governing the motien of mechanical systems are often formulated directly. or indireetly. State Newton's law of motion for mechanical translational systems. Newton's law of motion for mechanical translational sysiems states that the algebraic sum of the forces acting on a rigid body in a given direction is equal to the product of the mass of the body and its aczeleration in the same direction, State Newton's law of motion for mechanical rotational systems. Newton's law of motion for mechanical rotational systems: states that the algebraic sum of moments or torques about s fixed axis is equal to the product of the inertia and the angular acceleration about the axis. Using which ideal elements the mechanical translational systems are modelled? The mechanical translational systems are modelled by using three ideal elements: mass, spring and damper. Using which ideal elements the mechanical rotational systems are modelled? ‘The mechanical rotational systems are modelled by using three ideal elements: inertia, torsional spring and friction, |. Define mass. Mass is considered as a property of an element that stores the kinetic energy of translational motion, Which type of energy does a spring store’? A spring is considered to be an clement that stores potential energy.84 contr systems 13, When does friction exist? A. Whenever there is motion or tendency of motion between two phy forces exist, al elements, frictional 14, What are the three types of friction? Whieh one is more predominant? ‘A. The three types of friction commonly used in practical systems are—viscous friction, static friction, ard coulomb friction. in most physical systems, the viscous friction predominates. 15. What do you mean by coulomb friction? A. The force of sliding friction between dry surfaces is called coulomb friction. This force is substantially constant 16. What do you mean by viscous friction? ‘A. The force of friction between moving surfaces separated by viscous fluid or the force between a solid body and @ fluid medium is called viscous fiietion, This force is approxi- ‘mately linearly proporional to velocity over a certain limited velocity range. jetion ? What do you mean by s A. The force required to initiate motion between two contacting surfaces is called stiction. Which friction is represented by a dash poi? A. Viscous fiiction is always represented by a dash pot 19, Define inertia. A. Inertia J is considered to be the property of an element that stores the kinetic energy of rotational motion. 20. What does torsional spring constant A’ represent? ‘A. The torsional spring constant & represents the compliance of a rod or a shaft when it is subjected t0 an applied torque, 21, What do you mean by a fiee-body diagram? ‘A. A free-body diagram is a diagram showing each mass separately, with all forces acting on the mass marked on it 22, What do you mean by a mechanieal network? ‘A. A mechanical network is a diagram indicating the interconnection of sources and components of the mechanical system in which one end of the force or torque sources and the mass or inertia elements is connected to ground. 23. Write the force balance equations foran (a) ideal mass, (b) ideal spring and (c) ideal dash pot A. The force balance equations for the elements of mechanical translational system are as follows: © ae Mass (1) > F= M&S o = F=M& a a Sing (813 P= Re a rex [va oFMainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 5 24, A 28. 26. 2. 28, 29, 30. 3 32. Write the torque balance equations for an (a) ideal i dash pot, (b) ideal spring and (¢) ideal The torque balance equations for the elements of the mechanical rotational systems are as follows: _ ,€0 Inertia 1) T= J or Torsional spring (K) > T= KO or 40 Damper (> T= f- or Name the energy storage elements in electiical systems, ‘The capacitor and the inductor are the energy’ storage elements in electrical systems. Name the energy dissipative elements in electrical systems. ‘The resistor is the enengy dissipative element in electrical systems. What is the systematic way of analyzing mechanical systems The systematic way of analyzing a mechanical system is to draw a free-body diagram or a mechanical network and then write the differential equations deseribing, them, What do you mean by analogous systems? Systems whose differential equations are of identical form are called analogous systems What are the two types of analogy between mechanical translational and electrical systems? The two types of analogy between mechanical translational and electrical systems are (0) foree-voltage analogy and (b) foree-current analogy. What are the two types of analogy between mechanical rotational and electrical systems? ‘The two types of analogy between mechanical rotational and electrical systems are (@) torque-voltage analogy and (b) torque-current analogy. Name the analogous electrical elements in force-voltage analogy for the elements of mechanical translational system? In force-voltage analogy, the analogous quantities in mechanical transiational and electrical systems are Force (F)-Voltage (2), Mass (M)-Inductance (1: Friction (/)-Resistance (2), Spring constant (K)-Reciprocal of capacitance (1/C), Displacement (x)-Charge (q), Velocity (v)-Current (i). Name the analogous electrical elements ‘mechanical translational system? In force-current analogy, the analogous quantities in mechanical translational and electrical systems are Force (F)-Current (i). Mass (Mf)-Capacitance (C), Friction (A Reciprocal of resistance (1/R). Spring constent (K)-Reciprocal of inductance (1/L). Displacement («)-Flux linkage (@), Velocity (v)-Voliage (e).. n force-current analogy for the elements ofGontvt Systems 33. 36. a2. |. For which systems can a transfer funetion be defi Name the analogous electrical elements in torque-voltage analogy for the elements of ‘mechanical rotational system? In torque-voltage snalogy. the onalogous quantities in mechanical rotational and electrical systems are Torque (7)-Voage (e), Inertia (J)-Inductance (L), Friction (f)-Resistance (R), Spring constant (K)-Reciprocal of capacitance (1/C), Angular displacement (@}Charge (q). Angular velocity (@)-Current (?). Name the analogous electrical elements in tonque-current analogy for the elements of mechanical rotational systems? In torque-current analogy. the analogous quantities in mechanical rotational and electrical systems are Torque (7)-Current (i), Inertia (/)-Capacitance (C), Friction (f)-Reciprocal of resistance (1/8), Spring constant (K)-Reeiprocal of inductance (1/1), Angular displacement (@)-Flux linkage (¢), Angular velocity (@)-Voltage (e). . What do you mean by analogy? What is the advanteze of finding analozy between systems? Analogy means similarity, Using analogy, it is convenient to study a non-electrical system in terms of its electrical analog as eleetrical systems are more easily amenable to experimental study, The advantage of finding analogy between two systems is an unfamiliar sysiem can be analyzed easily in terms of the familiar system. Define the term ‘Impulse response of a system’. ‘The impulse response of a system is defined as the output When the input is a unit impulse finetion 3(0). Onee the impulse response of a linear system is known, the output of the system o(#), with any input r(¢) can be found by using the transfer function, Give the two definitions of the transfer funetion, ‘The transfer function of a linear time-invariant system is defined as the Laplace transform, ff the impulse response of the system, with all the initial conditions set to zero. The transfer fimetion of a linear time-invariant system is also defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the input with all initial conditions neglected. . Can a transfer function be defined for nonlinear systems? No. A transfer function can not be defined for nonlinear systems, The transfer function can be defined oaly for linear time-invariant systems. What do you mean by a sirietly proper transfer function? A strietly proper transfer function is one in which the order of the denominator polynomial is greater than that of the numerator polynomial, |. What do you mean by a proper transfer function? ‘A proper transfer function is one in which the order of the numerator polynomial is equal to thay of the denominator polynousiala 43. Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 87 What do you mean by an improper transfer function? ‘An improper transfer function is one in Which the order of the denominator polynomial is lees than that of the numerator polynomial. What do you mean by characteristic equation? Why that name? The characteristic equation of a linear system is defined as the equation obtained by setting the denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero. This equation characterizes the behaviour of the system, Hence the name characteristic equation. ‘The stability of a finear time-invariant system is governed by what? ‘The stability of a linear tim characteristic equation. invariant system is governed completely by the roots of its What do you mean by a sinusoidal transfer f The transfer function obtained by replacing » with jea in the original transfer function is called the sinusoidal transfer function What do you mean by multivariable system? A muiti-input-multi-output system is called a: multivariable system. Does the transfer function of a system depend on the input? No. The tansier function of a system does not depend on the. input. How is the transfer funet n to be derived when a number of systems are cascaled? When loading is considered, the overall transfer function should be derived by basic analysis without regard to individual transfer functions When there is no loading, the overall transfer function is equal to the product of the individual transfer functions of the systems connected in cescade, Why are differential equations converted into algebraic equations? The solution of higher-order differential equations is quite a tedious process, 90 differential equations are converted into algebraic equations by using Laplace transforms. What do you mean by loading in electrical systems? Loading in electrical systems means drawing the current from them, What are servomotors? A. The motors used in control systems or in servomechanisms’are called servomotors. They are used 9 conyert electrical signal ino angular motion, . What are the characteristics of servomotors? ‘The characteristics of servomoiors are as follows: Linear retationship between the speed and the electrie control signal Steady-state stability Wide range of speed control Low mechanical and electrical j Fast response3. Compare ae and de sonometrs [As The ac end de servemoors ate compere a Fallows tent ee 1 Lew power oma 1 Relay high power aap tan as ae sevoreler fs eee 2, Chatrtie aoni 2 Cramer ee in 4 Show reson det er vale 3. Fas retponse eo lew ects and 4 Sole for ow peer spats 4 Sueale fr gh power ppicnons 4 Wht ae te advantnges of permanent magnet de servemoiors? ‘A. The alvantyes of pemanert magnet de servmotors ae as flows: 1A simpler and mere reisle motor because the eld power suppy is no eau Higher efisieney det the absense of field ese Feld less affecied ty termperatce nse Less heating, making it possible to toll enclose the motor No posi of over speeding due 6 oss of He, Amore liner torque versus speed une. 7 Higher power outpt tthe same dimensions and temperate linittons, ‘55. Whi sve the Spcia) stares of ekttomaznete fe de servos? ‘A. The special features of electonagnetc fel de servonotors ae as fallow 1. The number of Sts and cormutxor seganents is lnge 1 tnprove commun, 2 Compoles and compenising windings ave proved to eiminate sparking 3. The dometr w lengt rato is Kept low 1 reduce Inet 4. Oversize shafts as employed to withstand the high tous ses ‘5 Eddy eorenis ate ried hy complete lamin of the magetic emai Ry ang lowsoss see S50, Wha ford motors see ane in contr! systems A. In servo apliations, de motors ae vse ta produce mpi celeron fam sand ti So the physiol requirements of ach motors are fw ine and high stating torque 7, Whit at nv contra des in wich CE de motes ARE Ud In cone yin? |A. The toc noses in hie hee mao ae us nono sys are a) avmatue nial mode with Fixed fi current see (b) Feld contol mode with fixed amine ‘58 For which motos Held contol ix prelerted an for whick moins arate conte i prefered? [A For small size motors, el conte is advantasous and fr age see motors armature comma pretedMainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 89 59. 2 > What . The differences between How does an ac servomotor differ from a normal two-phase induction motor? ‘An ae Servomotor is basically # two-phase induction motor but it differs from that in two 1. The ac servomotor has low value of \7R to achieve linear torque-speed characteristies, But normal induction motors have large values of VR for higher efficiency, 2. The ac servomotor has low inertia rotor. The inertia of the rotor is reduced by reducing the diameter or by drag-eup construction. What is a synchro? A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer commonly used to convert an angular position of a shaft into an electric signal. It works on the principle of a rotating transformer (induction motor). What are the commercial names of a synchro? The commercial names of a synchro are: selsyn, autosyn ancl telesyn. synchro pair? What for is it wed? A synchro pair isa system formed by interconnection of the devices synchro transmitter and synchro control transformer. A synchro pair may be used either to transmit an angular motion from one place to another or to produce an error voltage proportional to the difference between two angular motions. What are te differences berween a synchro transmivier and asynehro conitol transformer? synchro transmitter and a synchro control transformer are as follows: 1. The rotor of a synchro transmitter is of dumb-bell shape, but the rotor of a synchro ‘control transformer is eylindrieal 2. ‘The rotor winding of a synchro transmitter is excited by an ac voltage. In a synchro control transformer, the induced emf in the rotor is used as an output signal (error signal) What is electrical zero position of a synchto transmitter? The electrical zero position of @ synchro transmitter is a position of its rotor at which one of the coikto-coil voltage is zero. Any angular motion of the rotor is measured with respect to the electrical zero position of the rotor. . What is electrical zero position of a synchro control transformer? ‘The electrical zero position of a synchro conttol transformer in a servo system is that position of its rotor for which the output voltage on the rotor winding is zero, with the sal zero. position. transmitter in its ef What is aligned position of a synchro paie? The aligned position of a synchro pair is one in which both the synchro transmitter and the synchro control transformer are in their electrical zero positions. The angular separation of both rotor axes in aligned position is 90°, The enor signal is zero in the aligned position90 Gontvt Systems 7. A 68. AL 