Alexander the Great

Alexander III of Macedon (Greek:

Αλέξανδρος Γʹ ὁ Μακεδών, Aléxandros III
ho Makedȏn; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11
June 323 BC), commonly known as
Alexander the Great (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ
Μέγας, Aléxandros ho Mégas), was a king
(basileus) of the ancient Greek kingdom of
Macedon[a] and a member of the Argead
dynasty. He was born in Pella in 356 BC
and succeeded his father Philip II to the
throne at the age of 20. He spent most of
his ruling years on an unprecedented
military campaign through western Asia
and northeast Africa, and by the age of
thirty, he had created one of the largest
empires of the ancient world, stretching
from Greece to northwestern India.[1][2] He
was undefeated in battle and is widely
considered one of history's most
successful military commanders.[3]
 Alexander the Great
Basileus of Macedon, Hegemon of the Hellenic
League, Shahanshah of Persia, Pharaoh of
Egypt, Lord of Asia

Alexander Mosaic (c. 100 BC), ancient Roman

floor mosaic from the House of the Faun in
Pompeii showing Alexander fighting king
Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Issus

King of Macedon
Reign 336–323 BC

Predecessor Philip II

Successor Alexander IV
 Philip III
Hegemon of Hellenic League
Strategos autokrator of Greece
Reign 336 BC

Predecessor Philip II
Pharaoh of Egypt
Reign 332–323 BC

Predecessor Darius III

Successor Alexander IV
Philip III
Royal titulary

King of Persia
Reign 330–323 BC

Predecessor Darius III

Successor Alexander IV

Lord ofPhilip
Asia III
Reign 331–323 BC

Predecessor New office

Successor Alexander IV
Philip III

Born 20 or 21 July 356 BC

Pella, Macedon,
Ancient Greece

Died 10 or 11 June 323 BC

(aged 32)
Babylon,
Mesopotamia

Spouse Roxana of Bactria

 Stateira II of Persia
Parysatis II of Persia
Issue Alexander IV
Heracles of Macedon
(alleged illegitimate
son)

Full name

Alexander III of Macedon

Greek Μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος[d]

Mégas Aléxandros
lit. ''Great Alexander''
Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας
Aléxandros ho Mégas
lit. ''Alexander the Great''
Dynasty Argead
Father Philip II of Macedon

Mother Olympias of Epirus

Religion Greek polytheism

During his youth, Alexander was tutored by

Aristotle until age 16. After Philip's
assassination in 336 BC, he succeeded his
father to the throne and inherited a strong
kingdom and an experienced army.
Alexander was awarded the generalship of
Greece and used this authority to launch
his father's pan-Hellenic project to lead the
Greeks in the conquest of Persia.[4][5] In
334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid
Empire (Persian Empire) and began a
series of campaigns that lasted 10 years.
Following the conquest of Anatolia,
Alexander broke the power of Persia in a
series of decisive battles, most notably the
battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He
subsequently overthrew Persian King
Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid
Empire in its entirety.[b] At that point, his
empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to
the Beas River.

Alexander endeavoured to reach the "ends

of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and
invaded India in 326 BC, winning an
important victory over the Pauravas at the
Battle of the Hydaspes. He eventually
turned back at the demand of his
homesick troops, dying in Babylon in 323
BC, the city that he planned to establish as
his capital, without executing a series of
planned campaigns that would have begun
with an invasion of Arabia. In the years
following his death, a series of civil wars
tore his empire apart, resulting in the
establishment of several states ruled by
the Diadochi, Alexander's surviving
generals and heirs.
Alexander's legacy includes the cultural
diffusion and syncretism which his
conquests engendered, such as Greco-
Buddhism. He founded some twenty cities
that bore his name, most notably
Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's
settlement of Greek colonists and the
resulting spread of Greek culture in the
east resulted in a new Hellenistic
civilization, aspects of which were still
evident in the traditions of the Byzantine
Empire in the mid-15th century AD and the
presence of Greek speakers in central and
far eastern Anatolia until the Greek
genocide of the 1920s. Alexander became
legendary as a classical hero in the mould
of Achilles, and he features prominently in
the history and mythic traditions of both
Greek and non-Greek cultures. He was
undefeated in battle and became the
measure against which military leaders
compared themselves. Military academies
throughout the world still teach his
tactics.[6][c] He is often ranked among the
most influential people in history.[7]

Early life

Lineage and childhood

Bust of a young Alexander the Great from the
Hellenistic era, British Museum

Aristotle Tutoring Alexander, by Jean Leon Gerome

Ferris
Alexander was born in Pella, the capital of
the Kingdom of Macedon,[8] on the sixth
day of the ancient Greek month of
Hekatombaion, which probably
corresponds to 20 July 356 BC, although
the exact date is uncertain.[9] He was the
son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and
his fourth wife, Olympias, the daughter of
Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus.[10] Although
Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias
was his principal wife for some time, likely
because she gave birth to Alexander.[11]

Several legends surround Alexander's birth

and childhood.[12] According to the ancient
Greek biographer Plutarch, on the eve of
the consummation of her marriage to
Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb
was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a
flame to spread "far and wide" before
dying away. Sometime after the wedding,
Philip is said to have seen himself, in a
dream, securing his wife's womb with a
seal engraved with a lion's image.[13]
Plutarch offered a variety of
interpretations of these dreams: that
Olympias was pregnant before her
marriage, indicated by the sealing of her
womb; or that Alexander's father was
Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided
about whether the ambitious Olympias
promulgated the story of Alexander's
divine parentage, variously claiming that
she had told Alexander, or that she
dismissed the suggestion as impious.[13]

On the day Alexander was born, Philip was

preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on
the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same
day, Philip received news that his general
Parmenion had defeated the combined
Illyrian and Paeonian armies and that his
horses had won at the Olympic Games. It
was also said that on this day, the Temple
of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven
Wonders of the World, burnt down. This
led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it
had burnt down because Artemis was
away, attending the birth of Alexander.[14]
Such legends may have emerged when
Alexander was king, and possibly at his
instigation, to show that he was
superhuman and destined for greatness
from conception.[12]

In his early years, Alexander was raised by

a nurse, Lanike, sister of Alexander's future
general Cleitus the Black. Later in his
childhood, Alexander was tutored by the
strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother,
and by Lysimachus of Acarnania.[15]
Alexander was raised in the manner of
noble Macedonian youths, learning to read,
play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.[16]

Statue of Alexander the Great in Thessaloniki,

Macedonia, Greece

When Alexander was ten years old, a

trader from Thessaly brought Philip a
horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen
talents. The horse refused to be mounted,
and Philip ordered it away. Alexander,
however, detecting the horse's fear of its
own shadow, asked to tame the horse,
which he eventually managed.[12] Plutarch
stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display
of courage and ambition, kissed his son
tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find
a kingdom big enough for your ambitions.
Macedon is too small for you", and bought
the horse for him.[17] Alexander named it
Bucephalas, meaning "ox-head".
Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as
India. When the animal died (because of
old age, according to Plutarch, at age
thirty), Alexander named a city after him,
Bucephala.[18]

Education

When Alexander was 13, Philip began to

search for a tutor, and considered such
academics as Isocrates and Speusippus,
the latter offering to resign from his
stewardship of the Academy to take up the
post. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and
provided the Temple of the Nymphs at
Mieza as a classroom. In return for
teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to
rebuild Aristotle's hometown of Stageira,
which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it
by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who
were slaves, or pardoning those who were
in exile.[19]

Mieza was like a boarding school for

Alexander and the children of Macedonian
nobles, such as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and
Cassander. Many of these students would
become his friends and future generals,
and are often known as the 'Companions'.
Aristotle taught Alexander and his
companions about medicine, philosophy,
morals, religion, logic, and art. Under
Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a
passion for the works of Homer, and in
particular the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an
annotated copy, which Alexander later
carried on his campaigns.[20]

During his youth, Alexander was also

acquainted with Persian exiles at the
Macedonian court, who received the
protection of Philip II for several years as
they opposed Artaxerxes III.[21][22][23]
Among them were Artabazos II and his
daughter Barsine, future mistress of
Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian
court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as
Amminapes, future satrap of Alexander, or
a Persian nobleman named
Sisines.[21][24][25][26] This gave the
Macedonian court a good knowledge of
Persian issues, and may even have
influenced some of the innovations in the
management of the Macedonian state.[24]

Suda writes that, also, Anaximenes of

Lampsacus was one of his teachers.
Anaximenes, also accompanied him on his
campaigns.[27]

Philip's heir

Regency and ascent of Macedon

Philip II of Macedon, Alexander's father

At age 16, Alexander's education under

Aristotle ended. Philip waged war against
Byzantion, leaving Alexander in charge as
regent and heir apparent.[12] During Philip's
absence, the Thracian Maedi revolted
against Macedonia. Alexander responded
quickly, driving them from their territory.
He colonized it with Greeks, and founded a
city named Alexandropolis.[28]

Upon Philip's return, he dispatched

Alexander with a small force to subdue
revolts in southern Thrace. Campaigning
against the Greek city of Perinthus,
Alexander is reported to have saved his
father's life. Meanwhile, the city of
Amphissa began to work lands that were
sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege
that gave Philip the opportunity to further
intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in
Thrace, he ordered Alexander to muster an
army for a campaign in southern Greece.
Concerned that other Greek states might
intervene, Alexander made it look as
though he was preparing to attack Illyria
instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians
invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by
Alexander.[29]

