DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT
VARANASI

IC ENGINE & AUTOMOBILE LAB MANUAL

EME-752

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Mechanical Warriors
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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Sr. Name of Experiment Page No.

No. From To
01 Study and Demonstration of Layout of an Automobile 2 4

02 Study of differential gear mechanism of rear axle. 5 6

03 Study and Demonstration of Clutches 7 11

04 Study and Demonstration of Braking System 12 16

05 Study and Demonstration of gear box 17 19

06 Study and Demonstration of Steering Mechanism 20 22

07 Study and experiment on Suspension system 23 25

08 Study and Demonstration of different Automobile Engines 26 32

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

EXPERIMENT NO. 01

OBJECTIVE: Study and Demonstration of Layout of an Automobile.

EQUIPMENT: A working or non working model of Layout of an Automobile.
THEORY –
Components of an Automobile
[1] : BASIC STRUCTURE – This is the unit on which are to be built the remainder of
the units to turn it in to a power operated vehicle. It consist of frame, suspension system,
axles, wheels and tyres.

Frame – There are two distinct forms of construction :

1. The conventional pressed steel frame to which all the mechanical units are
attached and on which the body is superimposed.

2. The integral or frameless construction, in which the body structure is so designed

as to combine the functions of body and frame, the units normally attached to the
frame being attached directly to the body. Frameless construction is possible only
in case of a closed car, since the roof, screen pillars, door pillars and rear panel are
essential load taking parts of structure.

Suspension System – Functions of suspension systems are :

1. To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the vehicle components.

2. To safeguard the occupants from road shocks.

3. To preserve the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling, while in motion.

There are two types of suspension systems - - -

i. The conventional system, in which the springs are attached to a rigid beam axle

ii. The independent system, in which there is no rigid axle beam and each wheel, is
free to move vertically without any reaction on the other wheel.

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ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

Axles – The weight carrying portions of the axles , whether it may be front or rear ,may
be considered as beam supported at the ends , loaded at two intermediate points and
subjected to following loads :

1) The vertical load at the spring centers due to which the weight of the vehicle.
2) A fore and aft load at the wheel centre due to driving or braking effort
3) Torque reactions due to the drive or brakes.
4) A side thrust at the radius of the tyre due to centrifugal force when rounding a curve.

Wheels – Wire spoked wheels have been used mainly on sports cars, primarily on
account of their light weight and quickness in changing the wheel .However the pressed
steel wheel has displaced these all ordinary purposes. Such a wheel consist of a central
flanged disc pressed in to a rolled section rim retained in position by welding. Light alloy
wheels are currently used in case of luxury and sport cars.

[2] : POWER PLANT

The power plant provides the motive power for all the various functions which the
vehicle or any part of it, may be called upon to perform. The power plant generally
consists of an internal combustion engine which may be either of spark-ignition, or
of compression ignition type.

[3] :TRANSMISSION SYSTEM –

Functions of transmission system are
a. To disconnect the engine from the road wheels when desired
b. To connect the engine to driving wheels without shock
c. To vary the leverage between the engine and the driving wheels
d. To reduce the speed permanently in a fixed ratio
e. To turn drive through a right angle
f. To make a provision such that the driving wheels may rotate at different speeds
while taking turns.

Clutch – Its purpose is to enable the driver to disconnect the drive from the road wheels
instantaneously and to engage drive from the engine to the road wheels gradually while
moving the vehicle from rest.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

Gear Box (Transmission) – The gear box or transmission provides the necessary
leverage variation between the engine and road wheels.
Bevel pinion and crown wheel –
They turn the drive through 90 and also provide a permanent reduction in speed .The
permanent reduction is necessitated because of the fact that speed of engine has to be
maintained at optimum level at all times, yet a minimum value of torque has to be made
available at the road wheels.

Universal joint-
They provide for the relative movement between the engine and the driving wheels due to
flexing of road springs.

Differential –
While taking turns, the driving wheels must run at different speeds. This is done with the
help of differential. Instead of using the long propeller shafts and transmitting the power
from engine to the rear axle , a number of alternative methods have been used.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

EXPERIMENT NO.-02

OBJECTIVE: Study of differential gear mechanism of rear axle.

EQUIPMENT: A working or non working model of differential gear mechanism of any
vehicle.
THEORY:
The purpose of the differential assembly is to allow the two drive wheels to turn
at different speeds when the car goes around a corner. This is necessary because when
cornering, the wheel on the inside of the turn goes through a smaller arc or corner than
the wheels on the outside. If the wheels were not allowed to turn at different speeds, they
would tend to skip around the corner and steering would be very difficult.

