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Control Systems and
Introduction to Robotics
• How a manipulator is made to follow the desired position, velocity
and acceleration of joint or end effector trajectories in 3D space with
minimum error?
• End effector is in contact with the environment
• End effector apply a desired force on the environment in addition to
following the desired trajectory while maintaining the contact
• Following the desired trajectory in 3D space is called position control

• Applying desired force on the environment is called force control
• Combination of position and force control is called hybrid control
• Feedback – error between the desired and the actual performance of a device
• Feedback control – To ensure the output of a dynamical system follows the

desired trajectory accurately in spite of external disturbances or internal
parameter changes.
• Feedback control is used to stabilize an unstable system and to improve the

performance of a system
Trajectory planning and generation
Trajectory : Time history of position, velocity and acceleration of either
actuated joints or the end-effector of the robot
Issues in trajectory planning and generation

1. Ease and flexibility of planning – how the trajectory can be specified by
the robot operator
2. Efficient representation of the trajectory in computer
3. Generation of the desired trajectory at run time
How the trajectory can be specified?
1. Robot operator specify the desired time history of a single or a group of

joints -- Joint space scheme
2. Robot operator simply state the desired time history of the end effector
or the tool of the manipulator – Cartesian space scheme
Planned and Generated trajectory
• Should be a smooth function of time – derivatives w.r.t time, up to a
desired order, must exist and be smooth
• Robot operator specifies the initial and the final positions of a joint /end
effector.
• sometimes intermediate points, the desired velocities and/ accelerations
also be specified
• The robot control computer and the trajectory planning algorithm should
generate the exact path, velocity and acceleration profiles between start,
intermediate and end points
Joint space scheme
• Fundamental Task is to find the appropriate curve between the

given initial and final values.
• There are many possible smooth curves.
• Choosing the smooth curve between two points called interpolation
• Restricted with simple polynomial curve, they are sufficient for the
purpose of trajectory planning in robotics manipulators.
Problem -2
The first joint of a 3R robot is to rotate from 30degree to 60degree in 3
sec. It is also required that the joint is at 55degree at t=2 sec. The initial
and final angular velocities are +10 deg/sec and -30 deg/sec. The
velocity at the intermediate via point is -10deg/sec. Find the equations
represent the continuity in the velocity and acceleration and draw the
cubic trajectory with via point.
• Single-link robot driven by a DC servomotor through gear reducer
• Gears -To Reduce the speed

• Reduction from high speed – more stages of gears
• For the purpose of modelling and control – ex.. 2gears as speed reducer
• Gear reduction – allows amplification of torque and reduction in inertia of

the load
• Rotation of the link θl Rotation of motor θm
• Gear ratio = θl / θm = less than 1
• Kinematics of this 1-DOF system
The equation of motion for gear 1
The equation of motion for gear 2
Assume T1 θm = T2 θl , The equation of motion of the 1-DOF robot

Permanent-magnet DC Servo motor
Armature resistance Ra
Armature inductance La
Current Ia
Torque developed
PID Control of a Single-Link Manipulator
Digital Control of a Single Link Manipulator
Thank You
Feedback control of a single-link manipulator
Single-link robot driven by a DC servomotor
through a gear reducer
PID control
PID control of a single-link manipulator
Digital control of single-link manipulator
Elastic Robot
• When deriving a dynamical model of elastic robots basically two
different sources of elasticity can be distinguished.
• The distributed elasticity caused by the robot links and
a concentrated elasticity in the joints which is usually caused by the
gears of the robot.
• For the former an infinite dimensional model, called elastic link robot
model, can be derived based on the usual assumptions of the Euler-
Bernoulli beam.
• The latter, instead, leads to a finite dimensional model, called flexible
joint robot model.
Euler–Bernoulli beam
• Euler–Bernoulli beam theory is a simplification of the linear theory of
elasticity which provides a means of calculating the load-carrying and
deflection characteristics of beams.
• It covers the case for small deflections of a beam that are subjected
to lateral loads only.
• ---- n X n mass Matrix
• n X n matrix with representing an n X 1

vector of centripetal and coriolis terms.
• ---- n X 1 vector containing the gravity terms
• --- n X 1 vector of joint torques or forces

Humanoid
• A humanoid robot is a robot with its body shape built to resemble the human
body.
• The design may be for functional purposes, such as interacting with human tools
and environments, for experimental purposes, such as the study of bipedal
locomotion, or for other purposes.
• Humanoid robots have a torso, a head, two arms, and two legs, though some
forms of humanoid robots may model only part of the body, for example, from
the waist up.
• Some humanoid robots also have heads designed to replicate human facial
features such as eyes and mouths. Androids are humanoid robots built to
aesthetically resemble humans.
Difference between robot and Humanoid
Basic Principles in Robotics
Interdisciplinary subjects
• Kinematics
• Dynamics
• Control
• Sensors
Kinematics
• Motion of rigid bodies in a 3D space
• 6DOF – 6 independent parameter to be fully specified