69, 70, m1 What are the applications of synchros? Synehros are used in servomechanisms (position control systems) as ertor detectors and to convert angular displacements to proportional electrical signals. They are also used in control systems to transmit angular motions from one place to another. What for gear trains are used in control systems? Gear trains are used in control systems to obtain mechanical matching of motor to load. They are used to alter the speed to torque tatio of the rotational power transmitted from to meet the torque requirement of the load motor to load, This is necessary What is gear ratio? ‘The gear ratio of a gear train is the ratio of torque, speed, angular displacement. velocity and acceleration between any two gear wheels in that gear train. The gear ratio between gear wheels a and > ina gear train is given by a Ta FH Nyt Ty Cy Oy A servomotor is connected through a gear ratio of 12 to a load having moment of inertia Jand viseous frietion coefficient What are the equivalent parameters referred to motor shaft side, Let umber of teeth in gear wheel connected to motor shaft Nz = number of teeth in gear wheel connected to Joad shaft Given Ny/N3~ 12 Moment of inertia of load referred to motor shaft 447 144 f JN IN; RNIN: Coefficient of friction of load referred to motor shaft How do you compare gear trains and transformers? In mechanical systems, gear trains act as matching devices like transformers in electrical systems. (idee) Derive an expression for the transfer funetion of a single-loop control system. Derive an expression for the tansfer function of an armature controlled de servomotor, Derive an expression for the transfer fimetion of a field controlled de servomotor. b Derive an expression for the transfer function of an ae servomotor. Explain the construction and working of a synchro, Write short notes on gear trains, Derive an expression for the motor torque. ‘plain the construction and working of an ac servomotor,Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 91 eM aa |. Most contol systems contain as well as ‘components. 2. Fiom a mathematical view point, the descriptions of mechanical and electrical clements are 3. The motion of mechanical elements ean be described as or or 4. In mechanical systems, motion takes place along a straight line. 5. In mechanical systems, motion takes place about a fixed axis 6. ‘The variables that are used to describe the translational motion are is considered: as a property of an element that stores kinetic energy of translational motion 8 In general is an element that stores. potential energy. 9, The force of sliding fiiction between dry surfaces is called friction force, 16, ‘The force required to initiate motion between two contacting surfaces is called The element for viscous friction is often represented by a The force of friction between moving surfaces separated by a Muid or the farce between a solid body and # fluid medium is called force. 13, is considered as a property of an element that stores the kinetic energy of rotational motion. Systems whose differential equations are identical are called systems, ‘The classical way of modelling linear systems is to use to represent input ‘output relations between variables. The transfer function is defined only for systems. It is not defined for systems. 17, ‘The tanstér function is defined only when the are neglected. 18, The transfer function i independent of the to the system. 19, The transfer function between an input variable and an output variable of a system is defined as the Laplace transform of the of the system, 20. The transfer function is defined as the ratio of the to the with the assumption that all are zero. 2A. The transfer fimetion is said to be the order of the denominator polynomial is greater than that of the numerator polynomial. 22. The transfer function is said to be if the onder of the numerator polynomial is equal to that of the denominator polynomial92 centr Systems 23, ‘The transfer function is said to be if the order of the numerator polynomial is greater than that of the denominator polynomial 24, The characteristic equation of a linear system is defined as the equation obtained by setting the of the to 2er0, 28, The transfer function obtained by replacing » with jaa in the original transfer function is called the 26, In servo applications are required to produce rapid acceleration from stand sfill. 27. In control systems, the de motors are used in two different control modes (2) and ¢b) 28. In servo applications, the de motors are generally used in the range of the magnetization curve. 29, For small size motors is advantageous and for large size motors is preferred. 30. Gear trains are used in control systems to attain mechanical matching of to 31. In mechanical sysiems, gear trains act as matching devices like in electrical systems 32. The motors used in automatic control systems or in servomechanisms are called 33. Servomotors are used to convert into 34, The characteristics of servomotors are nonlinear, whereas the characteristics of 36. 37. 38 39. 4 4. servomotors are linear servomotor is suitable for low power applications and servomo- tor is suitable for high power applications. servomotor has fast response and servomotor has slow response, The ae servomotor has value of Y/R, whereas a nomial induetion motor has a value of WR A is an electro magnetic transducer commonly used to convert an angular position of a shaft into an electric signal A synchro is commonly known as or “ A synchro pair consists of a and a |. The rotor of synchro transmitter is of shape, but the shape of synchra control transformer is Any angular motion of the rotor of a transmitter is measured with respect to the of the rotor.Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 93 Answers to Fill in the Blanks 1, mechanical, electrical 2. analogous 3. translational, rotational, combinations of both. 4. translational $. rotational 6. displacement, velocity, acceleration 7. mass _& spring 9. coulomb 10, stiction 11, dash pot 12. viscous friction 13. inertia 14, analogous 15 transfer function 16. linear time-invariant, nonlinear 17. initial conditions 18. input 19, impulse response 20. Laplace transform of the output, Laplace transform of the input, initial conditions 21. swictly proper 22. proper 23. improper 24. denominator polynomial, transfer funetion 25, sinusoidal transfer function 26. de motors 27. (a) armature control mode with fixed field current, (b) field control mode with fixed armature current 28, linear 29. field control, armature control 30. motor, load 31, transformers 52. servomotors. 33. electrical signal, angular motion 34.20, d= 38, ae, de 36. de, ae 37. low, lange 38. synchro. 39. selsyn. autosyn 40. Synchro transmitter, synchro control transformer 41. Dumb-bell, cylindrical 42, Electrical zero position. eS STToi Mande koa be described as 1. The motion of mechanical elements: (a) purely rotational (b) purely translational (©) rorational or translational or combination of both (@ none of these Translational motion is the motion (@) along 4 straight tine (b) about a fixed axis (©) along 4 random path (d) none of these 3. Rotational motion is the motion (@) along, a straight line {b) about a fixed axis (©) along, random path (d) none of these 4. An element that stores the kinetic enemy of translational motion is ealled (a) mass (b) spring, (©) damper (d) none of these 4. An element witich stores potential energy is (2) mass (b) spring, (© damper (a) none of these The force of sliding fiiction between dry surfaces is called (@) coulomb fiction force (b) viscous friction foree (d) none of these 7. The force required to initiate motion between two contacting surfaces is called (a) coulomb fiietion force (b) viscous frietion Force (6) stiction (@) none of these94 Gontvt Systems 10, a. 12, 4. 