Bibliography of Corruption in Nigeria. Final

Cover image: Tayo Adeniyi, Corruption is Like Guinea Worm
Destroying Nigeria. Winner 2013 Images of Corruption

Competition
Bibliography of Corruption in Nigeria
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

Country Office Nigeria
United Nations
Abuja, 2016
© United Nations, 2016. All rights reserved.
Disclaimer
This publication has been produced with the assistance of the
European Union. The contents of this publication are the sole
responsibility of the authors and can in no way be taken to reflect
the views of the European Union or the United Nations.
Annotated Bibliography of Corruption in Nigeria
Acknowledgements
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)

would like to express its gratitude to the European Union for
funding the Support to Anti-corruption in Nigeria Project under
which this bibliography was compiled.
UNODC also wishes to acknowledge David Enweremadu, a

consultant based at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria, and
Oluwafemi Ladapo, Project Officer with the UNODC, who
researched and prepared the abstracts and the bibliometric
analysis for this Bibliography.
Our gratitude also goes to several libraries and experts who

opened up their collections during research for the compilation
of this text.
The following past and present staff of the UNODC also

contributed in different ways throughout the process of
developing the Bibliography: Mariam Sissoko, Bala Sanga,
Polleak Ok Serei, Jesse Wachanga, Femi Ajayi, Maria Yakunina,
Princess Chifero, Sylvester Atere, Adebayo Olorunmaye,
Chinyere Okorie, and Akeem Sule. Elizabeth Oakes is also
appreciated for her editorial input.
i
Contents
Acknowledgements....................................................i
List of Acronyms.......................................................iii
Introduction................................................................1
Bibliometric Analysis.................................................3
Bibliography...............................................................9
Economics ............................................................9
Education..............................................................72
Health....................................................................80
History...................................................................81
Law........................................................................87
Library Studies.....................................................111
Linguistics............................................................ 111
Media Studies.......................................................112
Music....................................................................113
Official Reports....................................................114
Philosophy............................................................127
Political Science................................................... 131
Psychology............................................................320
Religious Studies..................................................331
Sociology..............................................................349
Theatre Arts..........................................................365
ii
List of Acronyms
African Union Convention on Prevention and Combating

Corruption (AUCPCC)
Anti-Examination Malpractice Brigade (AEMB)
Autorepressive Distributive Lag Model (ARDL)
Budget Monitoring and Price Intelligence Unit (BMPIN)
Code of Condcut Bureau (CCB)
Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC)
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
Error Correction Mechanism (ECM)
European Union (EU)
Extractive Industries Transparency Initiatives (EITI)
Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS)
Federal Ministry of Internal Affairs (FMIA)
Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN)
Foreign Currency Domiciliary Account Decree 1985 (FCDA
Decree)
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA)
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
Gross Capital Formation (GCF)
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Independent and Corrupt Practices Commission (ICPC)
Institute of Foreign Accountants (IFA)
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Multinational Corporation (MNC)
National Electric Power Authority (NEPA)
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD)
National Commission for Examination Ethics (NCEE)
National Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS)
Nigerian Custom Service (NCS)
Nigerian Extractive Industries Temporary Initiatives (NEITI)
Nigerian Enterprises Promotion (Issue of Non-voting Shares)
iii
Nigerian Immigration Service (NIS)

Nigerian Police Force (NPF)
Nigerian Social Insurance Trust and Fund (NSITF)
Non-Voting Shares Amendment Decree 1987 (NVS Decree
1987)
Openness of the Economy and Globalization (OEG)
Ordinary Least Square (OLS)
Public Accounts Committee (PAC)
Public Procurement Act (PPA)
Publicly exposed persons (PEPs)
Second Tier Foreign Exchange Market Decree 1986 (SFEM
Decree)
Structural Adjustment Program (SAP)
Technical Unit on Governance and Anti-Corruption Reforms
(TUGAR)
United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC)
Vector Error Correction Model (VECM)
iv
Introduction
This bibliography was commissioned under the “Support to Anti-

corruption in Nigeria” project, which was funded by the European
Union (EU) under the 10th European Development Fund. The
project supports the promotion of good governance, transparency,
accountability, and anti-corruption policy in Nigeria. The EU and
the government of Nigeria have entrusted the implementation of
this project to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
(UNODC). The implementation of this project is in three phases:
(i) strengthening anti-corruption policy-making, coordination,
monitoring, legislation, and research in Nigeria; (ii) assisting the
Nigerian government in strengthening relevant institutions, and
(iii) facilitating the empowerment of civil society in the area of
anti-corruption.
For a couple of years now, the need to strengthen socio-economic

integrity and reduce corrupt practices has become a priority in
Nigeria. The country’s anti-corruption institutions currently have
a reasonable number of quality legislative texts, statutes, and
mandates to carry out their work; however, their policies and
interventions are not evidence driven. This reality calls for
prioritizing the need for research so as to effectively reposition the
anti-corruption project with a view to achieving evidential results
borne out of critical and thorough analysis that will inform policy
planning and implementation, as well as institutional cooperation.
Some of the activities planned for implementation of the anti-

corruption project include the identification of stakeholders
involved in empirical anti-corruption research, administration of a
research needs assessment, and development of an anti-corruption
research strategy. Other activities include the development of a
Nigeria-focused tool kit on corruption, methodological capacity
1
building, and the administration of a nationwide corruption

survey.
The compilation of a bibliography of written works on corruption

in the Nigerian system appears to be a logical first step as a
baseline to identify both researchers working in this area and lines
of research that have been pursued. It is hoped that this
bibliography will not only be useful for planning interventions
under the “Support to Anti-corruption in Nigeria” project but also
serve as a quick reference guide for researchers interested in the
study of corruption in Nigeria.
This compendium is not meant to be comprehensive; however, its

goal is to identify as many published and unpublished works as
possible in the public domain. It has been compiled from a variety
of sources, including books, journals, conference proceedings,
dissertations, theses, and official reports among others. Materials
consulted in the course of compiling the bibliography were
sourced from quarries of electronic institutional databases and
repositories, particularly Google Scholar, JSTOR, ProQuest, and
Open Access Theses and Dissertations, Theses Canada Portal, and
the Library of Congress. Researchers visited libraries in eight of
Nigeria’s oldest universities, including those at Ahmadu Bello
University, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Obafemi Awolo wo
University, University of Calabar, University of Ibadan,
University of Lagos, University of Nigeria, and University of Port
Harcourt. Other institutions consulted include anti-corruption
agencies, research institutes, and the National Library. Several
scholars across the country also made available materials from
their private libraries.
2
Bibliometric Analysis
More than a thousand references related to corruption in Nigeria

were identified, but not all were accessible. From the accessible
materials, 545 abstracts have been prepared. Each abstract is a
short summary containing author names, title of the work,
references, theoretical framework adopted, methodology
employed, and findings. Below is a bibliometric analysis of the
metadata collated from the abstracts. The analysis shows the
temporal period covered by the compilation, including the number
of publications per year, academic disciplines represented,
geographical distribution by country of publication, number of
authors per publication, and proportion of individual versus
institutional authors. Challenges were encountered in ascertaining
the gender and current institutional affiliations of the authors
whose works appear in this compendium. The bulk of the
materials identified were chapters in books (40.55%) and journal
articles (37.98%). Out of the about eighty dissertations and theses
identified, 25 were accessible for abstracting.
Books 41
Chapters in books 221
Confence proceedings 11
Dessertations and theses 25
Journals 207
Monographs 19
Online archives 9
Presentations 3
Reports 19
0 50 100 150 200 250

Figure 1. Sources of materials
3
The collection of materials for this bibliography is limited to

materials published and accessible as at second quarter of 2014.
The criterion for inclusion was simply that the material focuses
on corruption within the Nigerian context. The earliest dated
publication identified is a 1957 report of the British Colonial
Office on the activities of the Foster-Sutton Tribunal. This was
before Nigeria became an independent entity in 1960. The
tribunal was set up to inquire into allegations of corruption by the
Premier of Eastern Nigeria, Nnamdi Azikiwe, and other officials
of the region. Materials gathered fall within a 57-year period,
between 1957 and 2014. During this period, however, materials
could not be identified for 20 years.1 This may be partly
attributable to the unavailability of these materials on electronic
databases accessed and libraries visited. Between 1993 and 2014,
no year was unaccounted for in terms of published materials, with
2007 recording the largest number of publications (69) for a single
year. However, 13 of the publications identified are undated.
69
54
50
44
41
37
33
28 30 29
23
20
13 11 13
7 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 4 2 1 3 3
81
01
11
62
83
93
03
Un 3
99
09
90
78
75
95
05
86
57
97
07
d
1
te
19
20
20
19
19
19
20
20
19
20
19
19
19
19
20
19
19
19
20
da
Figure 2. Distribution by year
1958, 1959, 1961, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1973,
1974, 1977, 1980, 1984, 1987, 1989 and 1992.
4
The academic discipline with the largest number of publications

is political science, with 287 (52.66%) publications during the
fifty-seven-year period. These represent subspecialties, including
political economics, political philosophy, and public
administration among others. Economics ranks second with 97
(17.79%) publications, while library studies, linguistics, media
studies, and music yielded one publication each during the period
under review. Very few of the publications come from empirical
research and only four report corruption surveys. No academic
publication from any of the mathematical sciences was identified,
a significant gap in empirical research.
287
97
39
19 28 21
13 9 6 14 12
w
rs
y
gy
gy
n
n
ics
y
rts
e
or
ph
tio
io
La
he
nc
lo
lo
om
st
po
lig
so
Ot
ca
cie
cio
ho
Hi
Re
Re
on
ilo
u
yc
lS
So
Ed
Ph
Ec
Ps
ia
ica
fic
lit
Of
Po
Figure 3. Distribution by subject area
Of the 545 materials accessed, only 525 could be attributed to

their country of publication, with Nigeria accounting for majority
(332 (60.91.7%) of the published materials. The next most prolific
countries of publication are the United States with 66 (12.11%)
and the United Kingdom with 61 (11.19%) publications. Between
them, these two account for the majority of the theses,
5
diessertations and publications in top rated journals. Other

publications originate from Africa, Asia, Europe, Canada , and the
Middle East. However, there are no publications from South
America in the compilation. This may be attributable to language
difference. The search engines and indexes employed are English-
language-based, while Portuguese and Spanish are the main
languages of South America.
Azerbaijan 2
Botswana 1
Canada 8
Ethiopia 1
Finland 1
France 2
Germany 8
Greece 1
Hungary 1
India 8
Italy 4
Japan 1
Kenya 1
Kuwait 3
Morocco 1
Netherlands 3
Nigeria 332
Pakistan 7
Portugal 1
Romania 1
Serbia 1
South Africa 6
South Korea 1
Sweden 2
Switzerland 1
Uknown 20
United Kingdom 61
United States 66
Figure 4. Distribution by country of publication.
6
An almost absolute majority (96%) of the identified 545 materials

were authored by individuals either as sole or multiple
authorships. The institutional materials are comprised mainly of
reports published by governments.
Institutions
4%
Individuals
96%
Figure 5. Individual vs. institutional authorship.
7
The number of authors per publication ranges from one to five.

Sole authorship accounted for the majority, with 438 (80.36%)
publications, while materials with multiple authors decreased as
the number of authors increased. Sixty-nine (12.66%) of the
materials were produced by two authors, while only one
publication (0.18%) was authored by five individuals. The
number of publications produced multi-disciplinary colaborations
could not be ascertained.
Four, 6, 1%
Three, 31, 6% Five, 1, 0%
Two, 69, 13%
One, 438, 80%
Figure 6. Distribution by number of authors
8
Bibliography
Economics
1. Abata, A. M., & Adejuwon, K. D. (2012).

Accountability and transparency in public financial management
in Nigeria: Challenges and prospects. International Journal of
Marketing and Technology , 2(5), 14–33.
Since her independence from Britain in 1960, Nigeria has moved

from one socio-economic and political crisis to another. This has
negatively affected its development, as seen in its very poor
human development indices. The country is endowed with
abundant human and material resources but is devastatingly
impoverished. This article examines the importance of financial
transparency and accountability in Nigeria’s restoration. The
authors argue that an improved environment for public financial
management and accountability is crucial for better governance
and performance. To help bring about this improvement, the y
suggest that the government should design and implement ideas
and principles that can help public managers understand their
financial management obligations and, in the long run, restore
Nigeria to the path of financial transparency and accountability.
2. Abimbola, P. O. (2006). Eradication of corruption from

the Nigerian economy. In B. Aboyade & S. Ayodele (Eds.),
Fighting corruption in Nigeria: Challenges for the future (pp.
175–183). Ibadan, Nigeria: Development Policy Center.
Eradication of corruption has been a major preoccupation of

successive governments in Nigeria since independence. Despite
this, corruption continues to increase both in volume and
sophistication. This article examines the salient issues involved in
9
eradicating corruption in the Nigerian economy. After a brief

survey of the Nigerian economic environment, the author notes
that if the socio-economic operators in the Nigerian economy are
neutral and are, therefore, seen as preferring nonrisk, the operators
may fairly be wishing to engage in legitimate activities. He also
identifies an adequate supply of necessities and their accessibility
as a necessary incentive to loyalty. The article explains that the
success of policies to prevent the operators’ involvement and
engagement in corrupt practices depends on a high probability of
apprehension and punishment. In other words, greater law
enforcement capacity and a relatively high cost for involvement
in corrupt practices, in terms of the penalties imposed, are
significant deterrents to corruption.
3. Abucar, M. H. (1986). The socio-economic structure

and rationalization of corruption in a semiperipheral society. In F.
Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in development (pp. 242–
254). Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press.
While many analysts and commentators will readily proffer

solutions to corruption, only a few pay attention to understanding
the conditions that create it. This article conceptualizes the
conditions that create the corruption phenomenon in an
underdeveloped or semiperipheral society like Nigeria. According
to the author, these conditions are not the same or uniform, but
based on the nature of the political and economic organizations,
the development of the private vis-à-vis the public sectors, the
participation of labor in the national economy, and the historical
conditions which gave rise to political independence. The article
suggests that in a new rapidly growing market, foreign investors
are caught by surprise. They are able to accumulate some profit in
a short time, sometimes exceeding their expectations. Because of
the economic advantages in such a market, both foreign and
indigenous entrepreneurs are disposed to practice corruption in
10
order to maintain their privileged position or expand their market

share at all costs. Finally, the author concludes that corruption is
ubiquitous in emerging economies but can be controlled.
4. Aburime, T. U. (2009). Impact of corruption on bank

profitability in Nigeria. Euro Economica, 2(23), 50–57.
Nigeria’s banking sector has been the focus of many recent

investigations and reforms. Many scandals involving bank
directors and officials have resulted in the closure of a number of
banks and the loss of huge deposits. Yet sever al banks which
survived the scrutiny of regulators remain in business, raising
questions about whether these banks are benefiting from
corruption. This study econometrically analyzes the relationship
between corruption and bank profitability in Nigeria. A panel data
set comprising 358 observations of 48 banks between 1996 and
2006 was analyzed using backward stepwise regression. The
results reveal that corruption has a significant positive
relationship to bank profitability in Nigeria, contrary to the widely
held view that corruption leads to bank collapse. This result
suggests that Nigeria’s banking regulators must do more to
discourage bank managers from engaging in corruption.
5. Achua, K. J. (2011). Anti -corruption in public

procurement in Nigeria: Challenges and competency strategies.
Journal of Public Procurement, 11 (3), 323–353.
Reforms to create an effective public procurement system, which

have been almost exclusively a government affair, seem to be
yielding insignificant results. The focus of the article hinges on
corruption in the Nigerian public procurement system. After
giving a historical perspective of public sector procurement in
Nigeria, the article analyzes the causes of corruption in Nigeria.
The study clarifies the term “public procurement and all it
11
connotes. Further, it illustrates the strategies for sustainable anti-

coruption competencies ranging from political commitment to the
role of the media to whistle blower protection, etc. The article
concludes with the clamor for support and strengthening of
various anti-coruption agencies and recommends that a
participatory and inclusive system will be necessary in the
development and implementation of an action plan against
corruption.
6. Adams, A. J. (2001). Politi cal corruption and national

economic decline: An assessment of the impact of political
corruption on the Nigerian economy. Calabar Journal of Politics
and Administration, 1(2), 105–119.
Since independence in 1960, one recurrent problem in Nigeria has

been the malaise of political corruption with its scale varying from
one regime to another. This article examines political corruption
in Nigeria between 1963 and 2001. Exploring the link between
political corruption and national economic decline, it notes the
correlation between the use by public office holders of their
official power to further personal, clique, or group gains and
national economic decay. It posits that political corruption is
counterproductive, slowing economic development and, by
extension, leading to economic decline. It also points out the
futility of various attempts at combating political corruption by
successive regimes in Nigeria due to the hypocrisy of its leaders
and the agencies tasked with the responsibility. It recommends the
reorientation of Nigeria’s value system by placing more emphasis
on the ethics of employment, the entrenchment of democracy, and
effective political institutions, among others.
12
7. Adebayo, E.O. (2008). An econometrics analysis of

determinants of corruption in a corruptible environment:
Evidence from Nigeria. In Proceedings of the 1st International
Conference on Socio-Economic Policies and Millennium
Development Goals (MGDs) in Africa (pp. 125–134). Akungba,
Nigeria: Faculty of Social Science, Adekunle Ajasin University.
Corruption as a concept has attracted a lot of public outcry and

considerable equal attention from different researchers in
different fields in recent times. The endemic nature of corruption
ensures that it is pervasive and threatens the very fabric of the
society. This article looks into the fundamental basis of the
endemic nature of corruption in Nigeria and the social impact of
corruption, using some economic statistical packages such as
EViews and the Engel-Granger causality tests to investigate its
determinants and endemic nature. The study reveals that poverty
is the main determinant of corruption. The article concludes that
a vigorous battle against corruption is necessary if Nigeria is to
meet the 2015 target of the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs).
8. Adegbite, F. F., & Fakile, A.S. (2012). Economic and

financial crime in Nigeria: Forensic accounting as antidote.
British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 6(1), 37–50.
Despite the efforts of anti-coruption agencies to curb corruption

in recent years, corrupt practices, notably financial crimes, have
lingered. This article argues that corruption and financial crimes
are the poison undermining developmental efforts in Nigeria.
Such practices have multiple adverse effects on the economy. The
article observes that the unavailability of the appropriate litigation
support services in the court leads to misjudgement, poor
corporate governance, weakness in traditional auditing, and a
battered image of the Nigerian nation in the international
13
community. These issues are some of the major problems that

affect the developmental efforts of the economy. To address all
these deficiencies, the authors recommend forensic accounting as
the best antidote to financial and economic crime.
9. Adegbite, E. (2012). Corporate governance regulation

in Nigeria. Corporate Governance, 12(2), 257–276.
Corruption has been identified as the major obstacle to economic,

political, and social development of the African continent. This
article evaluates the nature of Nigeria’s regulatory governance
system by assessing the roles of regulatory agencies such as the
Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC), Nigerian Stock Exchange
(NSE), and the Securities Exchange Commission (SEC), as well
as indigenous initiatives on corporate governance development
and regulation, including the role professionals play.. The author
argues that corporate governance policy is environment-centric,
that is, specific to the business environment; hence, the Nigerian
regulatory agencies have a major role to play if the Nigerian
business environment, which is stymied by endemic corruption,
is to be sanitized. The author contends that unless a principles-
based approach on the issue of corporate governance regulation is
adopted, a lasting culture of good corporate governance might
become a myth in the Nigerian business environment. The author
further argues for strict enforcement of regulations and stiff
punishment for contradicting existing ethics in the Nigerian
business environment. Otherwise, corporate corruption might just
become a norm.
10. Adeleke, J. (2003). Corruption in the private sector:

How bad? What response? In A. Aderinwale (Ed.), Corruption,
accountability and transparency for sustainable development (pp.
205–210). Ota, Nigeria: African Leadership Forum.
14
It is now a widely accepted fact that corruption is as widespread

in the private sector as it is in the public sector. This article
examines the system of corruption in the private sector which has
been nurtured and sustained by the endemic nature of corruption
in the public sector. This problem itself is an effect of the attitudes
and activities of the leadership of the Nigerian nation. The article
portrays various scenarios of corruption in Nigeria, beginning
with the individual trying to skip ahead in the queue and
progressing to the awarding of contracts by public office holders
and the shady details of the country’s mobile telephone licensing
scheme. It further examines the conflicts of interest for officials
before concluding that borrowing some of Germany’s ideas about
corporate citizenship and governance codes could be a panacea to
corruption in Nigeria.
11. Adenike, E. T. (2013). An econometric analysis of the

impact of corruption on economic growth in Nigeria. Journal of
Business Management and Economics, 4(3), 54–65.
As a result of corruption, Nigeria’s abundant natural resources

have failed to translate into economic growth. Using the Granger
causality test and impulse response function and regression
analysis, this study examines the effects of corruption on
economic growth with an annual data collection conducted
between 1980 and 2009. The findings reveal that corruption per
worker yields a negative influence on output per worker, foreign
private investment, expenditure on education, and capital
expenditure per worker. Secondly, there is a one -sided causality,
where the direction of influence runs from output per worker to
corruption per worker. Thus, the study recommends a
multifaceted approach that involves various sectors of the
Nigerian economy in combating corruption.
15
12. Adesote, S. A. , & Abimbola, J. O. (2012). Corruption

and national development in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic: A
historical discourse. Journal of Sustainable Development in
Africa, 14(7), 81–98.
The restoration of democratic rule brought hopes of accelerated

socio-economic development. However, corruption has become a
major obstacle to that quest. This article attempts an historical
analysis of corruption in Nigeria and how it affected sustainable
development from the preindependence era to early
postindependence Nigeria. The authors argue that the high
incidence of financial corruption since the postcolonial era, in
general, and since the Fourth Republic, in particular (1999 to
date), hinges on the lack of good governance and leadership and
general disrespect for the rule of law. They argue that corruption
has been a major challenge to the democratic government since
1999, and that, in spite of the abundant natural and human
resources in Nigeria, the leadership has found it difficult to run
the semblance of a modern state. The article looks at financial
corruption in the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of
government and draws a connection between financial corruption
and national development in Nigeria. Asserting that the campaign
to halt corruption has been unsuccessful, the authors argue that to
stop corruption and allow for development, the constitutional
framework must be effective; transparency, rule of law , and good
governance must be ensured.
13. Adetula, A. G. (2008). Information audit policy

formulation, banking fraud and millennium development gin
Nigeria. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on
Socio-Economic Policies and Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) in Africa. Akungba, Nigeria: Faculty of Social Science,
Adekunle Ajasin University.
16
Bank fraud has become a major national threat in Nigeria. This

study examines an information audit on fraudulent practices in
one of the Nigerian banks, Wema Bank Plc. Archival information
showed that the bank lost millions of naira to fraudsters shortly
before and early in the new millennium., Apart from damaging
Wema Bank, the continuous losses by perpetrators of fraudulent
acts jeopardized other banks and banking operations in general,
resulting in setbacks to the economy as a whole, despite the
CBN’s regulatory policies and guidelines. Findings also showed
that both insiders and outsiders were accomplices in the
perpetration of these acts. The successes and failures of Wema
Bank Plc, as revealed in the findings, show that there were lapses
in the CBN’s monitoring of banks and laxity in internal bank
checks and controls.
14. Adewale, P. O., Siyanbola, A. B., & Fasasi, M. B.

(2011). Corruption in the construction industry: Implications for
national development in Nigeria. In A. B. Sunday (Ed.),
Corruption, democracy and good governance in Nigeria (pp. 54–
70). Saki, Nigeria: Real Success Consults.
Corruption is a long-term problem that has assumed pandemic

proportion in recent years. Although the construction industry is
important for economic growth and poverty eradication in
developing countries, it is widely perceived as one of the most
corrupt and mismanaged industries around the world. This article
examines current corrupt practices in how contracts are awarded
and executed in the construction industry and analyzes the impact
of the scourge on the socio-economic development of the nation.
As a prelude to determining the factors involved in the increase in
corruption, the article also reviews the various anti-coruption
measures designed to address current corrupt practices. The study
reveals that corruption occurs in different forms and phases
regarding the management of construction projects. The study
17
purports that the measures put in place by existing legal systems

and anti-coruption agencies are not adequate to deal with raging
corruption, contending that most anti-coruption laws are
retroactive rather than proactive, which makes them very
ineffective.. Therefore, eradicating corruption in the construction
sector depends upon the collaborative efforts of all stakeholders,
including civil society groups and the press, who are expected to
work hand in hand to expose corrupt officials. In addition, the
strengthening of agencies statutorily empowered to fight
corruption in the criminal justice system and improvements in
regulatory procedures are necessary.
15. Afemikhe, S. O. (2011). Public Procurement Policies

and Practices. Ibadan, Nigeria: Gold Press Ltd.
Procurement units are one of the most opaque sectors in the

Nigerian state and have become a tool for siphoning huge chunks
of public funds, usually through inflationary prices on public
contracts in exchange for kickbacks. As part of the effort to instil
transparency and accountability in the country, several reform
measures have been conceived and applied, one of which is the
Public Procurement Act 2007. This 610-page book offers a
comprehensive review of the provisions of the Public
Procurement Act 2007 and the efforts made by the Bureau of
Public Procurement over the years to implement the provisions
through the Act. It also reviews the procurement processes and
institutions. The author aims to contribute to a better
understanding and appreciation of the Act and, ultimately, to
better compliance with the provisions of the Act by all
stakeholders. He argues that the Act is a first step toward an
improved public procurement system and contends that
improvement in this area can have a direct and beneficial impact
on the country’s overall economic development.
18
16. Agalanmanyi, U. C. (2002). Corruption: A focus on

the Nigerian economy. In C. O. T. Ugwu (Ed.), Corruption in
Nigeria: Critical perspectives; A book of reading (pp. 50–67).
Nsukka, Nigeria: Chuka Educational Publishers.
It has been argued that corruption played a major role in retarding

Nigeria’s socio-economic development. This article examines
how specific practices such as contract inflation and
misappropriation and diversion of public funds for personal
enrichment have eroded Nigeria’s economy. It identifies the
impact on the economy of endemic corruption in public
departments such as the Nigerian Custom Service (NCS), Federal
Inland Revenue Service (FIRS), Nigerian Immigration Service
(NIS), Nigerian Police Force (NPF), and Federal Ministry of
Internal Affairs (FMIA), among others. It describes the failure to
tackle corruption in these important public institutions as a major
factor inhibiting economic growth and development. The author
concludes that unless bribery is stamped out at the official level,
any effort at stemming the tide of corruption will be a waste.
17. Agbiboa, E. D. (2013). Between corruption and

development: The political economy of state robbery in Nigeria.
Journal of Business Ethics 108(3), 325–345.
Corruption is widely believed to be responsible for the

shortcomings and poor performance of the Nigerian political
economy. In a very detailed and critical manner, this article
examines the historical trajectory of corruption in Nigeria and its
underlying causes, as well as its overwhelmingly negative
cumulative impact on national development. After assessing some
public and private sector initiatives undertaken to curb corruption,
he concludes that these initiatives must be further strengthened to
reduce corruption to a reasonable level in Nigeria.
19
18. Agbonifo, P. O. (1986). Corruption: The number one

enemy of Nigerian agriculture and rural development. In F.
Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in development (pp.176–
Despite possessing abundant resources, Nigeria has proven

intractable to development. This work examines the issue of
corruption in Nigeria’s social and economic development,
particularly in agricultural development. It contends that
corruption represents the most stubborn obstacle militating
against the objectives of agricultural and rural development
efforts in Nigeria. This was discussed at the level of both the
change agents and change targets. The arguments are buttressed
by evidence from various case studies, which highlight the
different sources of corrupt practices and their consequences on
agricultural and rural development efforts. The article asserts that
although corruption is a pervasive human act, it is something
every one condemns and no one confesses to practicing. The
article calls for more aggressive and sustained anti-coruption
efforts in order to encourage the nation’s agricultural sector.
19. Ajayi, K. (1997). On the trail of a spectre-

destabilisation of developing and transitional economies: A case
study of corruption in Nigeria. Dickinson Journal of International
Law, 15(3), 545–563.
Although many people perceive poverty to be a major cause of

corruption in Nigeria, this article argues against that common
notion. Its main assumption is that poverty is not engendered by
corruption; rather, corruption spawns poverty, distorts ideals,
weakens morals, slows administrative processes, and impedes the
implementation of governmental policies, all of which are
detrimental to the economic interest of the state. It further states
that corruption distorts the development of the state. It concludes
20
by recommending that honorable or patriotic leaders will, in turn,

inspire followers. In addition, consistent public education is
necessary to salvage the country from the scourge of corruption.
20. Akanle, O., Kudus A. , & Olorunlana A. (2014). Fuel

subsidy in Nigeria: Contexts of governance and social protest. The
International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 34(1–2),
88–106.
For decades, various governments in power have made attempts

at removing the fuel subsidy; however, such efforts continually
meet with popular resistance because it is believed that the
petroleum sector is riddled with fraud and corruption. This article
provides an update on recent efforts made to remove the fuel
subsidy in an attempt to reform the economy by reducing
corruption and waste and make the petroleum sector more
effective. The article argues that subsidy removal is unjustified
because it will lead to a hike in the price of fuel. The authors cite
the fact that there is a wide income gap between workers in
Nigeria and those in other oil-producing nations. In their opinion,
a nonpoliticized anti-coruption mechanism and network must be
put in place in order to sanitize the oil sector. The authors also
suggest that the government must demonstrate transparency and
accountability regarding spending across sectors and in all
government functions. Sufficient palliatives such as public
transport and dedicated social services for the very poor are
important before the subsidy is abolished. Finally, the authors
assert that unless the suggestions are implemented, the
government’s intention to successfully remove the fuel subsidy
may only be a mirage.
21
21. Akinbobola, T.O. (2005). Corporate governance: A

panacea to corruption and development in Nigeria. Ife Social
Science Review. Special edition. Journal of the Faculty of Social
Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, October, 156–162.
A major feature of developing economies such as Nigeria’s is

public sector involvement in both direct and indirect productive
economic activities. These economies are often faced with
inadequate or low-level capital formation, eroding infrastructures,
expensive and unviable projects, and inefficiency in public
organizations. The leadership in developing countries frequently
blames the numerous economic problems on exogenous forces,
while paying little or no attention to the severe corrupt practices
perpetrated by its public officers. This study opines that corporate
governance is the panacea for corruption and development in
Nigeria. It analyzes the relationship between corruption and the
level of development in Nigeria and identifies the principal causes
and costs of corruption. In addition, it examines corruption in
public service and the link between corporate governance, which
includes privatization, and efficiency. The article argues that, in a
bid to curb corruption which affects all spheres of economic
activity in the country, corporate governance, which promotes
competence, better productivity, and efficient handling of
corporations, should be initiated. This would relieve the
government of managing productive ventures. Furthermore, the
government could concentrate more on the provision of basic
infrastructure and intensify other efforts in its fight against
corruption, such as the establishment of anti-coruption bodies.
22. Akinpelu, Y. A., Ogunseye, T. O., Bada, O. T., &