Differentials are used in:

i) The rear drive axle of front engine, rear wheel drives vehicles.
ii) The transaxles of front engine, front wheel drive and rear engine, rear wheel drive
vehicles.
iii) The front drive axle and rear drive axle of four wheel drive vehicles.
iv) The transfer case of some four wheel drive vehicles.

Both the front drive and rear drive differential have the same job to do. They also
have many of the same parts. The basic difference is the way in which engine torque is
delivered to the differential assembly.

Power enters the rear axle assembly from the final drive which consists of bevel
pinion connected through a rear universal yoke to the propeller shaft. The bevel pinion is
meshed with the crown wheel, which is bolted to the case. This arrangement allows the
bevel pinion to turn the crown wheel.

As the crown wheel turns, the case attached to it also turns. A shaft through the
case also goes through the middle of two small pinion gears. As the case turns, this shaft
turns the small pinion gears, each of which meshes with a side gear. Each side gear is
attached to a shaft called an axle, which on a rear drive system runs through housing to
one of the rear wheels.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

When the automobile is travelling in a straight line, the power flow through the
system is fairly simple. The crown wheel turns the case. The case, through its shaft and
pinion gears, turns each of the side gears at the same speed. The axles or drive shafts turn
the drive wheels, which drive the vehicle.

When the vehicle makes a turn, however, the power flow becomes more
complicated. If the automobile is making a left turn, the left drive wheel must go through
a sharper corner or travel through a shorter distance than the right drive wheel. The crown
wheel turns the case. Since the left wheel is going through a sharp corner, the left axle is
slowed or stopped momentarily. The pinion gears in the case still turn with the case but
they also rotate on the case shaft. Thus they can walk around the slowed or stopped left
side gear and provide all the power to the right side gear so the right wheel will turn
faster than the left wheel.

During a right turn there is more resistance on the right axle, because the right
wheel must turn through a sharper corner than the left. The pinions in the case walk
around the right side gear and drive the left axle gear.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

EXPERIMENT NO.-03

OBJECTIVE: Study and Demonstration of Clutches

EQUIPMENT – Models of clutches
THEORY –
Introduction-
The power developed by the engines is delivered to the driving wheels of the
automobile by the power train. The transmission is the major part of the power train. In
the manual transmission, clutch is a device used to connect and disconnect engine power
flow to the transmission the will of the driver. The driver operates the clutch via a clutch
pedal inside the vehicle. When the clutch pedal is depressed, the three main clutch
assembly components – flywheel, friction disc and pressure plate are disengaged,
interruption of the power flows. As the clutch is release, the pressure plate moves closer
to the clutch disc.

Functions of Clutch –
1. To permit the engagement or disengagement of a gear when the vehicle is stationary
and engine is running.
2. To transmit the engine power to the road wheels smoothly without shock / jerk to the
transmission system.
3. To permit the engaging of gears when the vehicle is in motion without damaging the
gear wheels.

WORKING PRINCIPLE –

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

The working principle of clutch is based on friction .When the two friction
surfaces re brought in contact with each other and pressed they are united due to friction
between them .If now one is resolved ,the other will also resolve. One surface is
considered as a driving member and other as driven member. The driving member is kept
rotating .When the driven member is brought in contact with the driving member, it is
also starts rotating .When the driven member is separated from the driving member, and
it stops revolving. The driving member of clutch is the flywheel mounted on crankshaft,
the driven member is a pressure plate mounted on the transmission shaft.

1) SINGLE PLATE CLUTCH

This is the common type of clutch used in automobile. It consists of two member
flywheel and pressure plate. The flywheel is mounted on engine crankshaft and rotates
with it. The pressure plate is bolted to the flywheel through clutch springs and is free to
slide on the clutch shaft when the clutch pedal is operated. Single plates clutch has only
one clutch plate, mounted on the splines of the clutch shaft. The clutch pedal is used to
engage or disengage the clutch. When the clutch is engaged, the clutch plate is gripped
between the flywheel and pressure plate. The friction linings are provided on both sides
of the clutch plate. Due to friction between the flywheel, clutch plate and pressure plate,
the clutch plate revolves with the flywheel.
As the clutch plate revolves, the clutch shaft also revolves, which is connected to
the transmission. Hence, the engine power is transmitted through the crankshaft to the
clutch shaft. When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate moves back against the
force of the springs and the clutch plate becomes free between the flywheel and the
pressure plate. Thus the flywheel keeps rotating as long as the engine is running. As soon
as the clutch pedal is pressed, the clutch is said to be disengaged, otherwise it remains
engaged due to the spring forces.