16. Le 15. a ‘The friction force acts in a direction (a) opposite to that of motion (b) perpendicular to that of motion (©) along that of motion {d) none of these ‘The viseous fiction force is approximately linearly proportional 10 (a) displacement (b) velocity (©) acceleration (d) none of these An element that stores kinetic energy of rotational motion is called (@) inertia {b) torsional. spring (©) damper (@) mass The tansfér function is defined only for (a) linear time-varying systems (b) linear time-invariant systems (0) linear and nonlinear systems (d) all of these The transfer function is defined as the Laplace transform of the response for a (@) step input ¢b) impulse input (©) ramp input (d) parabolic input ‘The transfer function is dependent of the (a) parameters of the system (b) initial conditions of the system (6) input to the system (d) output of the system For strictly proper transfer function, the order of the numerator is (a) equal to that of the denominator (b) greater than that of the denominator (e) smaller than that of the denominator (4) not related to that of the denominator . For proper transfer function, the order of the numerator is (2) equal fo that of the denominator (b) greater than that of the denominator (©) smaller than that of the denominator (4) not related to that of the denominator For an improper transfer function, the order of the numerator is (a) equal to that of the denominator (b) greater than that of the denominator (©) smaller than that of the denominator (d) not related to that of the denominator Answers to Objective Type Questions Ra db da Sb Ba De Ra %b Wea Web 1b Bea ie 16.6Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 95 PROBLEI 2.1 (@ 2.12: (a) Write the differential equations governing the behaviour of the mechanical systems shown below. (b) Draw the analogous electrical circuits based on force-current and forve-voltage analogies. (©) Write the corresponding differential equations, fen 7 ben eo Sn FE 8 tg —+ rio My h My, era 7 « f 5 2 LTTE TITRA Figure P24 Figure P22 oy Les Les ik, ; {on00 FO dan, boot My us, oe fi h ! Fi) Me Figure P23 Figure P28 eseceesigt Kk i Mi] ty L fi = rs Figure P25 Figure P2696 contr systems & G Ky LTT 0 My, OO th b thet Figure P27 Figure P28 na. 8 5 Figure P29 Ky fi A MAAN, 4 few Mm, [ery T "A fi Fy Mg Figure P2.11 Figure P2412Mainematcal Models of Prysical Systems 97 Answers to Problems 211 @ FID=KO3~y). MH +S +KOY 90d = 2.2, (@) FOO= MS + fib + KO — 12) 4 HG ~F)=0 Ma32+ fxG2~ hn) Ka — n+ far = 23. @ F()+ Mg =Ky(4 Ya) M Yn + Kx Wt J Sat Kaya =0 24. (a) FD= Mya + KO a) + Kia + fils May + Ka 4) # Kyl — 9) + Katy + foi =0 Myis+ KO =0 2.58. (a) F(Q= Mai + fein + Kata + Ky 1) + fila — MYR + AG — 8) + Ky — =O 2.6. (a) FQ = Mya + flay — 52) fod May + filig — 4) > Ky 2 @ F(t) = Mik + fly + Kin — 2), Mata + fos + fad + Kaan + Kia — 4, 28, (a) FU)= My + fli + Kim + 04) 8) + Ky =), Mais + [alin — ix) + Kalo ~ 4))=0. Klay — 4h) + 2.9. (a) T=K,(8, — ,).0,+ K(8,— 8) + 0, + (lB, - 8) =0, B+ AiO + flO, ~ 82) + Kat 2.40. (a) + fA +K\(G — 0). Jabs + oO, + Ky(O, 0.) + KO, 0 JB, + [iO + RB, — 8s) + KO. = F(t)+ Mg = fyi — 2) + Ky Oy — 35), f@ Mis + (Ga ~ 4) + Oy — 4) + hy 22. (a FID=Mt+ fit ME-+ KOM). Mas + fv + SA) 4 Kya) + ByBlock Diagram and Signal Flow Graphs 3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAMS A control system may consist of a number of components, To show the functions performed by each component in control engineering, we commonly use a diagram called the block diagram. A Hock diagran of a system is-@ pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component and of the flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the inter relationships that exist among the various components. It can be used together with the transfer functions to describe the cause-and-effect relationships throughout the system. Differing from a purely abstract ‘mathematical representation, a block diagram has the advantage of indicating more realistically the signal flows of the actual system, In general, block diagrams can be used to model linear 45 well as nonlinear systems. In a block diagram, all system veriables are linked to each other through functional blocks. The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input Signal 10 the block that produces the output. The transfer functions of the components are usually entered in the corresponding blocks, which are connected by arrows to indicate the direction of the flow of signals. The signal can pass only in the direction of the arrows. Thus, the block diagram of a system explicitly shows a unilateral property. Figure 3.1 shows an element of the block diagram. The arrow head pointing towards the block indicetes the input, and the arrow head leading. away from the block represents the output. Such arrows are referred to-as signals. ny [Banter] ay pd tinction | OS op Gis) Figure 3.1 Element of a biock diagram, The dimensions of the output signals from the block are the dimensions of the input signal to the block multiplied by the dimensions of the transfer function in the block.ibe Daprams ane 7a Fw Ops 99 The edvantages ofthe block dasram representation of a system lief he fet tht its easy to fonn the oral bio sagen te ene ste ty merely connecting he blocks of the ‘components aeconting 4 the sgl lw and that te possi o evaluate the eoninbuon of each component the overall petfornance ofthe spe In general the functional operation oF the system can be visualized mare really by examining the block diagram than by examining the physical system asl block diagram onains information repating dynamic eaiony, but does persue any nfemstion on the physia! consiustion of the system, Consequsntly many dsinilr and uratd systems fom be representa by the sane bleck diagram. a Mook dng, the main sous of eazy isnot expily shown and he block dlawam sa totem is rot nic, A ner of diferent Hck darn can be crn fora system, ‘dopending on the pout of viw of eras ‘The ps of minus sgn a ech arow head indicates whether the sem sw be added siouzered Ws Inportant tat the quante« being added or sbiractad have the same ‘imensions and the sas nis, “The block xg elements ese fequenty In eon spstens andthe weaned algebra fare shown in Figure 32, One of the imporant components ef a contol system ts the sensing device thai acts as a junction point fox signal comparisors. The pliysical components involved are: the potentiometer, synchro, resolver. diffswential ampli fc, ‘mulipliseand other sigaal processing tansducets. In geacia. sensing doves perform ‘Simple mathematical operations such = addition, sedition, mulipieon (monies) and Some tins combination of thes 20_ayworny-wi Biot cy olen o N90 ray smn rn-ah yy ae Ona Rat =Rg0)=0) HG) lew ©100 contro systems ‘The block diagram representations of these operations are illustrated in Figure 3.2, a circle witha cross is the symbo! that indicates a summing operation. The addition and subtraction operations in Figure 3.2(a). Figure (b).and Figure (c) are linear, so that the input and output variables of these block diagram elements can be time-domain variables or Laplace transform variables. el) =) — Mt) EG) = RG) — Ms) ‘The multiplication operation is nonlinear, so that the input-output relation has meaning only in the real (time) domain. Branch point: A branch point or a take-off point is a point from which the signal from a block goes concurrently to other blocks or summing points. 