Chapter 14.

Systems of Particles
Introduction
Application of Newton’s Laws: Effective Forces
Linear and Angular Momentum
Motion of Mass Center of System of Particles
Angular Momentum About Mass Center
Conservation of Momentum
Kinetic Energy
Work-Energy Principle.-Conservation of Energy
Principle of Impulse and Momentum
Variable Systems of Particles
Steady Stream of Particles
Steady Stream of Particles. Applications
Streams Gaining or Losing Mass
Engineers often need to analyze the dynamics of systems of particles – this is the
basis for many fluid dynamics applications, and will also help establish the principles
used in analyzing rigid bodies
Introduction

• In the current chapter, you will study the motion of systems of particles.
• The effective force of a particle is defined as the product of it mass and acceleration.
It will be shown that the system of external forces acting on a system of particles is
equipollent with the system of effective forces of the system.
• The mass center of a system of particles will be defined and its motion described.
• Application of the work-energy principle and the impulse-momentum principle to a
system of particles will be described. Result obtained are also applicable to a system
of rigidly connected particles, i.e., a rigid body .

• Analysis methods will be presented for variable systems of particles, i.e., systems in
which the particles included in the system change.
14.1 Applying Newton’s Law and Momentum Principles

14.1A System of Particle

• Newton’s second law for each particle Pi in a
system of n particles,
 n  
Fi + ∑ fij = mi ai
j =1

  
∑ (ri × fij ) = ri × mi ai
n   
ri × Fi +
j =1
 
Fi = external force fij = internal forces

mi ai = effective force
• The system of external and internal forces on a
particle is equivalent to the effective force of the
particle.
• The system of external and internal forces
acting on the entire system of particles is
equivalent to the system of effective forces.
• Summing over all the elements,
n n n  n 
∑ i ∑ ∑ ij ∑ i i
F + f = m a
i =1 i =1 j =1 i =1

  
( )
n n  n  
( )
n
∑ i i ∑ ∑ i ij ∑ i i i )
r × F + r × f = ( r × m a
i =1 i =1 j =1 i =1
 • Since the internal forces occur in equal and opposite collinear pairs, the
resultant force and couple due to the internal forces are zero,
 
∑ i ∑ i i
F = m a
   
(r × F )
∑ i i ∑ i i i)
= ( r × m a
• The system of external forces and the system of effective
forces are equipollent but not equivalent .

14.1B Linear & Angular Momentum of a System of Particles

• Linear momentum of the system of particles,
 n 
L = ∑ mi vi
i =1
 n  n 
L = ∑ mi vi = ∑ mi ai
i =1 i =1
• Resultant of the external forces is equal to rate of change of linear momentum of

 
∑F = L
 the system of particles,

• Angular momentum about fixed point O of system of particles,

 n  
(14.7) H O = ∑ (ri × mi vi )
i =1
 n  n  
(14.8) HO = ∑ (ri × mi vi ) + ∑ (ri × mi vi )
i =1 i =1
n  
= ∑ (ri × mi ai )
i =1

• Moment resultant about fixed point O of the external forces is equal to the rate of
change of angular momentum of the system of particles,
 
∑ M O = HO
14.1C Motion of the Mass Center of a System of Particles

r
• Mass center G of system of particles is defined by position vector G which satisfies
 n 
mrG = ∑ mi ri
i =1
• Differentiating twice,
 n 
mrG = ∑ mi ri
i =1
 n  
mvG = ∑ mi vi = L
i =1
  
maG = L = ∑ F
• The mass center moves as if the entire mass and all of the external forces were
concentrated at that point.
14.1D Angular Momentum About the Mass Center
* Consider the centroidal frame of reference Gx’y’z’, which
translates with respect to the Newtonian frame Oxyz.
*The centroidal frame is not, in general, a Newtonian
frame.
• The angular momentum of the system of particles
about the mass center,
 n  
HG′ = ∑ (ri′ × mi vi′ )
i =1
 n  n   
H G
′ = ∑ (ri′ × mi ai′ ) = ∑ (ri′ × mi (ai − aG ))
i =1 i =1
n    n  
= ∑ (ri′ × mi ai ) −  ∑ mi r ′  × aG
i =1  i =1 
  n  
= ∑ (ri′ × mi ai ) = ∑ (ri′ × Fi )
n