Agbeyangi, B.A. (2013). The socio-economic determinants of
corruption in Nigeria. European Journal of Humanities and
Social Sciences, 19(1), 923–938.
22
A very effective anti-coruption strategy must be based on a clear

understanding of the main causes of corruption. This study
provides a good in-depth analysis of noneconomic and economic
determinants of corruption. The authors’ main objectives are to
determine the short- and long-term impact of the gross domestic
product, literacy rate, trade openness, population growth rate, and
value of fuel exports on the level of corruption in Nigeria, as
measured through the Corruption Perception Index of Nigeria.
The study uses cointegration and vector error correction models,
including data that span more than 30 years from 1980 to 2011.
The study concludes that there is a long-term relationship between
gross domestic product, per capita income, population growth
rate, value of fuel exports, literacy rate, and corruption. The
authors recommend that the country focus its attention on
development-oriented planning and implementation of socio-
economic policies and programs.
23. Akintola, A. L. (2005). Corruption and development

in Nigeria: The role of oil. Ife Social Science Review. Special
edition. Journal of the Faculty of Social Sciences. Special edition.
Obafemi Awolowo University, October, 203–215.
The primary responsibility of every government is to harness its

resources to promote development. Nigeria is blessed with
abundant natural resources, including crude oil. However, rather
than use revenues derived from the oil sector for socio-economic
development, Nigeria has become well known in the world for the
wanton embezzlement of its oil revenues. The root cause of this
sad reality is the federal government’s complete control of the
ownership and management of the country’s oil resources. The
government determines the manner in which oil revenues are
shared and spent and exercises its discretion in the negotiation of
contracts and agreements with the oil companies without any form
of public participation. The effects of oil-induced corruption are
23
most glaring in the poverty-stricken delta region that hosts the oil
industry. In the political arena, corruption constitutes a major
obstacle to democracy and the rule of law. According to the
author, there is an urgent need to seek peaceful and legal solutions
to the problem by involving a wider spectrum of the populace in
the management process. Furthermore, there is the need to adopt
a holistic approach and to recognize the right to development as
an integral part of government policy and law.
24. Aligwekwe P. E., (1986). Development without

corruption. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in
development (pp. 209–221). Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University
Press.
The economic problems in Nigeria are largely attributed to

endemic corruption. This article offers a critique of Nigeria’s
approach to economic development, especially the practice of a
market economy, and its tendency to fuel corruption. Arguing that
Nigeria needs its own unique approach to development, the author
maintains that Nigeria’s solution should be based on realities and
not propaganda. Finally, the author recommends an inward-
looking approach for true and lasting development devoid of
corruption.
25. Aluko, M. A. & Akinola G. O. (2005). Bureaucratic

corruption and its impact on development and the marketing
sector. Ife Social Science Review. Special edition. Journal of the
Faculty of Social Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University,
October, 78–89.
Corruption is a multidimensional social disease plaguing most

nations of the world. However, it is more prevalent in some
nations than in others. The bureaucratic system in Nigeria is
statutorily expected to be an avenue for the enhancement and
24
sustenance of socio-economic policies and developmental efforts,

but over time it has displayed a growing wave of corrupt practices.
The study examines the corrupt practices between bureaucrats and
marketers from a purely socio-economic perspective. It identifies
the causes and manifestations of bureaucratic and marketing
corruption. Although it is a tool for the distribution of resources,
corruption operates in favor of corrupt individuals and against
noncorrupt individuals. While it imposes a burden on all
consumers, it imposes greater burdens on poor consumers.
Findings reveal that the problem of corruption is largely traceable
to a breakdown in societal values and constraints rather than to
individual dispositions. The study concludes that corruption is a
multidimensional problem and that the battle against it depends
on multiple solutions. These solutions include the implementation
of radical changes in the values system and the establishment of a
National Ethics Commission (NEC). Corrupt bureaucrats must
also be made to face the law in order to serve as a deterrence to
others. Since corruption poses a major threat to any meaningful
development, the war against the scourge must be fought
seriously and won to prevent future disaster in the country.
26. Asechemie, P. S. (1986). Accounting in corruption. In

F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in development (pp. 198–
Many corrupt practices that occur in public and private

institutions take place in the accounting and finance units of such
institutions. The traditional role of the accounting system is to
serve as a tool for checking corruption by safeguarding the
resources set aside for specific purposes in order to prevent waste,
deprivation, and reckless expenditures. This article discusses the
relationship between accounting and corruption and assesses the
Nigeria’s accounting system and its role in preventing and
defeating corruption.
25
27. Ayoola, T. J. (2013). The Effect of cashless policy of

government on corruption in Nigeria. International Review of
Management and Business Research, 2(3), 682–690.
Corruption is a phenomenon that has existed throughout the ages,

and even ancient civilizations showed traces of widespread
corruption and illegality. Th is study assesses the perceptions of
stakeholders on the types of corruption that can be reduced by the
cashless policy. With a view to providing information on the
effect of the cashless policy on corruption in Nigeria, the article
examines the effectiveness of the policy in curbing corruption and
identifies critical success factors for effective implementation of
the policy. The study determines that no single strategy can
address all types of corruption and that the cashless policy can
only reduce petty corruption which is the lowest level of
corruption. The study concludes that addressing the root cause of
corruption and devising compatible, systemic, and multipronged
solutions is the most appropriate approach to addressing the
menace.
28. Babalola, Y. (2007). Corruption and the banking

sector. In A.D. Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the challenge of
human development (pp.175–185), Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria:
Babcock University Press.
Corruption has spread deep into all critical institutions and sectors
of the Nigerian state, including the banking industry. This article
examines corruption from the perspective of the banking sector.
It discusses the various types of corruption, as well as factors
responsible for this corruption. It also stresses the negative effect
of corruption on the banking sector and recommends ways to
minimize the incidence of corruption in the banking sector of the
economy. According to the author, Nigerian corruption is so
monstrous that efforts by the Economic and Financial Crimes
26
Commission (EFCC) and the Independent Corrupt Practices

Commission (ICPC) have amounted to little. Notable challenges
faced in tackling corruption include social orientation, absence of
adequate control, and a wide disparity in earnings. The article,
therefore, stresses the need for a reorientation of our value system,
higher technical standards, enforcement of the pension reform act,
good corporate governance, and a competitive remuneration
package for government workers. Regulatory bodies such as the
CBN, as well as self-regulatory bodies, play a crucial role.
29. Babalola, A. (2005). Understanding corruption in

Nigeria: A political economy approach. Ife Social Science
Review. Special edition. Journal of the Faculty of Social Sciences,
Nigeria is ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world.

The frequency with which Nigerian public officials are removed
from office over corrupt practices raises the question of why
Nigerians are so prone to corruption. This article attempts to
explain corruption in Nigeria using the available theories on crime
and deviance in society, particularly the political economy
approach. Historically, the seed of corruption in Nigeria was sown
during the colonial period. This was essentially a by-product of
the failure of the colonial regime to develop the Nigerian state and
the forces of production. The article argues that Nigerians are
prone to corruption due to the nature of the political economy that
was established in the country by the British colonial masters,
which was later handed over to Nigerian elites. The conditions
created by the British colonial masters include the absolute and
arbitrary nature of state power and the ubiquitous nature of the
state, which was used as an instrument for the control and
appropriation of capital and wealth but was incapable of
developing the country’s productive forces. These conditions
have compelled Nigerians to employ all sorts of means to acquire
27
state power and promote personal and clan interests over those of
the nation. The article concludes that as long as the Nigerian state
remains in its colonial model, corruption will remain a problem.
30. Bacon, D. (1995). Oil politics rule in Nigeria. Earth

Island Journal, 11(1), 24–39.
Nigeria’s oil sector is a hotbed of corruption and mismanagement.

Until recently, the production and export of crude oil, which
accounts for about 95% of foreign exchange, and the import of
refined petroleum products was a closed affair between Nigerian
rulers and a handful of western oil companies such as
British/Dutch Shell, Italian AGIP, French Elf -Aquitaine, and U.S.
giants Chevron and Mobil. This study provides some insights into
Nigeria’s opaque and corrupt oil industry. As the author argues,
the country's military and civilian rulers embezzled and siphoned
billions of oil incomes in close collaboration of the oil majors
through various fraudulent schemes. In return, successive
governments have protected the investments of these oil
companies while ensuring the smooth flow of oil to Western
markets.
31. Cant, C. M., Wiid, A. J., & Kallier, M. S. (2013).

Small business owners’ perception of moral behaviour and
employee theft in the small business environment. Gender and
Behaviour, 11(2), 5775–5787.
It has been argued that the high rate of corruption in Nigeria

makes it a difficult terrain for doing business. This article
examines the perceptions of business entrepreneurs toward
employee theft in a small business environment. It further seeks
to define the reasons for and implications of employee theft on
businesses in Nigeria. The article describes the issue of moral
behavior or ethics as a vital principle that must guide small
28
businesses. The absence of ethical standards tends to make small

businesses susceptible to harmful practices such as employee
theft. The author identifies tactics involved in employee theft and
states that businesses often go bankrupt as a result of employee
theft, causing some employers to adopt strict security measures to
curb such occurrences. The absence of written policies and
procedures, underpayment of employees, and lack of security are
identified as the root causes of employee theft. The study
recommends careful scrutiny of potential employees during
interviews and implementation of measures to handle unethical
practices in the workplace as strategies to curb the practice of
employee theft.
32. Coker, M. A., Ugwu, U. D. , & Adams, A. J. (2012).

Corruption and direct foreign investment in Nigeria: Challenges
of implementing anti-corruption programmes under Obasanjo:
1999-2007. Global Advanced Research Journal of History,
Political Science and International Politics, 1(4), 79–88.
The effect of corruption and other related vices on businesses in

Nigeria cannot be overemphasized. When President Obasanjo
assumed office in 1999, he made the fight against corruption the
major thrust of his administration. He established anti-coruption
agencies in a bid to attract foreign direct investment (FDI). This
article takes a critical look at the prevalence of corruption and
other related vices and their effect on foreign direct investment. It
also evaluates the extent, to which the anti-coruption programs
have succeeded in reducing corruption. The study reveals that the
anti-coruption agencies underperformed as a result of constraints
such as politicization, blackmail, the constitutional immunity
clause, and public apathy, among others. The authors advocate
for a clear definition of the concept of corruption from the legal,
socio-economic, and political perspectives, removal of the
29
immunity clause for public office holders, and appropriate

sanctions for offenders.
33. Crowe H. (2003).The Impact of Political Corruption

on Social Welfare in the Federal Republic of Nigeria . (Bachelors
Dissertation) University of South Florida, Florida, U.S.A.
Using a qualitative case study design, this dissertation aims at

increasing the understanding of the extent that political corruption
affects social welfare in Nigeria. The dissertation argues that
political corruption leads to a concentration of wealth among a
minority of elite government officials, resulting in extensive
deficiency of social welfare. In addition, political corruption has
secondary and tertiary effects throughout society that further
exacerbate social welfare conditions. In this study, social welfare
is measured by a comprehensive range of social indicators
including but not limited to: level of poverty, income inequality,
level of infrastructure, and health. Research limitations regarding
the conceptualization of corruption as well as complexities in
defining and measuring social welfare are also addressed. The
discussion concludes that political corruption is a significant
factor contributing to poor social welfare in Nigeria, resulting in
a protracted human tragedy.
34. Didia, P. O. (2007). Theoretical perspective to

understanding corruption in Nigerian economy. In A. D. Aina
(Ed.), Corruption and the Challenge of Human Development
(pp.349–357). Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria: Babcock University Press.
The endemic nature of corruption in Nigeria has led many to

associate it with underdevelopment. This article supports such a
belief, positing that corruption undermines the quality of
governance because it creates distrust, and the uncertainty
associated with arbitrary governance feeds such distrust.
30
Corruption also runs contrary to accountability and negatively

impacts the rule of law. The article recommends that anti-
coruption agencies such as the EFCC should strengthen their
efforts to expose government officials who embezzle government
funds and are involved in money laundering. In addition, the paper
emphasizes the importance of requiring public officials to declare
their assets before and after holding office. In addition, they
should be banned from holding foreign bank accounts. The article
also encourages the establishment of an efficient and developed
legal system and a merit-based process for awarding government
positions and contracts.
35. Director of Research, Central Bank of Nigeria (1991).

Anatomy of corruption and other economic crimes in the banking
sectors: The implications for the economy. In U. A. Kalu, & Y.
Osinbajo (Eds.), Perspectives on Corruption and Other Economic
Crimes in Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Justice Law Review
Series, Vol. 2, 87–92.
Scholars have argued that corruption has eaten away at the social
fabric of the Nigerian society to such a degree that it prevents
Nigeria’s development. The article identifies different forms of
corruption and harmful practices, including bribery, fraud, and
forgery and counterfeiting, and operation of illegal foreign bank
accounts. It discusses the inadequate internal control mechanisms,
insufficient punishment for those caught in the banking sector,
and the get-rich-quick mindset as the major causes of corruption
in the banking sector. The author identifie s allocative
inefficiency, loss of confidence in the nation’s economy, capital
flight, and destabilization of the economy as the by-products of
corruption. It concludes that modern banking ethics and improved
security measures should be adopted. In addition, the article
promotes enforcing the prosecution of corrupt officials as a
31
deterrence strategy, and training staff to ensure efficient service

delivery.
36. Duggh, I. S. (2013). Entrepreneurship and small

business: Strategic approach to alleviating poverty and corruption
in Nigeria. International Journal in Business Review, 3(1), 57–65.
Corruption, poverty alleviation, and unemployment are major

challenges in developing countries. They beg for the attention of
all stakeholders. This article examines how entrepreneurship and
small-scale businesses can be used as strategies to tackle poverty
and corruption in Nigeria. It identifies the monolithic nature of the
Nigerian economy as the reason for its poor performance and
argues that the neglect of the oil sector has contributed to an
increase in the rate of unemployment, poverty, and corruption in
the country with its attendant consequences. Therefore, the article
suggests strategies to ensure the development of small- and
medium-scale businesses as well as proactive approaches to
sustain them. Fostering a culture of job creation instead of paid
employment is also believed to help in the anti-coruption crusade.
37. Echebiri, R. (2011). Rage of the risk god: A reportage

of the Lamido Sanusi banking reforms. Lagos, Nigeria: Rayfields
Communication.
The recent financial and banking reforms in Nigeria have

transformed the Nigerian banking sector and attracted much
scholarly interest. This paper employs an historical methodology
and analyzes the leadership of the CBN, from the appointment in
1975 of Mallam Adamu Chiroma, a supposed “outsider,” as CBN
governor, to the era of Professor Chukwuma Charles Soludo. This
study also discusses the attendant banking reforms that followed
the impact of the global financial crisis on the Nigerian economy
and the response of the CBN to the crisis. The study also gives an
32
historical account of the politics that led to the emergence of

Mallam Sanusi Lamido and the banking reforms that followed. It
chronicles the events that unfolded in the Lamido-led CBN,
especially the war against banking fraud and poor corporate
practices by bank managers, and their impact on the banking
industry and national economy as a whole.
38. Egulakhe, A. J. (2007). An empirical insight in the

impact of corruption on Nigeria economy from 1970–2003. In A.
D. Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the Challenge of Human
Development (pp. 229-244). Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria: Babcock
University Press.
One of the reasons why nations engage in anti-coruption efforts is

because corruption undermines national economies and citizens’
welfare in several ways. This article’s main objective is to show
the extent to which bad governance in Nigeria has resulted in total
hardship for the citizenry despite Nigeria’s wealth. As an in-depth
empirical analysis, this paper suggests the possibility of a
rectilinear relationship between corruption and economic
downturn or underperformance. It sees systemic corruption
during the years covered by the research as the major problem
facing the country. It further argues that the legal framework
currently in place is inadequate for correcting the depth of
corruption. The author suggests a moral and cultural revolution as
additional strategies for combating corruption.
39. Egwin, P. (2013) . The impact of BPP’s reform

activities on the Nigerian entrepreneurs and contractors. Public
Procurement Journal (18th & 19th ed.), April–September, 25–26.
In recent years, Nigeria has extended its battle against corruption

to public procurement. In this article, the author employs an
expository historical outlook in analyzing the Public Procurement
33
Act 2007, regulations and procedures issued by the Bureau of

Public Procurement (BPP). The work also made a comparative
analysis of the reform with the prereform years and, thus, tries to
look at the impact of the BPP reforms on Nigerian entrepreneurs
and contractors in general. The article itemizes the provisions of
the reforms and argues that the reforms provide not only support
for local entrepreneurs who may not have sufficient start-up funds
but also a level playing field for all bidders. The article goes
further to stress the ethical challenges faced in the country as most
professionals continue to compromise their standards of quality
and professional ethics. The author argues that the BPP is
expected to rid the system of such fraudulent practices. Thus, BPP
would continue to protect and encourage Nigerian entrepreneurs
and contractors who are committed to doing the right thing and
following due process.
40. Ekanem, O. (2003). Capitalist ethos and counter

corruption politics in Nigeria. In G. Onu (Ed.), Corruption and
sustainable development: The Third World perspective (pp. 61-
73) Awka, Nigeria: Bookpoint Limited.
The fight against corruption has defiled all anti-coruption policies

in Nigeria. Despite the various anti-coruption policies introduced
by the military and civilian administration, corruption seems to
have survived all regimes, policies, and organizational agencies
erected to combat it. This article is an attempt to study and analyze
the ideological genes of Nigeria’s ruling class on whose behalf
these measures have been initiated. The paper first provides
theoretical explanations for corruption and then critically
examines how the ineffectiveness of these measures can be linked
genealogically to the worldview and ethos of the elites, which
explains why the anti-coruption policies may not work in
capitalist social formations, in general, and Nigeria in particular
and why the search for solutions within that class should end. It
34
draws a logical and demonstrable inference from these

propositions and concludes by preferring an alternative approach
to the existing ones. Accordingly, it advocates for the tradition of
exterminating corrupt officials as in socialist states, after
confiscating all their property. It suggests that those who are
worried in capitalist societies, and in Nigeria, should advise the
ruling class to commit class suicide and denounce and renounce
their class membership in the hope that they will listen and obey
their advice. Alternatively, such concerned group s could replace
the bourgeoisie with a non-capitalist-seeking and
nonaccumulation class.
41. Ekwo, G. (2013). Corruption Risk Factors: An

Analysis of Public Procurement in Nigeria. (Doctoral Thesis)
Northumbria University, Newcastle, U.K.
The thesis posits that public procurement processes in Nigeria

have long been associated with corruption involving the
misappropriation of public funds for private gain. It argues that
efforts at improving the practice of public procurement in Nigeria
and developing it into a reputable profession cannot be successful
without considering the more fundamental question of the factors
that may have made corruption in the process resistant to efforts
aimed at curbing it.
Using findings from interviews conducted in relevant government
institutions, the researcher identifies the following as the main
corruption risks in procurement processes: desperation by
contractors, special procurement outside the Public Procurement
Act 2007, interference by management cadres, participation of
civil society not made mandatory, procuring entities discourage
broad participation and price intelligence is used to fix prices only
to escape audit queries. Building upon the theoretical debates, the
researcher proposes a corruption risk-factor vulnerability check-
35
list for the management of public procurement in Nigeria, with

the aim of improving transparency and accountability.
42. Enoma, A. I., & Asemota, A. (2007). Governance,

corruption and economic development in Nigeria. In A. S.
Akpotor, A. O. Afolabi, M. O Aigbokhaevbolo, B. O. Iganiga, &
O. S. Odiagbe (Eds.), Cost of governance in Nigeria: An
evaluative analysis (pp. 341–354). Ekpoma, Nigeria: Ambrose
Alli University Publishing House.
In Nigeria, poor governance is seen both as a cause and a

consequence of widespread corruption. This paper examines the
relationship between governance, corruption, and economic
development in Nigeria and identifies widespread corruption and
wrong approach to governance as the bane of Nigeria's economic
development. It describes corruption in Nigeria as a manifestation
of weak institutions of government at all levels. To put it
differently, the nature of governance in Nigeria is the major
obstacle to economic development. Addressing these challenges
of governance, this study argues that there is a need for
institutional reforms, ethical revolution, and deepening
democratic values such as accountability and transparency,
among others. The author believes that is the only way out of this
present state of irresponsive governance.
43. Enweremadu, U. D. (2013). The impact of corruption

on cconomic development: Comparing the experience of Nigeria
and Indonesia (1967–1998). In B. Berendsen, T. Dietz, H.S.
Nordholt, and R. van der Veen (Eds.), Asian tigers, African lions:
Comparing the development performance of Southeast Asia and
Africa (pp. 197–226), Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.
Nigeria’s inability to engineer rapid economic development

similar to that of Southeast Asian countries has spurned a number
36
of theoretical perspectives. This article reviews the assumed

negative effect of corruption on economic development in Nigeria
and Indonesia. Its major objective is to investigate, using insights
from existing scholarly works and recently obtained primary data,
the experience of these two countries with corruption and its
possible role in fostering differential levels of economic
development. The differences are attributed to different forms of
corruption in each country countries and the location and method
of investing the proceeds of corruption. The author concludes that
while corruption is harmful to economic development and,
therefore, should be discouraged, its effect can be mitigated in
Nigeria by reducing political and business uncertainty and
inducing public officials and local businessmen to begin to invest
most of their assets locally, especially in growth-generating
ventures.
44. Erhieyovwo, E. K., & Onokero, I. I. (2013).

Corruption, foreign direct investment and its impact on the
exchange rate of the Nigerian economy. Mediterranean Journal
of Social Science, 4(3), 345–350.
Including more than four decades of developmental efforts and

management, the indexes for development in Nigeria prove that
the country is still underdeveloped and that corruption is one of
the main factors inhibiting development. This article analyzes the
impact of corruption and foreign direct investment on the
exchange rate of the Nigerian economy using the ordinary least
squares (OLS) regression analysis, augmented Dickey Fuller
(ADF) unit root test, and cointegration testing. To achieve this,
the article analyzes the impact of corruption on macroeconomic
variables such as investment, money supply, and gross domestic
product. This analysis finds that the high incidence of corruption
in Nigeria has helped to depreciate the country’s currency vis-à-
vis its exchange with other currencies and also reduce domestic
37
and foreign investment. It recommends a rigorous pursuit of the

war against corruption, the strengthening of antigraft agencies,
and, finally, the patronage of locally made goods.
45. Faboyede, O. D. (2008). Toward achieving MDGs in

Africa: The role of the Institute of Forensic Accountants (IFA)
Nigeria in eradiating corruption. In Proceedings of the 1st
International Conference on Socio-Economic Policies and
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in Africa. (pp. 153–
159). Akungba, Nigeria: Faculty of Social Sciences, Adekunle
Ajasin University.
Giving the ineffective nature of past anti-coruption efforts in

Nigeria, there is obviously a need for more innovative approaches
to move the struggle forward. This article asserts that the war
against corruption will not be fruitful without the concerted
integration of forensic accountants into the governance
framework. It strongly advocates a highly sincere political
leadership in Nigeria with the necessary political will to support
the widespread growth and use of forensic accounting in its bid to
wage and win the antigraft war and restore basic human rights
such as health, education, shelter, and security.
46. Familoni, K. (2005). Political economy of corruption.

In L. Olurode, & R. Anifowose (Eds.), Rich but poor: Corruption
and good governance in Nigeria (pp. 39–63). Lagos, Nigeria:
Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Lagos.
Decades of military rule in Nigeria have brutalized the nation’s

psyche and left the stain of corruption in their wake. This article
examines the political economy of corruption in Nigeria,
including the strategies and inventions designed for its
management and control. The study demonstrates how corruption
diverts public resources into private pockets, undermining
38
effective governance, destabilizing the democracy, and eroding

the social and moral fabric of the nation. To check these abuses,
the government of President Olusegun Obasanjo devised
strategies and inventions for tackling corruption and increasing
transparency and accountability. Th at reform agenda is articulated
in the National Economic Empowerment and Development
Strategy (NEEDS). It also includes the establishment of the
Budget Monitoring and Price Intelligence Unit (BMPIN),
Independent and Corrupt Practices Commission (ICPC), EFCC,
and the Nigerian Extractive Industries Transparency Initiatives
(NEITI) The author identifies lack of commitment to follow-
through and delivery as the major hindrance to the success of the
efforts of Obasanjo’s administration. In conclusion, the paper
emphasizes the need for the government to break with the past and
demonstrate its will and determination to succeed.
47. Folorunso, B. A. (2007). Determinants and effects of

corruption on investment, general price level and sustainable
economic growth in Nigeria. African Economic and Business
Review, 5(2), 10–25.
While studies abound exploring the negative impact of corruption

on political development in Nigeria, few studies have statistically
measured the cost of corruption on the economy. This article
examines the determinants and effects of corruption on private
investment rates, general price level, and the rates of economic
growth in Nigeria. Employing several methods of economic
analysis, such as the OLS technique, the corruption index, and
econometric results, the article attempts to show the prevalence of
corruption in Nigeria and its effects on economic growth. It argues
that corruption is evident in all sectors of the Nigerian economy
and is caused by a variety of factors. It concludes that corruption
in Nigeria is alarming and that drastic measures are required if any
meaningful economic development is to be achieved. Hence, the
39
Nigerian people should be reoriented toward a better value system

and policies to reduce poverty.
48. Geo-Jaja, A. M., & Mangum, L. G. (1999). The

Foreign Corrupt Practices Act’s consequences for US trade: The
Nigerian example. Africa Economic Analysis, March 27.
Retrieved from http://www.afbis.com/analysis/corruption.htm
In 1978, the United States (U.S.) took a bold step to fight

corruption perpetrated by its nationals and their businesses around
the world when it adopted the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act
(FCPA). This paper takes a look at the FCPA of the United States
and the effect of the act on U.S firms. In the Nigerian case study,
a primary data collection method was adopted in the random
selection of 30 United States firms among 200 multinational
companies operating in Nigeria. The result of the data collection
showed that bribery is a substantial part of business activities in
Nigeria. The article shows that the FCPA has a positive effect on
the U.S. multinationals as it gives some form of protection and
level playing field to firms that shun bribery in their business
dealings.
49. Gosztonyi, K., Taylor, A. & Bray, J. (2009). Facing

up to Corruption in Nigeria. London, England: Control Risks.
Corruption is widely believed to be a major turnoff to foreign

investors seeking to invest in Nigeria. This study analyzes the
Nigerian political and economic scene, with a particular focus on
corruption that can make it impossible for foreign investors and
businesses to thrive in Nigeria. The report observes that the
reasons why Nigeria has underperformed in development despite
its enormous resources include poor leadership, poor
infrastructure, and a history of high-level corruption. The article
argues that, nationally and internationally, there has been tighter
40
enforcement of anti-coruption legislation as is evident in the

operations of the EFCC in Nigeria. Although successes have been
recorded, the report shows that coping with corruption remains a
major challenge in the Nigerian market. This report stresses the
need for businesses to have clear ethical leadership, an effective
well-resourced internal compliance program, and “soft”
diplomatic skills, including the ability to identify and work with
the right allies in both business and government circles.
50. Graf, W. (1988). The Nigeria state: Political

economy, state class and political system in the post-colonial era.
London, England: James Currey Press.
Few studies on corruption in Nigeria relate the phenomenon to the

character and evolution of the Nigerian state. This author seeks to
close the gap by adopting a class approach to understanding the
complexities of Nigeria's development, before and since
independence. The work, centered on socio-economic issues,
provides readers with an interesting account of relevant aspects in
the development of the Nigerian state during the period 1960–
1987. It challenges familiar, and perhaps orthodox, interpretations
of issues and argues that it will be difficult to compare Nigeria's
painful experience in nation-building to that of some older nation
states of the world, where earlier episodes of greed, corruption,
and indiscipline in other (capitalist) societies did not necessarily
rest on class distinctions and conflicts.
51. Ibaba, I. S. & Ebiede, T. M. (2008). Corruption and

governance in Nigeria: Implications for MDG One, Journal of
Research in National Development, 6(2), 65–89.
Eliminating poverty is the number one goal of the United Nations