Philip and his army joined his son in 338

BC, and they marched south through
Thermopylae, taking it after stubborn
resistance from its Theban garrison. They
went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a
few days' march from both Athens and
Thebes. The Athenians, led by
Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with
Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens
and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes'
favour, but Athens won the contest.[30]
Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly
acting on the request of the Amphictyonic
League), capturing the mercenaries sent
there by Demosthenes and accepting the
city's surrender. Philip then returned to
Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to
Athens and Thebes, who both rejected
it.[31]
Statue of Alexander in Istanbul Archaeology Museum

As Philip marched south, his opponents

blocked him near Chaeronea, Boeotia.
During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea,
Philip commanded the right wing and
Alexander the left, accompanied by a
group of Philip's trusted generals.
According to the ancient sources, the two
sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip
deliberately commanded his troops to
retreat, counting on the untested Athenian
hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line.
Alexander was the first to break the
Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals.
Having damaged the enemy's cohesion,
Philip ordered his troops to press forward
and quickly routed them. With the
Athenians lost, the Thebans were
surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were
defeated.[32]

After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and

Alexander marched unopposed into the
Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities;
however, when they reached Sparta, they
were refused, but did not resort to war.[33]
At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic
Alliance" (modelled on the old anti-Persian
alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which
included most Greek city-states except
Sparta. Philip was then named Hegemon
(often translated as "Supreme
Commander") of this league (known by
modern scholars as the League of
Corinth), and announced his plans to
attack the Persian Empire.[34][35]

Exile and return

When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in
love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice
in 338 BC,[36] the niece of his general
Attalus.[37] The marriage made Alexander's
position as heir less secure, since any son
of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully
Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only
half-Macedonian.[38] During the wedding
banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed
to the gods that the union would produce a
legitimate heir.[37]

At the wedding of Cleopatra,

whom Philip fell in love with
and married, she being much
too young for him, her uncle
Attalus in his drink desired the
Macedonians would implore the
gods to give them a lawful
successor to the kingdom by his
niece. This so irritated
Alexander, that throwing one of
the cups at his head, "You
villain," said he, "what, am I
then a bastard?" Then Philip,
taking Attalus's part, rose up
and would have run his son
through; but by good fortune for
them both, either his over-hasty
rage, or the wine he had drunk,
made his foot slip, so that he fell
down on the floor. At which
Alexander reproachfully
insulted over him: "See there,"
said he, "the man who makes
preparations to pass out of
Europe into Asia, overturned in
passing from one seat to
another."
 — Plutarch, describing the
feud at Philip's wedding.[39]

In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with

his mother, dropping her off with her
brother, King Alexander I of Epirus in
Dodona, capital of the Molossians.[40] He
continued to Illyria,[40] where he sought
refuge with one or more Illyrian kings,
perhaps with Glaukias, and was treated as
a guest, despite having defeated them in
battle a few years before.[41] However, it
appears Philip never intended to disown
his politically and militarily trained son.[40]
Accordingly, Alexander returned to
Macedon after six months due to the
efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who
mediated between the two parties.[42]

In the following year, the Persian satrap

(governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his
eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother,
Philip Arrhidaeus.[40] Olympias and several
of Alexander's friends suggested this
showed Philip intended to make
Arrhidaeus his heir.[40] Alexander reacted
by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth,
to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer
his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son,
but instead to Alexander. When Philip
heard of this, he stopped the negotiations
and scolded Alexander for wishing to
marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining
that he wanted a better bride for him.[40]
Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends,
Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius,
and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus
to him in chains.[43]

King of Macedon

Accession
The Kingdom of Macedon in 336 BC

The emblema of the Stag Hunt Mosaic, c. 300 BC,

from Pella; the figure on the right is possibly
Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic
along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-
parted hair (anastole); the figure on the left wielding a
double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos) is
perhaps Hephaestion, one of Alexander's loyal
i [44]
companions.[44]

In summer 336 BC, while at Aegae

attending the wedding of his daughter
Cleopatra to Olympias's brother, Alexander
I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the
captain of his bodyguards, Pausanias.[e]
As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped
over a vine and was killed by his pursuers,
including two of Alexander's companions,
Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was
proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles
and army at the age of 20.[45][46][47]

Consolidation of power
Alexander began his reign by eliminating
potential rivals to the throne. He had his
cousin, the former Amyntas IV,
executed.[48] He also had two Macedonian
princes from the region of Lyncestis killed,
but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes.
Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and
Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned
alive. When Alexander learned about this,
he was furious. Alexander also ordered the
murder of Attalus,[48] who was in
command of the advance guard of the
army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's
uncle.[49]
Attalus was at that time corresponding
with Demosthenes, regarding the
possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus
also had severely insulted Alexander, and
following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander
may have considered him too dangerous
to leave alive.[49] Alexander spared
Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts
mentally disabled, possibly as a result of
poisoning by Olympias.[45][47][50]

News of Philip's death roused many states

into revolt, including Thebes, Athens,
Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of
Macedon. When news of the revolts
reached Alexander, he responded quickly.
Though advised to use diplomacy,
Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian
cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly.
He found the Thessalian army occupying
the pass between Mount Olympus and
Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride
over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians
awoke the next day, they found Alexander
in their rear and promptly surrendered,
adding their cavalry to Alexander's force.
He then continued south towards the
Peloponnese.[51]
Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where
he was recognized as the leader of the
Amphictyonic League before heading
south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace
and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The
famous encounter between Alexander and
Diogenes the Cynic occurred during
Alexander's stay in Corinth. When
Alexander asked Diogenes what he could
do for him, the philosopher disdainfully
asked Alexander to stand a little to the
side, as he was blocking the sunlight.[52]
This reply apparently delighted Alexander,
who is reported to have said "But verily, if I
were not Alexander, I would like to be
Diogenes."[53] At Corinth, Alexander took
the title of Hegemon ("leader") and, like
Philip, was appointed commander for the
coming war against Persia. He also
received news of a Thracian uprising.[54]

Balkan campaign

The Macedonian phalanx at the "Battle of the Carts"

against the Thracians in 335 BC
Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted
to safeguard his northern borders. In the
spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress
several revolts. Starting from Amphipolis,
he travelled east into the country of the
"Independent Thracians"; and at Mount
Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked
and defeated the Thracian forces manning
the heights.[55] The Macedonians marched
into the country of the Triballi, and
defeated their army near the Lyginus
river[56] (a tributary of the Danube).
Alexander then marched for three days to
the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe
on the opposite shore. Crossing the river
at night, he surprised them and forced
their army to retreat after the first cavalry
skirmish.[57]

News then reached Alexander that Cleitus,

King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the
Taulantii were in open revolt against his
authority. Marching west into Illyria,
Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing
the two rulers to flee with their troops.
With these victories, he secured his
northern frontier.[58]

While Alexander campaigned north, the

Thebans and Athenians rebelled once
again. Alexander immediately headed
south.[59] While the other cities again
hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The
Theban resistance was ineffective, and
Alexander razed the city and divided its
territory between the other Boeotian cities.
The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving
all of Greece temporarily at peace.[59]
Alexander then set out on his Asian
campaign, leaving Antipater as regent.[60]

According to ancient writers Demosthenes

called Alexander, "Margites" (Greek:
Μαργίτης)[61][62][63] and a boy.[63] Greeks
used the word Margites to describe fool
and useless people, on account of the
Margites.[62][64]

Maps of campaigns
Ionia 336 BC

Media and Egypt 333 BC

Persia 331 BC
 India 326 BC

Conquest of the Persian

Empire

Asia Minor
Map of Alexander's empire and his route

Alexander Cuts the Gordian Knot (1767) by Jean-

Simon Berthélemy

In 336 BC Philip II had already sent

Parmenion, with Amyntas, Andromenes
and Attalus, and an army of 10,000 men
into Anatolia to make preparations for an
invasion to free the Greeks living on the
western coast and islands from
Achaemenid rule.[65][66] At first, all went
well. The Greek cities on the western coast
of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived
that Philip had been murdered and had
been succeeded by his young son
Alexander. The Macedonians were
demoralized by Philip's death and were
subsequently defeated near Magnesia by
the Achaemenids under the command of
the mercenary Memnon of Rhodes.[65][66]
Taking over the invasion project of Philip II,
Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont
in 334 BC with approximately 48,100
soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120
ships with crews numbering 38,000,[59]
drawn from Macedon and various Greek
city-states, mercenaries, and feudally
raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and
Illyria.[67][f] He showed his intent to
conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire
by throwing a spear into Asian soil and
saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the
gods. This also showed Alexander's
eagerness to fight, in contrast to his
father's preference for diplomacy.[59]
After an initial victory against Persian
forces at the Battle of the Granicus,
Alexander accepted the surrender of the
Persian provincial capital and treasury of
Sardis; he then proceeded along the Ionian
coast, granting autonomy and democracy
to the cities. Miletus, held by Achaemenid
forces, required a delicate siege operation,
with Persian naval forces nearby. Further
south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria,
Alexander successfully waged his first
large-scale siege, eventually forcing his
opponents, the mercenary captain
Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap
of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by
sea.[68] Alexander left the government of
Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid
dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander.[69]