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ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

Advantages:
1. Gear changing is easy.
2. It is mire reliable.

Disadvantage:
It requires more force by the driver to disengage since the springs are very stiff.
2. MULTIPLE CLUTCHES:
A multiplate clutch consists of more than one clutch plate. As the numbers of
clutch plates are increased, the friction surface also increases. The increased number of
friction surfaces increases the capacity of the clutch to transmit torque. The plates are
alternately fitted to the engine shaft and gear box shaft. They are firmly pressed by the
strong coil springs and assembled. Each of the alternate plate slides on splines on the
pressure plate.
A multiplate clutch works in the same way as a single plate clutch while the
flywheel is rotating, the pressure plate rotate and press against the friction plate. This
causes the clutch plate to rotate, which in turn rotate the clutch shaft. When the pedal is
pressed, the flywheel continues to rotate but the clutch plate is released. This happens

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

because they are not fully pressed by the pressure plates. Thus the clutch shaft also stops
rotating.
A multiplate clutch may be dry or wet. When the clutch is operated in an oil bath,
it is called as a wet clutch. When the clutch is operated dry, it is called dry clutch.

Advantages:
1. The number of friction surfaces increases the capacity of the clutch to transmit torque.
Therefore, considering the same torque transmission the overall diameter of the
multiplate clutch is reduced when compared to a single plate clutch.
2. It is used in scooters, motorcycles, where there is space problem.
3. As it can transmit more torque, it can be used in heavy vehicles and racing cars.

3) CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCH:
This clutch is centrifugal force instead of spring force for keeping the clutch in
engaged position. It does not require clutch pedal to operate the clutch. The clutch is
operated automatically depending upon the engine speed. It consists of weight which flies
off due to centrifugal force when the speed increases. It operates the bell crank lever
which presses the floating plate. The movement of the spring which then presses the
clutch plate on the flywheel against the spring thus engaging the clutch. The spring keeps
the clutch disengaged at low speed of about 500 rpm. The stop above the weight, limits
the amount of the centrifugal force.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

Advantages-
1. No clutch pedal is required to operate the clutch
2. It is operated automatically depending upon the engine speed.

4) CONE CLUTCH
A cone clutch consists of friction surfaces in the form of cones. A female cone is
mounted on the engine shaft while a male cone is mounted on the splined clutch shaft as
shown in figure. The male cone has friction surface on the conical portion and it can slide
on the clutch shfaft.When the clutch is engaged the friction surfaces of the male cone are
in contact with that of the female cone due to the forced of spring .When the pedal is
pressed against the spring force and the clutch is disengaged .

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ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

Advantages-
The normal force acting on the friction (contact) surfaces is greater than the axial
force, as compared to the single plate clutch in which the normal force acting on the
friction surfaces is equal to the axial force.
Disadvantages –
1. If the angle of cone is made smaller than 20°, the male cone tends to bind in the female
cone and it becomes difficult to disengage the clutch.
2. A small amount of wear on the cone surfaces results in a considerable amount of axial
movement of the male cone which it will be difficult to allow.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

EXPERIMENT NO.-04

OBJECTIVE: Study and Demonstration of Braking System

EQUIPMENT: A working or a non working model of Braking system.
THEORY:
Functions of Brake :
There are two distinct functions of the brake:
1. To stop or slow down the vehicle in the shortest possible distances in emergencies.
2. To control the vehicle to be retained when descending a hill.

Classification of brakes:
I. From construction point of view
(a) Drum brakes (b) Disc brakes
II. By method of actuation
(a) Mechanical brakes (b) Hydraulic brakes (c) Electric brakes (d) Vacuum brakes
(e) Air brakes

DRUM BRAKES:
In this type of brakes, a brake drum is anchored concentric to the axle hub whereas
on the axle casing is mounted a back plate. In case of front axle, the back plate is bolted
to the steering knuckle. The back plate is made of pressed steel sheet and is ribbed to
increase rigidity and to provide support for the expander, anchor and brake shoes. It also
protects the drum and shoe assembly from mud and dust.
Moreover, it absorbs the complete torque reaction of the shoes due to which
reason it is sometimes also called „torque plate‟. Two brake shoes are anchored on the
back plate. Friction linings are mounted on the brake shoes. One or two retractor springs
are used which serve to keep the brake shoes away from the drum when the brakes are
not applied. The brake shoes are anchored at one end, whereas on the other ends Force F
as applied by means of some brake actuating mechanism, which forces the brake shoe
against the revolving drum, thereby applying the brakes. An adjuster is also provided to
compensate for wear of friction lining with use. The relative braking torque obtained at
the shoes for the same force applied at the pedal varies depending upon whether the
expander (cam or toggle lever) is fixed to the back plate or it is floating; whether the
anchor is fixed or floating and whether the shoes are leading or trailing.

