Electromagnetic Field Theory (EMT)

Lecture # 25

1) Transformer and Motional EMFs

2) Displacement Current
3) Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
 Waves
&
Applications
 Time Varying Fields
 Until now, we have restricted our discussions to static, or time invariant
Electric and Magnetic fields

 Next, we shall examine situations where electric and magnetic fields are
dynamic, or time varying

 It should be mentioned first that in static EM fields, electric and

magnetic fields are independent of each other

 Whereas in dynamic EM fields, the two fields are interdependent

 In other words, a time-varying electric field necessarily involves a

corresponding time-varying magnetic field
 Time Varying Fields

 Time-varying EM fields, represented by E(x, y, z, t) and H(x, y, z, t), are

of more practical value than static EM fields

 Time-varying fields or waves are usually due to accelerated charges or

time-varying currents such as sine or square waves

 Any pulsating current will produce radiation (time-varying fields)

 Time Varying Fields
 Figure below shows examples of accelerated charges or time-varying
currents
 Time Varying Fields

In summary:

 Stationary charges →Electrostatic fields

 Steady currents → Magneto-static fields

 Time-varying currents → electromagnetic fields (or waves)

 Electromagnetic Field Theory (EMT)

Lecture # 24

1) Magnetic Torque and Momentum

2) Inductance and Magnetic Energy
3) Introduction to Time Varying Fields
4) Faraday’s Law
 Faraday’s Law
 After Oersted's experimental discovery (upon which Biot-Savart and
Ampere based their laws) that a steady current produces a magnetic field,
it seemed logical to find out if magnetism would produce electricity.

 In 1831, about 11 years after Oersted's discovery, Michael Faraday in

London and Joseph Henry in New York discovered that a time-varying
magnetic field would produce an electric current.

 According to Faraday's experiments, a static magnetic field produces no

current flow, but a time-varying field produces an induced voltage
(called electromotive force or simply emf) in a closed circuit, which
causes a flow of current
Induction Experiments:
 But when we move the magnet either toward or away from the coil, the
meter shows current in the circuit (Fig. b).
 If we keep the magnet stationary and move the coil, we again detect a
current during the motion.
 We call this an induced current, and the corresponding emf required to cause
this current is called an induced emf.
 Faraday’s Law
 The Faraday’s law states that the induced emf, Vemf (in volts), in any
closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux
linkage by the circuit

 Mathematically, Faraday’s law can be expressed as:

 where N is the number of turns in the circuit and Ψ is the flux through
each turn

 Lenz's law states that the direction of current flow in the circuit is such
that the induced magnetic field produced by the induced current will
oppose the original magnetic field.
 Faraday’s Law
 From Lenz’s law, the negative sign shows that the induced voltage acts in
such a way as to oppose the flux producing it

 Recall that we described an electric field as one in which electric charges

experience force.

 The electric fields considered so far are caused by electric charges; in

such fields, the flux lines begin and end on the charges

 There are other kinds of electric fields not directly caused by electric
charges

 These are emf-produced fields

 Faraday’s Law
 The Faraday’s law states that the induced emf, Vemf (in volts), in any
closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux
linkage by the circuit

 Mathematically, Faraday’s law can be expressed as:

 where N is the number of turns in the circuit and Ψ is the flux through
each turn

 Lenz's law states that the direction of current flow in the circuit is such
that the induced magnetic field produced by the induced current will
oppose the original magnetic field.
 Electromotive Force (emf)
 Consider the electric circuit in figure below, where the battery is a source
of emf

 The electrochemical action of the battery results in an emf-produced field

Ef

 Due to the accumulation of charge at the battery terminals, an

electrostatic field Ee (−𝛻𝑉) also exists
 Electromotive Force (emf)
 The total electric field at any point is:

 Note that Ef is zero outside the battery

 Ef and Ee have opposite directions in the battery

 The direction of Ee inside the battery is opposite to that outside it

 By integrating the above equation over the closed circuit, we get:

 Where because Ee is conservative

 Electromotive Force (emf)
 The emf of the battery is the line integral of the emf-produced field, that
is:

 The negative sign is because Ef and Ee are equal but opposite within the
battery

 It is important to note that:

 An electrostatic field Ee cannot maintain a steady current in a closed

circuit since

 An emf-produced field Ef is non-conservative.