3.1.1 Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System Figure 3.3 shows an example of a block diagram of a closed-loop system. The output C(s) is fed back to the summing point where it is compared with the reference input, When the output is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input, it is necessary to convert the form of the output signal to that of the input signel. The role of the feedback element is to modify the output before it is compared with the input. This conversion is accomplished by the feedback element whose transfer function is H(s). The output of the block C(s) in this ease is obtained by multiplying the tansfer function Gis) by the input to the block £is). The feedback signal that is fed back to the summing point for comparison with th nat) Cs, ni | ey —— _ + Gs) a Rs) Gs) a i a wits LY ata sah Ts @ ©) Figure 3.3. Block diegram of a closed-loop contol syste, ‘The following terminology is defined with reference to the diagram of Figure 3.3: 1), Ris) = reference input (command) (0), Cls) = output (controlled variable) (0), Bls) = feedback signal ed, Els) = error signal GG) = forward path transfer function His) = feedback path transfer funetion‘ek aa at Shn Pow Gants 104 (62) His) = 149) = lo tense Fontion oe apenlogp transfer function cis) Te) = Seay = Sosedop rare fncton or system tester funtion ‘The closest tamer function Tu) can be expressed asa Functon of Gi) and 1 From Figure 13, ey and ea ‘The exor signal is 245) = Rs) ~ Bs) 63) Substitng Eqs. (3.3) and (82) in Faq, 31), ve get 61 ~ Gena) — HEL = GiOAR) ~ GES) GRU) ~ GO}HSICD) a Qt + Glee = Gia) oy cu) Gu Rul FGMHG) [general a contol system may contain more than ene feedback lop, and evaluation of tmasier fietien fom the block diagram by means of the algebraic wethod desrived above may be tedious. The transfer funcion of any linear system can be obtained directly from is bck diagram by use of the signal flow graph gain formal. 34.2 Block Diagrams and Transfer Functions of Mutivariable Systems ‘When muipe inputs are present in near system, each int can be treated independently of the ofas. The complete ouput ofthe system can then be obtained by superpstion Le. cups curesponding ‘9 each input alene are adSed topeter. Consider a tw0-irput liner system shown Figure 3.4), The response tothe reference input can te obtained by assuming Us) = 0. The comsponding block diagram shown in Figure 34(8) gives Ge) ouput due to Re) acting alone GG) TFGG,9H) Simian, te resporse 10 the input Us) is obtained by assuring, Rs) = 0, The block ,_ ® a co) a0 © Fun 34a) ok gram a te, Bck agra wen Us en and 1) Neck dayram won is 0 ‘The response eve to the simultaneous application of Ks) and OAs) ean be obtained by aking te (wo inividal responses, 12. Bye 5) aid 3.6), 66) = Cds) + Cus) Glo FEMGIO Consider now the case, wher |Gy()H8)|> 1 and |Gs)Gy9)|>> Ito tis case, the loses transfer fureton [4s)/UUs) becomes almost zero, andthe effect of the disturbance 1s suppressec. Ihis is an advantage of the closeéioop system ‘On the ether hind, te closed-loop master funtion CSV) appeocehes Hs) a8 te etn 6 (9)00))inczeres. Tis meats that |G (OKA) >> 3, then the closedoop transfer fonction C4s)M) becomes independent of G(s} ard Cx) and becomes inerscly proportional to Hs) so thatvaretions of 6) ard Gs) do not affect the cloae-ooptrnster firetion Cy:VAte). This is asotneradsantge ofthe elosaé-loop system. Iecanaesily be soon ‘that any elon system wiih amity feedhack Mle) = 1. tends to eqlize the input and uu ‘Two block diggram representations of a multivariable system with p inpuls and g fourpuss are shown in Figure 35. In Figure 3.5) the individual input and output signals are designated wheress inthe block diagram of Figure 3.5(b, the multiplicity of inputs and [G(R +0), onLi. +] stkiarble . = fw, i ‘ses 20 em Fee go po, oy ® Four 48 Beck dag reoresentin of «mlksebie wn, tn fe case of maliple-inputmulple-ousput sem shown in Figure 3.50, the Mh opt CAs) is given by the pencple of superposition Goi G(R) =L2-4m ow where (3) she jth inpat and Gis) iste wanser Futon betwee the tk oupet and inp wilh al oer inputs reduced bre im metix form, Eq. (28) tam be expremed as Ger] [Gui G0) G,t0)]/ Re C2te)|_|On0) Gaal) Cpl} RCS 6980] Leis) Gert) Gye] R65 ‘This cam be expressed in compress matix sotaton as Qo) = Glare) 09 inte, Re) ~ vector of inputs (in Laplace transom (9) Gi) = Matix warsfer inction (g * 7), (qs) ~ vector & outputs (In Laplace (assim) (9) te coresponding block diagrars can be drawn as in Figure 3.0), were thik anows represent mul-inpus and oupie. Figure 3.6 stows the Mock clagam of « mukivarable feedback cortol stem. When 9 ‘vodpack loop is present asin Figure 3.6, eae feodhack signal i obtained by processing I general all he ouput. Thus for fh Toedback signal, we ean writ neo SH 9600 a1104 cores sys “The fh enor signal is then Elo Abs) — Bb) ay ‘Generalizing, in matrix for, we em wre fs) AEs — BI) oD 29 co = ae Fan 9 owe 8- Birk doi of mutable eda cota am ‘The tamer functin relationships ofthe system are expresed in veetormmatin fer as 0) = GOR 6) = RO) ~ ME) Bey = Co MU, \aete CU is the 4 | ouput yecor: BG), RG). and BG) are all p> 1 vectors; and Gls) ard HY) se 4 paid py asker futon nace vespetively. Sheailjing C(o) = G(}EU) = GRE) ~ BL) = Gao) ~ GoBis) cisku) ~ Gsyns}Cw) fi 6) = 1 + Geel GER Provided that 11 Guys) bs nonsingular. The closed-loop trnstermees i defined at Tp) = 1+ GOHEI'G) W) = TAR) 0.3) 34.3. Procedure for Drawing ¢ Block Diagram control systom san be represented diagrammatically by a Mosk disarm. To draw a block. gam for a sytem, fest write the ferential equations that describe the dymtmle ‘bchavieur ofeach component. Then take the laplce transforms of these differential quae Hons, assuming zst0 inal eoadiens wo obui the algebrale equations. These equations ‘il have varlables and constans. From the working knowledge ofthe system, te pul and ‘utpat variables ae identitied and the block diagram foreach equation ean be dra. Hach cuation gives one seeton of Hock diagram, the output of one section willbe te input for another section. The various sections ate interconnected to obtain the overall blocs ciagram of te systemsocks ar Sat Pow Sracns 105 [Asan example, consider the RC colt shown in Figue 3.74). The equations forthe cea see a5 follows ; a petite fm 169 T Fo_gpvein~sso |r|, 4 eee k J - Lee ° = eo TLL ey ir ROA | OL « @ gue 37 oc dram ofan cri ot, Equation 3.16) epesets a soning operation andthe coresponding gra is shows in Figure 3.70). Equation (3.17) epesents the block as shown in Figure 3 7G). Asseméling these two lemens, Le.) ands) we obtained the overall lack dinar for the system a shown in Figure 3.74). 