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The article attempts to
analyze the challenges corruption poses to the realization of the
41
MDGs on eradication of poverty and hunger by focusing on the

Nigerian state. The article states that corruption in Nigeria is a
fundamental constraint to the realization of the MDG of poverty
reduction by 2015. The lack of accountability and transparency
which results from bad governance is, to a large extent,
responsible for this corruption in Nigeria. Thus, the loss of public
funds required for infrastructural development, improvement in
human capital and production capabilities, and health care
constitutes a roadblock to the realization of the MDG of poverty
reduction. The study concludes by asserting that the fight against
corruption should be a strategy for achieving the objective of
poverty reduction.
52. Idolor, E. J. (2010). Bank frauds in Nigeria:

Underlying causes, effects and possible remedies. African Journal
of Accounting, Economics, Finance and Banking Research, 6(6),
62–80.
Arguably, the Nigerian banking sector feature s among the sectors

that have experienced the highest incidence of fraud. This is also
a major factor behind bank failure in the country. This study seeks
to appraise the underlying causes of bank fraud and the level of
staff involvement. Using the t-test analytic model, the study
reveals that the respondents did not view unofficial borrowing and
foreign exchange malpractice as forms of bank fraud since there
was an equal level of staff involvement in initiating and executing
fraud. Findings also show that the root causes of fraud include
greed, infidelity, and poverty, while organizational factors
contributing to fraud include inadequate staffing, poor internal
controls, inadequate training, poor working conditions, lack of
personal ethics, and weak corporate governance.
42
53. Ignasio, J. (2009). Managing proceeds of assets

recovery: The case of Nigeria, Peru, the Philippines and
Kazakhastan. International Center for Asset Recovery (Basel
Institute on Governance), Working paper series , 6.
The period between 1998 and 2007 was marked by a frantic

search for and recovery of funds looted by General Sani Abacha
and his close aides and family members. This concise work deals
largely with the enigmatic use of the assets recovered from Sani
Abacha, Ferdinand Marcos, and Vladimir Montesinos and their
families. The paper seeks to examine the illicit assets obtained
through bribery, patronage, or theft from the state budget. Assets
of this nature are usually expatriated from one country to another
in order to disguise their source. Finally, the paper reviews several
specific attempts at recovering stolen funds and finds that there
are few cases of successful repatriation and even fewer that
demonstrate that repatriated assets are eventually used for the
benefit of the victims of corruption, generally the poor.
54. Iremiren, B. A. (2011) Governance, Corruption and

Economic Development: Reflections on Corruption and Anti-
Corruption Initiatives in Nigeria. (PhD Thesis) Loughborough
University, Loughborough, U.K.
This thesis is about the complex relationships involving

governance, corruption and economic development. It seeks to
extend existing literature by exploring the complex web of
connections between corruption, development and the quality of
political institutions in Nigeria. In so doing the thesis explores
some of the limitations of mainstream frameworks for
understanding corruption. It postulates that, rather than being a
simple issue of rent-seeking that requires a prescription of
orthodox economic policy reforms, corruption is an issue that
requires contextualization within the evolution of particular
43
political cultures in specific places and a sensitivity to the impacts

of culture on the definitions, causes and impacts of corruption.
The thesis also reflects upon the impacts of market reforms on the
opportunities for corrupt activity and the potential role of civil
society in rendering anti-coruption interventions more effective.
55. Jessen L. (2012). Corruption as a Political Risk

Factor for Investors in the Oil and Gas Industry, with Specific
Emphasis on Nigeria: Identification, Analysis and Measurement.
(Masters Dissertation) University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch,
South Africa.
The central research question of this dissertation concerns how

corruption as a political risk factor should be measured in order to
provide risk assessments for prospective investors in the oil and
gas industry. In creating a risk assessment matrix, the researcher
identifies seven indicators: Separation of powers; Monopoly
Power and Discretionary Power; Monitoring, Accountability and
Transparency; Judicial Structures; Capture Economy; Inequality
and Development; and Perceptions of Corruption and Anti-
coruption. The matrix is applied to the oil and gas industry in
Nigeria, in an attempt to test how the matrix can throw light on
what level corruption constitutes a political risk for the oil and gas
industry. Findings from this assessment suggest that the risk of
encountering corruption by an investor in Nigeria’s oil and gas
industry is high.
56. Kanu, I. S. and Okorafor, O. E. (2013). The nature,

extent and economic impact of fraud on bank deposits in Nigeria.
Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business,
4(9), 253–265.
Bank fraud in Nigeria is not only a major challenge to the integrity

and health of banks but also has adverse effects on the economy
44
of the state. The thrust of this study is to examine fraudulent

practices in Nigerian banks, determine the relationship between
the volume of bank funds involved in fraud and the amount of
bank funds lost to fraud, and discover the fraud type that inflicts
the greatest financial loss on bank deposits. Using the descriptive
and inference statistics, the study finds that fraudulent
withdrawals are the most frequent type of fraud, bank deposits are
more susceptible to check clearing fraud, and miscellaneous fraud
is responsible for the greatest amount of financial loss to bank
deposits. The study recommends preventive and curative
measures to address the challenges of bank fraud in Nigeria.
57. Kumara, S. M. R. (2001). Financial management,

analysis of money laundering, corruption and unethical business
practices: Case study of India, Nigeria and Russia. Journal of
Financial Management and Analysis, 24(1), 39–51.
Insolvency, fraud, bribery, corruption, and money laundering are

established norms of day-to-day business but they have received
little analysis by financial economists. The paper gives an
overview of corruption, prevention strategies, and the FCPA. It
looks at the statutory prohibitions and the United Nations
resolutions before describing the money laundering operation in
Nigeria with copious examples of template letters used for
fraudulent business deals in Lagos. The article also reviews
techniques for money laundering in Russia and in other countries
where corrupt officials transact business. The article concludes
with a call for officials to follow the rules of good financial
management, including honesty, transparency, and righteous
conduct.
58. LeVan A. C. (2007). Dictators, democrats, and

development in Nigeria. (Doctoral Thesis) University of
California, San Diego, U.S.A.
45
This thesis sets off by disputing that explanations based on regime

type, fiscal resources, and ethnic diversity account for Nigeria’s
poor development performance, since independence.
Its hypothesis tests for a causal relationship between the number
of policy actors and two broad categories of policy outputs: pork
and public goods. Building upon the veto player literature
(Tsebelis 2002; Haggard and McCubbins 2001), the researcher
constructs a model that applies over time and across regimes.
Informal "regional" vetoes emerge when three conditions are met:
one of Nigeria's two major geographical regions is under-
represented, subnational actors have political cause to organize,
and some organization facilitates preference coordination.
The researcher predicts that regimes with more veto players
deliver higher overall levels of pork, fewer public goods, and they
spend money on pork less efficiently. He operationalizes public
goods with variables measuring fiscal discipline and judicial
efficiency as estimated from an analysis of 550 property rights
cases. Using other original data gathered during field research, the
researcher operationalizes pork with variables measuring
student/teacher ratios and annual change in the number of primary
schools. Tests conducted during the study suggest that veto
players do not significantly impact the level of pork as predicted.
However regimes with more veto players deliver fewer public
goods. The thesis attributes this to bargaining problems at the
center. According to at least one variable these regimes also
engage in more wasteful spending on pork. This runs counter to
existing literature on veto players and corruption. Test results also
show that democracies waste less money than dictatorships on
teachers, but they suffer from statistically significant levels of
corruption when constructing schools. This implies that
investment in teachers, rather than capital spending, may be a
better education investment for new democracies. The thesis
concludes first by noting that regimes with more veto players do
not necessarily improve political accountability. Second, it argues
46
that policy makers face a dilemma: increasing the number of

political actors makes the policy process more inclusive, but this
contributes to bargaining problems that impair the delivery of
public goods.
59. Lewis, M. P. (1996). From prebendalism to predation:

The political economy of decline in Nigeria. Journal of Modern
African Studies, xxxiv (1), 79–103.
The concept of prebendalism in Nigerian politics was first

articulated in Richard Joseph’s 1987 book, Democracy and
Prebendalism in Nigeria: Critical Interpretations. This is another
major reference work on corruption in Nigeria’s political
economy. It looks at the nature of the decline of the country’s
economy through most of the 1980s and 1990s but with special
emphasis on the leadership of General Ibrahim Babangida (1985–
1993) and the late General Sani Abacha (1993–1998). The article
examines the impact of the structural adjustment program (SAP)
on Nigeria’s political economy, especially during Babaginda’s
regime. In conclusion, the paper reflects the familiar pattern of
economic administration in developing states like Nigeria: states
with weak central government, fractious ethnic competition, and
centralized and politicized economic management.
60. Mailafia, O. (2006). Fighting corruption in Nigeria: A

central bank of Nigeria’s perspective. In B. Aboyade & S.
Ayodele (Eds.), Fighting corruption in Nigeria: Challenges for
the future (pp. 162–174). Ibadan, Nigeria: Development Policy
Center.
The attempt by the Nigerian government to fight corruption has

extended to regulatory agencies such as the CBN. The article
takes a cursory look at these attempts by the federal government,
and in particular the CBN, to fight corruption, especially money
47
laundering. It also highlights the prospects and challenges

associated with efforts at curbing corruption within and outside
the banking sector. Providing a general introduction to and
overview of corruption in Nigeria, the article then reviews
specific efforts to fight corruption in Nigeria. Although generally
optimistic, the author cites the need for a consistent, coherent, and
broad-based approach with a long-term perspective in order to
win the war against corruption. The author also identifies the
banking sector as a platform for further concerted efforts in the
battle against financial crimes.
61. Modugu, P. K. , & Anyaduda, O. J. (2013). Forensic

accounting and financial fraud in Nigeria: An empirical approach.
International Journal of Business & Social Sciences, 4(7), 281–
289.
The increasing complicity of professionals in unethical practices

has been identified as one the major causes of business bankruptcy
around the world. This article examines the relationship between
forensic accounting and financial fraud in Nigeria. The authors
describe forensic accounting as a response to the susceptibility of
conventional accounting practices to corporate fraud. It identifies
the failure of internal audit systems to identify fraud cases in
corporate organizations. However, major challenges to the
viability of the forensic accounting method include excessive
bureaucracy, globalization, and the problem of gathering data that
are admissible in court. The article establishes a strong link
between forensic accounting and the attempt to curb fraud in
corporate organizations, and it recommends that forensic
accounting be encouraged as a specialized field of study and
adopted by the government for monitoring and investigating
corrupt practices.
48
62. Muhammad, Y. (201 3). Corruption, inequality of

income and economic growth in Nigeria. Munich Personal
REPEC Archive (MPRA), Paper No. 52348. Retrieved from
https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/52348/
Since the pioneering work of Mauro (1993), several scholars have

attempted to examine the effect of corruption on economic growth
and income. This article examines the interrelatedness of
corruption, income inequality, and economic growth in Nigeria.
The article utilizes both a conventional and structural break unit
root test and also employs the autoregressive distributive lag
model (ARDL) bound testing approach to cointegration due to the
presence of structural breaks. It also utilizes the vector error
correction model (VECM) Granger causality test for testing both
long- and short-term causality. Using content analysis, the paper
examines different types of corruption as well as causal
relationships between corruption, income inequality, and
economic growth that were found to be generally negative. The
paper concludes by recommending that, for effective policy,
careful understanding of different types of corruption and their
impact on economic growth is important in creating effective anti-
coruption policies.
63. Muo, I. K. (2007). Good governance and economic

development. In A. D. Aina, (Ed.), Corruption and the challenge
of human development (pp. 419–431), Ilishan-Remo: Babcock
University Press.
The concept of good governance has been widely debated in the

literature on development. This article examines the concept and
practice of political and economic governance and how poor
governance poses development challenges, specifically
corruption and political instability. After identifying the
hallmarks of good governance, the article asserts that corruption,
49
political crisis, and instability prevent countries from addressing

their most serious development challenges. In addition, they breed
inefficiency and diminished productivity in both public and
private sectors of the economy. Among other things, the article
proposes the establishment of global governance standard
practices as an essential step in. It calls on leaders to eliminate the
conditions that are conducive to corruption, strengthen and
empower anti-coruption institutions and policies, and ensure
enforcement of the rule of law. Furthermore, the author believes
the government should ensure the independence of the judiciary
and that separation of powers is applied in practice.
64. Nageri, K. I., Umar G., & Abdul, F. A. (2013).

Corruption and economic development: Evidence from Nigeria.
Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management
Review, 3(2), 46–56.
There is growing awareness about the negative effect of

corruption on political order and stability. This article investigates
the impact of corruption on economic development. It relies on
secondary data from World Bank reports and corruption reports
from Transparency International. The data were analyzed using
OLS regression analysis. The findings show that corruption has a
significant negative effect on economic growth and development.
The authors recommended that the Nigerian government enforce
strict application of anti-coruption codes as stipulated in the
legislation that established the anti-coruption agencies. It also
recommends transparency, accountability, and respect for the rule
of law in dealing with corrupt government officials.
65. Nkom, S.A. (1986). Ethical revolution? The futility of

bourgeois idealism. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in
Development (pp. 227–239), Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University
Press.
50
Implicit in the Marxist concept of politics is the assumption that

corrupt practices are natural to all capitalist states, arising from
the pattern of economic and social production. Capitalists,
however, will always preach ethical revolution or reorientation as
the solution to corruption. This article intends to outline and
critically assess the assumptions and practical recommendations
that underlie the idealist approach to corruption. The article
emphasizes that the fundamental limitations of this approach lie
in its fallacious conception that corruption derives from certain
unhealthy social values, such as selfishness, materialism, greed,
and lack of patriotism. Instead, the article recommends economic
and structural transformation as a way out of corruption in
Nigeria.
66. Nwankwo, N. R. (2013). Official corruption and

poverty reduction in Nigeria: A critical assessment (2003–2010).
International Journal of Arts & Sciences, 6(2), 305–329.
Poverty in Nigeria has been described as pervasive and persistent

despite the fact that the country is one of the richest countries in
Africa. This article examines the extent to which the anti-
coruption bodies in Nigeria fought the scourge of official
corruption between 2003 and 2010. It also examines the extent to
which poverty alleviation programs in Nigeria reduced the
incidence of poverty for the same time period, while attempting
to understand the impact of official corruption on those efforts. It
further illustrates various attempts to fight corruption in Nigeria
using the Conservative, Liberal Reformists, Radical
Structural/Marxists, Social Exclusion theory, and feedback
theory. It concludes by placing blame on the government for its
inadequate prosecution of established corruption cases.
51
67. Nwankwo, O. (2013). Implications of fraud on

commercial banks performance in Nigeria. International Journal
of Business and Management, 8(15), 144–150.
The main thrust of this study is to examine the link between

automated teller machine (ATM) fraud, forged checks, clearing
check fraud, and commercial bank performance in Nigeria. Using
regression analysis, the findings of the study reveal that fraud
significantly impacts the performance of commercial banks in
Nigeria, which ultimately affects the economy of the state. The
study thus recommends the more effective monitoring of bank
ATM fraud in order to ensure growth of the commercial banking
sector.
68. Nwanze, C. (2006). Bank fraud expose: With cases

and preventive measures. Lagos, Nigeria: The CBN Press.
In the past, corruption was generally associated with the public

sector; nowadays, the vice is also becoming widespread in the
private sector. This work examines the nature and dynamics of
bank-related fraud in Nigeria and the several measures in place to
prevent it. The author contends that bank fraud is widespread in
Nigeria and mainly driven by greed. He argues that recent banking
reforms (consolidation, closer supervision, new policy on
management) have helped reduce fraud but may be too little, too
late. He stresses the need for bank operators and regulators to be
more proactive in the future in order to prevent bank fraud
destroying the entire economy.
69. Nwaobi, C. G. (n.d.). Corruption and bribery in the

Nigerian economy: An empirical investigation. Abuja, Nigeria:
Quantitative Economic Research Bureau.
52
The underlining cause of Nigeria’s corruption is still a subject of

academic debate. This article seeks to investigate the way natural
resources might influence the country’s growth through an
increase in rent-seeking activities. The research seeks to examine
the impact of abundant natural resources on corrupt activities and
to examine the extent to which resource-rich economies tend to
experience slower growth. After concluding that natural resources
do, in fact, influence a country’s growth through an increase in
rent-seeking activities, the author proceeds to put forward
strategies and policies for eradicating corruption.
70. Obinwa, C. E. (2006). Understanding Corruption:

The Perception of Corruption and Impact on Livelihoods
Amongst Residents of Apata, Ibadan, Nigeria. (PhD Thesis)
University of Reading, U.K.
This study explores the impact of bribery and corruption from the
giver’s (payer’s) perspective, the impact of corruption on
livelihoods of the low, middle and high income households in
relation to education and health care provision in Apata, Ibadan,
Nigeria. The researcher adopts in-depth structured questionnaires,
semi-structured interviews, participant observation, documentary
sources and case studies, to examine and understand these
relationships.
Major findings of the study are that bribery and corruption
impacted severely on the low income households, their access to
quality schools and health care, resulting in increase in the use of
informal healthcare. Member of low income households also hold
perceptions based on their experiences, that bribery and
corruption are not only endemic in education and health care
provision but are also prevalent in other sectors of the Nigeria
economy, due to the government’s ina bility to checkmate
corruption.
53
71. Odubunmi, A. S., & Agbelade, L. I. (2014).

Corruption and economic growth in Nigeria. Journal of
Economics and Sustainable Development, 5(6), 45–56.
As all nations strive to achieve and maintain rapid economic

growth, attention has increasingly turned to factors capable of
undermining economic growth. Using Nigeria as a case study, this
article investigates the assumed relationship between corruption
and economic growth. In the study, the researcher employs the
Johansen cointegration test, ADF unit root test, Granger causality
test, and OLS method on time series (secondary) data, covering
1990 - 2010. Variables employed include FDI inflow, corruption
index, gross domestic product (GDP), gross fixed capital
formation, openness/globalization of the economy, and
government expenditure. The analysis shows that that there is no
significant relationship between corruption and openness of the
economy and globalization (OEG), a determinant of economic
growth, while economic growth and the other variables such as
government expenditure (GOV)FDI, and gross capital formation
(GCF) have a significant relationship with corruption, indicating
that corruption exhibits a positive relationship with economic
growth (GDP). In their conclusion, the researchers recommended
that the activities of the anti-coruption agencies in Nigeria should
be overhauled and youths reoriented toward more ethical values.
72. Okobi. P. I. P. (20 02). The relationship of wages and

cost of living to the corruption in public service in Nigeria (PhD
Thesis), Department of Applied Management and Decision
Sciences, Walden University, Minnesota, U.S.A.
This thesis attempts a descriptive analysis of the perception of

Nigerian public and civil servants towards bribery and corruption.
In a bid to actualize the aims and objectives of the study, the
researcher surveyed 600 public and civil servants across
54
ministries, departments, and agencies, and across geopolitical

zones. The results of the study suggest that bribery is rampant,
with the majority of respondents reporting that they would accept
a bribe if it were offered to them because their salaries are so low
and they are often paid late.
73. Ogwuma, A. P. (1991). White collar criminality and

fraud in financial institutions in Nigeria. In U. A. Kalu and Y.
Crimes in Nigeria (pp.100–107). Federal Ministry of Justice Law
Review Series, Vol. 2, 100–107.
The conservative nature of Nigeria’s legal system has been

identified as a contributing factor to the increasing rate of
corruption in Nigerian financial institutions. This article examines
the causes and nature of fraud in Nigeria, identifying
underdevelopment, inability to jail corrupt officials, celebration
of opulence in society, and excessive materialism as some of the
factors that promote fraud in contemporary Nigeria. It also
mentions poor oversight, a weak regulatory system, rule-bending,
and lack of proper attention while opening a bank account. The
author suggests the need to reform the education sector, regain
public confidence in the judiciary and punishment of offenders,
and establish a national research center in order to have detailed
statistics on the problem.
74. Olagunji, M. A. (2005). Corruption and the resource

curse phenomenon in Nigeria. Ife Social Science Review. Special
edition. Journal of the Faculty of Social Sciences, Obafemi
Awolowo University, October, 135–145
With large deposits of solid minerals and fossil fuels, which

constituted a major source of foreign exchange before and during
the first decade of independence, Nigeria is among the richest
55
countries in the world when it comes to natural resources. With

the discovery of crude oil at independence, the crude oil sector
entered the economic scene in a big way, accounting for more than
90% of the country’s export earnings. Despite this boom, poverty
is still increasing. The average Nigerian is poorer now than at
independence — undeniable evidence that the country is carrying
the resource curse which accounts for widespread corruption. This
article seeks to establish the existence of the resource curse in
Nigeria, explaining it in the context of one of two causes: financial
mismanagement or corruption in the country. It examines the
literature on the resource curse and attempts to establish the
phenomenon in Nigeria. Findings reveal that corruption has
permeated all strata of the Nigerian nation. Despite the efforts of
various anti-coruption initiatives, few results have been achieved.
The success of anti-coruption policies depends on strong
governance. Therefore, strengthening of governance,
commitment to leadership, and a reorientation of our value system
are possible strategies for fighting corruption in the country. In
addition, the leadership must be committed to tackling corruption,
and there must be freedom of the press.
75. Okafor, E. E. (2013). Corruption and implications for

industrial development in Nigeria. African Journal of Business
Management, 7(29), 2916–2924.
Corruption is the bane of socio-economic development in Nigeria.

This paper examines how corrupt practices and other associated
malpractices led to the failure of two state-owned public
institutions (the automobile and steel industries) that would have
launched the country into a world-class industrial nation.
According to the author, profligacy of the state, nepotism and
ethnicity in recruitment, and the promotion of public officers and
personnel to manage the affairs of these industries, as well as the
unbridled accumulation of material wealth by the officers and
56
personnel at the expense of the public institutions were

responsible for the undoing of these institutions. As a result, hopes
for Nigeria’s industrialization have been dashed. The paper
concludes that, unless there is a concerted effort by the state and
all other stakeholders to fight corruption, the hope and aspiration
of industrial development will remain just a dream in Nigeria.
76. Okwu, A.T. , & Adegun, E.A. (2007). Economic

implications of corruption on the Nigerian economy. In A.D. Aina
(Ed.), Corruption and the challenge of human development (pp.
309–325). Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria: Babcock University Press.
Despite the government’s anti-coruption measures, corruption s

intensifies its hold on the Nigerian state and economy. This article
suggests that the war against corruption must involve identifying
the various types of corruption and applying anti-coruption
measures and reforms in a two-stage process. First, policies must
be developed and fine-tuned to address the fundamental process.
Second, the political to implement measures and reforms must be
created. In addition, the article calls for comprehensive
institutional and administrative reform, and the administration of
punitive measures against corrupt officials. An enabling
environment should be created to empower a greater portion of
the population to participate more actively in economically viable
ventures.
77. Oladele, O. O. (2005). Corruption, investment climate

and economic development in Nigeria. Ife Social Science Review.
Special edition. Journal of the Faculty of Social Sciences,
National economic development has been a major policy goal of

successive national development plans in Nigeria. With
globalization and economic liberalization, Nigeria transitioned
57
from indigenization to the promotion of local and foreign

investment. Trade and investment liberalization has led to
incidents of corruption with its attendant damaging results.
Against this backdrop, there have been domestic and global
efforts in anti-coruption initiatives with a view toward fashioning
a social-legal system that efficaciously seeks to ensure that
corruption does not stifle investment. This article examines some
causes of corruption and evaluates the impact of corrupt practices
on investment promotion in Nigeria. The paper adopts a “trado-
cultural” explanation and “functionalist,” “religious-moral-legal,”
and “structural development” approaches to understanding the
causes of corruption in Nigeria. The article establishes that
corruption is a disincentive to investment, and that its widespread
as well as dynamic nature makes its elimination most difficult to
achieve. The author submits that although there are enough,
largely adequate anti-coruption laws in Nigeria, the efficacy of
relevant laws and policies and their enforcement mechanisms are
a problem. The article recommends a streamlined and automated
bureaucracy, exemplary governance, ethical orientation, and
committed and impartial law enforcement as effective weapons to
fight corruption. In addition, sanitization of the Nigerian
investment climate would aid economic development.
78. Olawole, O. (2007). A Political economy approach to

understanding corruption and the challenges of human
development. In A. D. Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the Challenge
of Human Development (pp. 105–112), Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria:
From a Marxist approach, this essay examines corruption and its

challenge to human development. The writer demonstrates how
the rich, who own all the means of production and distribution,
dominate or exploit the poor using corrupt practices as a means.
After reviewing the five epochs in human history—
58
communalism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism , and communism,

capitalism is considered as a factor contributing to the spread of
corruption because of its exploitative tendencies. The paper
argues that corruption is a hindrance to human development, and
that modern corruption, as a result, is in charge in the social
structuring of society from a traditional communal system to
capitalism. In conclusion, the paper suggests that the government
should fight corruption first by bridging the gap between the rich
and the poor and promoting equality, honesty, integrity , and trust
among all citizens.
79. Oluwalaiye, O.B. & Awolaja, G. O. (2007). The

impact of corruption on a national economy: Evidence from
Nigeria. In A. D. Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the Challenge of
Human Development (pp. 217–228). Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria:
This article argues that corruption in Nigeria is endemic and its

unparalleled incidence has destroyed the country’s integrity and
global image. The economic effect of corruption is seen in the fact
that more than 300 billion US dollars from oil exports since the
1970s have been embezzled by past Nigerian leaders. The
article’s objective is to show how bad governance in Nigeria and,
in particular, misappropriation of public money by leaders have
led to underdevelopment despite the country’s wealth of human
and natural resources. Several empirical cases were cited to show
the depth of corruption perpetrated against Nigerians by its past
and present leaders. Government spending for health, education,
and infrastructure becomes limited as a result of such corruption.
To address the problem, the article suggests a total overhaul of all
institutions in the country to foster development and a change of
attitude by the leaders to promote good governance.
59
80. Onayemi S.O., Akingunola R.O., & Sangosanya,

A.O.B. (2005). Governance, corruption and economic
development in Nigeria. Ife Social Science Review, Special
Awolowo University, October, 62–69.
Nigeria’s Human Development Report reflects the state of

corruption in Nigeria. This article looks into the recurrent
expenditures of different governments from 1978 through 2002.
It uses descriptive statistics such as growth rate and percentages
to analyze secondary data obtained from the CBN. Causes of
corruption identified by the study include, among others, extreme
income inequality and irregular monthly salary. Findings from the
study reveal that though democratic governments were relatively
better than military governments, both systems of governance are
corrupt. This is because they misallocate resources in a bid to
maximize their short-term self-interests. For example, they
discourage sufficient investment in human resources by allocating
funds away from education, health, and energy but spend money
on the military and other wasteful procurements that do not bring
about required sustainable economic development. In order to
completely eradicate corruption, Nigeria needs the practical
reform of existing laws, rules, customs, and traditions that govern
socio-political and economic relations. In addition, the military
should not be allowed to rule since they are not constrained by the
dictates of democratic principles. Efforts should be made toward
accelerating economic growth and poverty reduction, specifically
attracting foreign and domestic investments.
81. Ononghi, O. J. (2007). The effects of corruption on the

agricultural sector in Nigeria. In A. D. Aina, (Ed.), Corruption
and the Challenge of Human Development (pp. 275–280), Ilishan-
Remo, Nigeria: Babcock University Press.
60
The article examines the role of agriculture in national

development and how it has been limited by corruption which is
considered the most serious problem in Nigeria. The main
objective of this article is to show how the agricultural sector
could have transformed the nation but failed to do so It examines
the mismanagement of funds and poor policy implementation as
significant factors undermining the agricultural sector, while
adequate funding, good policies, repackaging, and enhanced
national security are proposed as solutions. The authors suggests
that, despite the fact that corruption has eaten deep into the fabric
of society, gains are still possible if the government and citizens
reorient themselves toward transforming the economy and
agriculture.
82. Onu, G. (2003). Emerging paradigms, prognosis and

sustainable development: The case of privatization in developing
societies. In G. Onu, (Ed.), Corruption and sustainable
development: The Third World perspective (pp.122–136). Awka ,
Nigeria: Bookpoint.
The collapse of the Soviet Union and its socialist ideology left
many developing countries in a dilemma. These countries,
characterized by the lack of a dynamic modernizing class, weak
colonial institutional inheritance, and poorly integrated national
economies, were left with no other option but to abandon state-
centered development strategies and renegotiate their insertion
into the global marketplace of the 21st century. Every effort at
embracing the globalization initiative has been met with
increasing social problems such as inequality, crime, corruption,
and stagnation. The dominant paradigms today such as
privatization, deregulation, downsizing, contracting out, and
divestment are embedded in the new public management. This
article examines these emerging paradigms with a focus on
privatization in developing countries and its impact on the
61
economy and sustainable human development. Findings reveal

that privatization in Nigeria has not really solved the problem of
poor governance. Rather, it has widened the gap between the rich
and the poor. Hence, disinvestments have the inherent inability to
curb corruption and improve efficiency. Accordingly, while the
emerging paradigms are intended to promote growth and
investment, constraints of developing societies and their lack of
preparedness for the dictates of the international environment and
idealistic capitalism only results in promoting abstract indices of
growth without really having a direct impact on the economy and
sustainable human development.
83. Osinbajo, Y. , & Ajayi, O. (1991). Money laundering

in Nigeria. In U. A. Kalu & Y. Osinbajo (Eds.), Perspectives on
Corruption and Other Economic Crimes in Nigeria Federal
Ministry of Justice Law Review Series, Vol. 2, 58–86.
Money laundering has been identified as one of the most serious

acts of corruption in Nigeria. This article examines the meaning
and nature of money-laundering activities in Nigeria and the
complicity of some financial institutions, such as the bureau de
exchange banks, in aiding and abetting this economic crime. The
author also examines the roles of statutory institutions and
regulations against money laundering such as the Foreign
Currency Domiciliary Account Decree 1985 (FCDA Decree),
Second Tier Foreign Exchange Market Decree 1986 (SFEM
Decree) Nigerian Enterprises Promotion (Issue of Non-Voting
Shares) Amendment Decree 1987 (NVS Decree 1987). It
identifies effective detection of money-laundering as the greatest
challenge, hence, the need for international collaboration. The
article concludes by highlighting strategies designed to fight
domestic money laundering.
62
84. Otusanya O. J. (2010). An Investigation of Tax

Evasion, Tax Avoidance and Corruption in Nigeria. (PhD Thesis)
Essex University, Essex, U.K.
The study suggests that large sums of government revenue have

been undermined by the anti-social practices of the Nigerian
political and economic elite which it blames for enriching a few,
but impoverishing most Nigerians. Thus, anti-social practices
have played a major role in causing serious damage to the
economic and social landscape of Nigeria, which, in turn, has
undermined social welfare and investment in public services,
thereby eroding the quality of life and producing a decline in
average life expectancy. T he study also suggests that the anti-
social practices of the political and economic elite have been
facilitated by professionals, for the purpose of increasing their
corporate profits and fostering their financial gains, which is in
conflict with their professional claims to be serving the public
interest.
85. Otusanya, O. J. (2011). The role of multinational

companies in corrupt practices: The case of Nigeria. International
Journal of Critical Accounting, 3(2/3), 171–201.
A number of studies and reports have associated corruption with

the misuse of public office for private financial gain. This study
examines in detail a major vehicle for bribery and corruption. It
argues that some corporations are willing to increase their profits
through indulging in bribery, corruption, and money laundering,
which has a tendency to degrade the governing system in the
developing country. The article locates the role of MNCs within
the broader dynamics of global capitalism to argue that the
continued drive for higher profits and competitive advantages at
almost any cost is not constrained by rules, laws, or even
regulatory action. Using publicly available data to show that
63
multinational corporations (MNCs) are the engines of corrupt

practice in Nigeria, article provides evidence showing that MNCs
have designed novel schemes to circumvent laws and regulations
in pursuit of higher profits. It seeks to explore and demonstrate
the intensification of the role of MNCs in antisocial practices in
developing countries, even though this role is in contradiction to
the claims of MNCs to be socially responsible and accountable
.
86. Otusanya, J. O., Lauwo, S., & Adeyeye, G. B. (2012).
A critical examination of the multinational companies’ anti-
corruption policy in Nigeria. Journal of Accountancy, Business
and the Public Interest, 11, 1–52.
The paper notes how the drive for profit maximization by

multinational corporations may lead them into engaging in
corruption, money laundering, and other forms of corruption. The
article notes that the burgeoning literature on MNCs rarely
examines their predatory practices even though these practices
affect a variety of stakeholders. The article, therefore, depicts a
gap between corporate anti-coruption policy and actions. The
authors draw on publicly available evidence to portray specific
companies engaged in bribery, money laundering, and other acts
of corruption. They argue that MNCs have used their connection
to national public officials to improve their competitiveness and
global earnings.
87. Oyewobi, L.O., Abdullahi, M.A., & Nwokobia, L.