From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded

into mountainous Lycia and the
Pamphylian plain, asserting control over
all coastal cities to deny the Persians
naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the
coast held no major ports and Alexander
moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander
humbled but did not storm the Pisidian
city.[70] At the ancient Phrygian capital of
Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto
unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to
await the future "king of Asia".[71]
According to the story, Alexander
proclaimed that it did not matter how the
knot was undone and hacked it apart with
his sword.[72]

The Levant and Syria

In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the

Taurus into Cilicia. After a long pause due
to an illness, he marched on towards Syria.
Though outmanoeuvered by Darius'
significantly larger army, he marched back
to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at
Issus. Darius fled the battle, causing his
army to collapse, and left behind his wife,
his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis,
and a fabulous treasure.[73] He offered a
peace treaty that included the lands he
had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000
talents for his family. Alexander replied
that since he was now king of Asia, it was
he alone who decided territorial
divisions.[74] Alexander proceeded to take
possession of Syria, and most of the coast
of the Levant.[69] In the following year,
332 BC, he was forced to attack Tyre,
which he captured after a long and difficult
siege.[75][76] The men of military age were
massacred and the women and children
sold into slavery.[77]

Egypt

Name of Alexander the Great in Egyptian hieroglyphs

(written from right to left), c. 332 BC, Egypt. Louvre
Museum.

When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of

the towns on the route to Egypt quickly
capitulated. However, Alexander met with
resistance at Gaza. The stronghold was
heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring
a siege. When "his engineers pointed out
to him that because of the height of the
mound it would be impossible... this
encouraged Alexander all the more to
make the attempt".[78] After three
unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell,
but not before Alexander had received a
serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men
of military age were put to the sword and
the women and children were sold into
slavery.[79]
Alexander advanced on Egypt in later
332 BC, where he was regarded as a
liberator.[80] He was pronounced son of the
deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in
the Libyan desert.[81] Henceforth,
Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon
as his true father, and after his death,
currency depicted him adorned with the
Horns of Ammon as a symbol of his
divinity.[82] During his stay in Egypt, he
founded Alexandria-by-Egypt, which would
become the prosperous capital of the
Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death.[83]

Assyria and Babylonia

Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander
marched eastward into Mesopotamia
(now northern Iraq) and again defeated
Darius, at the Battle of Gaugamela.[84]
Darius once more fled the field, and
Alexander chased him as far as Arbela.
Gaugamela would be the final and decisive
encounter between the two. Darius fled
over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern
Hamadan), while Alexander captured
Babylon.[85]

Persia
Site of the Persian Gate; the road was built in the
1990s.

From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa,

one of the Achaemenid capitals, and
captured its treasury.[85] He sent the bulk
of his army to the Persian ceremonial
capital of Persepolis via the Persian Royal
Road. Alexander himself took selected
troops on the direct route to the city. He
then stormed the pass of the Persian
Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains)
which had been blocked by a Persian army
under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to
Persepolis before its garrison could loot
the treasury.[86]

On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed

his troops to loot the city for several
days.[87] Alexander stayed in Persepolis for
five months.[88] During his stay a fire broke
out in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and
spread to the rest of the city. Possible
causes include a drunken accident or
deliberate revenge for the burning of the
Acropolis of Athens during the Second
Persian War by Xerxes;[89] Plutarch and
Diodorus allege that Alexander's
companion, the hetaera Thaïs, instigated
and started the fire. Even as he watched
the city burn, Alexander immediately
began to regret his decision.[90][91][92]
Plutarch claims that he ordered his men to
put out the fires,[90] but that the flames had
already spread to most of the city.[90]
Curtius claims that Alexander did not
regret his decision until the next
morning.[90] Plutarch recounts an
anecdote in which Alexander pauses and
talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it
were a live person:
 Shall I pass by and leave you
lying there because of the
expeditions you led against
Greece, or shall I set you up
again because of your
magnanimity and your virtues
in other respects?[93]

Fall of the Empire and the East

A contemporary depiction of Alexander the Great by

A contemporary depiction of Alexander the Great by
close aides: this coin was struck by Balakros or his
successor Menes, both former somatophylakes
(bodyguards) of Alexander, when they held the

position of satrap of Cilicia in the lifetime of

Alexander, circa 333-327 BC. The reverse shows a
seated Zeus Aëtophoros.[94]

Alexander then chased Darius, first into

Media, and then Parthia.[95] The Persian
king no longer controlled his own destiny,
and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his
Bactrian satrap and kinsman.[96] As
Alexander approached, Bessus had his
men fatally stab the Great King and then
declared himself Darius' successor as
Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central
Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign
against Alexander.[97] Alexander buried
Darius' remains next to his Achaemenid
predecessors in a regal funeral.[98] He
claimed that, while dying, Darius had
named him as his successor to the
Achaemenid throne.[99] The Achaemenid
Empire is normally considered to have
fallen with Darius.[100]

Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and

set out to defeat him. This campaign,
initially against Bessus, turned into a grand
tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a
series of new cities, all called Alexandria,
including modern Kandahar in
Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The
Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. The
campaign took Alexander through Media,
Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan),
Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central
Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central
Afghanistan), and Scythia.[101]

In 329 BC, Spitamenes, who held an

undefined position in the satrapy of
Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy,
one of Alexander's trusted companions,
and Bessus was executed.[102] However,
when, at some point later, Alexander was
on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion
by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes
raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander
personally defeated the Scythians at the
Battle of Jaxartes and immediately
launched a campaign against Spitamenes,
defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After
the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his
own men, who then sued for peace.[103]

Problems and plots

The Killing of Cleitus, by André Castaigne (1898–
1899)

During this time, Alexander adopted some

elements of Persian dress and customs at
his court, notably the custom of
proskynesis, either a symbolic kissing of
the hand, or prostration on the ground, that
Persians showed to their social
superiors.[104] The Greeks regarded the
gesture as the province of deities and
believed that Alexander meant to deify
himself by requiring it. This cost him the
sympathies of many of his countrymen,
and he eventually abandoned it.[105]

A plot against his life was revealed, and

one of his officers, Philotas, was executed
for failing to alert Alexander. The death of
the son necessitated the death of the
father, and thus Parmenion, who had been
charged with guarding the treasury at
Ecbatana, was assassinated at
Alexander's command, to prevent
attempts at vengeance. Most infamously,
Alexander personally killed the man who
had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the
Black, during a violent drunken altercation
at Maracanda (modern day Samarkand in
Uzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused
Alexander of several judgmental mistakes
and most especially, of having forgotten
the Macedonian ways in favour of a
corrupt oriental lifestyle.[106]

Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a

second plot against his life was revealed,
this one instigated by his own royal pages.
His official historian, Callisthenes of
Olynthus, was implicated in the plot, and in
the Anabasis of Alexander, Arrian states
that Callisthenes and the pages were then
tortured on the rack as punishment, and
likely died soon after.[107] It remains
unclear if Callisthenes was actually
involved in the plot, for prior to his
accusation he had fallen out of favour by
leading the opposition to the attempt to
introduce proskynesis.[108]

Macedon in Alexander's absence

When Alexander set out for Asia, he left

his general Antipater, an experienced
military and political leader and part of
Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of
Macedon.[60] Alexander's sacking of
Thebes ensured that Greece remained
quiet during his absence.[60] The one
exception was a call to arms by Spartan
king Agis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater
defeated and killed in the battle of
Megalopolis.[60] Antipater referred the
Spartans' punishment to the League of
Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander,
who chose to pardon them.[109] There was
also considerable friction between
Antipater and Olympias, and each
complained to Alexander about the
other.[110]

In general, Greece enjoyed a period of

peace and prosperity during Alexander's
campaign in Asia.[111] Alexander sent back
vast sums from his conquest, which
stimulated the economy and increased
trade across his empire.[112] However,
Alexander's constant demands for troops
and the migration of Macedonians
throughout his empire depleted Macedon's
strength, greatly weakening it in the years
after Alexander, and ultimately led to its
subjugation by Rome after the Third
Macedonian War (171–168 BC).[16]

Indian campaign

Forays into the Indian subcontinent

The Phalanx Attacking the Centre in the Battle of the

Hydaspes by André Castaigne (1898–1899)
Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent

After the death of Spitamenes and his

marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old
Iranian) to cement relations with his new
satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian
subcontinent. He invited the chieftains of
the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region
presently straddling eastern Afghanistan
and northern Pakistan), to come to him
and submit to his authority. Omphis
(Indian name Ambhi), the ruler of Taxila,
whose kingdom extended from the Indus
to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but
the chieftains of some hill clans, including
the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of
the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also
as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas),
refused to submit.[113] Ambhi hastened to
relieve Alexander of his apprehension and
met him with valuable presents, placing
himself and all his forces at his disposal.
Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title
and the gifts but he also presented him
with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold
and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000
talents in gold". Alexander was
emboldened to divide his forces, and
Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and
Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the
Indus where it bends at Hund,[114] supplied
their troops with provisions, and received
Alexander himself, and his whole army, in
his capital city of Taxila, with every
demonstration of friendship and the most
liberal hospitality.