i =1 i =1

= ∑ MG
• The moment resultant about G of the external forces is equal to the rate of change
of angular momentum about G of the system of particles.
 • Angular momentum about G of the particles in their
motion relative to the centroidal Gx’y’z’ frame of reference,
 n   (14.17)
H G = ∑ (ri × mi vi′ )
′ ′
i =1
• Angular momentum about G of particles in their absolute
motion relative to the Newtonian Oxyz frame of reference.
 n  
H G = ∑ (ri′× mi vi )
i =1
n  
= ∑ (ri′× mi (vG + vi′ ))
i =1
 n   n  
=  ∑ mi ri′ × vG + ∑ (ri′× mi vi )
 i =1  i =1
  
HG = HG ′ = ∑ MG
• Angular momentum about G of the particle momenta can be calculated with respect
to either the Newtonian or centroidal frames of reference.
14.1E Conservation of Momentum
• If no external forces act on the particles of a system, then the linear momentum and
angular momentum about the fixed point O are conserved.
   
L = ∑F = 0 HO = ∑ M O = 0
 
L = constant H O = constant
• In some applications, such as problems involving central forces,
   
L = ∑F ≠ 0 HO = ∑ M O = 0
 
L ≠ constant H O = constant
• Concept of conservation of momentum also applies to the analysis of the mass center
motion,
   
L = ∑F = 0 HG = ∑ M G = 0
 
L = mvG = constant
 
vG = constant H G = constant
Concept Question
Three small identical spheres A , B , and C, which can slide
on a horizontal, frictionless surface, are attached to vrel
three 200-mm-long strings, which are tied to a ring G. vrel
Initially, each of the spheres rotate clockwise about the
ring with a relative velocity of v rel . x

Which of the following is true?

a) The linear momentum of the system is in the
positive x direction.
b) The angular momentum of the system is in the vrel
positive y direction.
c) The angular momentum of the system about G is zero.
d) The linear momentum of the system is zero.
This is because the ring translates to the right with a velocity v 0 .
answer (a)
Sample Problem 14.2
A 10-kg projectile is moving with a velocity of 30
m/s when it explodes into 2.5 and 7.5-kg
fragments. Immediately after the explosion, the
fragments travel in the directions θ A = 45o and θ B
= 30o.
Determine the velocity of each fragment.

STRATEGY:
• Since there are no external forces, the linear momentum of the system is conserved.
• Write separate component equations for the conservation of linear momentum.
• Solve the equations simultaneously for the fragment velocities.
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
• Since there are no external forces, the linear momentum of the system is conserved.
• Write separate component equations for the conservation
of linear momentum.
  
m Av A mB vB mv0
  
2.5v A 7.5vB 
10 v0
x components:
7.5vB cos30 10 
2.5v A cos 45 30
y components:
2.5v A sin 45
7.5vB sin 30 0
• Solve the equations simultaneously for the fragment
velocities. v A 
62.2 m s vB 29.3 m s
 REFELCT and THINK:
• As you might have predicted, the less massive fragment winds up with a larger
magnitude of velocity and departs the original trajectory at a larger angle.

14.2 Energy and Momentum methods for a system of particles

14.2A Kinetic Energy
• Kinetic energy of a system of particles(OXYZ),
n   n
T = 2 ∑ mi (vi • vi ) = 2 ∑ mi vi2
1 1
(14.28) i =1 i =1
• Expressing the velocity in terms of the centroidal reference
frame,
n    
T= 1
2 ∑ [ ( mi Gv + ) (
vi′ • v G + )]
v i′
i =1

1  m v 2 + v •  1 n
n n
= 2  ∑ i  G G ∑ m i v ′ + ∑ mi vi′2
i 2
 i =1  i =1 i =1

vi′ 1 mv 2 + 1
n
= 2 G 2 ∑ m i v′2
i
i =1
 • Kinetic energy is equal to kinetic energy of mass center plus kinetic energy relative
to the centroidal frame.