(2011). Impact of corruption on effective project delivery of
building projects in Abuja. Interdisciplinary Journal of
Contemporary Research in Business, 3(3), 1051–1063.
Corruption has been identified as one of the major challenges of

national development in Nigeria. This article examines the impact
of corruption on service delivery in Nigeria, particularly in the
64
construction sector. The article argues that corruption in the

construction sector manifests at the very onset of the selection of
project location, appointment of consultants, procurement,
appointment of contractors, and supervision of the project. It
identifies the nature of Nigeria’s political economy, weak
government, dysfunctional legal system, and political interference
as the major factors encouraging corruption in the Nigerian
construction sector. The article highlights increased cost of
construction, abandoned projects, and managerial inefficiency as
some of the significant effects on corruption that prevent easy
access to public goods. The authors observes that the introduction
of due process has curbed the menace to a certain extent but
recommends that contactors disclose all project information to the
public for scrutiny to further deter corruption.
88. Peel, M (2009). A swamp full of dollars: Pipelines and

paramilitaries in Nigeria's oil frontier. London, England: I. B
Tauris & Co.
This article is a rich compendium of narratives on oil and armed

militancy in Nigeria’s oil-rich Niger Delta. The author argues that,
despite the fact that the region is one of the richest oil deposit
areas in the world, it remains a dangerous spot for oil exploration
because a strategic alliance between the country’s greedy political
class and the oil companies ensures irresponsible but lucrative
mining business practices that lead to environmental degradation
and the dispossession of local communities. In response to this,
local militants have emerged, disrupting the oil business. This
article argues that the government’s effort to stop the activities of
these militants has failed due to the degree of corruption evident
in the process. It chronicles, in equal and engaging measure, the
voices and actions of the key players, including the militants, state
officials, multinational oil companies, peasants, and other
subaltern groups.
65
89. Rotimi, E.M, Obasaju, B., Lawal, A., &

Iseolorunkanmi, J. (2013). Analysis of corruption and economic
growth in Nigeria. Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences, 4(4.2),
1–19.
This article use quantitative methodology to estimate the impact

of corruption on the economy. It employs the OLS method to
determine the relationship between corruption and economic
growth, and it applies Granger causality to show the causal link
between corruption and gross domestic product. The result of the
research shows that corruption impairs and impacts economic
growth.
90. Salisu, O. U. (2011). The opacity and conduit of

corruption in the Nigerian oil sector: Beyond the rhetoric of the
anti-corruption crusade. Journal of Sustainable Development in
Africa, 13(2), 294–308.
The failure of Nigeria’s development efforts has largely hinged

on the consistent mismanagement of its oil wealth. This article,
employing the content analysis method, attempts an appraisal of
oil-related corruption in the Nigerian oil sector. It argues that
underdevelopment in Nigeria is results from the mismanagement
of resources rather than from the absence of such resources. It
argues that widespread and prolonged mismanagement is possible
because of the almost total absence of public accountability by
successive Nigerian governments. While the most common form
of corruption in Nigeria used to be bribery, in recent years this has
been surpassed by embezzlement and theft of public funds,
extortion, abuse of discretion, abuse of public power for private
gain, favoritism, nepotism, conflict of interest, extortion, and
illegal political party financing. The article traces the history of
oil exploration in Nigeria, and analyzes the different
manifestations of corruption in the oil sector, arguing that
66
corruption aggravates income inequality and poverty because

those who benefit from corrupt deals are not likely to be among
the poorest. To succeed in reducing corrupt practices in the oil
sector, Nigeria needs strong political resolve and genuine efforts
to introduce greater transparency in the management of oil
resources.
91. Sangosanya, A.O.B., Akingunola R.O., & Onayemi

S.O. (2005). Corruption, poverty and national development. Ife
Social Science Review. Special edition. Journal of the Faculty of
Social Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, 70–77.
No society can actualize its full potential if it allows corruption to

develop unchallenged. In spite of the country’s enormous
resources, the level of poverty in Nigeria is alarming. Corruption
becomes prevalent when citizens, due to poverty, are not
empowered to participate in the political process and have no
means to hold their leaders accountable for their decisions and
actions. This article, therefore, examines the interwoven nature of
corruption and poverty as a deterrent to development. It explores
the causes, l effects, and consequences of corruption. It explores
socio-economic indicators for selected years to explain the
poverty level. The findings in this study reveal that poverty
provides the initial impetus for corruption to thrive in Nigeria;
however, the depth of the level of corruption further widens its
horizon. Therefore, strategies to eradicate poverty should take
into consideration an improvement in the country’s Human
Development Index (HDI) through improvement in the standard
of living, literacy level, health, justice, equity, and human rights,
developing institutions, government performance, and political
structures and attitudes toward the poor. Furthermore, the
institutional approach which considers nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs) as vital to the attack on poverty through the
empowerment of the poor should be pursued.
67
92. Shehu, U. R. A., & Akanni, O. E. (2008). Corruption

and economic growth in Nigeria: 1986–2007. Munich personal
REPEC archive (MPRA), Paper No. 12504: Online at
http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/12504/.
According to the World Bank , corruption is a key factor that has

hindered economic growth in developing countries. Using Nigeria
as a case study, this article examines the effect of corruption in
the country between 1986 and 2007. To achieve this, a Barro-type
endogenous growth model and the Engle-Granger (1987)
cointegration and error correction mechanism (ECM) techniques
were used to unit root properties of the variables and their long-
term relationship and to determine values of long-term
parameters. The findings reveal that corruption exerts a
significant direct effect on economic growth and, indirectly, via
critical variables such as government capital expenditure, human
capital development, and total employment. Second, about 20%
of the increase in government capital expenditure ends up in
private pockets. The article, therefore, recommends that the
government come up with more effective measures for curbing
corruption.
93. Siyanbola, A. A. , & Ogunbona, O. O. (2005).

Corruption and economic development: An empirical analysis. Ife
Social Science Review. Special edition. Journal of the Faculty of
Social Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, October, 190–
202.
Nigeria is endowed with enormous human and natural resources;

yet, it is still categorized as one of the poorest countries in the
world. Corruption has been identified as a major cause for this
failure to progress in Nigeria. Seeking to establish the effects of
corruption on economic development using input-output analysis,
the authors adopt a holistic approach, discussing corruption under
68
three broad headings: political corruption, bureaucratic

corruption, and electoral corruption. It classifies the economy into
15 sectors, one of which is “corruption.” It hypothesizes that a
percentage of the allocation of the sectors goes into corruption and
then finds the linkage effect between corruption and the different
sectors. The article concludes that corruption is a leak in the
economy and explores its “merchandise.” The article
recommends that the government should take a holistic approach
to the issue of corruption by organizing a comprehensive national
conference that will restructure and reform not only the political
terrain but also the constitution and the judicial and legal systems.
It encourages a commitment to fiscal federalism as well. In
addition, the government and citizens must remember that good
governance, transparency, and accountability are the keys to
tackling corruption in society.
94. Tijani, A. R. (2011). The impact of insurance

corruption on good governance. In A.B. Sunday (Ed.),
Corruption, democracy and good governance in Nigeria (pp.156–
176). Saki, Nigeria: Real Success Consults.
Insurance is a device which provides financial compensation in

the event of misfortune, with the payment being made from the
accumulation of contributions of all parties participating in the
scheme. The Nigerian insurance system has been diagnosed with
various forms of corrupt practices which have a negative effect on
good governance. This article takes a look at corruption in the
insurance sector and its implications for good governance in
Nigeria. The study traces the origin of insurance in Nigeria, its
meaning, functions, and classifications. It also examines the
complexity of corruption and the manifiestations endemic to
Nigerian insurance firms. According to the paper, the staff of
insurance firms found corruption unavoidable because many of
them struggle for survival without assistance from the company.
69
The paper recommends the need to eradicate the warlike political

contests which have been the bane of private enterprise since
independence. It highlights the need for employees, brokers,
agents, and other professional bodies to practice and implement
mutual trust, fair and equal distribution of resources, and
reinvigoration of the right governance ethos in the people,
beginning at birth.
95. Uma, K. E., & Eboh, F. E. (2013). Corruption,

economic development and emerging markets: Evidence from
Nigeria. Asian Journal of Management Sciences and Education,
2(3), 56–67.
This article offers interesting insight into the link between

corruption and the challenge of economic development in Nigeria.
It argues that in spite of the measures put in place by the federal
government to curb corruption, the menace still remains evident
in every facet of the Nigerian polity and has eaten deep into the
Nigerian system. The paper examines the implications of
corruption in Nigeria and comes to the conclusion that corruption
is one of the greatest problems militating against development,
growth, and poverty alleviation. The article goes further to proffer
some recommendations for solving the problem. Among these are
radical reform in all sectors of the Nigerian economy,
minimization of unemployment, higher remuneration for high-
level public officers, increased wages, and provision of credit
facilities and noncorrupt allowances to workers to enable them to
meet the necessities of life.
96. Utigikar, S. S. (1986). Corruption in the building

industry. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in
development (pp.106–110). Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University
Press.
70
The article analyzes corruption as it affects developing countries

like Nigeria, especially the building industry, with resulting
effects on urbanization, industrial development, and social and
economic development. The article classifies the major areas in
the building industry where corruption commonly occurs and
highlights how the architect, engineer, and technical staff are
involved in the vicious cycle of corruption. Warning about the
consequences of corruption in the building industry and its several
related effects on the industrial development of Nigeria, the article
calls for urgent and drastic measures to check corruption in order
to avoid a loss in national income from poor quality public
buildings. It recommends the hardening of public opinion against
corruption and corrupt acts in the building industry.
97. Xaivier, S., & Arvind, S. M. (2008). Addressing the

national resource curse: An illustration from Nigeria. In C. C.
Soludo, P. Collier, & C. Pattillo (Eds.), Economic policy options
for a prosperous Nigeria (pp. 61–92). New York : Palgrave
Macmillan.
The abundance of natural resources is one of the most commonly

cited causes of corruption in Nigeria. This chapter discusses
Nigeria’s challenge in managing natural resources and its effect
on corruption. With the use of cross-section empirical analysis,
the authors demonstrate that stunted institutional development—
a catch phrase for a range of pathologies including corruption and
weak governance—is a problem intrinsic to countries that own
natural resources such as oil or minerals. The scholars point out
that natural resources such as oil and minerals have a serious
detrimental impact on the quality of domestic institutions and
long-term growth. They reveal that waste and corruption from oil,
rather than Dutch disease, has been responsible for Nigeria’s poor
long-run economic performance. They also proffer some
solutions for tackling the problem, which include the acceleration
71
of institutional change, which would involve distributing the bulk

of oil revenues directly to the people.
Education
98. Adebisi, A. P., Adebisi, O. S. , & Arogundade, K. K.

(2012). Academic corruption and the challenge of unemployable
graduates in Nigeria: Implications for entrepreneurship
Ddevelopment and economic growth. Journal of Commerce, 4(1),
1–12.
It is believed that qualitative education is a major instrument that

transforms the society. In other words, without quality education,
a society is bound to be retrogressive. This study posits that the
phenomenon of unemployable graduates increases the rate of
unemployment and obstructs the development of Nigeria. While
identifying several factors responsible for the poor quality of
graduates churned out by tertiary institutions, the article focuses
attention on the part played by academic corruption in the
emergence of this phenomenon. It contends that the curricular
structure is too cumbersome and highly demanding. The study
also states that the perverse manner in which the curricula are
administered has led to the challenge of unemployable graduates.
It posits that an end has to come to corruption in the nation’s
tertiary institutions in order to produce employable graduates who
will encourage development. It recommends strict adherence to
the principle of the rule of law; sincerity of agency and
administrators, and a strong political will.
72
99. Apeji, S.A. (1986). The crumbling ivory tower:

Corruption in academic process. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria:
Corruption in Development (pp.100–105). Ibadan, Nigeria:
Ibadan University Press.
The ivory tower is often expected to serve as a good example to

the rest of the society, especially in moral terms. This community,
however, has gradually become infested with the same corruption
now ravaging the Nigerian society. This article examines the
types of corruption in Nigerian universities that stem from both
academic and nonacademic activities of the Nigerian universities.
Analyzing the external drivers of corruption in universities, the
author clearly shows how corruption derailed higher education.
The article evaluates the various steps to check corruption and
recommends solutions to prevent further decay of Nigeria’s
university system. Among the recommendations suggested are
better collaboration among the academics and a change of attitude
by those managing the university system.
100. Edinyang, S. D. (2012). The role of social studies

education in stemming corruption for national transformation in
Nigeria. British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 9(1), 97–103.
A search for the cure to Nigeria’s corruption problem must begin

with a clear explanations for its endemic presence in Nigeria.
Focused on exposing the causes of corruption, the author explains
why the fight against this monster is fruitless and discusses the
role of social studies education in national transformation that will
curtail corruption. The article concludes by recommending that
social studies education be compulsory for all students. It also
recommends curbing corruption through cultural reorientation,
strict adherence to constitutional and legal provisions, patriotism,
and holistic embracing of good governance.
73
101. Ekanem, E. E., Okore, E. O., & Ekpiken, E. W.

(2012). University education policy in the fight against corruption
and economic development in Nigeria. Journal of Emerging
Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies, 3 (4), 447–
452.
According to the national policy on education, the goal of tertiary

education is to contribute to national development through high-
level relevant manpower training, development of proper values
for the survival of individuals and society, and development of
the intellectual capacity individuals so that they understand and
appreciate their local and external environment and acquire both
the physical and intellectual skills that will enable them to be self-
reliant and useful members of society. The inability or
ineffectiveness of our universities in performing these functions
was traced to corruption. The paper, therefore, seeks to provide
baseline information for reengineering the university policy plan
in solving the problem of corruption so as to engender
development. It identifies factors inhibiting university education
policy in the fight against corruption and makes
recommendations.
102. Emiloju, A. A. , & Adeyoju, C. A. (2012). The

challenges of maintaining the integrity of public examinations in
Nigeria: The ethical issues. International Education Studies, 5(2),
18–23.
In recent years, there have been debates on the validity and

reliability of public examinations in Nigeria. This paper surveys
the ethical issues and challenges facing the efficient conduct of
public examinations in Nigeria. It submits that the failure of the
Nigerian school system to translate the nations’ educational
philosophy into reality is clearly a result of the teaching of
inappropriate attitudes and values among citizens. This further
74
affects the nation’s quest to achieve in all field. Thus, the study
recommends the establishment of the National Commission for
Examination Ethics (NCEE) to oversee all matters relating to the
promotion of examination ethics and the formation of the Anti-
Examination Malpractice Brigades (AEMB) in the schools to
compliment the role of the proposed NCEE in reorienting students
on the importance of abiding by examination ethics and shunning
examination malpractices.
103. Jimoh, B. O., & Omoregie, O. E. (2012). Factors that

predispose secondary school teachers to examination malpractice
in Edo State, Nigeria. Review of European Studies, 4(1), 245–254.
Examination malpractices have become endemic in the Nigerian

educational system, particularly in secondary schools, with
teachers, school heads, parents, and other key stakeholders in
examination administration involved in the corruption. Using Edo
state as a case study, this paper examines the variables that
predispose secondary school teachers to examination malpractice.
The descriptive survey design was deployed in the study. The data
collected were analyzed using percentages, both mean and
standard deviation. The findings in the study indicate that anomie
is a major significant variable that predisposes teachers to
examination malpractice. Other variables, though not significant,
are social/parental factor, teaching/learning environment, teacher
factor and student factor. Hence, the study recommends that
teacher training programs should be re-designed in ways that
place more emphasis on civic and moral education and that
government increase funding for the educational sector.
104. Nzeakor, H. O. (2002). Corruption in institutions of

higher education in Nigeria. In C. O. T. Ugwu (Ed.), Corruption
in Nigeria: Critical perspectives: A book of readings (pp. 283–
297). Nsukka, Nigeria: Chuka Educational Publishers.
75
Corruption has been blamed for the failing standard of education

in Nigeria. This article examines the influence of corruption on
tertiary education in Nigeria. It investigates the different types of
corrupt practices, including their causes and consequences, and
looks at the standard of education in Nigeria. It identifies
corruption through admission, corruption among students, and
corruption among staff/authorities, with examples as the types of
corruption. It highlights social stratification, modernization,
colonialism as different causes of corruption. The author suggests
valued reorientation, proper funding of the education sector, and
stiff punishment for those convicted of cultism as the way out of
the malaise.
105. Odo, C. O. (2002). Corruption within the education

System: Examination malpractice in school. In C. O. T Ugwu
(Ed.), Corruption in Nigeria: Critical perspectives: A book of
readings (pp. 272–282). Nsukka, Nigeria: Chuka Educational
Publishers.
Examination malpractices have been identified as one of the

challenges facing the Nigerian education system. This article
explores the meaning, causes, and forms of examination
malpractices and the strategies with which to tackle the
phenomenon. The author describes examination malpractice as a
form of corrupt practice perpetrated within the education system.
He identifies poor teaching methods, poor remuneration,
ineffective supervision, and overemphasis on paper qualification
as some of the factors that are aiding exam malpractice. The
dishonesty of the officials of examining bodies and the active
connivance of teachers and school authorities are other reasons.
Finally, the author suggests the need to recruit competent and
qualified teaching personnel, thorough supervision, and improved
conditions of service for teachers as coping strategies to curtail
examination malpractices in Nigeria.
76
106. Ogunji, A. J. (2011). Examination management and

examination malpractice: The Nexus. Journal of International
Education Research, 7(4), 53–64.
In recent years, examinations at all level of the educational system

have been faced with diverse levels of fraud and irregularities
perpetuated by students, teachers, parents, and other stakeholders.
Arguing that the level of examination malpractice in any country
at any time is directly proportional to the extent to which
examination management roles violate or uphold examination
ethics, this article uses Nigeria as a case study to unravel the
specific unethical examination management practices that tend to
sustain a culture of examination malpractice. It recommends strict
adherence to examination management ethics as the way to
address the problem.
107. Okorodudu, N. G. (2013). Peer pressure and socio-

economic status as predictors of students’ attitude to examination
malpractice in Nigeria. International Journal of Education, 5(1),
36–51.
In recent years, the education sector in Nigeria has been faced

with the problem of examination malpractices at both primary and
tertiary levels. The aim of this article is to examine the effect of
peer pressure and socio-economic status as predictors of student
attitudes toward examination malpractice in Nigeria. Adopting
regression analysis, the results show that peer pressure
significantly predicts students’ attitude s. The study, therefore,
recommends the following measures: first, the school counselor
should help students to reduce the negative impact of peer
pressure through the use of counseling skills, equal penalties for
offenders irrespective of their gender or socio-economic
background, and moral education that will aid students in making
god decisions. .
77
108. Okotoni, C. A. (2007, September 6). Curbing

examination malpractices in Nigeria. Paper presented at the
International Conference on Nigeria in the 21st Century: Issues
and Challenges, Faculty of Administration, Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife/Conference Centre of the Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Examination malpractice is probably the most serious threat to

academic credibility and prestige in Nigeria. This article examines
the rising challenge of examination malpractice, which cuts
across all levels of education in Nigeria and has harmed the
reputation of the nation abroad. The article observes that there is
an increase in the degree of examination malpractice at all level,
and went on to analyze the various forms of examination
malpractice in Nigeria. Such increase includes leakage,
impersonation, alteration of marks by lecturers and examiners,
aiding and abetting, supply of prewritten answer sheets to
students, and many others. The causes of such malpractice include
greed, high cost of examination fees, laziness, general decadence,
truancy, too much emphasis on certification, misplaced priorities,
inadequate facilities in schools, and the failure of parents and
government to effectively curb the menace. The paper argues that
the consequences of examination malpractice are grievous and
devastating. The solutions to the menace include reevaluation of
the laws in regards to examination malpractice, applying stiff
penalties, involvement of NGOs, the government, and parents,
and the reorientation of the Nigerian students
.
109. Olusina-Daniel, O. O. (2005). Corruption and ethical
challenges in the Nigerian university system: Implications for
national development. Ife Social Science Review, Special edition.
Journal of the Faculty of Social Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo
University, October, 216 –224.
78
Corruption remains a fundamental problem in most parts of the

world in spite of various efforts to stop it. This article examines
the issue of corruption and ethical challenges facing Nigerians
within university system. The article cites a small-scale survey,
involving 20 lecturers (graduate assistants-lecturers 1), in the
Faculty of Social Sciences. The authors use individual oral
interviews to assess the level of knowledge of junior academics
about ethics associated with their teaching profession. The study
shows that junior academics have little knowledge of the ethics
guiding their profession and discusses the impact of this on
corruption and national development. The article recommends
that policy guidelines on corruption and national development
with reference to the Nigerian university system include an
improvement in the conditions of service of the university
employees, training and retraining of staff, and a broad-based
awareness campaign to create awareness about the high costs and
damaging impacts of corruption.
110. Ugwoegbu, I. T. (2012). Roles of adult education in

minimizing corruption in Nigeria. Journal of Emerging Trends in
Educational Research and Policy Studies, 3(2), 170–173.
From all available evidence, corrupt practices in Nigeria have

reached a very high degree of prevalence. This endemic state of
corruption warranted several actions already taken by
stakeholders to fight against it. The purpose of the study is to help
develop an effective and permanent mechanism that will help
minimize or if not totally eliminate corruption in the Nigerian
society. The study drew attention to the evils of corruptio n in
Nigeria and then discussed some methods that could be used to
reduce corruption through adult education. Adult education,
according to the author, is regarded as all forms of education
provided to adults and is obtained through formal and informal
79
situations. The author argues that these forms of education, if

provided, will help minimize corruption among the beneficiary.
Health
111. Adebola, S. A. (2007). Corruption, the monstrous

obstacle course in health care delivery system in Nigeria—An
Appraisal. In A. D. Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the challenge of
human development (pp. 397–416) Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria:
The negative impact of corruption on social services like health is

a well-known fact. This writer reviews, on a conjoint
measurement scale, the implications of all types of corruption and
their impact on the health of the Nigerian people. The article
establishes the causal relationship between individual health and
the level of corruption as indicated by indices like drug theft,
equipment misuse, bribery, nepotism, fake drugs, and supplies
invoicing. The paper distinguishes between the impact of
corruption on health status in rural and urban areas, noting that
while the impact has a more devastating effect in rural and socio-
economically poor areas, the worse forms of corruption are the
practice of theft and supplying of fake drugs. The paper suggests
that the mechanisms for fighting corruption should be devoid of
all political maneuvers. It also called for a reorganization of the
budgeting process to allow for more participation and
transparency in the formulation, execution, and reporting segment
of the process. It suggests the need for effective monitoring of the
use of hospital equipment and vehicles and a fully functional
national health insurance scheme to allow the health care delivery
system to rely more on user fees than on conventional government
interventions for the maintenance of hospitals.
80
112. Smith, D. J. (2012). AIDS NGOS and Corruption in

Nigeria. Health and Place, 18(3), 475-480.
NGOs are usually renowned for their advocacy against

corruption. Yet many of these N GOs are widely suspected of
indulging in corruption and mismanagement of donor funds. With
the use of two ethnographic case studies, this article probes into
the intersecting dynamics of inequality, morality, and corruption
among Nigerian NGOs that specialize in the fight against HIV-
AIDS. The author observes, rather ironically, that even though
local AIDS organizations are widely seen as conduits for
corruption, local opinions of particular NGOs and their leaders
care less as to whether donor resources were misused and more
on the ways that people who accumulate the benefits of corruption
use them socially. In the midst of this ambivalence, the author
observes a growing discontent about corruption which, in his
words, suggests a gradual change in people's understandings of
the processes that produced inequality in Nigeria.
History
113. Adadu, O. (2006). Curbing corruption in Nigeria:

The untold facts. Abuja, Nigeria: Ogunleye Publishing.
The origin of Nigeria’s corruption problem is often as

controversial as the role of contemporary anti-coruption
institutions and policies in the anti-coruption struggle. The book
highlights the history and nature of corruption in contemporary
Nigeria. The author traces the root of the problem to colonial rule
but finds that corruption has now become a part of the character
of many Nigerians. The book contains several examples of
corruption including the ones in central government institutions,
traditional institutions, and local government councils. While
81
taking account of existing anti-coruption laws, the author

advocates curbing corruption through poverty eradication
strategies and social justice.
114. Agbaje, E. B. A. (2007). Corruption, power and

insecurity in the contemporary Nigerian State: A historiography
of paradoxes. Paper presented at the International Conference on
Nigeria in the 21st Century: Issues and Challenges, Faculty of
Administration, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-
Ife/Conference Centre of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-
Ife, Nigeria.
Corruption has had multiple effects on the Nigerian society. This

paper, based on historical perspective, attempts to draw a link
between corruption, power, and insecurity in Nigeria. The paper
points at the paradox of the state’s wealth, which was supposed to
provide security but has become the reason for insecurity in
Nigeria. The origin of these problems in Nigeria, and indeed
Africa as a whole, can be traced to the European invasion of
Africa and the corrupt practices used to extract wealth from the
continent. The paper concludes by asserting that the way forward
must include the reordering of the Nigerian state into one where
dubious wealth questioned and sanctioned.
115. Aluko, J. O. (2007). Corruption: A legacy of

colonialism. In A.D Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the challenge of
human development (pp. 201–214). Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria:
This article examines corruption from a historical perspective.