On the subsequent advance of the

Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied
him with a force of 5,000 men and took
part in the battle of the Hydaspes River.
After that victory he was sent by Alexander
in pursuit of Porus (Indian name Puru), to
whom he was charged to offer favourable
terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life
at the hands of his old enemy.
Subsequently, however, the two rivals were
reconciled by the personal mediation of
Alexander; and Taxiles, after having
contributed zealously to the equipment of
the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted
by the king with the government of the
whole territory between that river and the
Indus. A considerable accession of power
was granted him after the death of Philip,
son of Machatas; and he was allowed to
retain his authority at the death of
Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in
the subsequent partition of the provinces
at Triparadisus, 321 BC.

In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander

personally led a campaign against the
Aspasioi of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of
the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of
the Swat and Buner valleys.[115] A fierce
contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which
Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by
a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost.
Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who
fought against him from the strongholds
of Massaga, Ora and Aornos.[113]

The fort of Massaga was reduced only

after days of bloody fighting, in which
Alexander was wounded seriously in the
ankle. According to Curtius, "Not only did
Alexander slaughter the entire population
of Massaga, but also did he reduce its
buildings to rubble."[116] A similar slaughter
followed at Ora. In the aftermath of
Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians
fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander
followed close behind and captured the
strategic hill-fort after four bloody
days.[113]

After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus

and fought and won an epic battle against
King Porus, who ruled a region lying
between the Hydaspes and the Acesines
(Chenab), in what is now the Punjab, in the
Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC.[117]
Alexander was impressed by Porus'
bravery, and made him an ally. He
appointed Porus as satrap, and added to
Porus' territory land that he did not
previously own, towards the south-east, up
to the Hyphasis (Beas).[118][119] Choosing a
local helped him control these lands so
distant from Greece.[120] Alexander
founded two cities on opposite sides of
the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala,
in honour of his horse, who died around
this time.[121] The other was Nicaea
(Victory), thought to be located at the site
of modern-day Mong, Punjab.[122]
Philostratus the Elder in the Life of
Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army
of Porus there was an elephant who
fought brave against Alexander's army and
Alexander dedicated it to the Helios (Sun)
and named it Ajax, because he thought
that a so great animal deserved a great
name. The elephant had gold rings around
its tusks and an inscription was on them
written in Greek: "Alexander the son of
Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios"
(ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ
ΗΛΙΩΙ).[123]

Revolt of the army

Asia in 323 BC, the Nanda Empire and the Gangaridai

of the Indian subcontinent, in relation to Alexander's
Empire and neighbours
East of Porus' kingdom, near the Ganges
River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha,
and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of
Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent.
Fearing the prospect of facing other large
armies and exhausted by years of
campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied
at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to
march farther east.[124] This river thus
marks the easternmost extent of
Alexander's conquests.[125]

As for the Macedonians,

however, their struggle with
Porus blunted their courage and
stayed their further advance
into India. For having had all
they could do to repulse an
enemy who mustered only
twenty thousand infantry and
two thousand horse, they
violently opposed Alexander
when he insisted on crossing the
river Ganges also, the width of
which, as they learned, was
thirty-two furlongs, its depth a
hundred fathoms, while its
 banks on the further side were
covered with multitudes of men-
at-arms and horsemen and
elephants. For they were told
that the kings of the Ganderites
and Praesii were awaiting them
with eighty thousand horsemen,
two hundred thousand footmen,
eight thousand chariots, and six
thousand war elephants.[126]

Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to

march farther, but his general Coenus
pleaded with him to change his opinion
and return; the men, he said, "longed to
again see their parents, their wives and
children, their homeland". Alexander
eventually agreed and turned south,
marching along the Indus. Along the way
his army conquered the Malhi (in modern-
day Multan) and other Indian tribes and
Alexander sustained an injury during the
siege.[127]

Alexander sent much of his army to

Carmania (modern southern Iran) with
general Craterus, and commissioned a
fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore
under his admiral Nearchus, while he led
the rest back to Persia through the more
difficult southern route along the
Gedrosian Desert and Makran.[128]
Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not
before losing many men to the harsh
desert.[129]

Last years in Persia

Alexander, left, and Hephaestion, right

Discovering that many of his satraps and
military governors had misbehaved in his
absence, Alexander executed several of
them as examples on his way to
Susa.[130][131] As a gesture of thanks, he
paid off the debts of his soldiers, and
announced that he would send over-aged
and disabled veterans back to Macedon,
led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood
his intention and mutinied at the town of
Opis. They refused to be sent away and
criticized his adoption of Persian customs
and dress and the introduction of Persian
officers and soldiers into Macedonian
units.[132]

Alexander at the Tomb of Cyrus the Great, by Pierre-

Henri de Valenciennes (1796)

After three days, unable to persuade his

men to back down, Alexander gave
Persians command posts in the army and
conferred Macedonian military titles upon
Persian units. The Macedonians quickly
begged forgiveness, which Alexander
accepted, and held a great banquet for
several thousand of his men at which he
and they ate together.[133] In an attempt to
craft a lasting harmony between his
Macedonian and Persian subjects,
Alexander held a mass marriage of his
senior officers to Persian and other
noblewomen at Susa, but few of those
marriages seem to have lasted much
beyond a year.[131] Meanwhile, upon his
return to Persia, Alexander learned that
guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in
Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly
executed them.[134] Alexander admired
Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading
Xenophon's Cyropaedia, which described
Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance
as a king and legislator.[135] During his visit
to Pasargadae Alexander ordered his
architect Aristobulus to decorate the
interior of the sepulchral chamber of
Cyrus' tomb.[135]

Afterwards, Alexander travelled to

Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the
Persian treasure. There, his closest friend
and possible lover, Hephaestion, died of
illness or poisoning.[136][137] Hephaestion's
death devastated Alexander, and he
ordered the preparation of an expensive
funeral pyre in Babylon, as well as a decree
for public mourning.[136] Back in Babylon,
Alexander planned a series of new
campaigns, beginning with an invasion of
Arabia, but he would not have a chance to
realize them, as he died shortly after
Hephaestion.[138]

Death and succession

A Babylonian astronomical diary (c. 323–322 BC)

recording the death of Alexander (British Museum,
L d )
London)

On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander

died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in
Babylon, at age 32.[139] There are two
different versions of Alexander's death and
details of the death differ slightly in each.
Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days
before his death, Alexander entertained
admiral Nearchus, and spent the night and
next day drinking with Medius of
Larissa.[140] He developed a fever, which
worsened until he was unable to speak.
The common soldiers, anxious about his
health, were granted the right to file past
him as he silently waved at them.[141] In
the second account, Diodorus recounts
that Alexander was struck with pain after
downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in
honour of Heracles, followed by 11 days of
weakness; he did not develop a fever and
died after some agony.[142] Arrian also
mentioned this as an alternative, but
Plutarch specifically denied this claim.[140]

Given the propensity of the Macedonian

aristocracy to assassination,[143] foul play
featured in multiple accounts of his death.
Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all
mentioned the theory that Alexander was
poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander
was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy,
Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,[144]
while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that
they mentioned it only for the sake of
completeness.[142][145] The accounts were
nevertheless fairly consistent in
designating Antipater, recently removed as
Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with
Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot.
Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon
as a death sentence,[146] and having seen
the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,[147]
Antipater purportedly arranged for
Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas,
who was Alexander's wine-pourer.[145][147]
There was even a suggestion that Aristotle
may have participated.[145]

The strongest argument against the

poison theory is the fact that twelve days
passed between the start of his illness and
his death; such long-acting poisons were
probably not available.[148] However, in a
2003 BBC documentary investigating the
death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the
New Zealand National Poisons Centre
proposed that the plant white hellebore
(Veratrum album), which was known in
antiquity, may have been used to poison
Alexander.[149][150][151] In a 2014
manuscript in the journal Clinical
Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's
wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and
that this would produce poisoning
symptoms that match the course of
events described in the Alexander
Romance.[152] Veratrum album poisoning
can have a prolonged course and it was
suggested that if Alexander was poisoned,
Veratrum album offers the most plausible
cause.[152][153] Another poisoning
explanation put forward in 2010 proposed
that the circumstances of his death were
compatible with poisoning by water of the
river Styx (modern-day Mavroneri in
Arcadia, Greece) that contained
calicheamicin, a dangerous compound
produced by bacteria.[154]

Several natural causes (diseases) have

been suggested, including malaria and
typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the New
England Journal of Medicine attributed his
death to typhoid fever complicated by
bowel perforation and ascending
paralysis.[155] Another recent analysis
suggested pyogenic (infectious)
spondylitis or meningitis.[156] Other
illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute
pancreatitis and West Nile virus.[157][158]
Natural-cause theories also tend to
emphasize that Alexander's health may
have been in general decline after years of
heavy drinking and severe wounds. The
anguish that Alexander felt after
Hephaestion's death may also have
contributed to his declining health.[155]