14.2B Work-Energy Principle and Conservation of Energy

• Principle of work and energy can be applied to each particle Pi ,
T1 + U1→2 = T2

f ij
where U1→2 represents the work done by the internal forces and the resultant

external force Fi acting on P . i

• Principle of work and energy can be applied to the entire system by adding the
kinetic energies of all particles and considering the work done by all external and
internal forces.
 
• Although f ij and f ji are equal and opposite, the work of these forces will not, in

general, cancel out.

 • If the forces acting on the particles are conservative, the work is equal to the change
in potential energy and
(14.31) T1 + V1 = T2 + V2
which expresses the principle of conservation of energy for the system of particles.

Impulse-Momentum Principle

   
∑ =L
F ∑ O O
M = H

   
t2
 
∑ ∫ M O=
t2
dt H 2 − H1
∑∫ =
Fdt L2 − L1
t1
t1

•  t2
 
 t2
  H1 + ∑ ∫ M O dt =
L1 + ∑ ∫ Fdt =
H2
L2
t1
t1
 • The momenta of the particles at time t 1 and the impulse of the forces from t 1 to
t 2 form a system of vectors equipollent to the system of momenta of the particles at
time t2 .

Sample Problem 14.5

Ball B, of mass m B , is suspended from a cord, of length l, attached
to cart A , of mass m A , which can roll freely on a frictionless
horizontal tract. While the cart is at rest, the ball is given an
initial velocity
Determine (a) the velocity of B as it reaches it maximum
elevation, and (b) the maximum vertical distance h through
which B will rise. ! Assume v02  2 gl .
STRATEGY:
• With no external horizontal forces, it follows from the impulse-momentum principle
that the horizontal component of momentum is conserved. This relation can be
solved for the velocity of B at its maximum elevation.
• The conservation of energy principle can be applied to relate the initial kinetic energy
to the maximum potential energy. The maximum vertical distance is determined
from this relation.
• MODELING and ANALYSIS:
With no external horizontal forces, it follows from the
impulse-momentum principle that the horizontal
component of momentum is conserved. This relation can
be solved for the velocity of B at its maximum elevation.
 t2  
L1 + ∑ ∫ Fdt = L2
t1

x component equation:
m Av A,1 + mB vB,1 = m Av A, 2 + mB vB, 2
 Velocities at positions 1 and 2 are
v A,1 = 0 vB ,1 = v0
vB , 2 = v A, 2 + vB A, 2 = v A, 2
(velocity of B relative to A is zero at position 2)

mB=
v0 ( mA + mB ) vA,2 v= v=
mB
v0
mA + mB
A,2 B ,2

• The conservation of energy principle can be applied

to relate the initial kinetic energy to the maximum
potential energy.
T1 + V1 = T2 + V2
Position 1 - Potential Energy: V1 = m A gl
T1 = 12 mB v02
Kinetic Energy:
Position 2 - Potential Energy: V2 = m A gl + mB gh
T2 = 12 (m A + mB )v 2A, 2
Kinetic Energy:
 1
2 mB v02 + mA gl = 1
2 ( mA + mB ) vA2 ,2 + mA gl + mB gh
2
v02 mA + mB v A,2 v02 mA + mB
2
 mB 
h= − = −  v0
2g mB 2g 2g 2 g mB  mA + mB 
v02 mB v02
=
h −
2 g mA + mB 2 g mA v02
h=
mA + mB 2 g
Sample Problem 14.6
Ball A has initial velocity v 0 = 3 m/s parallel to
the axis of the table. It hits ball B and then ball C
which are both at rest. Balls A and C hit the sides
of the table squarely at A’ and C’ and ball B hits
obliquely at B’.
Assuming perfectly elastic collisions, determine
velocities v A , v B , and v C with which the balls hit the
sides of the table.
STRATEGY:
• There are four unknowns: v A , v B,x , v B,y , and v C .
• Solution requires four equations: conservation principles for linear momentum (two
component equations), angular momentum, and energy.
• Write the conservation equations in terms of the unknown velocities and solve
simultaneously.
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
• There are four unknowns: v A , v B,x , v B,y , and v C .