The author argues that corruption is a colonial legacy brought into
the country during British colonial rule. Traditionally, Nigeria is
organized around kinship system and each kinship group is
organized into compound for political, economic, social and
82
administrative purposes for the maintenance of the society and

corruption was minimal or absent in this setting. As the paper
clearly shows, colonial era bastardized the purity of Nigeria and
introduce corruption in its leaderships and all form of corrupt
practices to perpetrate fraud began with the British, before
spreading into postcolonial military and civilian regimes. To
tackle corruption, the paper suggests that all anti-coruption
agencies should put in more efforts and the government should
discipline corrupt officials. The citizens need to hold the
government accountable for lack of transparency, good
governance, bad leadership and lack of progress in different
socio-economic sectors.
116. Falola, T. (1 998). Corruption in the Nigerian public

service: 1945-1960. In J. M. Mbaku (Ed.), Corruption and the
crisis of institutional reforms in Africa (pp. 137–165). Lewiston,
NY: The Edwin Mellen Press.
The rise of corruption in the Nigerian polity dates back to the

colonial era. Its institutionalization as legitimate practice is rooted
in the preindependence years, as early as the mid-1940s, when
serious concerns about it were first expressed. The article explores
the nature and progression of strategies employed in combating
corruption in the pre-1960 public service. Prior to this work, the
existing literature on corruption focused primarily on the
postindependence period while the colonial period was
considered sacred. The article also examines how the underlining
indigenous ethics of precolonial structure, which legitimized the
chief as the rightful receiver and the subjects as the rightful giver
of gifts, resurfaced under the British Native Authority system. The
work traces the history of antigraft crusades (both private and
public) as far back as the early years of colonial administration.
83
117. Lawal, A. A . Corruption in Nigeria: A colonial

legacy. Inaugural lecture delivered at the University of Lagos,
Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria. June 7, 2006.
From a historical perspective, this article examines the origin of

corruption and corrupt practices in Nigeria. The author argues that
corruption was invented and nurtured under colonial rule during
which the phenomenon became extremely pervasive in all sectors
of the then emerging economy. During this time, British colonial
officials, contrary to widely held view, invented various methods
of perpetrating fraud and embezzlement of public funds. As the
author shows, these corrupt British officials were hardly punished
by their kith and kin who were in charge of governance so that,
over time, Nigerians inherited or began to copy some of these
vices imported by Europeans. To tackle corruption, the author
recommends democratic reforms, independent anti-coruption
agencies (ACAs) and incentives to encourage whistle-blowers.
118. Ogbeidi, M. M. (2012). Political leadership and

corruption in Nigeria since 1960: A socio-economic analysis.
Journal of Nigeria Studies, 1(2), 1–25.
This article argues that corruption is responsible for the socio-

economic setback in Nigeria. Using a historical approach, the
article attempts to explore the corrupt tendencies of the political
leadership class in Nigeria since 1960 and its implication for
socio-economic development. The main crux of the paper is that
political leadership and corruption are interwoven. From that
point of view, the author argues that the problem of corruption in
Nigeria cannot be solved without addressing the question of bad
leadership. He recommends that there must be a complete change
of attitude on the part of the Nigerian political leadership or
political class in order for the country to experience a corrupt-free
society.
84
119. Pierce, S. (2006). Looking like a state: Colonialism

and the discourse of corruption in northern Nigeria. Comparative
Studies in Society and History, 48(4), 887–914.
Most analysts of corruption in Nigeria do not usually make

reference to the presence or nature of corruption in precolonial
Nigeria. This article considers the problem of corruption in
Nigeria from a historical viewpoint. It particularly looks at how
corruption was deployed as a term to characterize different kinds
of malpractices in government throughout the twentieth century.
The article adopts an historical approach and sees corruption not
as a product of a Nigerian or African dysfunction but as a product
of the legacy of state formation and of the interplay between
indigenous and foreign understandings of appropriate conducts in
government.
120. Smith, M. G. (1979). The historical and cultural

condition of political corruption among Hausa. In U. M. Ekpo
(Ed.), Bureaucratic corruption in sub-Saharan Africa: Towards a
search for causes and consequences (pp. 211–246). Washington
D.C: University Press of America.
This article historicizes the emergence of political corruption in

the Hausa societies. It argues that Islam was an instrument used
to successfully navigate the mucky waters of politics. Although,
the Jihad aided in the reasserting Islamic norms, however it failed
to dispel oligarchic traditionalism. This led to strange political
system which has a mixture of political pragmatism, Islamic
norms and traditional Habe practice. This was also a factor that
facilitated the adoption of indirect rule system by the British. It
further argues that oppression and corruption increases among the
Hausa people because they control the political hemisphere and
governance. It concludes that to fully understand the emergence
of political corruption among the Hausas, historical and structural
85
factors which define these behaviors and their context should be

taken into full account.
121. Tignor, L. R. (1993). Political corruption in Nigeria

before independence. The Journal of Modern African Studies,
13(2), 175–202.
Political corruption is not a new phenomenon in Nigeria´s body

politics. Scholars have argued that the root of widespread
corruption in the country could be traced to the period of
colonialism when it was used increasingly as a tool to legitimize
British indirect rule in Nigeria. Therefore, this article sought to
investigate the root cause(s) of political corruption in Nigeria and
how it gained prominence in contemporary Nigeria. The author
identifies colonialism as the root cause of widespread corruption
in Nigeria. It contends that corrupt practices may not be strange
to any human society, but it has become a strategy for establishing
and sustaining unpopular rule in the colonial era. The article
strongly criticized the British colony for the allegation of existing
widespread corruption prior to the arrival and against the
nationalists as self-serving and a pretext to protract colonial rule
in Nigeria with an attempt to discredit the agitation for political
emancipation, respectively. It criticizes the British stance on
corruption as double standard. The study concludes that the case
of widespread political corruption only gained momentum in the
wake of decolonization.
86
Law
122. Adejumo, I. O. (2006). Corruption and crime in

Nigeria. In B. Aboyade & S. Ayodele S. (E ds.), Fighting
corruption in Nigeria: Challenges for the future (pp.139–161).
Ibadan, Nigeria: Development Policy Center.
Corruption and crime are two major problems plaguing Nigeria.

This article examines the various attempts that have been made
by past and present governments to create a legal framework for
curtailing them. One of the methods employed is the review of
past cases handled by the Nigerian courts to see how the courts
interpreted some of the past legislation and how their judgments
were received. After the review, the author concludes that
corruption is a major factor contributing to the loss of confidence
in public institutions in the country. To remedy the situation, the
author recommends swift punishment of corrupt officials, the
removal of constitutional immunity, and other impediments
hindering the various commissions established to investigate and
try persons charged with the offence of corruption.
123. Ajibade, S.P.A. et al. (2011). Executive Summary of

Anti-Corruption Legislations with a View to Advising Foreign
Investors in Nigeria on Anti-corruption Programmes. Retrieved
fromhttp://spaajibade.wordpress.com/2013/04/15/executive-
summary-of-anti-corrupt-legislations-with-a-view-to-advising-
foreign-investors-in-nigeria-on-anti-corruption-programmes/.
Legislation is a crucial tool for dealing with corruption and crime.
This article offers an excellent review of the anti-coruption

legislation in Nigeria. The document was prepared to serve as
guide to foreign investors who wish to avoid falling prey to
corrupt officials. The article acknowledges the fact that corruption
87
in relation to financial crime cuts across borders, and as such there

is the need to develop strategies and laws to curb it. Within this
strategy, the need for international cooperation becomes pertinent.
The article, thus, looks at some of the anti-coruption legislation in
Nigeria, alongside legislation in other countries such as the United
Kingdom and United States. The legislation discussed includes
the ICPC Act 2000, EFCC Act 2004, the money laundering
prohibition act 2004, the English Bribery Act 2010, the American
foreign corrupt practices act, etc. The article concluded by calling
attention to the need for individuals and organizations to seek
professional advice on the laws guiding each financial
environment.
124. Akihihiero, A. P. (2007 , July 24). Legal dynamics of

the enforcement of economic crimes in Nigeria. Paper presented
at the Law Week of the Benin Branch of the Nigerian Bar
Association, Bishop Kelly’s Pastoral Centre, Airport Ro ad, Benin
City, Edo, Nigeria.
The frequent recourse to new legislation and institutions by

successive governments in their quest to fight corruption
underlines the importance of an effective legal framework in
crime fighting. This article was written against the backdrop of
the new civilian administration of President Umar Musa Yar’adua
who was about to launch his version of anti-coruption crusade
which he promised will break new grounds in the anti-coruption
war. Adopting a leg al approach, the author examines the various
definitions and dimensions of the concept of economic crime in
the light of new local legislation. It also appraised the legal
machinery in place for the enforcement of economic crimes, and
analyzed the enforcement processes. The article concludes with
the on the spot assessment of the performances of the various
agencies regulating the dynamic field of anti-coruption in Nigeria
and made recommendations for improvement in the system,
88
including more commitment of the government against

corruption.
125. Akinseye-George, Y. (2000). Legal system,

corruption and governance in Nigeria. Lagos, Nigeria: New
Century Law Publishers.
The study of corruption has largely been dominated by social

scientists. Yet as a social problem, corruption also has other
aspects which are sometimes beyond the purview of the social
scientist. This book, written by a legal practitioner and scholar,
attempts to establish the relationship between the Nigerian legal
system, corruption and governance. The author argues that the
phenomenon of corruption is nurtured by a weak legal system and
has posed a serious threat to good governance in Nigeria. After
reviewing the existing anti-coruption provisions, the author
concludes that these legislation especially the outdated criminal
and penal codes are no longer effective or sufficient for dealing
with the problem posed by corruption, necessitating an urgent
review.
126. Babatunde Sr., A. W. (2011). The State, Judicial

Sector Reforms and Judicial Corruption in Nigeria: A
Sociological Perspective. SSRN Working paper Series December
6.Retrieved from
http://papers. ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1968990.
Corruption is now considered as the most important obstacle to

sustainable development and democratic governance in the
developing regions. In Nigeria, virtually all public institutions
have been afflicted by the menace, even the Judiciary; the
supposedly last hope for the common man. This paper represents
a critical attempt at explaining the dialectical relationship between
the Nigerian state, judicial sector reforms and judicial corruption.
89
According to the author, the alarming rate of corruption in the

judiciary is capable of destabilizing the country’s political system
if not urgently checked. Using the Neo-Marxian criminological
perspective to analyze the issue, the paper suggests that solutions
to the problem of corruption in the nation's judiciary depend
largely on the creation of a welfare state that will take citizen's
welfare as its priority.
127. Bello, G. E. (1991). Evolving a legal and institutional

framework for combating corruption and other economic crimes
in Nigeria. In U. A. Kalu, & Y. Osinbajo, (Eds.), Perspectives on
Corruption and Other Economic Crimes in Nigeria Federal
Corruption in Nigeria has been associated with actions or

inactions that devalue certain principle which people hold dear.
Weak legal institutions have, therefore, been identified as one of
the contributory factors to widespread corruption in Nigeria. This
paper, therefore, examines legal and institutional methods for
combating corruption in Nigeria. It describes the menace of
corruption as causing havoc in the country. It identifies the
evolution of the legal framework that is “militaristic” in order to
successfully combat the threat to national development. It
identifies whole measure which is aimed at sanitizing both the
public and private sector. The author recommends institutional
reforms of the police, judiciary, Code of Conduct Bureau (CCB)
as well as the inclusion of corrupt practices provision in all
contractual agreement entered into by public institutions in order
to remind them of the sincerity of the government in fighting
corruption.
128. Ekumankama, U. D. (2002). Law, corruption and

other economic crimes in Nigeria: Problems and solutions. Jos,
Nigeria: New World Publishers.
90
The prevalence of corruption in Nigeria has spurned a number of

laws and legislation designed to curtail it. This author, in simple
down-to-earth language, provides a historical account of
corruption and corrupt practices in Nigeria dating pre
independence Nigeria till the time of this study. The author
employed the content analysis method in giving an expository on
corrupt practices in Nigeria by both public and private officials
and government. It went on to analyze the impact of economic
crimes on development, the establishment of agencies in a bid to
curb corruption and their effectiveness in carrying out these
functions. The work looked at several laws and acts enacted by
the government in relation to corruption, and how it has helped
encourage or discourage corruption. The author concludes by
proffering solutions to resolving the problems of corruption and
other economic crimes prevalent in the Nigerian economic
system.
129. Fadayomi, E. F. (1991). Eradication of corruption

and other economic crimes within the administration of justice
system: Problems and prospects. In U. A. Kalu & Y. Osinbajo
(Eds.), Perspectives on Corruption and Other Economic Crimes
in Nigeria Federal Ministry of Justice Law Review Series, Vol. 2,
207–211.
Corruption in Nigeria has been described as cancerous and it

requires a bold step to curb. This article examines the role of
specific public institutions like the police, judiciary, and
ministries of justice, prisons and customs in the administration of
justice. The study admits that none of these institutions is immune
to corruption. The author observes that laws in Nigeria are better
observed in breaches. The study also identifies the lack of strong
political will to enforce the provision of the law on corruption as
the major factor encouraging corruption in Nigeria. The author
concludes by recommending the eradication of illiteracy, respect
91
for moral values and poverty alleviation in order to eradicate

130. Hill, J. (2011). Corruption in the courts: The

Achilles' heel of Nigeria's regulatory framework. Third World
Quarterly, 31(7), 11–61.
In recent times, there has been exponential growth in the number

of anticrime laws and regulatory frameworks in Africa. This
article examines the issues and challenges associated with this
phenomenon in Nigeria. As he argues, the ongoing debates over
what laws should be passed and by who tend to ignore the more
basic and arguably urgent question of whether African states'
justice systems are sufficiently robust to give this legislation
meaning. After reviewing lessons from Nigeria’s current
experiences, which are marked by the rising use of the Private
Security Sector Code (PSSC) and instances of malpractice in its
justice system, the author concludes that its regulatory framework
is fundamentally compromised by corrupt practices which
undermine regulatory frameworks put in place in the country.
131. Igwenyi, O. B. (2010). The crime of corruption in

Nigeria: Laws, issues and solutions. Enugu, Nigeria: SNAAP
Press.
Since Nigeria started its war against corruption, a host of anti-

coruption legislation has been conceived and passed in a bid to
help the country rid itself of corruption. The work by a law
scholar, reviews the major anti-coruption legislation in Nigeria
which includes constitutional provisions, criminal and penal
codes, ICPC Act 2000, EFCC Act 2004, highlighting their
strengths and limitations. The author suggests that despite the
pressure of these laws, corruption has defied all available
solutions. To help correct the problem, he recommends the
92
adoption of people-oriented eco-policies to reduce poverty, public

service reforms, inter co-operations in the fight against corruption
and better understanding of past efforts in fighting corruption in
Nigeria and other countries in other to draw lessons.
132. Jacob, O. A. (2010). Procurement law in Nigeria:

Challenge for attainment of its objectives. University of Botswana
Law Journal, 11, 131–152.
One of the most rcent anti-coruption laws passed in Nigeria is the

Public Procurement Act (PPA ) of 2007. This article critically
reviews the PPA 2007, which is the first procurement legislation
in the country. In the article, the author examines the objectives,
coverage, and compliance strategy and efficacy effectiveness of
the Act. The article analyzes some of the cases to which the
legislation applies and defines the factors contributing to the
partial implementation of the Act. It concludes that the PPA 2007
has not achieved much and offers some recommendations on how
to make it more effective.
133. Juwayriya, B. & Muhammed, B. (2013). An

appraisal of administrative justice and good governance in
Nigeria. Journal of Politics and Law, 6(2), 216–229.
Corruption has been identified as the bane of governance in

Nigeria. Endemic corruption has virtually affected every sphere
of Nigeria’s national life. The article examines the concepts of
administrative justice and good governance in Nigeria and also
the dilemma of administrative justice in Nigeria. The author
argues that administrative justice is a component of justice and a
lacuna for the attainment of good governance. It describes
administrative justice and good governance as complementary
and reinforcing each other. It identifies them as a panacea for the
development of a peaceful and just society. However, the article
93
notes the challenges of discretionary power in the proper

administration of justice in the society especially when used
outside rational reasons. It then contends that there is the need to
check arbitrariness, and entrench the ethic of accountability and
transparency. The study concludes that administrative justice
would be better served in a political atmosphere of good
governance.
134. Kalu, U. A. (1991). The Double Jeopardy Principle

and the National Drug Law Enforcement (Amendment) Decree
1990. In U. A. Kalu & Y. Osinbajo (Eds.), Perspectives on
corruption and other economic crimes in Nigeria. Federal
It has been argued that corruption in Nigeria has a new dimension

such that it will require a proactive measure to countermand its
effect on the society. This article examines the applicability of the
principle of double jeopardy in law and sees whether the amended
drug law infringe on the constitutional provision of fair trial of the
accused or on the provision forbidding a second trial for a person
who had already been on trial for a suspected crime. It tries to
explain what constitute double jeopardy in law and how the
amended drug law does not negatively affect constitutional
provision. It concludes that against popular demand, the
amendment only extends the arm of law to catch up with those
who thought they are discreet at breaching the law.
135. Kolajo, A. A. (2002). Layman’s guide to criminal

law and anti-corruption law. Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books.
The Nigeria statute books are replete with legislation enacted to

help curb corruption in the country. But these legislation are
scattered in different publications making their accessibility a
difficult task. This short book written by a retired judge provides
94
a brief but concise review of major aspects of Nigeria’s criminal

law, which includes the general principles of Nigeria’s criminal
law and major offences. This comprises preliminary offences,
offences against public order, breach of the peace, corruption and
abuse of office, offences relating to the administration of justice,
offences against morality, stealing and like offences, forgery and
false accounting etc. It equally considers the offences enacted
under the ICPC Act 2000. The book is particularly useful for
understanding the legal basis of Nigeria’s anti-coruption
campaign.
136. Ladapo, O. A. (2011). Effective investigations, a

pivot to efficient criminal justice administration: Challenges in
Nigeria. African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies, 5(1
&2), 79–94.
The absence of effective criminal investigation has diverse effect

on the criminal justice administration. This study examines the
link between effective criminal investigations and the efficiency
of criminal justice administration and challenges of criminal
investigations in Nigeria. The study appraises eight challenges to
criminal investigations such as: the low crime reporting culture of
the public, paucity of police funding, corruption, inadequate
training of police officers in criminal investigations, delayed
duplication of investigation case files, missing investigation case
files, lack of forensic science facilities and experts; and poor
public records keeping. Thus, the study suggests various ways of
remedying these challenges that cut across issues of funding,
legislation, policy change, structural reform, personnel training
and intervention by nongovernmental organizations as well as
other stakeholders.
95
137. Lawan, M. (2012), Underdevelopment, corruption

and legal disorder in Nigeria: Exploring a Nexus. NIALS Journal
of Law and Public Policy, 1, 74–112.
Most studies on corruption in Nigeria were approached from the

social science perspective. This article however seeks to
understand corruption from a legal perspective. The author
laments the paucity of literature on the legal perspectives of
corruption and seeks to fill the gap. The article is divided into
three parts. The first section looks at underdevelopment amidst oil
wealth and draws extensively on available date to demonstrate the
contradictions between oil wealth and underdevelopment. The
second section looks at the connection between corruption and
development. It argues that corruption has impeded development
since public resources aimed for developmental purposes have
been drained. Finally, the article argues that legal disorder has
spurred corruption.
138. Ngwakwe, C. E. (2009). An analysis of jurisdictional

conflicts among anti-corruption laws and institutions in Nigeria.
In U. D. Enweremadu & E. E. Okafor (Eds.), Anti- corruption
reforms in Nigeria since 1999: Issues, challenges and the way
forward, Special research issue, Vol. 3 (pp. 43–58), Ibadan,
Nigeria: French Institute for Research in Africa.
Adopting a legal perspective, this article looks at some of the legal

loopholes and jurisdictional conflicts that have followed the
implementation of Nigeria’s recent anti-coruption legislation,
with special focus on their causes and effects. Some of the
legislation considered included the Criminal Code, Penal Code,
EFCC Act 2004, ICPC Act 2000, Code of Conduct and Tribunal
Act 1989, and the money laundering Acts. According to the
author, the manner of drafting these laws has led to incessant
conflicts among the agencies responsible for implementing these
96
laws, contributing to the ineffectiveness of the fight against

corruption. According to the author, improving the effectiveness
of these antigraft agencies will, therefore, require the review of
the various anti-coruption laws in Nigeria. Activities of the
agencies must also be streamlined.
139. Nwakanma, B. (1986). An assessment of legal

provision for controlling corruption in Nigeria. In F. Odekunle
(Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in development (pp.185–192). Ibadan.
Nigeria: Ibadan University Press.
Most Nigerians tend to see strong laws as the solution to the

nation’s problem with corruption. This article by a legal
practitioner seeks to assess the relevance of existing legal
provisions against corruption in Nigeria. According to the author,
though Nigerians disdain bribes or illegal commissions, however,
they see themselves caught in the web of bribery hence this vice
has become a way of life. This situation he said has led to the
proliferation of legal frameworks against corruption. The article
commends the efforts being made by the government in adopting
anti-coruption laws and the law enforcement agencies such as the
Code of Conduct Bureau (CCB) in the fight to enforce the laws
against corruption. However, he recommends that the education
of the entire populace is the most effective mechanism for
controlling corruption in terms of regarding corruption as a social
evil.
140. Ocheje, D. P. (2001). Law and social change: A

socio-legal analysis of Nigeria's Corrupt Practices and Other
Related Offences Act, 2000. Journal of African Law, 45(2), 173–
195.
The article gives a concise background to the current efforts to

tame corruption. It also examines the provisions of the Corrupt
97
Practices and Other Related Offences Act No. 5 of 2000 and the
investigatory regime which it creates, in an attempt to assess the
overall adequacy and prospects of the latest legal measure against
corrupt practices in Nigeria. The author’s argument stems from a
political economy approach to corruption, which emphasizes the
effect of the mass poverty which afflicts Nigeria today and puts
the country on the debit side. The article concludes by exploring
ways of enhancing the effectiveness of the legal approach in
combating corruption, and suggests that it is best to consider this
approach as only a contributing tactic to a much wider political
approach, for corruption is essentially a political problem.
141. Odusote, G. (2013). The judiciary as a critical

linchpin in Nigeria's anti-corruption crusade. The Liverpool Law
Review, 34(2), 123–143.
The role of the judiciary in fighting corruption cannot be

overemphasized. Although corruption crusaders in Nigeria have
consistently pointed at the judiciary and its slow processes as an
obstruction in the ongoing efforts to implement recently enacted
laws against corruption, not many studies have looked into this.
This article examines some of these anti-coruption laws and the
role of the judiciary in implementing them. The author posits that
to avoid the guilty escaping the hand of the law, the judiciary must
be dynamic in interpreting these anti-coruption laws.
142. Ogbu, N. O. (2008). Combating corruption in

Nigeria: A critical appraisal of the laws, institutions, and the
political will. Annual Survey of International & Comparative
Law, 14, 99–150.
This 53-page article examines the concept of corruption and the

preexisting legal mechanism for combating corruption in Nigeria
prior to the enactment of the Corrupt Practices and Other Related
98
Offences Act No. 5 of 2000. The main thrust of the article was the
analysis of the different ways public officers has been involved in
corrupt practices in the country. The article looks at the code of
conduct provided by the constitution and the various independent
anti-coruption agencies showing how some of the code’s
provisions have been breached by some public office holders. It
went further to discuss the will of the legislative and judicial body
in fighting corruption before concluding on the approach used by
the two previous civilian administrators which still has some
loopholes. Its recommendation borders on the need for the
institutionalization of the political will to fight corruption.
143. Ogiri-Okpe, S. (n.d.). Criminal justice response to

corruption: The Nigeria case. The 14th UNAFEI UNCAC
Training Programme Participants’ Papers , 178–183.
The paper, which conceptualizes corruption as “the use of public

office for private gain” argues that corruption now pose the
greatest threat to the development of poor countries, especially
those of Africa, even more than HIV/AIDS. The main focus of the
paper was to look at the laws and policies of government as well
as legal interventions taken in a bid to curb corruption in Nigeria,
and the challenges associated with them. The article specifically
looked at the present government’s policies and legal positions in
relation to corruption which includes the Corrupt Practices and
Other Related Offences Act No. 5 of 2000, legislation with
particular regard to the United Nations Convention against
Corruption (UNCAC) 2003, the Money Laundering Act, 2004,
and the Freedom of Information Act, 2011. It also looked at the
procedures for investigation, prosecution and adjudication as well
as the challenges of the criminal justice system in combating
corruption. These include independence, funding, inherent delay
in the criminal justice system, and hostile witnesses. The paper
recommends that protection for whistle blowers, quick decisions,
99
and the removal of the immunity clause will help in reducing

corruption. The paper concludes that commitment, determination
and collaboration by the entire society are required to halt
corruption.
144. Olagoke, O. O. (2004). The extraterritorial scope of

the anti-corruption legislation in Nigeria. Journal of International
Law, 38(1), 71–88.
This article examines the extraterritorial pattern of the anti-

coruption legislation in Nigeria specifically the Corrupt Practices
and Other Related Offences Act No. 5 of 2000 and its implications
on business to public interface and business to business
interactions. The Act focuses on individual persons as the prime
actors particularly where penal liability in the form of sentencing
is to be imposed. However, this article argues that individuals may
be difficult to trace and it may also be difficult to press a judge to
impose liability on an individual employee who was used or
pressured into committing an offence. It is thus recommended that
since private companies will undertake public duties, the adverse
impact that could result from possible corruption needs to be
addressed.
145. Olufokunbi, F. (1986). Corruption in the

administration of justice. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria:
Corruption in development (pp. 123–130). Ibadan, Nigeria:
An independent and efficient judiciary is essential to any

successful war against corruption. However, in many corrupt
countries, the judiciary itself can be a source of corruption. This
article is centered on corruption as practiced in the administration
of justice within the judiciary. The article highlights sources of
corruption, parties to corruption, and the causes of corruption in
100
the administration of justice. The article recommends that the

erosion of judicial independence under the 1979 constitution
should be corrected in order for the country to tackle corruption
effectively.
146. Oke, T. (2014). Financial crime prosecution, legal

certainty and exigency of policy: Case of Nigeria's EFCC. Journal
of Financial Crime, 21(1), 56–65.
Nigeria’s EFCC was established in 2003 to help check the menace

of financial crimes, including money laundering perpetrated by
politically exposed persons (PEPs). Since its establishment, the
agency has faced serious legal challenges arising from loopholes
in its law and slow processes associated with the Nigerian legal
system. This article seeks to examine some of these challenges.
The main argument of the article is that the EFCC has the dual
mandate of maintaining equilibrium between two fundamental,
but sharply contradictory objectives: establishing guilt beyond a
reasonable doubt, and responding to the policy imperative of
curbing corruption through preventative measures. The article
argues that as a result of contradictory ends, the agency has found
itself as ‘the spider in a cobweb of legalism’ deliberately create d
by accused persons to undermine its operations. As a
recommendation, the author calls for a major rethink of the
appropriateness of criminal jurisdiction in the prosecution of
financial crimes in Nigeria and elsewhere in Africa.
147. Okediran, Y. A. (2 006). The legal framework for the

regulation and control of corruption in Nigeria. In B. Aboyade &
S. Ayodele ( Eds.), Fighting corruption in Nigeria: Challenges for
the future (pp.119–138). Ibadan, Nigeria: Development Policy
Center.
101
This article examines how law and other well-formulated policies

can be designed to reduce corruption, effectively address the
misuse of entrusted power for private benefit, and regulate the
insatiable lust for money, power, or status in all forms. The article
specifically looks into the impact of the laws and institutions
enacted since Nigeria’s transition to democracy in 1999, such as
the Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Act No. 5 of
2000, the EFCC Act 2004, as well as the 1999 Constitution all of
which were enacted to help curb corruption in the country. The
article identifies nonenforcement of these laws and poor policy
implementation as the major factors constraining the effectiveness
of the laws, as well as the institutional mechanisms towards
eradicating the scourge. The author offered some
recommendations, including improvement in the independence of
the judiciary, the need for effective sanctions, accountability,
strict enforcement of laws by all arms of government, provision
of education, services and jobs, as well as spiritual regeneration.
148. Okeshola, B. F. (2012). Corruption as impediment to

implementation of anti-money laundering standards in Nigeria.
American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 2(7),
84–189.
This article discusses the challenges militating against the

effective implementation of anti-money-laundering regulations in
Nigeria, one of which is corruption. Despite the creation of anti-
coruption agencies such as the EFCC and ICPC to halt corruption,
the article notes that corruption still is the bane to the
implementation of the anti-money-laundering standards in
Nigeria due to corruption among officials both in the public and
private regulatory agencies. To remedy this situation, the author
argues that there is the need, among many others, for the
improvement in the socio-economic life of Nigerians, imposition
of harsh punitive measures for corrupt practices, improved
102
oversight and monitoring functions of CBN over the financial

sector, and the domestication of all anti-money-laundering
standards.
149. Oko, O. (2002). Subverting the scourge of corruption

in Nigeria: A reform prospectus. Journal of International Law
and Politics, 34, 397–473.
This study appraises the advancement of corruption in Nigeria. It

argues that factors behind its perennial growth range from
unwillingness of leaders to effect change, government control of
the economic sector which aids the opportunities and abilities to
seek rent and the civil society’s growing apathy or acceptance of
corruption. The study thus recommends that in order to
significantly reduce the rise of corruption in Nigeria, adequate
mechanism that will ensure the drastic reduction of the culture and
legacy of corruption is needed. Furthermore, the Nigeria
government should ascertain the root causes of corruption with
the aim of addressing it through effective implementation of the
legal framework already in place. Lastly, Nigeria can only subvert
the scourge of corruption if her leaders have the political will to
tackle the menace.
150. Okogbule, S. N. (2007). Official corruption and the

dynamics of money laundering in Nigeria. Journal of Financial
Crime, 14(1), 49–63.
The proliferation of corrupt practices in Nigeria amidst weak legal

and financial regulatory framework in the country has posed some
challenges to regulators of the financial system who have watched
as money laundering activities has become the order of the day.
This article discusses the connection between official corruption
and money laundering. It examines the relevant laws dealing with
these offences with a view of assessing their adequacy. The key
103
provisions of the criminal and penal codes are also discussed as

well as the new enactment dealing with these crimes, namely, the
Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Act
No. 5 of 2000 It was found that these recent enactments have gone
further than the earlier provisions dealing with these crimes since
they contain some far reaching innovations such as the provisions
for the appointment of an independent counsel to investigate
allegations of corruption against the president, vice president,
governors, and deputy governors. The article argues that the
aforementioned provisions can only be effective if the identified
problems of enforcement are adequately tackled and the
monitoring mechanism strengthened.
151. Okoye, F. (2013, September). The prosecution of

electoral offenders in Nigeria. FES discussion paper, No. 5.
Elections in Nigeria are usually marked by serious cases of

electoral malpractices instigated by politicians who want to get to
power by all means. This study reviews nutty issues about
electoral corruption and malpractices in Nigeria with the focus on
the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) and the
Electoral Act 2010. The author discovers that electoral fraud and
malpractice in Nigeria are rooted in the “do or die” approach to
Nigeria’s policies and the lack of capacity and the will of the
authorities to deal with the threat. He called on authorities to
urgently address this issue to avert the abortion of the democratic
process. In his views, the establishment of an electoral offence
commission and tribunal will reduce electoral misconduct and
malpractices.
152. Okeke, C. C. (2003). Anti-corruption law of the