After death

Alexander's body was laid in a gold

anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled
with honey, which was in turn placed in a
gold casket.[159][160] According to Aelian, a
seer called Aristander foretold that the
land where Alexander was laid to rest
"would be happy and unvanquishable
forever".[161] Perhaps more likely, the
successors may have seen possession of
the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since
burying the prior king was a royal
prerogative.[162]

19th-century depiction of Alexander's funeral

procession, based on the description by Diodorus
Siculus
While Alexander's funeral cortege was on
its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and
took it temporarily to Memphis.[159][161] His
successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus,
transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria,
where it remained until at least late
Antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of
Ptolemy's final successors, replaced
Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one
so he could convert the original to
coinage.[163] The recent discovery of an
enormous tomb in northern Greece, at
Amphipolis, dating from the time of
Alexander the Great[164] has given rise to
speculation that its original intent was to
be the burial place of Alexander. This
would fit with the intended destination of
Alexander's funeral cortege. However, the
memorial was found to be dedicated to
the dearest friend of Alexander the Great,
Hephaestion.[165][166]

Detail of Alexander on the Alexander Sarcophagus

Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all

visited the tomb in Alexandria, where
Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked
the nose off. Caligula was said to have
taken Alexander's breastplate from the
tomb for his own use. Around AD 200,
Emperor Septimius Severus closed
Alexander's tomb to the public. His son
and successor, Caracalla, a great admirer,
visited the tomb during his own reign.
After this, details on the fate of the tomb
are hazy.[163]

The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus",

discovered near Sidon and now in the
Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so
named not because it was thought to have
contained Alexander's remains, but
because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander
and his companions fighting the Persians
and hunting. It was originally thought to
have been the sarcophagus of
Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of
Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately
following the battle of Issus in 331.[167][168]
However, more recently, it has been
suggested that it may date from earlier
than Abdalonymus' death.

Division of the empire

Kingdoms of the Diadochi in 301 BC: the Ptolemaic
Kingdom (dark blue), the Seleucid Empire (yellow),
Kingdom of Pergamon (orange), and Kingdom of
Macedon (green). Also shown are the Roman
Republic (light blue), the Carthaginian Republic
(purple), and the Kingdom of Epirus (red).

Alexander's death was so sudden that

when reports of his death reached Greece,
they were not immediately believed.[60]
Alexander had no obvious or legitimate
heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being
born after Alexander's death.[169]
According to Diodorus, Alexander's
companions asked him on his deathbed to
whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his
laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the
strongest".[142] Another theory is that his
successors willfully or erroneously
misheard "tôi Kraterôi"—"to Craterus", the
general leading his Macedonian troops
home and newly entrusted with the
regency of Macedonia.[170]

Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander

was speechless by this point, implying that
this was an apocryphal story.[171]
Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the
more plausible story that Alexander
passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a
bodyguard and leader of the companion
cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby
nominating him.[142][169]

Perdiccas initially did not claim power,

instead suggesting that Roxane's baby
would be king, if male; with himself,
Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as
guardians. However, the infantry, under the
command of Meleager, rejected this
arrangement since they had been excluded
from the discussion. Instead, they
supported Alexander's half-brother Philip
Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides
reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander
IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint
kings, albeit in name only.[172]

Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the

Macedonians, however. The satrapies
handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of
Babylon became power bases each
general used to bid for power. After the
assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC,
Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years
of war between "The Successors"
(Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic
world settled into four stable power blocs:
Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Mesopotamia
and Central Asia, Attalid Anatolia, and
Antigonid Macedon. In the process, both
Alexander IV and Philip III were
murdered.[173]

Will

Commemorative coin by Agathocles of Bactria (190–

180 BC) for Alexander the Great
Diodorus stated that Alexander had given
detailed written instructions to Craterus
some time before his death.[174] Craterus
started to carry out Alexander's
commands, but the successors chose not
to further implement them, on the grounds
they were impractical and extravagant.[174]
Nevertheless, Perdiccas read Alexander's
will to his troops.[60]

Alexander's will called for military

expansion into the southern and western
Mediterranean, monumental
constructions, and the intermixing of
Eastern and Western populations. It
included:

Construction of a monumental tomb for

his father Philip, "to match the greatest
of the pyramids of Egypt"[60]
Erection of great temples in Delos,
Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis, and a
monumental temple to Athena at
Troy[60]
Conquest of Arabia and the entire
Mediterranean basin[60]
Circumnavigation of Africa[60]
Development of cities and the
"transplant of populations from Asia to
 Europe and in the opposite direction
from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the
largest continent to common unity and
to friendship by means of intermarriage
and family ties"[175]

Character

Generalship

The Battle of the Granicus, 334 BC

The Battle of Issus, 333 BC

Alexander earned the epithet "the Great"

due to his unparalleled success as a
military commander. He never lost a battle,
despite typically being outnumbered.[59]
This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and
cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the
fierce loyalty of his troops.[176] The
Macedonian phalanx, armed with the
sarissa, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had
been developed and perfected by Philip II
through rigorous training, and Alexander
used its speed and maneuverability to
great effect against larger but more
disparate Persian forces.[177] Alexander
also recognized the potential for disunity
among his diverse army, which employed
various languages and weapons. He
overcame this by being personally involved
in battle,[88] in the manner of a
Macedonian king.[176]

In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus,

Alexander used only a small part of his
forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000
cavalry, against a much larger Persian
force of 40,000. Alexander placed the
phalanx at the center and cavalry and
archers on the wings, so that his line
matched the length of the Persian cavalry
line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). By contrast, the
Persian infantry was stationed behind its
cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would
not be outflanked, while his phalanx,
armed with long pikes, had a considerable
advantage over the Persians' scimitars
and javelins. Macedonian losses were
negligible compared to those of the
Persians.[178]
At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation
with Darius, he used the same deployment,
and again the central phalanx pushed
through.[178] Alexander personally led the
charge in the center, routing the opposing
army.[179] At the decisive encounter with
Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his
chariots with scythes on the wheels to
break up the phalanx and equipped his
cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a
double phalanx, with the center advancing
at an angle, parting when the chariots bore
down and then reforming. The advance
was successful and broke Darius' center,
causing the latter to flee once again.[178]
When faced with opponents who used
unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in
Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted
his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in
Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander
successfully used his javelin throwers and
archers to prevent outflanking movements,
while massing his cavalry at the
center.[179] In India, confronted by Porus'
elephant corps, the Macedonians opened
their ranks to envelop the elephants and
used their sarissas to strike upwards and
dislodge the elephants' handlers.[133]

Physical appearance
Greek biographer Plutarch (c.  45 –
c. 120 AD) describes Alexander's
appearance as:

The outward appearance of

Alexander is best represented by
the statues of him which
Lysippus made, and it was by
this artist alone that Alexander
himself thought it fit that he
should be modelled. For those
peculiarities which many of his
successors and friends
afterwards tried to imitate,
namely, the poise of the neck,
which was bent slightly to the
left, and the melting glance of
his eyes, this artist has
accurately observed. Apelles,
however, in painting him as
wielder of the thunder-bolt, did
not reproduce his complexion,
but made it too dark and
swarthy. Whereas he was of a
fair colour, as they say, and his
fairness passed into ruddiness
 on his breast particularly, and in
his face. Moreover, that a very
pleasant odour exhaled from his
skin and that there was a
fragrance about his mouth and
all his flesh, so that his
garments were filled with it, this
we have read in the Memoirs of
Aristoxenus.[180]

Greek historian Arrian (Lucius Flavius

Arrianus 'Xenophon' c.  86 – c. 160 AD)
described Alexander as:
 [T]he strong, handsome
commander with one eye dark
as the night and one blue as the
sky.[181][182]

The semi-legendary Alexander Romance

also suggests that Alexander exhibited
heterochromia iridum: that one eye was
dark and the other light.[183]

British historian Peter Green provided a

description of Alexander's appearance,
based on his review of statues and some
ancient documents:
Physically, Alexander was not
prepossessing. Even by
Macedonian standards he was
very short, though stocky and
tough. His beard was scanty,
and he stood out against his
hirsute Macedonian barons by
going clean-shaven. His neck
was in some way twisted, so
that he appeared to be gazing
upward at an angle. His eyes
(one blue, one brown) revealed a
dewy, feminine quality. He had a
 high complexion and a harsh
voice.[184]

Historian and Egyptologist Joann Fletcher

has said that the Macedonian ruler
Alexander the Great had blond hair.[185]

Ancient authors recorded that Alexander

was so pleased with portraits of himself
created by Lysippos that he forbade other
sculptors from crafting his image.[186]
Lysippos had often used the contrapposto
sculptural scheme to portray Alexander
and other characters such as
Apoxyomenos, Hermes and Eros.[187]
Lysippos' sculpture, famous for its
naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more
static pose, is thought to be the most
faithful depiction.[188]

Personality

Alexander (left), wearing a kausia and fighting an

Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail); late 4th
century BC mosaic,[189] Pella Museum
Some of Alexander's strongest personality
traits formed in response to his parents.
His mother had huge ambitions, and
encouraged him to believe it was his
destiny to conquer the Persian Empire.[184]
Olympias' influence instilled a sense of
destiny in him,[190] and Plutarch tells how
his ambition "kept his spirit serious and
lofty in advance of his years".[191] However,
his father Philip was Alexander's most
immediate and influential role model, as
the young Alexander watched him
campaign practically every year, winning
victory after victory while ignoring severe
wounds.[48] Alexander's relationship with
his father forged the competitive side of
his personality; he had a need to outdo his
father, illustrated by his reckless behaviour
in battle.[184] While Alexander worried that
his father would leave him "no great or
brilliant achievement to be displayed to the
world",[192] he also downplayed his father's
achievements to his companions.[184]