 
vA = vA j
  
vB = vB , x i + vB , y j
 
vC = vC i

• The conservation of momentum and energy equations,

  
L1 + ∑ ∫ Fdt = L2
mv0 = mvB , x + mvC 0 = mv A − mvB , y
  
H O ,1 + ∑ ∫ M O dt =
H O ,2
− ( 0.6 m ) mv0 = ( 2.4 m ) mv A − ( 2.1m ) mvB , y − ( 0.9 m ) mvC
T1 + V1 = T2 + V2
1
2 mv02 = 1
2 mv A2 + 12 m ( vB2 , x + vB2 , y ) + 12 mvC2
Solving the first three equations in terms of v C ,
v A 
vB , y 3vC 6 vB , x 3 vC
Substituting into the energy equation,
2 2
2 6 
3 vC  vC2 9
3vC 
20vC2 
78vC 72 0

= =
v A 1.2 m s vC 2.4 m s
  
vB =( 0.6i − 1.2 j ) m s vB =
1.342 m s
REFLECT and THINK:
• In a real situation, energy would not be
conserved, and you would need to know the
coefficient of restitution between the balls to
solve this problem. We also neglected friction and
the rotation of the balls in our analysis, which is
often a poor assumption in pool or billiards. We
discuss rigid-body impacts in Chapter 17.
14.3 Variable Systems of Particles

• Kinetics principles established so far were derived for constant systems of particles,
i.e., systems which neither gain nor lose particles.
• A large number of engineering applications require the consideration of variable
systems of particles, e.g., hydraulic turbine, rocket engine, etc.
• For analyses, consider auxiliary systems which consist of the particles instantaneously
within the system plus the particles that enter or leave the system during a short
time interval. The auxiliary systems, thus defined, are constant systems of particles.
14.3A Steady Stream of Particles (Fig.14.11 : Page 952)

• Fluid Stream Diverted by Vane or Duct

• Fan

• Jet Engine • Helicopter

Steady Stream of Particles
• System consists of a steady stream of
particles against a vane or through a
duct.
• Define auxiliary system which includes
particles which flow in and out over
t .
• The auxiliary system is a constant
system of particles over t .

 t2
 
L1 + ∑ ∫ Fdt =
L2
t1
    
 ∑ mi vi + ( ∆m ) v A  + ∑=
F ∆t  ∑ mi vi + ( ∆m ) vB 
 dm  
∑ dt ( vB − vA )
=F
14.3B Streams Gaining or Losing Mass
• Define auxiliary system to include particles of
mass m within system at time t plus the particles
of mass m which enter the system over time
interval t .
• The auxiliary system is a constant system of
particles.

 t2
 
L1 + ∑ ∫ Fdt =
L2
t1

    
14.40:  mv + ( ∆m ) va  + ∑ F ∆= t ( m + ∆m )( v + ∆v )
    
14.41: ∑ F ∆t = m ∆ v + ∆m ( v − va ) + ( ∆m ) ∆v

 
dv dm 
14.42
∑
= F m −
dt dt
u
 dm  
14.43 ∑ + dt u =
F ma
Sample Problem 14.7
Grain falls onto a chute at the rate of 120 kg/s. It hits
the chute with a velocity of 10 m/s and leaves with a
velocity of 7.5 m/s. The combined weight of the chute
and the grain it carries is 3000 N with the center of gravity
at G.
Determine the reactions at C and B.

STRATEGY:
• Define a system consisting of the mass of grain on the chute plus the mass that is
added and removed during the time interval t .
• Apply the principles of conservation of linear and angular momentum for three
equations for the three unknown reactions.
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
• Define a system consisting of the mass of grain on the chute plus the mass that is added and
removed during the time interval t .
• Apply the principles of conservation of linear and angular momentum for three equations for the
three unknown reactions.
  
L1 + ∑ ∫ Fdt =
L2
Cx ∆t = ( ∆m ) vB cos10°
− ( ∆m ) v A + ( C y − W + B ) ∆t =− ( ∆m ) vB sin10°

Solve for C x , C y , and B with

   
= =
B 2340 N C (886 i + 1704 j ) lb

REFLECT and THINK:

• This kind of situation is common in factory and
storage settings. Being able to determine the reactions
is essential for designing a proper chute that will support
the stream safely. We can compare this situation to the
case when there is no mass flow, which results in
reactions of B y = 1750 N, C y = 1250 N, and C x = 0 N.