Obasanjo regime: A critical assessment. In E. O. Ezeani (Ed.),
Public accountability in Nigeria: Perspectives and issues (pp.
252–265). Enugu, Nigeria: Academic Publishing Company.
104
Due to its damaging effects on development, Nigeria has been

engaged in a perennial and endless struggle aimed at curbing
corruption. This study assesses the efforts taken under the
Obasanjo administration (1999–2007), particularly laws made to
fight corruption. According to the author, successive governments
have tried without much success to reduce the incidence of
corruption in Nigeria. Laws have been enacted and probes panels
set up at different times to fight the malaise. Yet, the situation has
remained unabated. According to him, it was the persistence and
intractable nature of this national malaise that compelled
President Obasanjo to propose a bill on anti-coruption to the
National Assembly. The assessment of his anti-coruption law in
the study shows that Obasanjo’s government did not live up to
expectations. He observed that the situation was compounded by
lack of accountability and transparency. He posits that instead of
decreased incidence of malaise, the tempo rose to quantum
proportions. He recommends that the fight against bribery and
corruption should be continued unabated until some significant
milestone is attained.
153. Omenka, J. I. & Apam, J. (2006). Regulating party

financing under the 1999 Constitution and the Electoral Act 2002.
Money, politics and corruption in Nigeria. A Publication of IFES,
23–36.
This article shows the impact of money on political party activities

in Nigeria. The paper argues that Money is seen as a major
determining factor in the operation of political parties and every
other institution in Nigeria. Political parties, being the principal
instrumentality of democracy, would only survive or be able to
carry out its functions when funded. More money means more
victories for the party so members of these parties who are in
public office loot to fund the parties in order to win elections. The
author emphasizes that money exhibition by parties had fuelled
105
corruption and thus, undermined democratic governance. The

paper argues that all regimes are guilty of this “money bug,”
which is now seen as a means of getting into the office. The paper
concludes that until money is removed from the Nigerian politics,
there can’t be democratic development.
154. Opadayo O. B. (2010). Civil Recovery of Corruptly-

Acquired Assets: A Legal Roadmap for Nigeria . (Masters
Dissertation) University of the Western Cape, Western Cape,
South Africa.
This dissertation examines the international, regional and

Nigerian frameworks available for the recovery of assets acquired
through corrupt means. The examination is bifurcated on the
distinction between criminal and civil forfeiture processes. The
researcher identifies the following as the policy and legal
constraints to asset recovery, immunity from prosecution for
certain officials, problems of mutual legal assistance, lack of
political will, inadequacy of the legal framework and inadequate
technical capacity. For policy reform, the researcher recommends
the creative use of provisions in existing legislation, the
enactment of a civil forfeiture legislation, establishment of an
asset forfeiture unit and a specialised court to adjudicate
corruption related cases.
155. Oshodi, E. J. (2011). Could tough anti-corruption

laws and an exclusive anti-corruption court safeguard Nigeria’s
national treasury? Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization, 1,
1–6.
The author, writing from a psychology background examines the

possible advantages of special corruption courts as deterrents
against corrupt practices, vis-à-vis therapeutic methods. The
writer advocates a combination of psycho-legal approaches to
106
combating corruption. He state that such approaches can provide

a lasting punitive and therapeutic effect among perpetrators of
corruption, ultimately helping to reduce corruption among
leadership and the citizens as a whole. In this work, the author
highlights the relevance of psychological battery testing on public
officials, and suggests that the nation should develop in-house
forensic institutions for dealing with corruption suspects and
convicts. It further proposed harsher sanctions for corrupt
individuals, such as the death penalty for offenders, while tasking
the various anti-coruption institutions to do more to win
convictions against offenders.
156. Oyebode, A. (1996). The judiciary, corruption and

democratization. In A. Gboyega (Ed.), Corruption and
democratization in Nigeria (pp. 81–91). Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan
University Press.
Corruption is a perennial subject of global concern, and an

endemic icon of Nigeria, cutting across all facets of government.
The judiciary is one of the institutions capable of helping to
advance the goal of anti-coruption. This work stresses that the
position of primus inter pares of the judiciary has not been
imbibed by political elite and the judiciary is not indeed the last
hope of the common man. The author reasoned that certain actions
need to be taken for there to be in existence a free judiciary and
this will take some time. He accused the military of using the
judiciary to subvert the rights of the poor and exploit the masses.
Corruption in the judiciary, according to the author, is not only
about bribery, but also about the use of the judiciary for election
rigging. The Buhari regime attempted to curtail this but failed.
The article also offers certain prescriptions for a viable judiciary
and democratization process.
107
157. Waziri, F. (2011). United States of America’s

Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) and Its Effects on Nigeria.
SSRNWorkingPaperSeries.Retrievedfrom
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers. cfm?abstract_id=1915698.
In recognition of the danger posed by corruption to its political

and economic interests around the globe, the United States has
taken some steps to help fight global corruption, especially in
international business. The U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of
1977 (FCPA) which generally prohibits U.S. companies and
citizens, foreign companies listed on a U.S. stock exchange, or
any person acting while in the United States, from corruptly
paying or offering to pay, directly or indirectly, money or
anything of value to a foreign official to obtain or retain business
is one of such steps. This paper analyzes the implementation of
this law and its impact on Nigeria. According to the author, the
FCPA exempts “facilitating” payments which are usually small
payments that are designed to get a foreign official to perform a
nondiscretionary function, which has proved to be burdensome on
third world countries like Nigeria. For this reason, the author
argues that such payments should not be encouraged, through an
effective implementation of the FCPA by the US government.
158. Waziri, F. (2013). Evolution of anti-corruption

agencies and laws in Nigeria. Saarbrücken, Germany: Lambert
Academic Publishing.
Nigeria parades an array of anti-coruption agencies and laws

created by successive governments in the country to fight
corruption. This article addresses the evolution of some of these
agencies and laws, with a view to identifying the pressing issues
or challenges confronting them and ways they can be addressed.
According to the author, corrupt practices in public office have
arguably existed in Nigeria since the establishment of modern
108
structures of public administration in the country by the British

colonial government. Its escalation coincided with the expansion
of administrative structures and the full development of the public
sector associated with political independence in 1960. The
pervasive role of political violence in Nigeria leads to political
instability which in turn helps exacerbate the nuances of
corruption. As she argues, corruption in Nigeria cannot be
completely eliminated but it can be progressively controlled and
managed with well-equipped and independent anti-coruption
agencies. The current laws and institutions against corruption are
not efficient enough and they would continue to lack credibility
until the corrupt stop enjoying impunity.
159. Waziri, F. (2011). Strengthening of anti-corruption

commissions and laws in Nigeria (Unpublished PhD Thesis)
University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Analysis of legal frameworks for fighting corruption is an

important part of existing literature on corruption in Nigeria. This
thesis using the comparative approach explores the role of laws in
challenging and curbing public corruption in Nigeria through the
use of anti-coruption agencies and laws drawing upon
developments from other countries to illuminate issues in the
Nigerian context. It analyzes the major anti-coruption agencies
such as the EFCC, Independent Corrupt Practices Commission
(ICPC) and Code of Conduct Bureau and their approach towards
corruption eradication and the democratic process. It also
examines the role of information laws in curbing corruption and
promoting transparency in Nigeria. In conclusion, the author
notes that the basis for success for any anti-coruption regime is
political will because there exist enough laws in the statute book
to squash corruption but the enforcement of those laws depends
on the political will of the governing class, coupled with the
creation of an enabling environment for a corrupt free society. It
109
also recommends vigorous persecution and change in public

attitude.
160. Yaqub, O. N. (2003). The Corrupt Practices a nd

Other Related Offences Act, 2000, and the Quest for the
Sanitization of the Public Service in Nigeria: An exploration of its
Feasibility. In G. Onu (Ed.), Corruption and Sustainable
Development: The Third World Perspective (pp.185–203). Awka ,
Nigeria: Bookpoint Limited.
Corruption is a major social issue in Nigeria that has occupied a

deep-seated position. This article is a critical appraisal of the
ICPC Act, with a view to determining the extent to which it is
likely to achieve its objectives. It takes a historical analysis of the
problem of corruption in the country in order to understand its
nature and how to tackle the cankerworm. Several inquiries that
have been instituted after independence and up to date were
unable to eradicate corruption in the country. Hence, the failure
of previous attempts at combating the scourge led to the
enactment of the Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences
Act No. 5 of 2000 by the Obasanjo Administration, one year after
he was sworn into office. The study also examines the
composition of the membership of the Independent Corrupt
Practices and Other Related Offences Commission, its
institutional content, as well as the degree of empowerment or
capacity the Commission is imbued with. It also takes a look at
the role of civil society organizations in the fight against
corruption in order to sanitize the society. Findings reveal that the
civil society organizations have a crucial role to play to further the
cause of the eradication of corruption from the country’s body
politic. The article advocates a concerted effort of the civil society
organizations and the commission to enhance the work of the
commission and enable it achieve its assigned mandate.
110
Library studies
161. Ezeani, C. N. (2003). Corruption in public libraries:

Implications for public accountability. In E. O. Ezeani (Ed.),
Public accountability in Nigeria: Perspectives and issues (pp.
149–156). Enugu, Nigeria: Academic Publishing Company.
One of the few areas of corruption that has not received much
scholarly attention is corruption in the public libraries. This study
is an important explorative work. The author draws some
examples from some public libraries in America where the causes
of embezzlement have been reported based on some
documentation and concludes that embezzlement is the main form
of corruption in the public libraries. He compares this with
Nigeria and asserts that such documentations are very rare and
difficult to come by because of the sensitive nature of the cases
and the fact that Nigerians may not be honest enough to own up
to such because there are times in the past that an inquest was
made in a few public libraries in Nigeria, and because the claims
of theft could not be substantiated, the cases died a natural death.
He recommends that corruption in the public libraries should be
given increased attention.
Linguistics
162. Taimiyu, R. A. and Olaoye, G. A. (2011). A pragmatic view

of language as a potent weapon for eradicating corruption and
sustaining good governance. In A.B. Sunday (Ed.), Corruption,
democracy and good governance in Nigeria (pp.1–18). Saki,
Nigeria: Real Success Consults.
111
Language is an inevitable and basic tool of human integration the

world over. It constitutes a potent weapon which cannot be
separated from any form of living creatures, including human
beings. Language serves as a tool for eradicating social vices in
the Nigerian polity. The contribution of individuals towards
eradicating these social vices hinges on the effectiveness or
otherwise of human language as an inevitable tool for the approval
or repulsion in the society. This article takes a look at the roles of
language in human societies and in Nigeria. The article reveals
that the vices in Nigeria are traceable to academic, political and
social settings which are viewed from pragmatic perspectives.
Findings reveal that an ideal human society is not a mirage, since
society is made and not born. Language should be used to ridicule,
ostracize and criticize any perceived lapse or lapses, including
corrupt practices by any political or public office holders and
private individuals in the society.
Media studies
163. Ige, A. (2005). The fight against corruption: The role

of the judiciary and mass media. In L. Olurode & R. Anifowose
(Eds.), Rich but poor: Corruption and good governance in
Nigeria (pp.134–159). Lagos, Nigeria: Faculty of Social Sciences,
University of Lagos.
The judiciary and mass media are critical institutions in the fight
against corruption. This work examines the role of both
institutions in Nigeria’s fight against corruption. It also reviews
the causes of corruption, efforts to fight it so far and the challenges
in the fight towards combating the scourge. It also proffers
solutions on how both the judiciary and mass media can better
fight the war against corruption effectively. The writer states tha t
the judiciary has the onerous responsibility to act as the watchdog
112
of the Nigerian constitution and also the mass media is also the
watchdog of societal interest. According to the study, the judiciary
is still regarded generally as the weakest branch of the three arms
of government because it neither controls the purse nor the sword.
Furthermore, the inability of the judiciary to tackle corruption is
due to errors in the appointment of judges and the fact that the
society is without strong moral foundations. The writer submits
that to win the war against corruption, the judiciary, the mass
media, and the citizenry must work together. There is the need for
a total overhauling of the judiciary and a removal of all corrupt
officials within the system. The study stresses that the role of the
mass media in the anti-coruption crusade must be recognized by
the courts, especially in cases involving the defamation of public
officials. In other words, the press should continue to serve as
watchdogs of the society and be neutral in the dissemination of
laws. In addition, there is a need for a total reform of the political
and economic orientation of the society and the need for moral
rearmament on the part of the citizens. The government should
also provide basic resources that can help to promote people’s
welfare.
Music
164. Ogunrinde. D. O. A. (2013). Corruption reduction in

Nigeria: Appraisal of the role of music. Mediterranean Journal of
Corruption severely hinders the development of a nation. It

promotes backwardness and underdevelopment. The study
elucidates the concept of corruption and its effects on the national
economy. In another vein, it conceptualize s the term ‘music’ and
attributes it to humanity and its roles to control this social device
called dishonesty. In other words, it emphasizes the role of music
113
as a corrective measure and as a tool of corruption reduction. The

study calls for obedience to the text of the nation’s national
anthem, which is considered as the starting point. It further
recommends an emphasis on the various broadcast and electronic
media industries to play more roles in playing music that teach
good morals and the spirit of patriotism, loyalty and unity across
the country.
Official Reports
165. Federal Republic of Nigeria. (1962). Report of the

Commission of Inquiry into the affaires of certain statutory
corporations in western Nigeria. Lagos: Federal Ministry of
Information: Printing Division.
One of the earliest anti-coruption actions taken by Nigerian

government after attaining independence from the British in 1960
was the establishment of the G.B.A. Coker Commission Inquiry
of 1962. The panel was established when corrupt acts were
reported in the western region where Obafemi Awolowo , the first
premier and Ayo Rosiji, E. O Okunowo , and Abiodun Akerele,
three members of his defunct Action Group party were found
guilty of corruption by the Commission Inquiry of 1962. The
Coker Commission in its report concluded that there were
evidence of reckless and indeed atrocities and criminal
mismanagement and diversion of public funds. The commission
also state that Chief Awolowo knew everything about the
diversion of a large sum of money into the coffers of the Action
Group (AG). The report further found that Awolowo failed to
adhere to the standards of conduct which was required of persons
holding such a post. The Commission recommended that the
accused persons should be made to refund some funds and kept
out of public office.
114
166. Federal Republic of Nigeria. (1976, March). Federal

military government's views on the Report of Federal Assets
Investigation Panel. Lagos: Federal Ministry of Information:
Printing Division.
This article contains the views of the federal military government

on the report of a three-man Federal Assets Investigation Panel
(FAIP) constituted in September 1975. The Federal m ilitary
government in the publication unveiled the corrupt practices of
certain former public officers accused of amassing assets through
corrupt means and abused public offices. The report highlights
cases where the accused persons used public office to unlawfully
acquire state lands and undeveloped plots and failed to declare
their true assets so as to conceal the exposure of the wide gap
between their legitimate income and real expenditure. In other
instances, the declarations of monetary value used in procuring
some of such assets were shown to be inconsistent with the
realities of the time. As a consequence, most of the officers
forfeited their undeclared assets and investments.
167. Federal Republic of Nigeria. (1978, March). Federal

military government's views on the Report of Federal Assets
Investigation Panel. Lagos: Federal Ministry of Information:
Printing Division, Lagos.
This is another publication containing revelations made by the

Federal Assets Investigation Panel which had hitherto given a
report on abuse of office by public officers in 1975. The panel
observed a startling departure from the acceptable rule and ethics
of behavior expected of public officers. The second report unveils
corrupt practices by senior officers in the public service as
examined by the panel of investigation, for the period 1975-1978.
The publication reiterates the importance of adherence to the civil
service rules, which clearly state what constitutes a misdemeanor
115
in public service. The panel exonerates some of the investigated

officers from public penalty based on their findings, while those
that were found to have exceeded the bounds of propriety could
not escape blame.
168. Federal Republic of Nigeria. (1994). Report of the

Judicial Panel on the Reform/Reorganisation of the Judiciary,
Parts I–IV, Main Report, Abuja.
As the title shows, this official publication contains the findings

of a judicial panel on the reform and reorganization of the
judiciary. The panel was setup to look into the lapses of the
Nigeria judiciary and prescribe modes of ensuring efficiency of
the judicial arm of the Nigerian government. To do its work, the
judicial panel took a critical look into the structure of the judicial
council, appointments and condition of service. The report
documents cases of widespread corruption and abuse of office by
judges. The panel then gave a list of recommendations on how to
go about the reorganization of the judiciary. The report of the
panel also shows how it carried out its findings, the public`s
reaction to its advertisement, and those who submitted
memoranda.
169. Federal Republic of Nigeria. (1999, November).

Commission of Inquiry for the Review of Contracts, Licenses and
Appointments. Vol s. 1–4, Main Report, Abuja.
This report contains the findings of a commission of enquiry set

up to review all major contracts, licenses, appointments, awards
and approvals done under the regime of General Abdusalami
Abubakar (1998–1999). The aim was to find out if these contracts,
awards and licenses were carried out in adherence to due process.
To carry out the inquiry, the commission called for memoranda
from all the federal ministries, extraministerial departments,
116
parastatals and state-owned companies and all private

organizations and individuals. The commission then use the
submitted memoranda to make recommendations to the President.
The major findings of this commission was that most of the
contracts, awards and licenses were awarded to individuals and
institutions linked to members of the regime, often at a very
inflated cost. This caused a sharp drop in the country’s foreign
reserve. The panel then recommended that the government should
take measures to cancel some of these frivolous contracts and
awards and recover monies paid out to the beneficiaries.
170. Federal Government of Nigeria. (2003, June).

Nigeria governance and corruption survey study: Analysis of
survey results (Final Report), Abuja, Nigeria.
This publication is an analysis of a survey commissioned by the

federal government of Nigeria on corruption in Nigeria. The
survey was undertaken to generate accurate and reliable
information on corruption and the perception of Nigerians about
the Nigerian government`s operations, delivery of services, etc.
The study also delved into the extent of corruption and the cost or
effect of corruption in Nigeria. On the basis of its findings, the
researchers gave recommendations on how to reduce corrupt
practices in Nigeria.
171. Federal Government of Nigeria. (2004, March).

Policy considerations: Forums on the Nigerian Governance and
Corruption Survey Study. Abuja.
In 2001, the federal government as part of its commitment to the

fight against corruption, commissioned the Nigerian Governance
and Corruption Survey Study. This study itself was conducted by
a consortium of Nigerian institutions which conducted a national
survey of citizens, government officials and enterprise owners
117
designed to elicit their opinions on and experiences with

government service delivery and corruption. The result of this
survey was tabled before the forum whose membership cut across
all sectors of the Nigerian society for dialogue in 2003. This
publication is a summary of the deliberations at a forums which
mostly centered on how government could reduce levels of
corruption in the country using measures such as: the involvement
of civil societies in the fight against corruption, educating the
citizenry on the impact of corruption on their daily life, free, fair
and competitive election, recruitment of qualified personnel in
public or civil service, institutional reforms and many others.
172. Federal Government of Nigeria. (2012, August).

Report of the Petroleum Revenue Special Task Fo rce. Federal
Ministry of Petroleum Resources, Abuja.
Nigeria’s inability or unwillingness to fight corruption is most

clearly seen in the petroleum sector which happens to be the most
strategic of all sectors of her economy. Yet the oil industry is one
of the most opaque in the world. It was in acknowledgment of this
fact that the federal government of Nigeria, in January 2012 put
in place 17-member task force which was headed by the former
chairman of the EFCC, Nuhu Ribadu, to probe the petroleum
industry. The probe covered the years 2002 to 2012. This 146 -
page report contains the findings of the task force. According to
the report, Nigeria has lost tens of billions of dollars in oil and gas
revenues over the last decade from cut-price deals struck between
multinational oil companies and government officials. In other
words, the report provides new evidence of Nigeria's long history
of corruption, which has enriched its elite and their cronies in the
oil industry while leaving two thirds of the people in abject
poverty. The task force made some recommendations to correct
the situation, including the need to pass an oil sector transparency
law that requires all oil companies active in Nigeria to report all
118
payments, costs and earnings for each license or transaction, and

to publish all contracts and licenses; create a special properly-
trained Oil and Gas Sector Financial Crimes Unit for law
enforcement agents ; restructure NNPC and ensure full
compliance of all agencies and companies with existing
legislation.
173. Government of United Kingdom (1957). Report of

the tribunal appointed to inquire into allegations reflecting on the
official conduct of the premier of, and certain persons holding
ministerial and other public offices in, the eastern region of
Nigeria, London, Colonial Office.
During the final years of British colonial rule in Nigeria,

allegations of corruptions became more pronounced. In response
to this, several commissions of inquiry were put in place to
investigate cases of corruption. The purpose of the inquiries was
to expose wrong doing and to punish the culprits. In 1956, the
Foster-Sutton tribunal was one such panel. The panel indicated
that the Premier of the Eastern Region, Nnamdi Azikiwe was
charged for corrupt acts because of his involvement in the affairs
of the African Continental Bank (ACB) while still serving as a
government official which is contrary to the code of conduct for
public officials. The tribunal in his reports felt that Zik did not
sever his connections with the bank when he became a Minister.
He rather used his influence to encourage the use of public funds
for shady deals so as to sustain ACB; a bank which Zik had an
interest in. The tribunal called for Zik to resign as Premier of
Eastern region and leave public life.
174. Human Rights Watch. (2007 , January). Chop fine:

The Human rights impact of local government corruption and
mismanagement in Rivers State, Nigeria, 19, 2(A), New York .
119
With the increasing decentralization of power and resources, there

has been a corresponding increase in the levels of corruption at
the state and Local Government levels in Nigeria. The article is
based on a field research carried out by Human Rights Watch
(HRW) in five local government areas in Rivers state. The study
attempts an overview of the irony of oil wealth in Nigeria vis-á-
vis the prevalence of poverty. The article argues that
embezzlement of funds meant for development had ensured that
the ordinary citizens at the local level had little feeling of the
enormous wealth of the nation. The article argues that corruption
has crippled governments’ capacity to realize their citizens’ rights
and deliver the basic services such as education and health care
which poor Nigerians need the most. It argues that corruption in
the Local Governments had also directly fuelled political violence
and other forms of human rights abuse and has subverted
ostensibly democratic processes hereby making the government
the more unaccountable and less transparent. The article
concludes that to eradicate corruption and ensure human rights
protection, accountability, good governance and transparency
among others must be encouraged. Anti-coruption agents must
also be more proactive, and foreign companies and governments
should play their roles in line with international laws and
standards.
175. Human Rights Watch . (2010). Nigeria: Everyone’s

in on the Game: Corruption and human rights abuses by the
Nigeria Police Force. New York , NY.
The Nigerian Police Force is considered the most corrupt

institution, given its propensity for extorting bribes and
committing human rights abuses. The seriousness of this menace
obliged the Human Rights Watch, a global human rights NGO , to
commission this study. The report shows the extent and impact of
police corruption in Nigeria. According to the report, the Nigerian
120
police is not only riddled with petty corruption, as seen daily at

various mounted checkpoints scattered across the country. There
is also high-level corruption within the Nigerian Police Force.
This involves top-rank police officials embezzling staggering
sums of public funds meant to cover basic police operations.
Senior police officers also enforce a perverse system of “returns”
in which rank-and-file officers are compelled to pay up the chain
of command a share of the money they extort from the public.
According to the report, this decay has been sustained by the fact
that those charged with police oversight, discipline, and reform
have for years failed to take effective action, thereby reinforcing
impunity in the police force. Officers of all ranks regularly
perpetrate crimes against the citizens they are mandated to
protect. To remedy the situation, the authors made several
recommendations, including a call on the Government of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria to establish an independent
commission of inquiry with subpoena power to conduct a
transparent, comprehensive, and impartial investigation into
systemic corruption within the Nigerian Police Force and
prosecute without delay and according to international fair trial
standards any police officer implicated in corruption and other
serious abuses.
176. Human Rights Watch . (2011). Nigeria: Corruption

on trial? The record of Nigeria’s Economic and Financial Crimes
Commission, Human Rights Watch, New York, NY.
The establishment of the EFCC in 2002 marked another chapter

in Nigeria’s efforts to fight corruption. This report analyzes the
work of the EFCC between 2002 and 2011. In the report, the
EFCC was portrayed as an agency which challenged the ironclad
impunity enjoyed by Nigeria’s political elite. Its main
achievements include the arraignment of 30 nationally prominent
political figures on corruption charges and recovery according to
121
the EFCC, some US$11 billion. The report however notes that
many of the corruption cases against the political elite have made
little progress in the courts. The report concluded that despite its
promise, the EFCC has fallen far short of its potential and eight
years after its inception is left with a battered reputation and an
uncertain record of accomplishment. Finally the report identifies
some obstacles that make a genuine war against corruption
impossible. Nigeria’s political system rewards rather than punish
corruption; weak and overburdened judiciary offers seemingly
endless opportunities for skilled defence lawyers to secure
interminable and sometimes frivolous delays; the other anti-
coruption bodies, the Independent Corrupt Practices and Other
Related Offences Commission (ICPC) and the Code of Conduct
Bureau (CCB), have failed to compliment the efforts of the EFCC.
To overcome these challenges the report called on the Nigerian
government to do more to fight corruption and to bolster the
capacity and independence of key anti-coruption institutions.
Nigeria’s international partners were also enjoyed to play more
active role.
177. Independent Corrupt (and Other Related Offences)

Commission, Bureau of Public Procurement, & Technical Unit on
Governance and Anti-corruption Reforms (2014, August). Report
on corruption risk assessment in the Ports Sector in Nigeria.
Abuja, Nigeria.
This is one of the most current reports on corruption, undertaken

in a sector regarded by many Nigerians as a hotbed of corruption.
The current report is a result of a six-month project, supported by
the UNDP and Maritime Anti -corruption Network and carried out
by the trio of Independent and Corrupt Practices Commission
(ICPC), the Technical Unit on Governance and Anti -Corruption
Reforms (TUGAR) and the Bureau for Public Procurement. Its
goal was to access the corruption risk in six Nigerian Ports and
122
make recommendations on ways to improve the integrity situation

in the Nigerian Ports sector. The report contains a plan for
addressing the deficiencies (such multiple and often overlapping
procedures) noted in the assessment, focusing on improving
organizational aspects of integrity and on raising awareness of the
staff as well as on taking specific policy level measures to ensure
the sustainability of results. The report identified the need for port
agencies to clarify their procedures and strengthen their
coordination to reduce the regulatory burden on their clients,
thereby reducing bribery which is common in Nigerian port
operations.
178. Institute for Developmental Research. (2003, June).

Nigerian Governance and Corruption Survey Study: Analyzing
survey results (Final report). Zaria, Nigeria.
This study conducted at the instance of the Federal government of

Nigeria following the launching of the anti-coruption crusade by
the Obasanjo government. The research was carried out to provide
detailed information on the extent of and public perceptions about
corruption in Nigeria. The study was also conceived to establish
a baseline against which to measure progress in the declared war
against corruption. The study focus on how household, enterprise
and public officials will assist government in the development of
effective anti-coruption strategies. The study came out with a
considerable amount of information on the nature and extent of
corruption, its impact on public service management. The
researchers also made a number of useful recommendations to
strengthen the war against corruption: the need for institutional
reform, increase public mobilization and commitment on the part
of the political leadership.
123
179. Nigerian Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative/

Technical Unit for Governance and Anti-Corruption Reform.
(2012, Abuja). Report of Scoping Survey of Anti-Corruption
Initiatives in Nigeria.
The study is part of the ongoing effort of TUGAR (Technical Unit

on Governance & Anti-Corruption Reforms) to develop a baseline
and database of anti-coruption initiatives in Nigeria. The study
used the United Nations Convention against Corruption
(UNCAC), African Union Convention on Prevention and
Combating Corruption (AUCPCC), and the Economic
Community of West Africa n States Protocol on the Fight against
Corruption (ECOWAS Protocol) as benchmarks to scan and
assess the anti-coruption environment to develop a baseline and
database of anti-coruption initiatives in Nigeria. The report found
out that only a small fraction of the states in Nigeria are
implementing legislation against corruption. Secondly, the report
noted that some private sector activities required to be
criminalized by the UNCAC, but presently is not fully covered by
it. And thirdly, many anti-coruption laws in Nigeria have
criminalized several other corruption related activities that should
not be considered as offences. The report recommends among
others, that there is a need for higher political will, flawless legal
framework, effective public service, and mass awareness, to boost
the anti-coruption crusade in Nigeria.
180. Nigerian Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative/

Technical Unit for Governance and Anti -Corruption Reform.
(2012). Mapping and Scoping Survey of Anti-Corruption and
Governance Measures in Public Finance Management: A study
of ten states of the federation, Abuja, Nigeria.
The publication is the continuation of the documentation of anti-

coruption measures of the Nigerian government against the
124
benchmarks of International Conventions and Treaties to which

Nigeria is a signatory. Phase 1 covers the federal government and
six Nigerian states, one from each geographical zone. Phase 2
involves an additional ten states. The methodology adopted
includes the use of secondary data such as official government
documents, interviews with state actors, survey questionnaire for
nonstate actors as well as follow up interview with nonselected
state actors. The study affects all areas of public financial system
and seeks to establish existing gaps between policies and laws on
the one hand, and their enforcement and implementation on the
other. The latter undermine anti-coruption programming more
than loopholes in policies and laws.
181. Nigerian Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative.