3:44 Block Diagram Reduction 114s important to note that blocks can be cannctel in series, the output of ane Block i not, ete by the next following block. If here ae ey lowing effec between the components, itis necessary to combine these components inte a single Hock. Any number efcascalee Becks representing nonloading components ean be replced by a single block, the transfer function of whichis simply the product ofthe individual wansfer functions. ‘A complicated block diagram invelving many feedback loops can be simplified by # step-by-step earangemen, using he rues of block ciagam algeba. Some ofthese importa rules are giver in Table 3.1. They are obtained hy wring dhe sare equons in x diferen vay.106 _cowoisire ‘Simplifeation of the beck digram by rearangeens nd subsiwtions considerably reduces ‘he labour needed for subsequent mathematical analysis. Itshoulé be noted, however, that 3 the bck diagram is simplied, tbe wansfer functors in new blocks become more comples because new poles and zeros are generated. In simplifying a block diagram, the following points should be remembered 1. The product of the transfer functions in the fed forward direction must remain the 2. The product of the transfer fureons around the loop must remain the same, Tile 31 mpatitres or Nok dean recon A Le 86g OG XG, 1. Comey cts cascade 2 Combine bbls in pre Le} (Cont\ -, SY 7. Binal afoabak kos ee 4. erring sung pes means “Le “Ls {Spit 2 surat 10. Mode ttt pot ea 2 suring pit (Contd310,40) @ Sisor on 3.2 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS. AA sig flow graph may be regarded « sinplied versan of bic diagram, The wut ‘appleaion of signal graph isin system éigrammaing, Signa ow graphs were developed by SJ. Mason, Unlike te black aagram redicton process, they do not require any reduction ‘proces to oblate infer function af a complicated system, because ofthe evalabliy of 8 flow azeph gun formala which eles te inpt ang cutput system Variables, Mason's gan formula is especialy useful in reducing large and comglex system diagrams in one step, wihost raining step-by-step redtons, A sigral Now graph and a block diagram contain essen the same informaton and one i in no sense superior to the other, Besies the difference in physical appearanoes ofthe signa low sah andthe Mock diagram. the sina low graph may ‘be regaded as consrained by more igh mathemati! rues than the block diagrams. 1 sna flew graph isa repeal repreentton of the relat ership hetween the arable: ‘ofa set of liner algebraic equations writen in he fora of catue and effet relion. I consis ff netnerk in shich node roprnantng each of the rsters variables we connected ty directed ‘ranches. The direoted branche: have atocated brinch grins. A eign) ean bo tarsmited through a branch only i the drztion ofthe arow. Vise terme weed inthe formulation of signal flow groh are given Below.vex tens ars Simarov Gaets 109 1. Node: A node (orjuetion poi) represents s)ten vache which i sua! tthe sm ofall the incoming signals atthe node. Oaoing sials from the node do ot afeet he vale of the nace variable, 2. Branch: A branch is ine segment ofthe signal low gap joining wo nodes along which a signal taels fom one rode to the othe inthe direction indicated bythe branch arrow and in the process gets mulialied by the gain or transrittance of the branch. 3, Input node or Source; An input rode is a node with only ogo tranches. It does not ave any incoming braces, 4. Output mode or Sink: An output aoée isa node with only incoming branches. It does ‘ot have any outgoing branches. Any node can be converted ilo an output node by ‘meeting 21 adcioral branch wit unit transmittance to i. 5, Mixed nede: A med node is « node that has both incoming snd ourgoing branches ‘6 Path: A pat isthe traversal of connected branches inte dirston ofthe branch aerows such that no node waversed more than oncs 7. Forward path: A forward pat is path tbat stars at an input node and ends a a ‘ouput node, and along which no node is wavered more tian once. 8. Loop: 4 loop is path which orginstes abd teminaes a he ste node and along, whieh no woe 3 versal sore th one 9, Naatuuchiag loops: Nosiouchs loups ave lovps which Jo not posses any common node, 10, Path gain: The product ofthe branch ins ewer in raves x pl elle the path in 1. Forward path gain: The product of the Sranch gnins encouncred in wavering, @ forward jah i called dhe forwund path gsi. 12. Leap gaia: The prot of the branch gains entountend in taversing te loop is called the loop gin 13, Self bop: A sll op isa loop consisting 0 ingle bach, 324. Construction of Signal Flow Graphs “The sigma Now graph of ste Is conscucied ftom is describing equations. n general given ‘a set of algebraic equntions, the constuction ofthe signal ow graoh fs tasially a mater of following trou the ecusc ane relations relating wach varcle in temo of tue end ‘tees. cule Ga, peowe, Kt os woaider eaten deed by Ge Fllerog oo of equations = ona: Ke ats + at t= ane, + aye where is the input vatable end x is the ouput variable110 coaster ‘The signal flow graph for this sytem is constricted as shown in Figure 3.8 Fist. the nod se loeated as shown in Figure 3.(a). The fist equation states that x is equal tothe sum oF five signals and is signal ow raph is town in Figure 3.8(. Similar, the sana Pow grep fr the remnig tree equations are constructed at shown in Figure 38(0, Figures 3.8(4) and 3.8(e) respectively giving the complete signal flow graph of Figure 3.8(0. © o © o Figur 8. Sn tow gap ‘The overall gin from inp to tpt may he ahisned hy applying Mason's ex formula The relationship bemseen an input variable and sn output variable of a sienal Tow graph is giver by the net gu between the inpat and ouput nodes and is krown asthe overall gin ‘ofthe system. Mason's gain formala forthe determination ofthe cverall sym gain given ty ow Where M, = path gin ofthe Ah forward pats ‘Ax = value of for that part ofthe graph mot touching the Mh forward path T= Coverall gain of the meseck Days a St Pw Graphs 114 1 determinant a the signal flow eraph 1 ~ (sum of the lop gains of al individual loops) + (sum ofthe gain products 0” al! pcsible combinations of two montoucing tops) ~ Gum of the gain products of al ossitle combinations of tree nantouching loops) B= 1 EMy + Ele Bal + as) where Mp isthe gain product of ry rossible combination ofr eontoucirg lors. Lets stat the use of Masor’s gain formala by finding the overall ea of te sian ‘ow graph shown in Figure 3.8). The following conclusions are dravn by inspection ofthis signal flow graph. The des are shown in Figure 39, . cone oe : % * % 4 fe ms : 5 Loo o o-+ = 2 ‘ o os : : at fees i i 5 * % hk on ® 4 % 3 Y 4 is S a a Vr ee eg eto & fq NA Foe 38. (Car)nz o : o : © o cont Sys Fipare 39° Use of Mien pn fori ‘Thor are wo forward paths shown i Figure 3.9(3) and (h) with path gin Forward path xrays My = ans aye anges Panwa path xytyayts My = ais ay ‘There ate sx individual oops shown in Fire 3.96), (2) () (P(g) and th) with top gains Leop see 1y = ons oe boas b> om ty ag Loop sent au Leon xpeeeten 53 to Leop sens 9 ‘There are tree posible -ombinaions of we nonouching loops shown in Figure 3.9), Gj) ard) wath loop gain products Lops xpos apd ots Lay = a an us Leops se and Toy = oc Lape seayipay al Lag = ayy 3 ‘There a no combinations of toes montowching loops, four nonteuching loeps, ek “Thevefore,Lockland St Pow Gone 119 Hence fom Eq, 19) for 4 B= 1 Cpa! om | an mete | au} am au ae a9 | on aso) + (ae ae da + tos aay * 039 35 a a) 5, The first forward path is touching all the loops. Therefore, &, = 1. The second Forward path is not touchirg one loop (ith gain aya) shown in Figure 3.9(). Therefore, Ay = 1 ay Using the Masons ain formula, the overall gain is rok Mat Mat x Taig e~ Ottis ~~ Feng ~ ent + aytay + Ande * Aug 3.22 Basie Properties of Signal Flow Graph 1. Signa flow grph applies only to linsar stems 2. The equation: for which signal fw graph is drawn must be algebra equations in the form of sae-ancdafact. 3. Nodes ate used to represent varieles. Nomally the nodes ae arranged fom let ht from the input 19 the output flowing a suocesion of ease dst relations through the sytem. 