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ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

DISC BRAKES:
The disc brake has a metal disc instead of a drum. It has a flat shoe, or pad, located
on each side of the disc. To slow or stop the car, these two flat shoes are forced tightly
against the rotating disc or rotor. The shoes grip the disc. Fluid pressure from the master
cylinder forces the pistons to move in.
This action pushes the friction pads of the brake shoes tightly against the disc. The
friction between the shoes and the disc slows and stops the disc.

Dual brake system:

The dual brake system uses two master cylinders. One brake line from the master
cylinder goes to one set of wheel brakes. The other brake line from the master cylinder
goes to the other set of wheel brakes.

Parking brake :
The parking brake holds the vehicle stationary while it is parked. Since the parking brake
is independent of the service brakes, it can be used as an emergency brake if the service
brakes fail. When the parking brake is operated by a hand lever, some manufacturers call
it the hand brake.

Material:
The brake linings are either of solid woven type or molded type. The asbestos base non-
metallic linings have an average coefficient of friction of 0.4 up to about 260°C. Their

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

maximum temperature resistance is about 350°C. Zinc wire lining have better resistance
to wear than the non-metallic type.
Also zinc serves to conduct some heat away from the working surface. Molded
type linings are prepared directly from the mix which contains asbestos fibers, together
with resin powders and fillers. These linings have good wear resistance. Their maximum
temperature resistance is about 450°C. The average coefficient of friction is 0.4.
The brake linings are attached with the brake shoes either by riveting or by synthetic
resin adhesives.
The second method is preferable, due to the absence of riveting holes, more
contact surface, free from scoring action and more effective wearing thickness.

HYDRAULIC BRAKE SYSTEM:

These types of brakes consist of master cylinder, which contains hydraulic brake
fluid. Master cylinder is operated by the brake pedal and is further connected to the wheel
cylinder in each wheel through pipelines, unions and flexible lines. The system is so
designed that even when the brakes are in the released position, a small pressure of about
50kpa is maintained in the pipelines to ensure that the cups of the wheel cylinder are kept
expanded. This prevents the air entering the wheel cylinders when the brakes are
released. Besides this pressure also serves the following purposes:
1. It keeps the free travel of the pedal minimum by opposing the brake shoe retraction
springs.
2. During bleeding, it does not allow the fluid pumped into the line to return, thus quickly
purging air from the system.

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ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

Vacuum assisted system:

With vacuum assisted brakes, only a relatively light pedal force is required to
brake the vehicle. When the brake pedal is pushed down, a vacuum operated booster
takes over and furnishes most of the force for pushing the pistons into the master
cylinder. The hydraulic booster is operated by oil pressure from the power steering pump.
The vacuum comes from the engine intake manifold. The system includes a cylinder in
which a tight-fitted piston can move. When vacuum is applied to one side of piston,
atmospheric pressure causes the piston to be pushed to the right. This movement pushes
the piston rod into the master cylinder.
In the vacuum assisted brake system, the bake pedal does not act directly on the master
cylinder. Instead, brake pedal movement operates a vacuum valve, which then admits
vacuum to the power cylinder.

Air brake system:

In drum brakes, a brake drum is attached concentrating to the stub axle hub
whereas on the axle casing is mounted on a back plate. The back plate is made of pressed
steel sheet and is ribbed to increase rigidity and to provide support for the expander,
anchor and brake shoes. It also protects the drum and shoe assembly from mud and dust.
Moreover, it absorbs the complete torque reaction of the shoes due to which reason it is
sometimes also called torque plate. Two brake shoes are anchored on the back plate. One
or two retractor springs are used which serve to keep the brake shoes away from the drum
when the brakes are not applied. The brake shoes are anchored at one end, whereas on the
other ends force F is applied by means of some brake actuating mechanism, which forces
the brake shoe against the revolving drum, thereby applying the brakes. An adjuster is
also provided to compensate for wear of friction lining with use. Sometimes, in smaller
cars a single pin anchor is employed.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