 Transformer and Motional EMFs
 After considering the connection between emf and electric field, we now
examine how Faraday's law links electric and magnetic fields
 For a circuit with a single turn (N = 1), we have:

 In terms of E and B, the above equation may be written as:

 where Ψ has been replaced by and S is the surface area of the

circuit bounded by the closed path L
 Transformer and Motional EMFs
 It is clear from above equation that in a time-varying situation, both
electric and magnetic fields are present and are interrelated

 The variation of flux with time (as in previous equation) may be caused
in three ways:
1. By having a stationary loop in a time-varying B field
2. By having a time-varying loop area in a static B field
3. By having a time-varying loop area in a time-varying B field
 Each of these will be considered separately.
 Stationary Loop; Time-Varying B Field
 Figure below shows a stationary conducting loop in a time varying
magnetic B field
 The emf is given as:

 This emf induced by the time-varying B field in a stationary loop is often

referred to as transformer emf in power analysis since it is due to
transformer action

Observe in the figure that the Lenz's law is

obeyed; the induced current I flows such
as to produce a magnetic field that
opposes B(t)
 Stationary Loop; Time-Varying B Field
 By applying Stokes theorem to the emf equation, we obtain:

 Therefore, we get:

 This is one of the Maxwell's equations for time-varying fields

 It shows that the time varying E field is not conservative

 This implies that the work done in taking a charge about a closed path in
a time-varying electric field, for example, is due to the energy from the
time-varying magnetic field
 Moving Loop; Static B Field
 When a conducting loop is moving in a static B field, an emf is induced
in the loop
 Recall that the force on a charge moving with uniform velocity u in a
magnetic field B is:

 We define the motional electric field Em as:

 If we consider a conducting loop, moving with uniform velocity u as

consisting of a large number of free electrons, the emf induced in the
loop is:
 Moving Loop; Static B Field

 This type of emf is called motional emf or flux-cutting emf because it is

due to motional action

 It is the kind of emf found in electrical machines such as motors,

generators, and alternators.
 Moving Loop; Time varying B Field

 In this case, both transformer emf and motional emf are present

 Hence we combine both the emfs as:

Maxwell equations after faraday’s
law
 Electromagnetic Field Theory (EMT)

Lecture # 25

1) Transformer and Motional EMFs

2) Displacement Current
3) Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
 Displacement Current
 Maxwell's curl equation for static EM fields is:

 But the divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero,
hence:

 The continuity of current equation, however, requires that:

 Thus the above equations are obviously incompatible for time-varying

conditions

 We must modify Maxwell’s curl equation to agree with the continuity

equation
 Displacement Current
 To do this, we add a term to Maxwell’s curl equation so that it becomes:

 where Jd is to be determined and defined

 Again, the divergence of the curl of any vector is zero, hence:

 In order for the above equation to agree with the continuity equation:

 Or:
 Displacement Current
 Substituting Jd into Maxwell’s curl equation, we get:

 This is Maxwell's equation (based on Ampere's circuit law) for a time-

varying field

 The term Jd is known as displacement current density and J is the

conduction current density

 The insertion of Jd into Maxwell’s curl equations was one of the major
contributions of Maxwell

 Without the term Jd, electromagnetic wave propagation (radio or TV

waves, for example) would be impossible
 Displacement Current
 At low frequencies, Jd is usually neglected compared with J, however, at
radio frequencies, the two terms are comparable

 At the time of Maxwell, high-frequency sources were not available and

the curl equation could not be verified experimentally

 It was years later that Hertz succeeded in generating and detecting radio
waves thereby verifying the curl equation

 This is one of the rare situations where mathematical argument paved the
way for experimental investigation.
 Displacement Current
 Based on the displacement current density, we define the displacement
current as:

 It must be kept in mind that displacement current is a result of time-

varying electric field

 A typical example of such current is the current through a capacitor when

an alternating voltage source is applied to its plates
 Maxwell’s Equations
 For a field to be "qualified" as an electromagnetic field, it must
satisfy all four Maxwell's equations
 Problem-1
 In free space, E = 20 cos (wt - 50x) ay V/m. Calculate
 (a) Jd
 (b) H
 (c) w