4. Signals sravel along branches only in he ditetion described by the artons of the branehes 5. The brarch directing trom node 3 ws epresens the Gependense of upon x but no the reves. 6. A signal x uaveing long a branch between x and 3, i mailed by the gain of the Tan gy 3 that signal oy is delivered at 2, For a given system a sisal low graph is not umgue. Many étereat signal Dow graphs can be dav for 1 given system by wring the system egualons citremty. 323. Signal Flow Graph Algebra ‘Based on the properies of the signal low graph, we ean outline the folowing manipulation rules and ales 1 The vel ofthe variable represented by a node is quel tothe sum ofall the signals ‘entering the node. For the sigzal flow graph of Figue 3.10, the value of yy fs equal to the sum ofthe signals transmitted though all the incoming branches ie. P= awa t vs Paes asus114 comoisyone Fgwe 10, Node as» sannng pit at transiting por, 2. The value ofthe variable represented ty a node is transmied tncugh all branches leaving the node Is th signal ow grep of Figure 3.10, we have Yom th nn a i se Fguee 11 Sat fow gph win pal pats eset ty one win a Sige bach 3: Pare branches nthe sme cirecton connecting two nodes can be replaced y a single branch wih gain equal he sur ofthe gains of the parle branches. An example oF thie eave uted in Fgate 3.11 gue 312 Sal tow gas wn cscdeurrectoralbarcesepbes ya ge beech,ck aga ans Soran asin 11S 4 A sees connection of unidieciral branches as shown in Figure 312 canbe replaced by a sirgle brane’ with gain equal tothe product of the branch gains L oe L a oom m5 ra Figure3t2 Sigal ew raph ofthe srl tp iotect cote ‘yeu pie by ae tanh S.A single eedtact loop can be replaced by a single branch with gsin as shown in Figwe 3.13, 324 Construction of Signal Flow Graph for Control Systems: ‘A conto! aystan oan be represen diagrammatically by a signal low graph. The conte stom i& usuily decerbed in time-domain by diffarenal equations. Those difermat ations aye fet ened ira sloahrnc equations ag the Faplace tnsform, and these ‘equations are written in cause-and-effect form. The constants andthe variables of the equation axe identfied. From the working know edge ofthe system, the vaiabls are identified as ingut utp ard intemmedite variables. For cack variable node i assigned inte signal Now greph tan the eonsarts are the gain or tansminance af the Wvanches connesting the nodes. signal flow graoh is drawn foreach equation ard all those signa Hew grap ae Hntereornected 12 bain the over signal Now gph of Ue system The block diagram end the signal flow greph of a system provide ssetlly the same Information, and ene isin no wa’ suparir tothe ether he there i no standard procedure for resasng the bck diagram to obi the taster fonction ath ps. Ales he loc nga reduction proces tedious and tine consuming asi is not systematic. nd i is iil to chose the mule tobe applied for simplification. It mainly depends on one’s knowledge end exporenee. On the other hand, ther i a standard formule ealec Masons ann formula using ‘which the transfer faedion af a sytem can be obtined in one tp fm the signal How of a system. So, block diagram ist Be converte tno signal low rap “he along proeedar can be oll 0 camer a block degra into asa ow graph 1. Inthe given Block diagram, assume noes at input output, et every summing pein, at fvery bnch pot and in between cascade blocks. 2 Draw the nodes seprately a big thick dots eed nurer the dot inthe onder 1. 3. From the block diagram, fir the gn between the nodes in she main forward path and connect ll the coesponding nodes by decid stright lire segments and mak the gain [etweer the nades on the segment,M6 comeisyaans 4. Draw the fod forward pals betwees various noes and mack te gan between oes ‘on the died brie 5. Draw the feedback fats between various nodes and mark the gain of fedbeck pahs along with the sign ‘A comparison of block dogrrs method nd w signal ow mthod i given fn Table 32. TWble 12 Comparison of tk dan asia tow gp mets ‘Sint flow woph nsthod 1. ie petal repetition of te fctons 1. Xia praghia presenti aedtonsip Pertrmel ty each sogonen and oe Now” between varies of Sof ners Orsi Suis writen it thee of cane ‘tect vlan 2. 1 san be wid to repeat nen as wel ae 2, an be wed rere oly ier stems. ones stam 4 Nodes: females wale to ind te ovet- 3. Maso’ gin formula is avaible to fad the all wane lisin 3 he ste. ral ise Ture 4. Taf finton can be obiied in one tp. Ti te raster fae 5. tis aota gstmatc metod 4. Ws asytnate neve. 6. It ndeaes mare reaisicaly the sgn flows I is consraned by more igi! mathematical ‘ofthe stem tan the erga! rystem Well ues han a bok gram, 7. Fora given sen, the lock dng ie not 7. For given syste, the signa fw graphic ‘ge Hay disor and unrelated tens so igi ar be epee by he sue lock ogra Example’. Obain he tense ineion ofthe eonro system whose back diagram is show in Figo 3.14 by (a) block dgram redtin tech.que end (8) signal Now graph metiod Fare Att Evang 3.1.oc rans ed St Sachs 117 Solatien: (a) Alok dtcgram retictom technigne 1. Inthe block diagrams shown in Figure 3.14, blocks Gand G, ae in parle. They can be combiod inn a single lake with» aan of (Gg ~ C3) a6 chown in Figune 2.15 Fier 395, 2 ln Figure 3.15, blocks Gy and (G. ~ Gy) ae in cascade. They can be combined into 2 single block with a gain of Gy(Gz ~ Gi) a shown in Figure 3.16 eo Faure 36 3, Im Figure 3.16, move the summing point after te Block Hs. The etn lock ciagram is shown in Fite 3.17 a Faure 307 4. In Figure 3.17, bocks Gy and 2; ae in easeade, They can be combined in 2 single block with a pain of Gy Hz Also blocks 2) and Zs ere in ceseade: They can be combined int sirgle bck with 9 gain of Hy as shown in Figane 3.18,(G,-4) Ht, gure a8 5 Interctanging the summing pins in Figure 3.18, the Siok diagran is as shown in Figure 3.19, Figure 8 6. in Figure 3.19. combining 1 and Gat into a block with gain of (1 + Gull) and Sinplifving the feedback sramgenent into a single block, te rexstant block dingram is es sown in Figure 3.20, ‘ ve. iG. a) ¢ it Tree, Gm, Fou 7, in Figure 3.20, combining the two Blocks in cascade iro single Boek dhe reclant ‘lack diaarrs is a8 shown in Figure 3.21 Fguea From Figure 3.21, the overall transfer fneton is GACH CG 6-66 +006Sosa Pow Grete 118 (@) Signal ow graph method The signal ow graph conesponding w the block Jigar ef Figue 3.14 1s shown in Figue 3.23, & pares fo\4 >, tet Signal flow gragh Pampa Farad poh? ea th 3 Fonwad it4 Lop t fo Lom pon get Le 2 8 7 a ee i120 cone sytere ‘The signal ew graph shown in Figure 3.22 has fou fora pats and 0 loops. There are Fo combinations of two nortoushing loops. Boh the lops ae touching all the four forward ‘The forward pals, he gains of those formard pats andthe vars of & sociated with those pats ae give: as foo Forward path Rey-tearteteC = UNDE NGHY = G92 at Forward pan Aetyaytets My = (IKING CGM) =~ GG Forward path Reaaepete€ My = (N-EAN-HKGIKGKI) ~ 6 formar pth Ae tansepat Me = (eC oops en the gins sauce wth the are 3 ews: Lap seapsens by = NGHENCH = Oh Loop mexpaunetins ta = (GICANINM CHI) = G16 ‘The dewrminant afte signal low graph is A= 1 ~ (Ly + f3) A= 1 GCE + GGA) = 1+ Guth Appling Mason's gaia formula the transfor funtion ie GGshiic CMS + Mad Mada + Made ¥ a 1G:- GG, + 66.6.4, - GGG, T¥G,GsHi ls = GG He Example 32 Obtain the tanefrFuntion of he fnack eo! eyten shown in Figure 3.22, 1G) Block diagram rection technique and (b) sgzal low graph method.