Antilock braking:
The most efficient braking takes place when the wheels are still moving. If the
brakes lock the wheels so that the tires skid, kinetic friction results, and braking is much
less effective. To prevent skidding and provide maximum effective braking, several
antilock devices have been developed. Some provide skid control at the rear wheels only.
Others provide control at all four wheels. Control means that as long as the wheels are
rotating, the antilock device permits normal application of the brakes. But if the brakes
are applied so hard that the wheels tend to stop turning and a skid starts to develop, the
device comes into operation. It partly releases the brakes so that the wheels continue to
rotate. However, braking continues, but it is held to just below the point where a skid
would start. The result is maximum braking

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

EXPERIMENT NO.-05
OBJECTIVE: Study and Demonstration of gear box.
EQUIPMENT: A working or a non working model of any gear box such as constant
Mesh, sliding mesh, synchromesh, semiautomatic or automatic.
THEORY: There are three reasons to have a transmission (gear box and its associated
units) in the power train or drive train. These are:

i) The transmission provides the torque needed to move the vehicle under a variety of
road and load conditions. It does this by changing the gear ratio between the engine
crankshaft and vehicle drive wheels.
ii) It can be shifted into reverse so the vehicle can move backward.
iii) It can be shifted into neutral for starting the engine and running it without turning the
drive wheels.

There are two basic types of transmissions: manual and automatic.

 Manual transmissions are shifted manually by hand.
 Automatic transmission shift automatically, with no help from the driver.

SLIDING MESH GEAR BOX:

It is the simplest type of gear box. The arrangement of gears is shown in fig. in
neutral position. The gear housing and bearings are not shown. The clutch gear is rigidly
fixed to the clutch shaft. It remains always connected to the drive gear of the
countershaft. Three other gears are also rigidly fixed to the countershaft (lay shaft). They
are the second speed gear, first speed gear and reverse speed gear. Two gears are
mounted on the splined main shaft which can be slided by the slider yoke when the shaft

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lever is operated. These gears are the second speed gear and first and reverse speed gear.
They can be connected to the corresponding gears of the countershaft. A reverse idler
gear is mounted on another shaft and always remains connected to the reverse gear of the
countershaft.

Constant Mesh Gear Box:

Fig shows a constant mesh gear box. It consists of a clutch shaft, a countershaft and a
main shaft. Gears(2), (3), (5) ,(7) and (9) are fixed to the main countershaft but do not
slide alone it. Gear wheels(4),(6) and (8) are not fixed to the main shaft. Therefore these
gears can revolve freely around it. Gear (4) of the main shaft is in constant mesh with
gear (3) of the counter shaft.
Similarly, gear (6) is in constant mesh with gear (5), and gear (8) with gear (7). All the
gears are shown in neutral position.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

Synchromesh Gear Box:

The modern cars use helical gears and synchromesh devises in the gear boxes, that
synchronize the rotation of gears that are about to be meshed. This eliminates clashing of
the gears and make gear shifting easier. The synchromesh gear box is similar to the
constant mesh gear box, but this gear box is provided with a synchromesh device by
which two gears to be engaged are first brought into frictional contact which equalizes
their speed after which they are engaged smoothly. In most of the cars, the synchromesh
devices are not fitted to all the gears. They are fitted only on the top gears. Reverse gears
and in some cases the first gear, do not have synchromesh device, since they are intended
to be engaged when the vehicle is stationary .

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EXPERIMENT NO.06

OBJECTIVE: Study and Demonstration of Steering Mechanism.

EQUIPMENT: A working or a non working model of steering mechanism.
THEORY:
The steering system allows the driver to control the direction of the automobile by
means of two major components. : the steering gears, which multiply the driver‟s effort at
the steering wheel; and the steering linkage, which connects the gear box to the front
wheels. How well the system works depends on proper alignment of the front wheels for
directional control and ease of steering.

1. To convert rotary movement of the steering wheel into angular motion of the front road
wheels.
2. To provide directional stability to the vehicle.
3. To minimize wear of tyres.
4. To turn vehicle at driver‟s will.
5. To provide perfect rolling motion of the road wheels at all times.
6. To multiply the effort of the driver by leverage so that turning of wheels is easy.
7. To facilitate straight ahead recovery after completing a turn.
8. To absorb road shocks thus preventing them to get transmitted to the hands of the
driver.
9. To swing the wheels to the left or right.