(2012). NEITI Oil and Gas Industry Audit Report (2006–2008):
Simplified Version, Abuja , Nigeria.
The Nigerian Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative

(NEITI), a national subset of an International Movement-
Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), was
established in June 2003 with the aim of achieving sustainable
development and poverty reduction in resource-rich countries
plagued by the phenomenon of the “resource curse”. NEITI,
known for promoting Transparency and Accountability in the
management of revenues accruing from extractive industries,
commissioned the first comprehensive process, physical and
financial audits of Nigerian petroleum industry between1999-
2004 as well as 2005 fiscal years. The 2006-2008 Audit Report
represents the third cycle. Reconciliation of the financial and
physical flows was carried out from data collection templates that
were completed and returned to the auditors by companies and
government agencies. Other government information was taken
from templates submitted by CBN and other relevant Agencies
such as Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) and
125
Niger Delta Development Corporation (NDDC). Findings

revealed noncooperation, under-assessments and underpayments,
physical audit issues as well as differences between what was paid
by the companies and what was declared by the government.
182. Technical Unit for Governance and Anti-Corruption

Reform. (2012). Report of GAP and analysis of anti-corruption
initiatives in Nigeria with regional and global anti-corruption
instruments, Abuja, Nigeria.
This report used the United Nations Convention against

Corruption (UNCAC), African Union Convention on Prevention
and Combating Corruption (AUCPCC) and the Economic
Community of West African States Protocol on the Fight against
Corruption (ECOWAS Protocol) as benchmarks to scan and
review the anti-coruption environment to develop a baseline and
database of anti-coruption initiatives in Nigeria. This report
discovered that anti-coruption initiatives in the country have, to a
large extent, complied with international anti-coruption norms.
The study however observes loopholes in some of the domestic
laws and practices e.g. the freedom of information bill, whistle
blower protection laws, etc. It suggests that the enforcement of
anti-coruption laws in Nigeria can and should be made stronger
and more comprehensive by a review of the criminal procedure
laws, witness protection regime, evidence and administration of
justice system reforms as well as improved independence of
institutions.
183. The Convention on Business Integrity, CBI . (2010).

Report on the public perceptions of the anti-corruption agencies.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Abuja,
Nigeria.
126
This study conducted by CBI, one of the few NGOs committed to

fighting corruption in the private sector was aimed at
understanding citizens opinions about Nigeria’s ongoing fight
against corruption in order to estimate how well the anti-coruption
agency have communicated progress in the fight against
corruption. Institutions covered included ICPC, EFCC and CCB.
The study was conducted between August and December 2008
and published in 2010. The study reveals that the citizens of
Nigeria have a lopsided understanding of corruption. They
believed that corruption is only associated with public office
holders alone and that the solutions to corruption lies in going
after the “big fishes.” The study concludes that the ACA’s should
concentrate their efforts more on investigating and prosecuting
grand corruption involving top politicians/public office holders
and business leaders and do all this in a manner that enhances
transparency and public accountability.
Philosophy
184. Adukwu, R. M. (2002). Self-moral transformation:

The determinant of a corruption-free Nigerian society. In C. O. T.
Ugwu (Ed.), Corruption in Nigeria: Critical perspectives: A book
of readings (pp. 251–271). Nsukka: Chuka Educational
Publishers.
The goal of every nation is to build a corrupt-free society that does

not tolerate any violation of ethical standards. This article
examines the concept of corruption free society, the effects of the
institutionalization of corruption, anti-coruption strategies and
ways of modelling the Nigerian society. The author describes the
notion of a corrupt free society as utopia and the case of Nigeria
as a drastic fall of moral standard. It contends that corruption is
on the rise in Nigeria because most public officers are corrupt. It
127
identifies material obsession, indiscipline as the factors that

encourage corruption in Nigeria. The failure to bring public
officials accused of corruption to book is the major reason for
institutional corruption in Nigeria. The study highlights War
Against Indiscipline (WAI) and Mass Mobilization for Self
Reliance, Social Justice, and Economic Recovery (MAMSER), as
some of the strategies to re-invent Nigeria and suggested moral
transformation as a strategy to minimize the spate of corruption in
Nigeria.
185. Agboola, T.O . (2009). Corruption crusade in Nigeria

and the enforcement of ethics and accountability in the new
political dispensation. African Journal of Institutions and
Development, IV (5–6), 119–128.
Philosophers usually argue that ethics is the foundation of honesty

and accountability. The article takes a cursory look at the
contributions and roles of two of Nigeria’s foremost commissions
set up to enforce ethics and accountability in the country. The
study sheds some light into the activities of EFCC and ICPC in
their antigraft war especially in the Fourth Republic highlighting
the public officers charged and the sanctions against them. The
article takes a position in favor of transforming the state to be
people-centered; otherwise, accountability will remain elusive.
The article also recommends increased public enlightenment.
186. Apampa, S. (n.d.). Overview of the subject of ethics.

In Rafsanjani A. Musa & Ekwekuo C. Chibuzo (Eds.), Corruption
programming: A practitioner’s manual (pp.116–129). Abuja,
Nigeria: Open Society of West Africa (OSIWA) .
Ethics entails the strict adherence to a prescribed code of

behavior. Although ethics is generally accepted as the relevant
measure in checking unapproved behavior, the meaning and
128
understanding of ethics can be problematic. This article

emphasizes on ethics, in terms of definitions, source and types. It
also evaluates the power context and analyzes. The framework of
ethics is for common good, self-interest, and the interest of others.
This article discusses the nexus between the code of ethics and the
fight against corruption using three approaches and three usual
manifestations. The manual also compiled compliance
enforcement mechanisms for ethics such as Market mechanism,
Bureaucratic and Control mechanism, Clan or Culture
mechanism, and Public feedback mechanism. The manual
recommends corruption control through risk management and
corruption detection, public awareness, prosecution of corruption
and guidance for developing the code of ethics.
187. Egboh, E. A. (2003). Values and ethics of public

responsibility. In G. Onu (Ed.), Corruption and sustainable
development: The Third World perspective (pp. 344–352). Awka ,
Values and ethics are essential personal matters that guide and
influence human behavior in an organization. It is essential to the
general public that government affairs be administered properly.
To improve and achieve results in its administration, values
become important factors to be considered. This article examines
the concept of values and ethics of public responsibility in the
public sector. It explores the nexus between values and public
administration and discusses the code of ethics for public service.
It highlights the importance of administrative ethics in public
administration as a guide in the performance of public
responsibilities in the absence of a law to govern them. It explains
that ethics is not only a question of law but of moral values. A
code of ethics is a self-regulation tool among professionals.
Although as a profession, public administration has no universally
accepted ethical standards, or a code of ethics. Each government
129
prescribes a code of ethical conduct which government officials

and employees follow. Professionals in government are also
governed by the code of ethics of their respective professions. The
misuse of powers and corruption springs from the amount of
discretionary power that government officials have in the
performance of their duties and functions. Still, observance of
high ethical standards in the public service has been identified as
one of the tools for preventing the misuse of power and authority
and minimizing occurrence of graft and corruption in government.
188. Ehwarieme, W. (2003). Ethical measures for

efficient and corrupt free public administration in Nigeria: A
critical appraisal. In G. Onu (Ed.), Corruption and sustainable
development: The Third World perspective (pp.145–152). Awka ,
Over the years, corruption has been identified as the bane of

development in Nigerian. Hence, measures were taken to ensure
an efficient and corruption free public administration in Nigeria.
This article outlines and critically appraises the ethical measures
enshrined in the criminal code, code of conduct, and the Corrupt
Practices and Other Related Offences Act No. 5 of 2000. It
outlines the essential provisions in each of the three codes and
offers explanation for the ineffectiveness of the provisions in
terms of the nature of the Nigerian state and within the framework
of general political economy approach. The study shows that
several measures have been enshrined in several codes that should
ordinarily lead to a more efficient and corruption free system
where the will to enforce them is made available. It notes that such
will is absent because of the Nigeria’s political economy and
interests of the ruling elites and their foreign partners, which are
best served by a corrupt and inefficient system. Thus, it creates a
dilemma that one set of corrupt officials or institutions are
expected to ensure that another set are not.
130
189. Ochulor, C. L., & Metuonu, I. C. (2013).

Machiavellian philosophy of wealth acquisition in contemporary
Nigeria: A critique. Canadian Social Science, 9(2), 62–67.
It has been noted by scholars that pervasive corruption has been

the bane of political and economic development in Nigeria. This
article examines the Machiavellian Philosophy which states that
“the end justifies the means.” It states that most Nigerians indulge
in corrupt practices in order to satisfy their appetite for obscene
wealth at the expense of the masses. The article identifies the
absence of national ethos for wealth acquisition as the major
constraint for national development in Nigeria. It argues that
while there are various ways of acquiring wealth, the ‘get rich
quick syndrome’ has become inadvertently the norm. It identifies
different sources of wealth in Nigeria but regrettably remarked
that most Nigerians adopt cutting corners as an efficient means of
wealth acquisition thereby institutionalizing corrupt and sharp
practices. The writer called for an ethical reorientation towards
wealth acquisition and a need to adopt noble means to affluence
without endangering fellow countryman.
Political Science
190. Abdullahi, H, Abdullahi, Y. Z, & Yelwa, M. (2012).

Corruption in Nigeria: Towards A new paradigm for effective
democratic governance and sustainable development. Academic
Research International, 3(1), 239–253.
In the last two decades, corruption has received a great deal of

attention largely because of its assumed negative consequences
for development and stability. This article gives some account of
corruption and its consequence on the Nigerian polity and
development. The article argues that in as much as corruption is
131
as old as man, sophisticated corrupt practices coupled with the

anti-intellectualism are the vices that had help ruin the Nigerian
state. Thus, effective democratic governance has eluded Nigeria
as a result of the hydra headed monster called “corruption”, which
has defied every remedy. The article is divided into six parts
which covers an introduction, concept clarification, overview of
corruption in Nigeria, giving its nature, types, causes and effects
of corruption, linkage between corruption, effective democratic
governance and sustainable development, case model for
combating corruption which are human model, institutional
model and the Immunity Model. The article recommends that
enlightenment campaigns, accountability, reforms of the
public/civil service and constitutional provisions will foster the
rule of law.
191. Abdullahi, Y. S. (2004). Combating corruption in

Nigeria—Bliss or bluster? Journal of Financial Crime, 12(1), 69–
87.
Although Nigeria has a long history of fighting corruption, the

country still records a very high rate of corrupt practices including
the practices of bribery, nepotism and misappropriation of public
funds. The principal aim of this article is to give an overview of
the corruption situation in Nigeria and discuss its possible causes,
which are seen to be rooted in sociocultural practices and the
political and economic situation of the country. According to the
author, the main reason for the persistence of corruption is the lack
of political will to deal with it. The author further examines recent
efforts to combat corruption in Nigeria, with a special focus on
the Abachacase and its lessons. In his view, this task was rendered
difficult by challenges of global enforcement. On this basis, he
concludes that Nigeria’s recent efforts at eliminating corruption
are unlikely to be entirely successful.
132
192. Abisoye, L. O., & Adesiyan, E. A (2014). Corruption
and leadership challenges in a democracy: A case of Nigeria.
International Journal of Behavioral Social and Movement
Sciences, 3(1), 9–15.
The assumed negative relationship between corruption and

development, especially in a democracy, has been widely debated.
This article extends the debate on corruption, democracy and
development in Nigeria. It argues that despite the enormous
human and capital resources available in Nigeria, development
has continued to elude the country due to the prevalence of
corruption. The article attempts a conceptualization of corruption,
leadership and democracy, and went further to establish their
relationship in the Nigerian context. The article argues that
corruption has to be tackled headlong as it is difficult to win the
battle against poverty if public funds keep disappearing into
private pockets. Hence, to tackle corruption, preventive measures
such as educating the public, strengthening anti-coruption
agencies, enshrining the practice of transparency and
accountability in governance must be put in place.
193. Abu, A. (2005). The Spatial imprints of corruption in

Nigeria. In L. Olurode & R. Anifowose (Eds.), Rich but poor:
Corruption and good governance in Nigeria (pp. 88–108). Lagos,
Nigeria: Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Lagos.
Works focusing on the spatial implications of corruption in

Nigeria are rare. This article identifies the spatial imprints of
corruption in Nigeria with respect to its geographical imprints, as
well as, its environmental consequences on the country. The
author observes that corrupt officials are often asymmetrically
distributed in space which leads to a tendency for the spatial
effects of corruption or cluster in space. It identifies the poorest
people and areas/regions as the greatest victims of corruption. It
133
notes that efforts to redress federal imbalances through state

creation, has only led to a further exacerbation of spatial inequities
and imbalances. Accordingly, the failure of the numerous
attempts towards curbing corruption in the country is due to lack
of ‘spatial responsibility and political accountability’ in the
system. The writer suggests the need for a political accountability
mechanism capable of ensuring accountability in elections,
emphasizing the need for a strategy that focuses on corruption in
endemic areas, cities and systems and not only on corrupt
individuals. It also suggests the need to employ basic geographic
tools of heuristic and algorithmic models in a GIS environment to
arrive at a statistical solution based on the composite of
population, land area, ethnic affinity, and contiguity adjacency
viability.
194. Abutudu, M. (2003). Mediating Encounters:

Corruption and the Nigerian state. In G. Onu (Ed.), Corruption
and sustainable development: The Third World perspective (pp.
275–285). Awka, Nigeria: Bookpoint Limited.
The high incidence of corruption in the public life of postcolonial

Africa is widely acknowledged. In Nigeria, the allegations of
corruption have featured prominently. Corruption is in effect a
central facilitator of wealth and political power in Nigeria. The
mediating role of corruption in public life is also manifested and
encoded within institutions of the state. The daily and routine
encounters with public officials often require negotiation in which
corruption may play a facilitating role. This article examines the
mediating encounters of corruption in the Nigerian state. The
process of mediation may be characterized in three major ways;
people characterizing the actions of state functionaries, state
functionaries characterizing their own actions and people
characterizing their own relations with agents of the state. The
article discovers that Nigerians have devised ways of talking out
134
corruption, at high or low places without actually using the term

itself. Such codes are situational, context-specific, and generally
derived from innocent everyday terminology. For the author,
analysis of corruption in the context of Africa tends to ignore how
the phenomenon is represented in everyday activities, discourse,
encounters and experiences of the people.
195. Achebe, C. (1983). The Trouble wit h Nigeria.

Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinmann Books.
The failure of Nigeria to institute a peaceful, stable and

prosperous economy despite being blessed with abundant human
and material resources has attracted much debate. Several
problems have been identified as responsible for this, including
tribalism, lack of patriotism, mediocrity, indiscipline, corruption,
social injustice. This short book examines many of these issues.
According to the author, the key problem is a failure of leadership
which causes all these other problems to exist in the first place.
He particularly hyped the issue of corruption, arguing that if the
country had better leaders who could take a stand against
corruption, it would definitively have huge trickle down effects
that would aid bringing social programs, peace, social order and
justice. In the final analysis, he calls on all thoughtful Nigerians
to rise up today and reject those habits which cripple the country’s
aspiration and inhibit its chances of becoming a modern and
attractive country.
196. Adams, A. J. (2002). Corruption in Nigeria’s local

government system: Its implication for rural development. West
African Journal of Research and Development in Education, 9(1),
78–88.
The level of underdevelopment of Nigeria’s rural area and the

attendant case of mass poverty among rural dwellers has led to
135
increased concern for sustainable rural development. Local

Governments which are supposed to be instrument for rural
transformation have been turned into conduits for self-enrichment
by public office holders. This article seeks to articulate the
negative impact of political corruption on rural development in
Nigeria. This discusses the distortion in the process of the
provision of social amenities and the development of
infrastructure, the slowdown in the pace of economic
development, aggravation of poverty, lowering productivity
amidst the rural dwellers, and discouraging participation. The
article advocates measures such as; poverty alleviation,
overhauling of the political institutions to make for new ethics of
accountability, election or appointment of credible people,
restructuring of government at the local level to make for efficient
and effective delivery of social services to engender the
development of the rural areas.
197. Adebanwi, W. (2010). A Paradise for maggots: The

story of a Nigerian anti-graft czar. Abuja, Nigeria: YMCI.
Only very few works on corruption in Nigeria have so far focused

on the role of individuals as agents of social transformation. This
work proposes to do just that. The author who has a background
in Political Science and Social Anthropology documented and
analyzed the tenure and activities of the pioneer chairman of
Nigeria’s foremost antigraft body, Mallam Nuhu Ribadu. His
writing clearly demonstrated the high level of corruption in
Nigeria and the vision of Mr. Ribadu in eliminating the
cankerworm. Written in a concise and fluent manner, the book
drew many inferences from the personal rapport the author has
with Mr. Ribadu. Significantly, the book underlined the dangers
inherent in fighting corruption and the importance of leadership.
It also finally draws attention to the irregularities in our country’s
judicial system and the fault lines in Nigeria’s religious and ethnic
136
divisions. For him, these challenges need to be resolved in order

to make progress in the war against corruption.
198. Adebanwi, W. and Obadare, E. (2011). When

corruption fights back: Democracy and elite interest in Nigeria’s
anti-corruption war. Journal of Modern African Studies, 49(2),
185–213.
The politicization of anti-coruption projects by Nigeria’s political

elites is one of the obvious features of Nigeria’s struggles against
corruption in the Fourth Republic. Taking a scope of 1999 to
2008, this article attempts to analyze the construction of the anti-
coruption war under the civilian government of Obasanjo. It
asserts that recent academic attempts to correlate corruption and
development appear to have settled upon a consensus: that
corruption is a negative phenomenon in every modern society,
and that its impact is particularly ‘catastrophic’ in African
countries. This fact ordinarily should motivate the political elites
to fight corruption. The article, however, argues that the greatest
threats to anti-coruption campaigns often emanate from a
combination of intraelite rancor and political intrigue, based on
corrupt practices which are reflections of deeper socio-political
pathologies of a “normal” postcolonial state. After examining the
operations of anti-coruption agencies in the Fourth Republic, the
authors concludes that the anti-coruption war has to be premised
on total systemic overhauling in Nigeria, including the total
overhaul of the political and electoral system so as to discourage
the centrality of personal and personalized financing of political
parties which has created a criminal industry.
137
199. Adegbite, L. (1991). Towards the evolution of a

corrupt-free society: The role and duties of the citizenry. In U. A.
Kalu, & Y. Osinbajo (Eds.,), Perspectives on Corruption and
Other Economic Crimes in Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Justice
Law Review Series, Vol. 2, 153–165.
Corruption has been identified as Nigeria’s major challenge

towards achieving an enduring and stable democratic country and
a sore which require all efforts to ensure it is healed. This article
examines the role of the citizenry towards eradicating corruption
in Nigeria. The article highlights the nature and causes of
corruption in Nigeria. It identifies capitalism, attitude of
government officials, and weak legal system as the overwhelming
causes of corruption in Nigeria. The author did an assessment of
the attitude of the past and present governments towards anti-
coruption campaign and identified insincerity on the part of
successive government in their avowed anti-coruption fight. It
recommends the strengthening of the legal system, moral
rejuvenation, and active participation of the citizens in order to rid
the country of corruption.
200. Adekola, O. G. (2007). The corrupt state system and

human development challenges before the civil system in Nigeria.
In A.D Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the challenge of human
development (pp. 293–308). Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria: Babcock
University Press.
There have been very few attempts by Nigerian scholars to

provide a clear-cut distinction between the state system, the civil
society and human development, or to quantify the roles played
by human element in the society in the process of
institutionalizing corruption in the country. This study is an
attempt in that direction. The work sought to bring to the fore,
human development challenges before the state and civil society
138
in Nigeria. The study reveals that civil society has been utilized to
orchestrate the struggle against authoritarianism and
institutionalized state corruption in Africa. It also discussed the
philosophical underpinning of good governance as the main
purpose of states. Sources of data for the study includes archival
date in published, unpublished, private, public, academic and
popular records, cyber retrieval, among others. The article
suggests that the powers behind the World Bank , Clubs and
Multinational Companies and Organizations from developed
countries of the World, must reflect the human side in their efforts
towards containing the scourge called corruption. It emphasizes
the need for developing countries themselves to step up in their
games for the war against corruption to be won and suggests that
African countries must embark on both capacity building and
confidence building; to focus on policy aspects of improving the
quality of human resources and rely more on the informal and
formal private sector to increase capital investment. It stresses the
need to improve welfare through economic growth, which can
thrive only in the face of prudent fiscal and monetary policies and
the development of the private sector.
201. Aderonmu, A . J. (2011). Civil society and anti-

corruption crusade in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic. Journal of
Sustainable Development in Africa, 13(1), 75–86.
Civil society’s participation in anti-coruption projects has grown

in recent years. Taking a scope of Nigeria n Fourth Republic, this
article examines the role of the civil society in the fight against
corruption. The article argues that the campaign against
corruption has not been for the government alone as civil society
organizations have initiated several programs towards curbing
corruption. Despite the success that has been recorded by the civil
society, their progress has however been mitigated by lack of
access to valid information, finance, sentiment, and corruption
139
among others. The article concludes by recommending that civil

societies practice preventive corruption; imbibe values of
courage, impartiality, honesty, transparency, accountability and
determination in order to achieve lasting success in the fight
against corruption.
202. Adesoji, A & Rotimi, O. (2008). Nigeria and its anti-

corruption war: The cases of Dariye and Alameiyeseigha. African
Insight, 38(1), 159–172.
The Nigerian anti-coruption war has been criticized by many

scholars and analysts for its lack of bite and its highly political
nature. This article analyzes how Nigeria government is fighting
corruption with specific examples of Joshua Dariye and Dipreye
Alameiyeseigha, two former state governors indicted for massive
corruption. It analyzes the policies and actions of the two
governors’ and the prevailing variables at that time. The article
concludes by noting the half-hearted approach and the insincerity
of the government towards the fight against corruption.
Nevertheless, the authors commends the actions taken against
corruption so far, positing that it could send ripples of hope that
can be built on in eliminating corruption in the land.
203. Adeyemi, O. O. (2012). Corruption and local

government administration in Nigeria: A discourse of core issues.
European Journal of Sustainable Development, 1(2), 183–198.
Corrupt practices by Local Government officials are rarely

mentioned in academic studies, despite the endemic nature of
corruption at this level. The article examines the crisis of
corruption in Nigerian Local Government administration. The
article notes that corruption has become endemic partly due to the
role of political actors who perpetuate it. The author demonstrates
that corruption is the bane of Local Government administration to
140
the extent that corruption has been canonically entertained,

accommodated and celebrated. The modalities of corruption at the
Local Government level are highlighted. The article concludes by
putting across suggestions on how corruption can be combated at
the Local Government level. One of which involves greater
education of the populace.
204. Adeyemi O. O., Akindele S. T., Aluko O. A. &

Agesin B. (2012). Institutionalizing the culture of accountability
in local government administration in Nigeria. African Journal of
Political Science and International Relations, 6(4), 81–91.
The paucity of the culture of accountability and transparency in

the administration of Local Government in the Nigerian body
politic has made it impossible for Nigerians to realize the essence
of Local Government: third tier of government closest to the
people at the grassroots. Against this backdrop, the article set to
examine the factors responsible for the low performance of Local
Government with a view to proffering solutions that will ensure
accountability and transparency in the Local Government. The
article argues that the primary function of the Local Government
is to serve as a platform for grassroots development. Instead of
discharging its functions as development centers, local
governments have acquired notoriety for corruption, fiscal
indiscipline and overall irresponsibility which has an adverse
effect on the people in the grassroots. The article highlights the
different forms of accountability, such as social accountability,
financial accountability, political accountability, administrative
accountability, ethical accountability and legal accountability. To
check the menace of poor accountability, the article recommends
re-sensitization of officials about ethical values and principles,
training and reorientation, promotion of leadership by example at
grassroots, and the promotion of administrative accountability.
141
205. Afolabi, G.K. (2007). Contextual perceptions of

corruption in contemporary Nigeria. In A.D Aina (Ed.),
Corruption and the challenge of human development (pp. 137–
146). Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria: Babcock University Press.
Studies aimed at examining fraud as a form of corruption are not

common. Fortunately this is one of such studies. G. K. Afolabi’s
article discusses various fraudulent dealings, its constituents and
their predisposing factors, with a view to sensitizing financial
managers, administrators and policy makers on the need to
provide effective, preventive and control measures. In this article,
the author provides a conceptual framework of corruption and
explored different theories and scholarly perspectives on the
causes and strategies to be adopted in the fight against the
cankerworm. The author acknowledges the role of established
international agencies in the fight against corruption and states
that that the bulk of the work lies with the nationally coordinated
anti-coruption agencies due to the limited reach of international
agencies. However, he argues that there is a need to tackle the
issue of transparency, credibility and effectiveness in the
operations of national anti-coruption agencies such as the EFCC
and ICPC. The article specifically recommends a good system of
governance and management measures which includes sound
internal control system, staff motivation, and accountability
among others. It also emphasizes the need to practice compulsory
tendering principle in the award of government contracts to
minimize fraud.
206. Agbaje, A. A. (1996). The political parties,

corruption and democratization. In A. Gboyega (Ed.), Corruption
and democratization in Nigeria (pp. 47–58). Ibadan, Nigeria:
142
Among all the military governments that have ruled Nigeria, the
Babangida administration has been the most criticized for
corruption. This article focuses on the Babangida regime, which
was deeply involved in de-democratization and deceptive use of
state resources to sustain power. The regime promoted political
manipulation, treachery and uncertainty. While in office in 1986 -
1993, political parties behaved like private organizations and
mere licensed public office-seeking associations. The
administration’s decision to finance and tightly control the two
existing parties was the root of corruption. The activities of those
in government were seen as corrupt because party structures were
seen as personal empires available for looting by those in favor of
the government. The article also contains several
recommendations for fighting corruption.
207. Agbiboa, D. (2013). One step forward, two steps

back: The political culture of corruption and cleanups in Nigeria.
CEU Political Science Journal, 8(3), 273–295.
Systemic nature of corruption in Nigeria has made it a topical

issue throughout Nigeria’s history. This article attempts an
examination of corruption in Nigeria, from a historical point of
view. It argues that corruption is by far one of the most important
factors mitigating against development in Nigeria despites its
richness in human and natural resources. While no region, and
hardly any country, is immune to corruption, some countries are
more susceptible than others, and may suffer more negative
effects. In Nigeria, the problem has permeated all levels of the
national polity to the extent that scholars and commentators now
talk about a political culture of corruption in Nigeria. The article
argues that to properly grasp the dynamics of corruption and
impunity in postcolonial Nigeria, one must start with its
experience of colonialism which created “a culture of unbridled
corruption and fettered democracy.” Also, the coming of the
143
military to the political scene of Nigeria marked the peak of

corruption in the country which was present in all the regimes
since Nigeria’s independence in 1960. The article concludes that
to curb the problem of corruption in Nigeria, a fusion of national
and international strategies is required, combined with strong
political will. Also, there must be independent investigatory panel
to review charges of corruption within government and the private
sector.
208. Agbiboa, D. E. (2011). Le aders or leeches?