‘seek Oaaas ani SanatRow Gants 124 Solution: (2) Block diggram reduction method 1. Moxing the take-off point ahead o book Gin Figure 3.23, the block diagram will be ss show in Figue 3.24 gue 326 2, In Figur 3.24, blocks G; und G, are in eacade, They can be combined into single Hock with a gai of G:Gy, Now blocks (G;G;) and Gy are in parallel. They can be combined int a single block with a aain of (GG; + Gi). Also blacks G; and ff, ace in eascade. Thay ean be combined into a singe block with gain of lock diagram is as shown in Figure 3.25. eH Figue 328 3. InFigue 325, moving te tke point ater the Hock (CsG; + Gy. the blk diagram willbe as shown in Figure 3.26,122 cnn sytore 4, Simpliyng the ime eop of Figure 3.26, the block diagram iss shown in Figure 3.27 G66, THe, gure 37 5, in Figire 227, combining the two blocks in cascade in he fOrwand path and then Smpliying te ier loop. the bock diagram is as shown in Figure 3.2 06.6, 66. THRGH + GOH OF Figure 338 6, Sinpliping the sng loop in Figie3.28, te block sigram is x shown in Figure 3.29 666,766, TRG GG OH, COG, gure ‘rom Figure 3.29, the rarsfe function is sherefere £_ GG.6, +66. R1FGGH, +GGH, + Gath, +OOG FO (0) grat sow graph method ‘The signal low prah forthe syster with the black diagram of Figure 3.23 is shown in Figure 3.30Forward path 1 Forward peth 2 Loop 1 Loop 3 Loop 4 + a @ AN Popp ava ey 7a Ni ge es £ £1 REIS BeBe ee Fou 390128 cose stone In the signal flow graph shown in Figue 3.3, tere te two forward paths and ave Joopsas Shown and there are no tw0 nontcuching loops and ll the ops ere touching both ‘he forward paths. “The foward pas and the gairs associated with hem are gives as follows: Forward path Rx reer anttrl Uy = (OGG KEK!) = GGG, 4) ~ 1 Forward path Rox avarice -C Ms ~ (IKE MIXGAKY ~ GO acd “The loops ad the gains essoiated with ther ere piven as flows: Loop aytets te Ly UNGNG,XIN-H = GG, Loop ayer Ly = (MGMLX14) = Guth Lop aesitetene Ly AG NINGH-M) ~ -CxGsH Loop arartrtesits, Ly = OXGMINGAG AID -GiG:G, Loo ate tteetr 15 = OMG OGD = GG The determinant of the signl Nw sah is Vay lat Lyla +l) D1 = COGiM, ~ Gull ~ Cat, ~ GEE, ~ GG) 21 Gls + Gull + GiGalh, + GGG, + GG, Apnlying Masen’s gain formule. the transfer function CMa +My Rd TFGG I, FGM, +GGH, OGG Oa, ‘Esumple 2.3. Simplify the Bock diagram shove in Figure 331 and cts dhe elsed-oop ‘ansler function C1syA(s). Vey the resul by the Signa. flow graph method. Figwe 31 Bare 35 Solutla: (a) Bek etayyam reducon ecoigue 1. tn Figue 3.31, moving te ake point aead ofthe block Gs the block diagram will be as shown in Flew 332.Figue 132 2 In Figure 332, blocks G, end G ao in poral. They canbe combined into a single ‘ek witha gain of (GG). Now the Blacks (Gy + Gard Gy ate in cascade. They ‘ean be conrbined into single lock with again of Gy; * Gy). Moving te take point ater the Block G(s » Ga), te block diagram wil be as showr In Figure 3.33. gure 332 3: Reducing the inner loop in Figure 333, the bioek diagram reduces thet shown in igure 3.34 6.5.69 Acer wx ow128 con mione 44, Reducing the faner loop in Figure 3.34, the block digram reduces te that shown in Figure 3.35, G:6,° 66, TOY CG Figo 235, 'S. The two blocks inthe forward path of Figure 3.36 are in cascade ant can be vombined ito single block. Simplifying the loop te bhek diagram reduces 19 tat shown in Figur 36 z GGG. G00, ¢ TTR RE GaGh | ORE, Figue 228 So, the transfer faneton ofthe system is © Ge.5, 660. BR IFG FRG Ml, +GGill, +E FOGG, (©) Signa flow graoh mei ‘The signal low graph comespording w the Mock diagram of Figure 3.31 fh tie system is shown in Figure 3.37, Powe 37 The signal low graph in Figure 3.37 as ewo forward pais and five Loops, There ae no pis of two noatouching loops and al the Ieope are Touching both the ford paths. ‘The forvaré: pets ard guns asodatd with them are as follows: Fonsard path Rexpxetae trp My = XG DONG AUG XD = GEG,eck Ourane nd Sigal Fow Grcne 127 carter Me HG PINKGHEND = Giese ‘The loops an the gals associated wth thm area follows: Laep enero 1, = OXINGKI) = Oe Loop e863 B= (NGG KH) ~ GG sy Lop atx 15 = (NG HGKM) = “GG. srensetrt Le (GAUEIIKGND = G65 steteors 15 = GHANGHGN- = G4 Since all te Loops are touching both the forward paths, dy = 1 and A ‘The determinant of the signal flow graph & A = 1 = (Ly + Ly Ly + Ly + bs) - (Gf, CGH, GIG Shy GEG, GED /pnlving Mason's gain fomula, the tanste funtion is C_ MA + M4, G+ RA ING SEM, +CG\H, +O, 58, Example 34 Obiain the transfer fineion of the eongolsysem: represented by the block diagram shows in Figure 238, by the sna flow graph method ul Pye sas Bamps Solution: Signal fow graph method The signal ow greph of the system obtained from the Block digrum of Figaro 3.38 ic sown in Figure 338128 cont Ste fonts) PERL ESSGE GSI SIS mens SER F FT PF pee Sw, owt top p Weaay es tow 2 $8 8 } 4s a 4 4 MA seep po BRGos fF F ¢ 2". Ca UrBocxDirane an St Pow Some 129 In he sgral lowe graph shown in Figure 3.38, there are two frond ps an hee oops ‘There ate 90 two nontouching loops. Al he oops are teaching one forward pat and no bop fs touching the second Sorward path a shown. The forwerd pais and the geinsascocinted with the ar 38 flows: Forward path Repent C M, = OXKANEHE MID = GG act Forward path Ker 3M (GX = ‘The loops and the gains associated with them areas follows Loop sesetin Ly = (GGT) = -GGH, Lap res z= (GAHMN = 65% Loep ssn bs = (GHGHINY = GOH, ‘The determinant of the signal flow graph i= 1 = (Ly + Lat La) ~ (BGs - Gath + GG, = 14 GaGulh + Gall, ~ Guth Applying Mason's gain formula, te transfer function is © MiSs Go.0, ‘ Rk AFM GOI, A) Ge stem shown in Figure 340 using the Example 34 Find he tas fron SI fo te signal Bow graph meted, Ro 4 gun 340 bape 33190 cotaisyton Solution: "The signal low graph earesponing to the given block diagram of Figure 3.40 shown in Faure 34 Fue sa The signal Now greph shown in Figure 3.41 has only one forward path and four loops “There is one pst of tx0 nomovching loops anal ho four lenps are touching the forward path The forward path and the pain associated wih it ae as follows Forward path Rupxsreayet CIs) Mh = OIG KAGAN) = GiG:GG, ‘The loops and the gaits associated with them are Loup Ly = (NG KEICH) = -GiGaH Loop 3 Ly = CHHsH = Guth Hy Loop as-¥-e9%) Ly (GING AGIE-H) = ~GGtty Loop srenexet Le = GNGHENGA-M) = -GGG Gilt The pairs of two nontowching loops xyrsyxen and etre and tbe roduc’ of gains associated with them areas follows a= CGGHYA-GU) = GG, ‘nee all the oops ao touching he only fod path The dalerisant ofthe signal Mew graph is JH, 4 tana Rs) A Geno, COGM EMM, CBG Mi, GOGO) GEER MED) =. —GGGy. . SGGGsM, - GGG, +GGG HH, 1s Ro) GGA Guhl,oc Dapans a St Pw Gaps _ 134 Example 16 For the system fepesene by the block diagram swan in Figare 3.42, evaluate the closed-loop transfer function when the input J is (a) at station A and (by at sation 2. Figure 342 Esco 36. Solution: The input isc station 4 and so the input et sen is made ao. Let the ouput be C, Since theres 10 input a saion that summing point ean be removed andthe reulane lock diagram willbe as shown in Figure 3.43 gure 3a ‘Step 1, Moving the take-off pin! in Figure 3.43 afer block the blak diagram wil be as shown in Figure 3.44,132 _comuisytons ‘Sep 2. Eliminating the inner lop in Figure 348 and combiring the result with Gy and rearranging, the block diagram willbe as shown in Figure 3.45. “Fare 345 ‘Sep 3. Eliminating the imer loop in Figure 345, the block diagrem is as shown in Figure 3.46 Figure 3.6 ‘Sep 4. Combining the Dicks in eastae in Figure 346, the block diagrum wil be as showa in Figure 347, Figue 27 ‘Sup 5. Elmieating the only loop in Figuet 3.47, the Wack diagram wil be a¢ shown Figure 3.48. eas, ‘ Tr “omen Faure 38