To achieve correct steering, two types of steering mechanisms are used.

i) Davis Steering Mechanism

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ii) Ackermann Steering Mechanism

The main difference between these two is that the Davis mechanism has sliding
pairs, whereas the Ackermann mechanism has only turning pairs. The sliding pair has
more friction than the turning pair and hence Davis mechanism will wear out after certain
time. Therefore Ackermann mechanism is preferred to the Davis mechanism.
Fig. shows the Ackermann mechanism. It consists of a track rod AB connected to the
links KA and LB, which are integral with the stub axles. When the vehicle is in straight
ahead position these links make equal angles with the centre line of the car.

Ackermann Principle: In order to achieve the instantaneous centre, the inner wheel
must turn through a greater angle than the outer. This difference in movement of the inner
and outer wheels is obtained by inclining the links KA and LB. The effect of this will be
clear from fig. If the track rod AB moves, say through x distance, measured parallel to
the axle beam, link KA will move through a greater angle than link LB. The inclination
of these links is such that lines drawn through them will intersect theoretically at the
centre line of the car. This arrangement is known as Ackermann principle or linkage and
can also be applied if the track rod is placed in front of the axle.

STEERING GEOMETRY PARAMETERS:

1. Camber: Tilt of the wheel plane from the longitudinal plane.

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2. Castor: Tilt of the king pin with reference to the transverse vertical plane.

Combined angle Castor

3. Kingpin Inclination: King Pin inclination is the tilt of the king pin from the
longitudinal vertical plane.

4. Toe in or toe out - Toe in is the amount by which the front wheels are set closer
together at the front than at the rear when the vehicle is stationary .On the other hand, the
wheel may be set closer at the rear than at the front in which case the difference of the
distances between the front wheels at the front and at the rear is called toe out.

Steering Gear box:

The steering gear converts the rotary motion of the steering wheel into straight line
motion of the linkage. There are two basic types of steering gears, the pitman-arm type
and the rack and pinion type. Either type can be used in a manual steering system or a
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ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

power steering system. The pitman type has a gear box at the lower end of the steering
shaft. The rack and pinion type has a small gear (a pinion) at the lower end of the steering
shaft. The action is the same in either system. When the steering wheel and shaft are
turned by the driver, the rotary motion is changed into straight line motion. This causes
the front wheels to pivot or swing from one side to the other to steer the car.
One job of the steering gear is to provide mechanical advantage. In a machine or manual
device, this is the ratio of the output force to the input force applied to it. This means that
a relatively small applied force can produce a much greater force at the other end of the
device.
1. Worm and Wheel 2. Cam and Double Roller
3. Worm and Nut 4. Recirculating Ball type
5. Rack and Pinion
EXPERIMENT NO. - 07
OBJECTIVE: Study and experiment on Suspension system.
EQUIPMENT: A model of suspension system.
THEORY :
Need of suspension system:
1.) To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the vehicle components.
2.) To safeguard the occupants from road shocks.
3.) To preserve the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling, while in motion.

Types of suspension:
1.) Leaf spring suspension system 2.) Coil Spring Suspension system
3.) Mc-Persion strut suspension system (4.) Torsion bar suspension system

Suspension springs:
1. Steel springs
(a) Leaf spring (b) tapered leaf spring (c) Coil spring (d) torsion bar
2. Rubber springs
(a)Compression spring (b) Compression Shear-spring (c) Steel-reinforced spring
(d) Progressive spring (e) Face shear spring (f) Torsional shear spring
3. Plastic spring
4. Air spring
5. Hydraulic spring

Constructional details and characteristics of leaf spring:

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The most commonly used leaf spring is the semi-elliptic type, consisting of one
main leaf, which usually has its ends formed into eyes for connection with the spring
brackets, and a number of shorter leaves, the length of which gradually and uniformly
decreases from the main leaf. The various leaves are held together by a centre bolt.

Constructional details and characteristics of Coil spring:

Coil springs can store about twice as much energy per unit volume as that of leaf
springs. Thus for the same job coil springs need weight only about half that of leaf
springs. But leaf springs serve both the purposes. Cushion the shocks and to guide or
control cushioned motion.

Constructional details and characteristics of Torsion bar spring:

A rod or tube acting in torsion can work as a torsion-bar spring. The torsion-bar
spring is a bar of spring steel that is anchored to the frame at one end while the other end
is freely supported and connected to a lever arm. The lever-arm is pin-jointed to the axle
spindle or steering head. The action of torsion-bar springs is essentially same as that of
coil spring.

Rubber suspension:
The advantages of using rubber as a means of suspension are:
1. It can store greater energy per unit weight than the steel. For this reason rubber
springing system
can be made more compact.
2. The rubber has excellent vibration damping properties.