According to Plutarch, among Alexander's

traits were a violent temper and rash,
impulsive nature,[193] which undoubtedly
contributed to some of his decisions.[184]
Although Alexander was stubborn and did
not respond well to orders from his father,
he was open to reasoned debate.[194] He
had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and
calculating. He had a great desire for
knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was
an avid reader.[195] This was no doubt in
part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander
was intelligent and quick to learn.[184] His
intelligent and rational side was amply
demonstrated by his ability and success
as a general.[193] He had great self-
restraint in "pleasures of the body", in
contrast with his lack of self-control with
alcohol.[196]
A Roman copy of an original 3rd century BC Greek
bust depicting Alexander the Great, Ny Carlsberg
Glyptotek, Copenhagen

Alexander was erudite and patronized both

arts and sciences.[191][195] However, he had
little interest in sports or the Olympic
games (unlike his father), seeking only the
Homeric ideals of honour (timê) and glory
(kudos).[197] He had great charisma and
force of personality, characteristics which
made him a great leader.[169][193] His
unique abilities were further demonstrated
by the inability of any of his generals to
unite Macedonia and retain the Empire
after his death—only Alexander had the
ability to do so.[169]

During his final years, and especially after

the death of Hephaestion, Alexander
began to exhibit signs of megalomania
and paranoia.[146] His extraordinary
achievements, coupled with his own
ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery
of his companions, may have combined to
produce this effect.[198] His delusions of
grandeur are readily visible in his will and
in his desire to conquer the world,[146] in as
much as he is by various sources
described as having boundless
ambition,[199][200] an epithet, the meaning
of which has descended into an historical
cliché.[201][202]

He appears to have believed himself a

deity, or at least sought to deify
himself.[146] Olympias always insisted to
him that he was the son of Zeus,[203] a
theory apparently confirmed to him by the
oracle of Amun at Siwa.[204] He began to
identify himself as the son of Zeus-
Ammon.[204] Alexander adopted elements
of Persian dress and customs at court,
notably proskynesis, a practice of which
Macedonians disapproved, and were loath
to perform.[104] This behaviour cost him
the sympathies of many of his
countrymen.[205] However, Alexander also
was a pragmatic ruler who understood the
difficulties of ruling culturally disparate
peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms
where the king was divine.[206] Thus, rather
than megalomania, his behaviour may
simply have been a practical attempt at
strengthening his rule and keeping his
empire together.[207]
Personal relationships

A mural in Pompeii, depicting the marriage of

Alexander to Barsine (Stateira) in 324 BC; the couple
are apparently dressed as Ares and Aphrodite.

Alexander married three times: Roxana,

daughter of the Sogdian nobleman
Oxyartes of Bactria,[208][209][210] out of
love;[211] and the Persian princesses
Stateira II and Parysatis II, the former a
daughter of Darius III and latter a daughter
of Artaxerxes III, for political
reasons.[212][213] He apparently had two
sons, Alexander IV of Macedon by Roxana
and, possibly, Heracles of Macedon from
his mistress Barsine. He lost another child
when Roxana miscarried at
Babylon.[214][215]

Alexander also had a close relationship

with his friend, general, and bodyguard
Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian
noble.[136][184][216] Hephaestion's death
devastated Alexander.[136][217] This event
may have contributed to Alexander's
failing health and detached mental state
during his final months.[146][155]

Alexander's sexuality has been the subject

of speculation and controversy in modern
times.[218] The Roman era writer
Athenaeus says, based on the scholar
Dicaearchus, who was Alexander's
contemporary, that the king "was quite
excessively keen on boys", and that
Alexander sexually embraced his eunuch
Bagoas in public.[219] This episode is also
told by Plutarch, probably based on the
same source. None of Alexander's
contemporaries, however, are known to
have explicitly described Alexander's
relationship with Hephaestion as sexual,
though the pair was often compared to
Achilles and Patroclus, whom classical
Greek culture painted as a couple. Aelian
writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where
"Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles,
and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the
latter hinting that he was a beloved of
Alexander, in just the same way as
Patroclus was of Achilles."[220] Some
modern historians (e.g., Robin Lane Fox)
believe not only that Alexander's youthful
relationship with Hephaestion was sexual,
but that their sexual contacts may have
continued into adulthood, which went
against the social norms of at least some
Greek cities, such as Athens,[221][222]
though some modern researchers have
tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at
least the Macedonian court) may have
been more tolerant of homosexuality
between adults.[223]

Green argues that there is little evidence in

ancient sources that Alexander had much
carnal interest in women; he did not
produce an heir until the very end of his
life.[184] However, Ogden calculates that
Alexander, who impregnated his partners
thrice in eight years, had a higher
matrimonial record than his father at the
same age.[224] Two of these pregnancies
— Stateira's and Barsine's — are of dubious
legitimacy.[225]

According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander

accumulated a harem in the style of
Persian kings, but he used it rather
sparingly,[226] showing great self-control in
"pleasures of the body".[196] Nevertheless,
Plutarch described how Alexander was
infatuated by Roxana while complimenting
him on not forcing himself on her.[227]
Green suggested that, in the context of the
period, Alexander formed quite strong
friendships with women, including Ada of
Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius'
mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died
from grief upon hearing of Alexander's
death.[184]

Battle record
 Date War Action Opponen

2 August Rise of Battle of Thebans,

338 BC Macedon Chaeronea Athenians

Battle of
Balkan Getae,
335 BC Mount
Campaign Thracians
Haemus

December Balkan Siege of

Illyrians
335 BC Campaign Pelium

December Balkan Battle of

Thebans
335 BC Campaign Thebes

May 334 Persian Battle of the Achaeme

BC Campaign Granicus Empire

334 BC Persian Siege of Achaeme

Campaign Miletus Empire,
 Milesians

Persian Siege of Achaeme

334 BC
Campaign Halicarnassus Empire

5
Persian Battle of Achaeme
November
Campaign Issus Empire
333 BC

January– Achaeme
Persian
July 332 Siege of Tyre Empire,
Campaign
BC Tyrians

October Persian Achaeme

Siege of Gaza
332 BC Campaign Empire

1 October Persian Battle of Achaeme

331 BC Campaign Gaugamela Empire

December Persian Battle of the

Uxians
331 BC Campaign Uxian Defile
 20 Persian Battle of the Achaeme
January Campaign Persian Gate Empire
330 BC

Persian Siege of
329 BC Sogdians
Campaign Cyropolis

October Persian Battle of

Scythians
329 BC Campaign Jaxartes

Persian Siege of the

327 BC Sogdians
Campaign Sogdian Rock

May 327
Indian Cophen
– March Aspasian
Campaign Campaign
326 BC

April 326 Indian Siege of

Aśvaka
BC Campaign Aornos

May 326 Indian Battle of the Paurava

 BC Campaign Hydaspes

November
326 – Indian Siege of
Malli
February Campaign Multan
325 BC

Legacy

The Hellenistic world view after Alexander: ancient

world map of Eratosthenes (276–194 BC),
incorporating information from the campaigns of
Alexander and his successors[228]
Alexander's legacy extended beyond his
military conquests. His campaigns greatly
increased contacts and trade between
East and West, and vast areas to the east
were significantly exposed to Greek
civilization and influence.[16] Some of the
cities he founded became major cultural
centers, many surviving into the 21st
century. His chroniclers recorded valuable
information about the areas through which
he marched, while the Greeks themselves
got a sense of belonging to a world
beyond the Mediterranean.[16]

Hellenistic kingdoms
Plan of Alexandria c. 30 BC

Alexander's most immediate legacy was

the introduction of Macedonian rule to
huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of
his death, Alexander's empire covered
some 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi),[229]
and was the largest state of its time. Many
of these areas remained in Macedonian
hands or under Greek influence for the
next 200–300 years. The successor states
that emerged were, at least initially,
dominant forces, and these 300 years are
often referred to as the Hellenistic
period.[230]

The eastern borders of Alexander's empire

began to collapse even during his
lifetime.[169] However, the power vacuum
he left in the northwest of the Indian
subcontinent directly gave rise to one of
the most powerful Indian dynasties in
history, the Maurya Empire. Taking
advantage of this power vacuum,
Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek
sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively
humble origin, took control of the Punjab,
and with that power base proceeded to
conquer the Nanda Empire.[231]

Founding of cities

Over the course of his conquests,

Alexander founded some twenty cities that
bore his name, most of them east of the
Tigris.[105][232] The first, and greatest, was
Alexandria in Egypt, which would become
one of the leading Mediterranean
cities.[105] The cities' locations reflected
trade routes as well as defensive
positions. At first, the cities must have
been inhospitable, little more than
defensive garrisons.[105] Following
Alexander's death, many Greeks who had
settled there tried to return to
Greece.[105][232] However, a century or so
after Alexander's death, many of the
Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate
public buildings and substantial
populations that included both Greek and
local peoples.[105]