3 parameter – (position– point on the end effector)
3 parameter – orientation
6DOF – 6 independently actuated joints
---Study the functional relationship b/w the motion at the joints and the
motion of the end-effector without reference to the cause of the motion
Direct kinematics problem
The motion at the end effector for a given motion at the joints
Inverse kinematics problem
The motion at the joint for a required motion of the end effector
Dynamics
• Study the motion of the links and the end-effector under the
action of external forces and torque from the actuators
Control
• Position control
• Control the force which the robot applied on the environment
INTELLIGENT – interacting with the external environment and taking

simple decision they need to be equipped with sensors
SENSORS - enable the robot to apply the correct amount of force to

grip delicate objects.
Trajectory Control Types (cont.)
• Force Control – Robotic Manipulator
• Rigid “stiff” body makes if difficult
• Control the force being applied by the manipulator – set-point control
• Examples:
• Grinding
• Sanding
Robotic Control 76
Indirect force control
Direct force control
Force control
• It is more important to precisely control the force applied by the end-
effector rather than controlling the robots positioning. One example of this
is the finishing of a machined part.
• In an application for which the applied force is important, the robot needs
to be controlled differently.
• Instead of servoing each joint to its targeted position, the output torque is
controlled to match the desired force applied by the end-effector on an
external object. To do this, a way of measuring the external force is
required.
Force/Torque Sensors
• The external force is measured using a six-axis force/torque sensor which
measures any force applied to the end-effector.
• Most of the commercially available force/torque sensors are built from
strain gages. Some robot manufacturers offer force-control packages
containing the sensor, plus a special software, which allows you to program
the robot using force control.
• Sensorless Force Control
• It is possible to control the applied force using a normal, position-controlled
robot but not directly.
• One way to do this is by having a compliant end-effector for which the
relation between displacement and force is well-known.
• Instead of controlling the force, the position trajectory is programmed to
control the deformation of the tool in order to match the desired applied
force.
• This approach is more simple but has some disadvantages: the position of
the object has to be known precisely, the contact surface has to be stiff and
the end-effector has to be compliant in only one direction. If one of these
assumptions is not met, the results are often compromised. Therefore, a
force/torque sensor is the best option to obtain precision in force control.
Degrees of freedom
Degrees of freedom indicates the
capability of a robot
It is specific, defined modes in which a
mechanical device or system can move.
The number of degrees of freedom is equal to
the total number of independent displacements
or aspects of motion.
Translational envelopes :
1.Moving forward and backward on the X-axis. (Surge)
2.Moving left and right on the Y-axis. (Sway)
3.Moving up and down on the Z-axis. (Heave)
• Rotational envelopes :
1.Tilting side to side on the X-axis. (Roll)
2.Tilting forward and backward on the Y-axis. (Pitch)
3.Turning left and right on the Z-axis. (Yaw)
• Planar manipulator: A manipulator is called a planar manipulator if all the
moving links move in planes parallel to one another.
• Spatial manipulator: A manipulator is called a spatial manipulator if at least

one of the links of the mechanism possesses a general spatial motion.
Planar and Spatial Mechanisms
• In a planar mechanisms, all of the relative motions of the rigid bodies
are in parallel one plane or in planes.
• If there is any relative motion that is not in the same plane or in
parallel planes, the mechanism is called the spatial mechanism.
• Prismatic DOF –
• Universal DOF – 2
• Sperical DOF -3
•
• M = 3, N=4, J=3
Serial Manipulator
• One fixed end

• A free end – which carries the
end-effector or tool
• No closed loop
Parallel manipulator
• One or more joints fixed to the ground
• One or more closed loop
Degrees of freedom of parallel manipulator
• Two links, Universal joints, Prismatic joints, spherical joints

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Control Systems and

• Following the desired trajectory in 3D space is called position control

• Feedback control – To ensure the output of a dynamical system follows the

• Feedback control is used to stabilize an unstable system and to improve the

Issues in trajectory planning and generation

1. Robot operator specify the desired time history of a single or a group of

• Fundamental Task is to find the appropriate curve between the

• There are many possible smooth curves.

• Choosing the smooth curve between two points called interpolation

• Gears -To Reduce the speed

• Gear reduction – allows amplification of torque and reduction in inertia of

• Gear ratio = θl / θm = less than 1

• Kinematics of this 1-DOF system

The equation of motion for gear 1

The equation of motion for gear 2

Assume T1 θm = T2 θl , The equation of motion of the 1-DOF robot

• n X n matrix with representing an n X 1

• ---- n X 1 vector containing the gravity terms

• --- n X 1 vector of joint torques or forces

• 6DOF – 6 independent parameter to be fully specified

6DOF – 6 independently actuated joints

Inverse kinematics problem

INTELLIGENT – interacting with the external environment and taking

SENSORS - enable the robot to apply the correct amount of force to

• Spatial manipulator: A manipulator is called a spatial manipulator if at least

• One fixed end

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