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3. The absence of squeaking which is always present in steel springs.

4. The number of bearings is reduced considerably for the rubber suspension system. This
means longer life.
5. Rubber is more reliable. A rubber suspension cannot suddenly fail like the metal
springs.

Air suspension:
The advantages of air suspension system are:
1. A variable space for wheel deflection is put to optimum use by virtue of the automatic
control devices.
2. Because the vehicle attitude is also constant, changes in headlamp alignment due to
varying loads are avoided.
3. The spring rate varies much less between the laden and unladen conditions, as
compared with that of conventional steel springs. This reduces the dynamic loading.
4. The improved standard of ride comfort and noise reduction attained with air springs
reduces both driver and passenger fatigue.

Shock absorbers:
Shock absorbers are necessary because springs do not “settle down” fast enough.
After a spring has been compressed and released, it continues to shorten and lengthen, or
oscillate for a time. This is what happens if the spring at the wheel is not controlled.
When the wheel hits a bump, the spring compresses. Then the spring expands after the
wheel passes the bump. The expansion of the spring causes the car body and frame to be
thrown upward. But, having over expanded, the spring shortens again. This action causes
the wheel to move up and momentarily leave the road at the same time that the car body
and frame drops down. The action is repeated until the oscillations gradually die
out.
Such spring action on a car would produce a very bumpy and uncomfortable ride.
It could also be dangerous, because a bouncing wheel makes the car difficult to control.
Therefore, a dampening device is needed to control the spring oscillations. This device is
the shock absorber. The shock absorber is the direct-acting tubular or telescope type. In
operation, the shock absorbers lengthen and shorten as the wheels meet irregularities in
the road. As they do this, a piston inside the shock absorber moves in a cylinder filled
with fluid. Therefore the fluid is put under high pressure and forced to flow through the
openings slowly. This slows the piston motion and retains spring action.

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

EXPERIMENT NO. – 08

OBJECT: Study and Demonstration of different Automobile Engines

EQUIPMENT: A working or a non working model of an engine
THEORY :
Introduction
Heat Engine: Any type of engine or machine which derives heat energy from the
combustion of fuel or any other source and converts this energy into mechanical work is
termed as a heat engine.

Heat engines are classified as

1) External combustion Engines - external combustion engines, the combustion of fuel
takes place outside the cylinder. E.g. steam engine in which fuel is burned in the boiler to
generate steam which is used in steam engine.
2) Internal combustion Engines - InIn internal combustion engines, the combustion of
fuel takes place inside the cylinder e.g. petrol engine, diesel engine.

Advantages of I.C. engines over E.C. engines

1. Overall efficiency is high
2. Greater mechanical simplicity
3. Generally lower initial cost
4. Easy starting from cold conditions
5. Unit is compact which requires less space.
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Advantages of E.C. engines over I.C. engines

1. Starting torque is generally high.
2. Because of external combustion of fuel, cheaper fuels can be used.
3. Due to external combustion of fuel it is possible to have flexibility in arrangement.

Classification of I.C. Engines

A) According to cycle of operation
1) Two stroke cycle engines
2) Four stroke cycle engines

B) The thermodynamic cycle used

1) Otto cycle (Combustion at constant volume)
2) Diesel cycle (Combustion at constant pressure)
3) Dual combustion

C) Arrangement of cylinder
1) Single cylinder engine
2) In line or straight engines
3) V-engine
4) Opposed piston engine
5) Opposed cylinder engine
6) Radial engine
7) W-engine.

D) According to their uses

1) Stationary engine
2) Marine engine
3) Portable engine
4) Automobile engine

E) Speed
1) Low speed engine
2) Medium speed engine (500 - 1000 rpm)
3) High speed engine (>1000 rpm)

F) Method of ignition
1) Spark ignition engine
2) Compression ignition engine

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 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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G) Method of cooling
1) Air cooled engine
2) Water cooled engine

H) Fuel used
1) Petrol engine 2) Diesel engine
3) Gas engine 4) Kerosene engin

MAIN PARTS OF I.C.ENGINE

1. Cylinder Head: A cylinder head closes one end of the cylinder. It holds the inlet,
outlet ports, valves and ignition system at suitable positions according to the type of
engine. It forms the combustion chamber.

2. Piston and Piston Rings: The function of the piston is to compress the charge during
compression stroke and transmit the gas force to the crank through connecting rod during
power stroke. It is usually made of aluminum alloy. The piston rings are housed in the

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ASHOKA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, VARANASI

circumferential grooves provided on the outer surface of the piston. It gives gas tight
fitting between the piston and cylinder and prevents the leakage of high pressure gases.