Funding of temples
Dedication of Alexander the Great to Athena Polias at
Priene, now housed in the British Museum[233]

In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated

funds for the completion of the new
temple of Athena Polias in Priene, in
modern-day western Turkey.[234][235] An
inscription from the temple, now housed in
the British Museum, declares: "King
Alexander dedicated [this temple] to
Athena Polias."[233] This inscription is one
of the few independent archaeological
discoveries confirming an episode from
Alexander's life.[233] The temple was
designed by Pytheos, one of the architects
of the Mausoleum at
Halicarnassus.[233][234][235][236]

Hellenization

Alexander's empire was the largest state of its time,

covering approximately 5.2 million square km.
Hellenization was coined by the German
historian Johann Gustav Droysen to
denote the spread of Greek language,
culture, and population into the former
Persian empire after Alexander's
conquest.[230] That this export took place
is undoubted, and can be seen in the great
Hellenistic cities of, for instance,
Alexandria, Antioch[237] and Seleucia
(south of modern Baghdad).[238] Alexander
sought to insert Greek elements into
Persian culture and attempted to hybridize
Greek and Persian culture. This
culminated in his aspiration to
homogenize the populations of Asia and
Europe. However, his successors explicitly
rejected such policies. Nevertheless,
Hellenization occurred throughout the
region, accompanied by a distinct and
opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor
states.[239]

The core of the Hellenistic culture

promulgated by the conquests was
essentially Athenian.[240] The close
association of men from across Greece in
Alexander's army directly led to the
emergence of the largely Attic-based
"koine", or "common" Greek dialect.[241]
Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic
world, becoming the lingua franca of
Hellenistic lands and eventually the
ancestor of modern Greek.[241]
Furthermore, town planning, education,
local government, and art current in the
Hellenistic period were all based on
Classical Greek ideals, evolving into
distinct new forms commonly grouped as
Hellenistic.[237] Aspects of Hellenistic
culture were still evident in the traditions
of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th
century.[242]

Hellenization in Central Asia and India

The Buddha, in Greco-Buddhist style, 1st to 2nd
century AD, Gandhara, northern Pakistan. Tokyo
National Museum.

Some of the most pronounced effects of

Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan
and India, in the region of the relatively
late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–
125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan,
and Tajikistan) and the Indo-Greek
Kingdom (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern
Afghanistan and India.[243] On the Silk
Road trade routes, Hellenistic culture
hybridized with Iranian and Buddhist
cultures. The cosmopolitan art and
mythology of Gandhara (a region spanning
the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat
and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of
the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century
AD are most evident of the direct contact
between Hellenistic civilization and South
Asia, as are the Edicts of Ashoka, which
directly mention the Greeks within
Ashoka's dominion as converting to
Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist
emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in
the Hellenistic world.[244] The resulting
syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism
influenced the development of Buddhism
and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist
art. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent
some of the first Buddhist missionaries to
China, Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and
Europe (Greco-Buddhist monasticism).

Some of the first and most influential

figurative portrayals of the Buddha
appeared at this time, perhaps modeled on
Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco-
Buddhist style.[243] Several Buddhist
traditions may have been influenced by the
ancient Greek religion: the concept of
Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek
divine heroes,[245] and some Mahayana
ceremonial practices (burning incense,
gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars)
are similar to those practiced by the
ancient Greeks; however, similar practices
were also observed amongst the native
Indic culture. One Greek king, Menander I,
probably became Buddhist, and was
immortalized in Buddhist literature as
'Milinda'.[243] The process of Hellenization
also spurred trade between the east and
west.[246] For example, Greek astronomical
instruments dating to the 3rd century BC
were found in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai
Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan,[247]
while the Greek concept of a spherical
earth surrounded by the spheres of
planets eventually supplanted the long-
standing Indian cosmological belief of a
disc consisting of four continents grouped
around a central mountain (Mount Meru)
like the petals of a flower.[246][248][249] The
Yavanajataka (lit. Greek astronomical
treatise) and Paulisa Siddhanta texts
depict the influence of Greek astronomical
ideas on Indian astronomy.
Following the conquests of Alexander the
Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on
Indian art was far-ranging. In the area of
architecture, a few examples of the Ionic
order can be found as far as Pakistan with
the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several
examples of capitals displaying Ionic
influences can be seen as far as Patna,
especially with the Pataliputra capital,
dated to the 3rd century BC.[250] The
Corinthian order is also heavily
represented in the art of Gandhara,
especially through Indo-Corinthian
capitals.
Influence on Rome

This medallion was produced in Imperial Rome,

demonstrating the influence of Alexander's memory.
Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.

Alexander and his exploits were admired

by many Romans, especially generals, who
wanted to associate themselves with his
achievements.[251] Polybius began his
Histories by reminding Romans of
Alexander's achievements, and thereafter
Roman leaders saw him as a role model.
Pompey the Great adopted the epithet
"Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-
type haircut, and searched the conquered
lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-
old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of
greatness.[251] Julius Caesar dedicated a
Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but
replaced Alexander's head with his own,
while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in
Alexandria and temporarily changed his
seal from a sphinx to Alexander's
profile.[251] The emperor Trajan also
admired Alexander, as did Nero and
Caracalla.[251] The Macriani, a Roman
family that in the person of Macrinus
briefly ascended to the imperial throne,
kept images of Alexander on their persons,
either on jewelry, or embroidered into their
clothes.[252]

The Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius (reigned c. 200 –

c. 180 BC), wearing an elephant scalp, took over
Alexander's legacy in the east by again invading India,
and establishing the Indo-Greek kingdom (180 BC–
10 AD).
On the other hand, some Roman writers,
particularly Republican figures, used
Alexander as a cautionary tale of how
autocratic tendencies can be kept in check
by republican values.[253] Alexander was
used by these writers as an example of
ruler values such as amicita (friendship)
and clementia (clemency), but also
iracundia (anger) and cupiditas gloriae
(over-desire for glory).[253]

Emperor Julian in his satire called "The

Caesars", describes a contest between the
previous Roman emperors, with Alexander
the Great called in as an extra contestant,
in the presence of the assembled
gods.[254]

Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal

through the isthmus

Pausanias writes that Alexander wanted to

dig the Mimas mountain (today at the
Karaburun area), but he didn't succeed. He
also mentions that this was the only
unsuccessful project of Alexander.[255] In
addition, Pliny the Elder writes about this
unsuccessful plan adding that the
distance was 12 kilometres (71⁄2 mi), and
the purpose was to cut a canal through the
isthmus, so as to connect the Caystrian
and Hermaean bays.[256][257]

Naming of the Icarus island in the

Persian Gulf

Arrian wrote that Aristobulus said that the

Icarus island (modern Failaka Island) in
the Persian Gulf had this name because
Alexander ordered the island to be named
like this, after the Icarus island in the
Aegean Sea.[258][259]

Legend
Legendary accounts surround the life of
Alexander the Great, many deriving from
his own lifetime, probably encouraged by
Alexander himself.[260] His court historian
Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as
drawing back from him in proskynesis.
Writing shortly after Alexander's death,
another participant, Onesicritus, invented a
tryst between Alexander and Thalestris,
queen of the mythical Amazons. When
Onesicritus read this passage to his
patron, Alexander's general and later King
Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder
where I was at the time."[261]
In the first centuries after Alexander's
death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of
the legendary material coalesced into a
text known as the Alexander Romance,
later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and
therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes.
This text underwent numerous expansions
and revisions throughout Antiquity and the
Middle Ages,[262] containing many dubious
stories,[260] and was translated into
numerous languages.[263]

In ancient and modern culture

Alexander the Great depicted in a 14th-century
Byzantine manuscript

Alexander the Great's accomplishments

and legacy have been depicted in many
cultures. Alexander has figured in both
high and popular culture beginning in his
own era to the present day. The Alexander
Romance, in particular, has had a
significant impact on portrayals of
Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to
medieval European to modern Greek.[263]

Alexander features prominently in modern

Greek folklore, more so than any other
ancient figure.[264] The colloquial form of
his name in modern Greek ("O
Megalexandros") is a household name,
and he is the only ancient hero to appear in
the Karagiozis shadow play.[264] One well-
known fable among Greek seamen
involves a solitary mermaid who would
grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask
the captain "Is King Alexander alive?" The
correct answer is "He is alive and well and
rules the world!" causing the mermaid to
vanish and the sea to calm. Any other
answer would cause the mermaid to turn
into a raging Gorgon who would drag the
ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands
aboard.[264]

Alexander the Great depicted in a 14th-century

Armenian miniature painting
Detail of a 16th-century Islamic painting depicting
Alexander the Great being lowered in a glass
submersible

Alexander the Great conquering the air. Jean

Wauquelin, Les faits et conquêtes d'Alexandre le
Grand, Flanders, 1448–1449
In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian)
literature, Alexander is referred to by the
epithet gujastak, meaning "accursed", and
is accused of destroying temples and
burning the sacred texts of
Zoroastrianism.[265] In Sunni Islamic
Persia, under the influence of the
Alexander Romance (in Persian: ‫اﺳﮑﻨﺪرﻧﺎﻣﻪ‬
Iskandarnamah), a more positive portrayal
of Alexander emerges.[266] Firdausi's
Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings") includes
Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian
shahs, a mythical figure who explored the
far reaches of the world in search of the
Fountain of Youth.[267] Later Persian
writers associate him with philosophy,
portraying him at a symposium with
figures such as Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle, in search of immortality.[266]

The figure of Dhul-Qarnayn (literally "the

Two-Horned One") mentioned in the Quran
is believed by scholars to be based on
later legends of Alexander.[266] In this
tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a
wall to defend against the nations of Gog
and Magog.[268] He then travelled the
known world in search of the Water of Life
and Immortality, eventually becoming a
prophet.[268]
The Syriac version of the Alexander
Romance portrays him as an ideal
Christian world conqueror who prayed to
"the one true God".[266] In Egypt, Alexander
was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II,
the last pharaoh before the Persian
conquest.[268] His defeat of Darius was
depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving"
Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian.[266]

According to Josephus, Alexander was

shown the Book of Daniel when he entered
Jerusalem, which described a mighty
Greek king who would conquer the Persian
Empire. This is cited as a reason for
sparing Jerusalem.[269]

In Hindi and Urdu, the name "Sikandar",

derived from the Persian name for
Alexander, denotes a rising young talent,
and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Aladdin Khajli
stylized himself as "Sikandar-i-Sani" (the
Second Alexander the Great).[270] In
medieval India, Turkic and Afghan
sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured
region of Central Asia brought positive
cultural connotations of Alexander to the
Indian subcontinent, resulting in the
efflorescence of Sikandernameh
(Alexander Romances) written by Indo-
Persian poets such as Amir Khusrow and
the prominence of Alexander the Great as
a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian
miniatures.[271] In medieval Europe,
Alexander the Great was revered as a
member of the Nine Worthies, a group of
heroes whose lives were believed to
encapsulate all the ideal qualities of
chivalry.[272]

In Greek Anthology there are poems

referring to Alexander.[273][274]

Irish playwright Aubrey Thomas de Vere

wrote Alexander the Great, a Dramatic
Poem.

In popular culture, the British heavy metal

band Iron Maiden included a song titled
"Alexander the Great" on their 1986 album
Somewhere in Time. Written by bass player
Steve Harris, the song retells Alexander's
life.

Historiography
Apart from a few inscriptions and
fragments, texts written by people who
actually knew Alexander or who gathered
information from men who served with
Alexander were all lost.[16] Contemporaries
who wrote accounts of his life included
Alexander's campaign historian
Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy
and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer
on the campaigns; and Onesicritus,
Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works
are lost, but later works based on these
original sources have survived. The
earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st
century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius
Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian
(1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer
Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and
finally Justin, whose work dated as late as
the 4th century.[16] Of these, Arrian is
generally considered the most reliable,
given that he used Ptolemy and
Aristobulus as his sources, closely
followed by Diodorus.[16]

See also
Alexander the Great in the Qur'an
Ancient Macedonian army
Bucephalus
Chronology of European exploration of
Asia
Diogenes and Alexander
Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great
 List of biblical figures identified in extra-
biblical sources
List of people known as The Great

Annotations
A. Macedon was an Ancient Greek polity.
The Macedonians were a Greek tribe.
Historiography and scholarship agree
that Alexander the Great was
Greek.[275]
B. By the time of his death, he had
conquered the entire Achaemenid
Persian Empire, adding it to Macedon's
European territories; according to
some modern writers, this was most
 of the world then known to the ancient
Greeks (the 'Ecumene').[276][277] An
approximate view of the world known
to Alexander can be seen in
Hecataeus of Miletus's map; see
Hecataeus world map.
C. For instance, Hannibal supposedly
ranked Alexander as the greatest
general;[278] Julius Caesar wept on
seeing a statue of Alexander, since he
had achieved so little by the same
age;[279] Pompey consciously posed
as the 'new Alexander';[280] the young
Napoleon Bonaparte also encouraged
comparisons with Alexander.[281]
D. The name Ἀλέξανδρος derives from
the Greek verb ἀλέξω (aléxō,
lit. ''ward off, avert, defend'')[282][283]
and ἀνδρ- (andr-), the stem of ἀνήρ
(anḗr, lit. ''man''),[284][283] and means
"protector of men".[285]
E. There have been, since the time, many
suspicions that Pausanias was
actually hired to murder Philip.
Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander,
Olympias and even the newly crowned
Persian Emperor, Darius III. All three of
these people had motive to have Philip
murdered.[286]
 F. However, Arrian, who used Ptolemy as
a source, said that Alexander crossed
with more than 5,000 horse and
30,000 foot; Diodorus quoted the
same totals, but listed 5,100 horse and
32,000 foot. Diodorus also referred to
an advance force already present in
Asia, which Polyaenus, in his
Stratagems of War (5.44.4), said
numbered 10,000 men.

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Further reading
Badian, Ernst (1958). "Alexander the Great
and the Unity of Mankind". Historia. 7.
Beazley, JD; Ashmole, B (1932). Greek
Sculpture and Painting. Cambridge University
Press.
Bowra, Maurice (1994). The Greek
Experience. Phoenix. ISBN 978-1-85799-122-
2.
Boardman, John (2018). Alexander the Great:
From His Death to the Present Day –
illustrated history of his representations in
art and literature
Burn, AR (1951). Alexander the Great and the
Hellenistic Empire (2 ed.). London: English
Universities Press.
Rufus, Quintus Curtius. "Quintus Curtius
Rufus, History of Alexander the Great" (in
Latin). U Chicago. Retrieved 16 November
2009.
Cartledge, Paul (2004). "Alexander the Great".
Overlook.
Doherty, Paul (2004). "The Death of
Alexander the Great". Carroll & Graf.
Engels, Donald W (1978). Alexander the Great
and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
Fawcett, Bill, ed. (2006). How To Lose A
Battle: Foolish Plans and Great Military
Blunders . Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-076024-3.
Fuller, JFC (1958). The Generalship of
Alexander the Great . London: Eyre &
Spottiswoode. ISBN 978-0-306-80371-0.
Green, Peter (1992). Alexander of Macedon:
356–323 BC. A Historical Biography .
University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-
520-07166-7.
Greene, Robert (2000). The 48 Laws of
Power . Penguin. p. 351 . ISBN 978-0-14-
028019-7.
Hammond, NGL (1989). The Macedonian
State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814883-8.
Hammond, NGL (1994). Alexander the Great:
King, Commander, and Statesman (3 ed.).
London: Bristol Classical Press.
Hammond, NGL (1997). The Genius of
Alexander the Great . Chapel Hill: University
of North Carolina Press.
Mercer, Charles (1962). The Way of Alexander
the Great (1 ed.). Boston: American Heritage
Inc.
McCrindle, J. W. (1893). The Invasion of India
by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian,
Q Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Justin .
Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co.
Murphy, James Jerome; Katula, Richard A;
Hill, Forbes I; Ochs, Donovan J (2003). A
Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 17.
ISBN 978-1-880393-35-2.
Nandan, Y; Bhavan, BV (2003). British Death
March Under Asiatic Impulse: Epic of Anglo-
Indian Tragedy in Afghanistan. Mumbai:
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. ISBN 978-81-7276-
301-5.
O'Brien, John Maxwell (1992). Alexander the
Great: The Invisible Enemy. London:
Routledge.
Pomeroy, S; Burstein, S; Dolan, W; Roberts, J
(1998). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and
Cultural History . Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-509742-9.
Prevas, John (2004). Envy of the Gods:
Alexander the Great's Ill-Fated Journey Across
Asia (3 ed.). Da Capo.
Roisman, Joseph, ed. (1995). Alexander the
Great Ancient and Modern Perspectives.
Problems in European Civilization. Lexington,
MA: DC Heath.
Savill, Agnes (1959). Alexander the Great and
His Time (3 ed.). London: Barrie & Rockliff.
Stewart, Andrew (1993). Faces of Power:
Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics.
Hellenistic Culture and Society. 11. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
Stoneman, Richard (2008). Alexander the
Great: A Life in Legend . Yale University
Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11203-0.
Tarn, WW (1948). Alexander the Great .
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wheeler, Benjamin Ide (1900). Alexander the
Great; the merging of East and West in
universal history . New York: GP Putnam's
sons.
 Wilcken, Ulrich (1997) [1932]. Alexander the
Great . New York: WW Norton & Co.
ISBN 978-0-393-00381-9.
Worthington, Ian (2004). Alexander the Great:
Man And God. Pearson. ISBN 978-1-4058-
0162-1.

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Delamarche, Félix (1833), The Empire
and Expeditions of Alexander the Great .
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Part 2 , Part 3 , Part 4 , Part 5 , Part 6 .
Alexander the Great at Curlie
Alexander the Great: An annotated list of
primary sources , Livius.
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Great , Archæology.
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 Alexander the Great
Argead dynasty
Born: 356 BC 323 BC

Regnal titles

King of Succeeded by
Preceded by
Macedon Philip III and
Philip II
336–323 BC Alexander IV

Great King
(Shah) of
Persia
Preceded by
330–323 BC
Darius III
Pharaoh of
Egypt
332–323 BC
 New Lord of Asia
creation 331–323 BC

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