3. Connecting Rod: Its function is to transmit reciprocating motion of the piston into
rotary motion of the crank. It connects the piston to the crank shaft with bearings.

4. Crankshaft: The piston is connected through gudgeon pin and a connecting rod to the
crank shaft which forms a crank pair to convert reciprocating motion of piston to rotary
motion at the output shaft of the crank. Flywheel is keyed to this shaft.

5. Piston Pin: It connects the small end of the connecting rod to piston. It is also known
as gudgeon pin.

6. Crank case: It holds the crankshaft and the cylinder block can be bolted to it. It forms
lower cover to the engine. It serves as sump for lubricating oil used for lubricating the
engine parts.

7. Flywheel: It is mounted on the crank shaft which stores excess energy during the
power stroke and returns that energy during the other strokes and maintains a fairly
constant output torque on the crankshaft.

8. Carburetor and spark plugs: Used in petrol engines.

9. Fuel pump and Nozzle: Used in Diesel engines.

Terms Relating To I.C. Engine

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1. Bore: The inside diameters of the cylinder is called bore.

2. Stroke: As the piston reciprocates inside the engine cylinder, it gets limiting upper and
lower positions beyond which it cannot move and reversal of motion takes place at these
limiting positions. The linear distance along the cylinder axis between two limiting
positions, is called "stroke".

3. Top Dead Centre (T.D.C.): The top most position of the piston towards cover end
side of the cylinder is called 'top dead centre'. In case of horizontal engines, this is known
as inner dead centre.

4. Bottom Dead Centre (B.D.C.): The lowest position of the piston towards the crank
end side of the cylinder is called 'bottom dead centre'. In case of horizontal engines, it is
called outer dead centre.

5. Clearance Volume: The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of the piston,
when the piston is at top dead centre, is called the clearance volume.

FOUR STROKE CYCLE ENGINES

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(Otto Engines)
I.V. - Inlet valve
E.V. - Exhaust valve
E.C. - Connecting rod
C - Crank
S.P. - Spark plug.
1. Suction Stroke: During this stroke piston moves form TDC to BDC; mixture of air
and petrol is admitted through inlet valve into engine cylinder. The exhaust valve remains
closed throughout the stroke.

2. Compression Stroke: In this stroke, the piston moves towards TDC. The air fuel
mixture is compressed. Before the end of the compression stroke, the charge is ignited by
the spark. The spark plug fitted in the cylinder head gives the spark. Both the inlet and
exhaust valves remain closed during the stroke.

3. Power or Expansion Stroke: The ignited mixture at high temperature and pressure
drives the piston downwards and we get work from the engine. The flywheel mounted on
the engine shaft stores energy during this stroke and supplied it during the idle stroke.

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Both the valves remain closed during the start of this stroke but when the piston just
reaches the BDC, the exhaust valve opens.

4. Exhaust Stroke: Here the gases from which the work has been collected become
useless after the completion exhaust valve to the atmosphere. The piston moves from
BDC to TDC and exhaust gases are driven out of the engine cylinder.

Four Stroke Diesel Engines

F.I. = Fuel injector; I.V. = Inlet valve, E.V. = Exhaust valve

1. Suction Stroke: During this stroke air is admitted through inlet valve into the engine
cylinder. The exhaust valve remains closed throughout the stroke.

2. Compression stroke: In this stroke, air is compressed. Before the end of the
compression stroke, fuel is injected into the combustion chamber. The fuel gets ignited
by high temperature of compressed air. Both the valves remain closed during this stroke.

3. Power or Expansion Stroke: The ignited mixture of air and fuel at high temperature
and pressure drives the piston downwards. The piston, through gudgeon pin, connecting
rod, crank pin and crank, converts reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of
the crank shaft. Both valves remain closed during this stroke.

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4. Exhaust Stroke: This is the last sroke in which the products of combustion are
removed from the engine cylinder through exhaust valve.

1-2: Intake - A/F sucked.

2-3: Piston compresses A/F mixture to a minimum volume
3-4: Combustion - charge ignited by a spark in a spark plug. Due to combusting of charge
temperature and pressure increases.
4-5: Expansion - increase in pressure, work is done on piston which move temp. And
pressure reduces.
5-2: Blowdown - The exhaust valve opens and gases escape, pressure drops to initial
pressure.
2-1: Exhaust - piston returns back pressing gases out of cylinders.

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