Corruption and the cycle of dysfunction in Nigeria. Loyola
Journal of Social Sciences, 25(1), 83–102.
Corruption is no doubt a major clog in the wheels of progress in

Nigeria and, as it is in most other African states. Much of this
corruption has been nurtured by political leaders who prey on their
states’ treasure. This article examines the problem of corruption
from the perspective of the leaders, who are likened to an army of
leeches. According to the author, between 1960 and 1999 alone,
Nigerian leaders looted over $440 billion. This is six times the
Marshal Plan, the sum total needed to rebuild devastated Europe
in the aftermath of the Second World War. Such magnitude of
corruption, he argues, is a direct consequence of poorly developed
institutional arrangements and distorted incentive structures.
Existing institutional arrangements allow the elites who captured
the state at independence to turn governance structures into
instruments for their self-enrichment. The writer further argues
that without effective systems of checks and balances that can
tame the presumptuous power of the government. African states
will remain vulnerable not only to corruption and abuse of public
office, but also to the reversal of democratic principles and values.
144
209. Agbiboa, E. D. (2012). The corruption-

underdevelopment nexus in Africa: Which way Nigeria? The
Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies, 35(4), 474–
509.
Corruption abounds in Nigeria, and the country has seen series of

anti-coruption crusades, many of which are launched by military
governments; keen on portraying themselves as corrective
regimes. This article examines Nigeria’s quest to institute a more
accountable government and the role of the military in all this.
According to the author, Nigerians have often hoped that soldiers
who hailed from a more structured and regimented background,
compared to their civilian counterparts, would be apt to free the
nation from the stranglehold of corruption and emplace a much
needed professionalism in the country’s civil service. But time
and again, it has turned out to be a mere pipe dream. Instead, the
military, unfettered by the rule of law and goaded on by the lure
of personal gain, became a vanguard of unbridled self-
aggrandizement and frenetic looting. This explains the continued
existence of an increasingly predatory and self-interested ruling
class. The writer advocates an appropriate holistic approach
toward success in the nation’s anti-coruption crusade.
210. Agbiboa, E. D. (2012). Serving the few, starving the

many: How corruption underdevelops Nigeria and how there is an
alternative perspective to corruption cleanups. Africa Today,
50(4), 110–132.
The reasons for Nigeria’s inability to produce appreciable

development despite being blessed with abundant human and
natural resources have remained one of the most debated
questions in African political cycles. This study interrogates the
causes of Nigeria’s continued underdevelopment, which the
author attributes to rampant corruption and ineptitude among the
145
country’s rulers. To deal with this challenge, the author advocates

for the incorporation of some of the elements contained in the
theory of public choice into future anti-coruption programs to be
designed and implemented in the country. Some of the elements
referred to include introduction of more germane rules, reform of
existing laws and institutions, effective and relevant incentive
structures and sanctions to deter potential offenders.
211. Agbiboa, E. D. (2012). Corruption in the

Underdevelopment of the Niger Delta in Nigeria. The Journal of
Pan African Studies, 5(8), 108–132.
The scourge of underdevelopment and conflict ravaging the Niger

Delta has received much attention in recent times as scholars
struggle to explain the root causes of the problems of the region.
This article can be seen as a major contribution to that debate. The
author views corruption as a ‘curse’ that inhibits development and
political stability in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. His analysis
is based on the idea that corruption is fuelled by the character of
the Nigerian state and her tendencies to allow for the privatization
of the state. To overcom e this, he recommends a two-fold
approach. One is that Nigeria should intensify its on-going efforts
to diversify the national economy which will in the long run
reduce the country’s reliance on crude oil, making it less
destabilizing to national income and development. Second is that
the corruption problem in Nigeria can be addressed by
incorporating insights from the theory of public choice into the
design and execution of future anti-coruption programs.
212. Agbiboa, E. D. (2013). Corruption and economic

crimes: Social and economic perspectives. African Security
Review, 22(1), 47–66.
146
Corruption has several faces in Nigeria, including political,

bureaucratic, electoral, social, and economic or financial aspects.
The article is on the social and economic aspects of corruption in
Nigeria, which the author argues have been increasingly endemic
and difficult to combat, given the increasingly borderless nature
of corruption and economic crime. For him, any successful
control of corruption will require a coordinated response that will
fuse domestic and international strategies. He argues that the
emergence of international instruments such as the United
Nations Convention Against Corruption 2003, provides the basis
for enhanced collaboration between governments around the
world. To maximi ze the chances of winning their wars against
corruption, the author recommends that governments in
developing economies should adopt the radical strategy of taxing
unaccountable wealth and criminalizing illicit enrichment.
213. Agbiboa, E. D. (2013). Protectors or predators? The

embedded problem of police corruption and deviance in Nigeria.
Administration and Society, XX(X), 1–38.
More than ever before, the Nigeria police is widely viewed as one
of the most corrupt and unfriendly public institutions. Yet not
much academic studies have been devoted to understanding the
predicament of the police or how to address its corruption
problem. This article seeks to critically address this issue, with a
view to proffering possible solutions to the problem. The central
term of the article is that police corruption and other deviant
behaviors by members of the Nigerian police are historically
rooted in colonial and military administrative policies. The Fight
against the culture of corruption and coercion as prevalent in the
police force will require far reaching institutional reforms that go
beyond the cosmetics changes often seen in Nigeria.
147
214. Agbiboa, E. D. (2013). As it was in the beginning:

The vicious cycle of corruption in Nigeria. Studies in Sociology
of Science, 4(3), 10–21.
Corruption is an enduring problem in Africa and it is widely

believed to constitute a major drag on the continent’s progress and
development at large. The article focuses on the development of
the problem of high-level corruption, and struggles against it in
Africa’s most populous and oil-rich country and critically
examines the past and present experience of corruption in Nigeria.
The article is structured into seven sections. It explores the
meaning of corruption and draws a distinction between high-level
and low-level corruption, it discusses the paradox of development
in Nigeria and also the political culture of corruption in Nigeria in
particular regimes. Further sections expose recent oil-related
corruption scandals in Nigeria under Goodluck Jonathan’s current
administration, the costs of high-level corruption in Nigeria and
the Nigeria’s struggle against elite corruption. The study
concludes with a note of warning that Nigeria is regressing rapidly
in its war against corruption.
215. Agbu O. (n.d.). Revisiting Corruption and Human

Trafficking in Nigeria: Any Progress? Lagos, Nigerian Institute
of International Affairs. Retrieved from
http://www.ungift.org/docs/ungift/pdf/vf/
backgroundpapers/OsitaAgbu_1.pdf.
After five years of the successful enactment of the Trafficking in

Persons (prohibition) Law Enforcement and Administrative Act
2003 and the creation of the National Agency for the Prohibition
of Trafficking in Persons and other Related Offences (NAPTIP),
there is obviously a need to assess actual progress. This paper
seeks to ascertain the progress made so far, lessons to be learned
and ways to better combat this menace of human trafficking. It
148
identifies corruption as both the underlying root cause and a

facilitating tool for human trafficking, while noting that concrete
legislation will contribute much to the reduction of corruption. It
concludes by drawing some inference from the Nigerian scenario
and from the international arena and recommended the enactment
of a comprehensive domestic law to cover most aspects of human
trafficking amongst others.
216. Agbu, O. (2004, October). New anti-corruption

governments: The challenge of delivery: Nigeria, a case study.
Paper presented at the Kenya Meeting on New Governments,
Government of Kenya, TI-Kenya, and Transparency
International, Nairobi, Kenya. Retrieved from
http://www.transparency.org/content/download/4192/25973/file/
Nigeria-long-Final.5_9_05.pdf.
Recent changes in the international arena have forced many

developing countries to embrace anti-coruption reforms. This
study takes Nigeria as a case study of a country that is not only
transiting but also undertaking anti-coruption crusade without
necessarily having been forced to do so. The Nigerian anti-
coruption reforms are viewed as self-imposed. The paper however
argued that even though the Nigerian government has summoned
the necessary courage to undertake anti-coruption reform, still not
much has been achieved. The major challenge being how to attract
the support of the citizens and what efforts would be taken by the
successor to President Olusegun Obasanjo to consolidate the anti-
coruption struggle. The paper concludes that even though the anti-
coruption drive is on course, it still remains largely ineffective.
217. Agbu, O. (2003). Corruption and human trafficking:

The Nigerian case. West Africa Review , 4(1), 1–13.
149
While corruption has been an ancient human practice, human

trafficking as presently practiced is a recent addition to the
dictionary of global woes. The object of the article is to look more
closely at the linkage between corruption and human trafficking
which appears to have been given very little attention until
recently. The study addressed the questions of what really is
corruption and how does it relate to human trafficking or the
trafficking in persons? Is there some collusion between traffickers
and government agents or officials? If so, what is the nature of
this collusion? And what possible policy interventions could be
applied to reduce or check the opportunities for corruption, which
fuels the trafficking in human beings. The study concludes with
an assertion that combating human trafficking should be located
within the larger context of underlying social and economic
problems.
218. Agebse, P. (2005). The stolen Okigbo Panel report:

Of malfeasance and public accountability in Nigeria. In D. Laray
& Guyer, I. J. (Eds.), Vision and Policy in Nigerian Economics:
The Legacy of Pius Okigbo (pp. 55–75). Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan
University Press.
Investigative panels are common features in Nigeria’s perennial

struggle against corruption. This article assesses the relevance of
investigative panels set up by successive Nigerian governments
which have often turned out to be only ‘mere ink on the paper.
Using the Pius Okigbo Panel as a case study, the author shed light
on the political stances of the reports of various commissions set
up and how some of the panels of inquiry were often set up by
incumbent leaders to indict their predecessors and vindicate the
incumbent. The paper concludes by criticizing the impact of
commissions of inquiry and other administrative commissions
which has been very minimal.
150
219. Aghayere, V.O ., & Idada, W. (2007). Governance

and Corruption in Nigeria. In A.S. Akpotor, A.O. Afolabi, M.O.
Aigbokhaevbolo, B.O Iganiga, O.S. Odiagbe (Eds.), Cost of
governance in Nigeria: An evaluative analysis (pp. 461–478).
Ekpoma, Nigeria: Ambrose Alli University Publishing House.
Weak governance and corruption are twin concepts widely

associated with Nigeria. This article, therefore, examines the
nature of governance and corruption in Nigeria. It analyzed two
main perspectives on corruption and good governance. The author
describes corruption as an orchestrated plan to use public office
to satisfy selfish ends and concludes that good governance is
about delivering the common public goods and achieving
sustainable development. It identifies that the failure of leadership
which manifest by ways of initiating and implementing policies
that are not people oriented as an instance of corruption. It further
identifies the effects of corruption and suggested that if good
governance must be entrenched in Nigeria, corruption must be
minimized to its barest minimum.
220. Agubamah, E. (2009). Corruption in civilian and

military regimes in Nigeria: A comparative analysis. In U.D.
Enweremadu, & E. E. Okafor (Eds.), Anti-corruption reforms in
Nigeria since 1999: Issues, challenges and the way forward (pp.
81–89). Ibadan, Nigeria: French Institute for Research in Africa.
Undoubtedly, corruption is a global phenomenon which is not

peculiar to Nigeria alone. However its magnitude has always been
a source of concern to people around the world. Some have
expressed the views that military intervention has worsened the
situation, meaning that military rule is by its nature more prone to
corruption. This article looks at the levels of corruption during
military and civilian rule simultaneously. The article employs the
modernization approach to buttress its position and also compares
151
anti-coruption mechanisms put in place in the two systems of rule

and concludes that the military rule is more corrupt than its
civilian counterpart. Under the present circumstances, the author
recommends the efficient use of several anti-coruption agencies
to tackle the problem of corruption.
221. Aigbovo, O. & Atsegbua, L. (2013). Nigerian anti-

corruption statutes: An impact assessment. Journal of Money
Laundering Control, 16(1), 62–78.
It is a proven fact that corruption is prevalent in Nigeria and that

it has negatively affected Nigeria’s development. This article
analyzes the relevant provisions for dealing with the menace of
corruption, including provisions of the code of conduct for public
officers in the constitution of Nigeria, and other statutes directed
at curbing official corruption, and then undertakes an assessment
of their impact in the fight against corruption. It went further to
analyze the impact of views of policy makers and implementers,
development partners and academics on the anti-coruption fight
in Nigeria since her return to civilian rule in 1999 while not losing
grasp on the assessment of the impact of the legal provisions
directed at curbing official corruption. The article concludes with
the reasons why the anti-coruption efforts have failed to yield
results which include the lack of political will and the culture of
poor implementation of reform policies.
222. Aina, S. (1982). Bureaucratic corruption in Nigeria:

The continuing search for causes and cures. International Review
of Administrative Sciences, 48(1), 343–352.
Corruption is a major challenge militating against national

development in Nigeria as in many African countries, not
surprisingly it has attracted considerable attention of people from
all walks of life. The menace appears to be more pronounced
152
among public servants who work in government ministries,

departments, and agencies. The practice is more widespread with
each passing day. This article is one of the earliest studies
published by a Nigerian scholar on the issue. The purpose of the
article is to analyze the reasons why corrupt practices occur, and
to dissect their various forms and consequences on the individuals
involved as well as on Nigerian society. The author also examines
some few cases of corruption, showing while past measures to
combat them were ineffective.
223. Aiyede, E. R. (2003). Public service ethics in

Nigeria’s local government. In G. Onu (Ed.), Corruption and
sustainable development: The Third World perspective (pp. 46–
60). Awka, Nigeria: Bookpoint.
The concern with Local Government service in Nigeria is often

limited to issues of executive capacity and other personnel
problems to the neglect of the political values underlying Local
Government systems. A relative attention is hardly paid to issues
of ethics in Local Government studies. This article, therefore,
provides an analysis of the condition of public service ethics in
Local Government in Nigeria. It accesses the structural and
normative ethical content of various Local Government reforms
in Nigeria in order to explain the state of public service ethics at
that level. The article argues that, although efforts were made to
integrate public service ethics into the reforms, ethics programs
were not systematic and for a long time very limited. It notes that
the various Local Government reforms were subjected to the
instrumental use of corruption for regime stability and immersed
in the politics of distributive federalism. This was worsened by
the dependence of Local Government on statutory allocation for
the bulk of their revenue. There was also a lack of commitment
on the part of key actors towards these reforms.
153
224. Aiyede, E. R. (2006). The Role of INEC, ICPC and

EFCC in combating political corruption. Money, politics and
corruption in Nigeria. A Publication of IFES, 37–54.
Following Nigeria’s transition to civilian rule in 1999, several

institutions have been established to champion Nigeria’s struggle
with corruption. This article reviews the problem of political
corruption in Nigeria and discusses attempts made towards
fighting corruption in the period leading to the 2007 general
election. The article conceptualizes corruption and concepts
associated with it, narrates the devastating effects of corruption
on Nigerian politics, economy and society, particularly in the
Nigerian electoral process. The article states that despite the
various attempts made by Nigerian antigraft laws to fight
corruption, there was still a bias as to tackling corrupt practices in
the electoral governance. The article critically evaluates and
analyzed the roles, relationships, contextual challenges and
effectiveness in addressing political corruption in Nigeria and
recommends strategies for ameliorating political corruption
generally.
225. Ajayi, K. (2003). Bureaucratic corruption and anti-

corruption strategies in Nigeria, 1976–2001. In G. Onu (Ed.),
Corruption and sustainable development: The Third World
perspective (pp. 153–172). Awka , Nigeria: Bookpoint.
Corruption in Nigeria has attained the status of a pervasive and

phenomenal social behavior. The article is an attempt to examine
comparatively, across regimes, the corruption issue in Nigeria’s
political and administrative practice for two and a half decades.
The study establishes, theoretically, a linkage between power,
poverty and corruption, and identifies the various patterns of
corruption and the impetus for anti-coruption campaign. It
analyzes the modus operandi of each regime since 1976 to combat
154
bureaucratic corruption by instituting a number of anti-coruption

policies and examines the underlying factors that hindered the
effectiveness of the various anti-coruption strategies. Contrary to
the corrective posturing of military regimes in Nigeria, political
and bureaucratic officials were more corrupt under military
dispensations than civilian administrations. The most outstanding
effect of this corrupt legacy of the military is that Nigerian
administrators readily prefer military administrations to civil
democratic regimes. Attempts by military regimes to check
corruption were merely promotional of the legitimacy and societal
acceptance of such regime. The study identifies individual,
societal and institutional material poverty as the major under-
pinning factor for the enduring culture of corruption in the
country. Findings reveal that successful implementation of the
corruption law may have been constrained by several factors
including lack of support of the tiers of government as well as the
shallowness of public awareness law. Ultimately, the political will
to fight corruption is needed. In addition, economic
empowerment of the people through eradication of mass poverty
is essential. For the author, there should be a general societal anti-
coruption mobilization, an active involvement of the mass media
in the campaign, as well as the police and civil servants.
226. Ajisafe, R. A. & Saibu, M. O. (2005). Corruption in

governance and its effects on the poor. Ife Social Science Review,
Special edition, Journal of the Faculty of Social Sciences,
Obafemi Awolowo University, Special edition, October, 146 –
155.
Nigeria as a country has suffered from high incidence of

corruption which is reflected in high level of poverty among its
citizens. It has been realized by the people of developing nations
that corruption diverts resources from the poor to the rich;
increases cost of running businesses, distorts public expenditures
155
and deters foreign investors. Contrary to the perception that the

effects of corruption are largely confined to the middle classes,
this phenomenon particularly in the public sector has considerable
impact on the poor. The study, therefore, examines the possible
effects of corruption on the poor, in order to suggest ways of
combating the scourge. According to the author, the conditions of
services and the process of electing the public officer affect the
degree of corruption due to the level of poverty in the country.
The public officers because of the way they got to power and the
fear of the future, attempts to divert resources meant to improve
the general welfare of the poor to their personal uses. Through this
process, the poor are affected by the corruption level among the
government workers. Recommendations towards combating
corruption and improving the condition of the poor include a
review and change in the remuneration and condition of service,
including the provision of good working conditions for the
workers in public offices. In addition, the process of appointing
and electing the public office holders should be reformed and
improved upon such that credible people are put in the affairs of
governance.
227. Akanbi, M. (2003). Current policy initiatives and

frameworks for combating corruption. In A. Aderinwale (Ed.),
Corruption, accountability and transparency for sustainable
development (pp. 53–65). Ota, Nigeria: African Leadership
Forum.
In 2003, a round-table was organized to review Nigeria’s

fledgling anti-coruption crusade. The program organized by a
private think-tank, African Leadership Forum, with the support of
the United Nations Development Program. One of the several
papers presented at the conference was authored by Retired
Justice Mustapha Akanbi, the then Chairman of ICPC, one of the
two leading antigraft bodies. His paper examines the
156
consequences and cost of corrupt practices to Nigerians and tries

to suggest mechanisms that stakeholders can adopt to solve the
problem. His arguments were mainly drawn from his personal
experiences while at the ICPC. He concludes with the positive
impact the commission is making where public office holders are
now cautious in their day to day activities in office. He went
further to call on the entire populace to embark on an unyielding
commitment against corruption.
228. Akinbinu, B. & Adeoti, J. (2006). Curbing corruption

in Nigeria: The technological imperatives. In B. Aboyade & S.
Center.
The persistent relative technological backwardness in the country

suggests the need to closely examine the role of corruption in
technological development. This paper examines the role of
corruption in technological development and the role of new
technologies in providing new sources and solution to the problem
of corruption. In the estimation of the author, while new
technologies have solved myriads of human problems, they are
known to have created new streams of problems. The relevant
ideas provided to addresses the persistent problem of corruption
in Nigeria includes the need for the private sector to develop and
adopt strong and efficient technical solutions and management
practices for information security while cyber-crimes are still
generally weak in most countries. It also emphasizes a
coordinated public-private partnership to produce a common
technological approach for tackling corruption in the country.
157
229. Akinola A.O. (2007, September 6). Godfatherism

and Nigerian politics. Paper presented at the International
Conference on Nigeria in the 21st Century: Issues and Challenges,
Faculty of Administration, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-
Ife/Conference Centre of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile -
Ife, Nigeria.
The abduction of the former Anambra governor, Dr . Chris Ngige,

by his godfather, Chris Ubah, in 2003 brought the phenomenon of
godfatherism to light during the Fourth Republic. This paper,
drawing an analogy from the movie “the last Don” by Mario Puzo,
attempts a description of godfatherism in the contemporary
Nigerian politics. The paper argues that godfatherism, which is
synonymous with client-patron politics, has been substituted for
mafianism in Nigeria. The paper traced the history of
godfatherism to the 1960 and asserts that the first generation
leaders were also godfathers. The paper also explores the
operations and strategies of some godfathers, as well as their
power and influence. The author asserts that such patronage has a
great corruptive influence on the political systems, notably on
election results. After highlighting the negative effects of
godfatherism, the author concludes that it will soon fizzle away
leaving only those who have emotional connection to the psyche
of the people.
230. Akinwale, A. A., Okafor, E. E. , & Amzat, J. (2005).

Sit-tight politics and political corruption: Implications for
development in Nigeria. Ife Social Science Review, Special
edition, Journal of the Faculty of Social Sciences, Obafemi
Awolowo University, October, 30 –36.
Sit-tight politics is a political phenomenon in Nigeria that has

facilitated political corruption across nook and cranny of the
country. This article reveals that political corruption is mainly a
158
function of sit-tight politics. In the light of political economy

theoretical framework, this author argues that political
entrepreneurs perpetuate themselves or their candidates in offices
through illegitimate wealth and means. Therefore, sustainable
development has become elusive in Nigeria. Like their
predecessors, the present political leaders impoverish the
majority, who still vegetate below the poverty line. Therefore, the
article highlights the need for transparency and accountability in
governance, corruption management through the rule of law and
good governance remains the panacea that can engender
development and foster a stable political system in Nigeria.
231. Akinkoye, O. (1986). Pathways to corruption. In F.

Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in development (pp. 92–99).
Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press.
Most developing countries are ravaged by corruption, yet the

frequency and magnitude vary substantially among these
countries. The article analyzes corruption in developing countries,
using Nigeria and Ghana as cases for comparison. The article
reveals that the only distinction in corruption is the degree,
character and corrupt activities. The article asserts that Nigeria is
on the path of expansionist capitalism. The love of wealth,
affluence and leisure seem to be growing as a result of
bureaucratic arrangements, poor monitoring systems, acute
shortages and a high level of acceptability of corruption among
politicians, civil servants and employees in the private sector. The
article recommends some pathways for policy formulation and
measures aimed at controlling, reducing and managing the nature,
degree and character of corruption. The article condemns the lack
of concern as to the degree corruption thrives in developing
countries like Nigeria based on expansionist capitalism.
159
232. Aku, A. (2003). Corruption crusade in Nigeria: The

challenge of ICPC on national cleansing. Abuja, Nigeria:
Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences
Commission.
Given the challenges faced by most of Nigeria’s antigraft bodies

in stemming the tide of corruption in recent times, there have been
concerns about how the internal organization of these
organizations are structured and its effects on their work. This
book, written by a former staff and prosecutor with ICPC,
provides an inside view into the administrative structure and
workings of ICPC between its establishment in 2000, to 2003. The
author provides detailed insights into the law that set up the ICPC
in comparison with similar legislation such as the Code of
Conduct Bureau and Tribunal Act. The author highlights some of
the achievements and challenges of ICPC and looked at the role
of critical stakeholders like the clergy, media, the bar and the
bench, international development partners and NGO’s. In
conclusion, the author advocates some administrative changes
within ICPC (setting up of department of corruption prevention,
monitoring and evaluation, corruption prevention advisory
committee etc.).
233. Alabi, O. A. M. , & Fashagba, Y. J. (2010). The

legislature and anti-corruption crusades under the Fourth
Republic of Nigeria: Constitutional imperatives and practical
realities. International Journal of Politics and Good Governance,
1(12), 1–39.
The legislature as the accredited representative body of the people

of Nigeria monitors and protects public funds and resources with
a view to ensuring its judicious utilization for the overall benefit
of the people. The vantage position of the legislature in the
making and unmaking of all laws includes the ability to eradicate
160
or reduce corrupt practices in public and private life. There

appears to be a convergence of views that national representative
stand in good stead to curb corruption. This article examines how
the legislature has fared in performing its constitutional duty in
this regard and found disparities between constitutional
prescription and political realities in the country. This is attributed
to several factors such as; the burden of crisis of legitimacy
hanging over a huge proportion of Nigerian legislators, primitive
accumulation of wealth by the legislators, the nature of the
Nigerian state and lack of political will amongst others. It
recommends that for the fight against corruption to succeed, the
legislature must make up its mind to be committed to anti-
coruption war and the need for the Nigerian masses to vote in
people with integrity into the assembly.
234. Albin-Lackey, C. & Rawlence B. (2007, October).

Criminal politics, violence, godfathers and corruption in Nigeria.
New York, Human Rights Watch, 19(16A), New York, NY .
Rigged elections and electoral violence are characteristics of

Nigerian politics. This monograph gives an historical account of
dictatorship and rigged elections in Nigeria. As the authors argue,
the hope of Nigerians for good governance and respect for human
rights in this democratic dispensation against the experience of
the military has been dashed. They also argued that the Nigerian
democratic sphere has been marked by violence and corruption.
Violence according to the authors, has denied the Nigerian
populace the right to choose their leaders, and corruption had
facilitated and encouraged violence in the polity. The monoraph
looks at the activities of godfathers in Nigeria by taking case study
of states such as Oyo, Gombe, and Anambra among others and
argues that politicians openly recruit and arm criminal gangs to
unleash terror upon their opponents and ordinary members of the
public.
161
235. Ali, A. D. (2013). The poverty of leadership and the

proliferation of corruption practices in Nigeria since 1960. Kuwait
Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review,
2(8), 1–9.
The prevalent rate of corruption among political leaders is a major

obstacle to economic development in Nigeria. This study assesses
the concept of the poverty of leadership and rise of corrupt
practices in Nigeria since independence. The article argues that
corrupt practices among leaders are major causes of social vices
such as youth violence, and other crimes related to physical
assault such as, murder, arson, armed robbery, rape, kidnapping,
prostitution, examination malpractices, assassination, pipeline
vandals, oil bunkering, internet fraud that pervades the Nigerian
state. The study thus proffers that in order to curb the trend,
constitutional provisions that will enhance the legal protection of
the citizen’s socio-economic rights and regulate the activities of
leaders be enshrined.
236. Ali, Y.O (2007). The anti-graft war. In H. Saliu, E.

Amali, & R. Olawepo (Eds.), Nigeria’s reform programme: Issue
and challenges (pp. 511–540). Ibadan, Nigeria: Vintage
Publishers.
Anti-coruption projects have a long and complicated history in

Nigeria. The study examines the genesis of corruption in Nigeria.
It also carried out a general survey of the ICPC Act 2000 and the
Modus Operandi of the national anti-coruption commission. The
study shows that no fruitful result or success ever came out of the
various laws that tried to tackle corruption which were in
operation before the promulgation of the ICPC Act 2000. The
reason adduced for this was the lack of enforceability machinery.
It is against this view that this study supports the enactment of the
new ICPC Act and the subsequent establishment of the ICPC
162
leading to investigation and prosecution of offenders according to

the tenets of the Act.
237. Aliyu, S. U. R. (2009). Democracy, corruption and

economic development: Evidence from Nigeria. Researcher: An
Interdisciplinary Journal, 22(4), 40–64.
The causal relationship between democracy, corruption and

development has remained a subject of debate. This article is an
attempt to further extend this debate using empirical evidence for
the period of 1996 to 2006. The study reveals that the relationship
between democracy and development is positive and statistically
significant, while that between corruption and development is not.
The article, therefore, recommends the sustenance of democracy
in Nigeria, a concerted effort at fighting corruption, and the
creation of a conducive macroeconomic environment which is
both receptive to private sector practice and foreign investor
friendly.
238. Alobo, E. J. (2006). Corruption in the rock. Abuja,

Nigeria: Diamondreal Resources Consul.
This 430-page book was written in honor of Justice E.O. Ayoola,

a former chairman of Nigeria’s national anti corruption
commission (ICPC). The work mainly details the various aspects
of Nigeria’s anti-coruption crusade especially the one led by ex-
president Obasanjo. The main objective was to examine the
harmful effects of corruption in Nigeria over the years and draw
attention to the need to adopt holistic and acceptable approach in
tacking it. The author concludes that the challenges facing ACAs
in Nigeria are enormous but achievable. He recommends that the
operators should seek public support, learn from experiences of
other countries and conduct their operations within the confines
of the law.
163
239. Aluko, M. A. O. (2005, October). Theoretical

approaches to understanding of corruption in Nigeria. Ife Social
Science Review, Special edition, Journal of the Faculty of Social
Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, 51–61.
Corruption has emerged as one of the main impediments to

development in Nigeria. This article examines the theoretical
explanations of corruption in Nigeria from sociological
standpoint. It examines and discusses the sociological theories
that help to explain the prevalence of corruption in Nigeria. In
addition, it aims at finding out what can be done in the area of
policy to reduce the incidence of corruption. The study presents a
selection from range of modern sociological theories that can be
used to explain the prevalence of corruption in Nigeria. They
include the social exchange theory, anomie, social disorganization
theory, action theory, idealistic theory, modernization theory,
Marxism and the political economy theory. The submissions of
the article were based on the content analysis of some
documentary data as well as analysis of some contemporary
corrupt practices in Nigeria. The article recommends a national
sociocultural reorientation and introduction and implementation
of economic policies and programs of action aimed at strict
surveillance. In addition, it stresses demonetization of politics and
the enactment of new antigraft laws that will make the prosecution
of corruption officials to be effective.
240. Aluko, J. O. (2006). Corruption in the local

government system in Nigeria. Ibadan, Nigeria: Book Builders.
That endemic corruption is a major affliction of most Nigerian

local councils is no longer in doubt. Yet most scholarly works
have tended to ignore this lower unit of authority, preferring to
focus on the state and federal levels of government. This book is
a detailed and critical account of the incidence of corruption in
164
Nigerian local governments. The analysis covered a historical

account of corruption, the role of military regimes in
institutionalizing corruption, and the nature and extent of
corruption in Nigeria, drawn mainly from the author’s personal
experience working at the local government level. The writer
contends that corruption at the local government level is often a
collaborative affair involving collusion with state and federal
officials. To facilitate the ongoing efforts at combating
corruption, the author advocates a bottom-up approach which will
complement the federal government’s efforts in this direction.
Specifically, he recommends more mobilization and involvement
of the masses in government activities, empowerment and
building of capacity of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).
This work should serve as an impetus for scholars to reanalyze the
problem from a fresh perspective.
241. Aluko, A. Y. (2009). Corruption in Nigeria: Concept

and dimensions. In U. D. Enweremadu & E. E. Okafor (Eds.),
Anti-corruption reforms in Nigeria since 1999: Issue, challenges
and the way forward (pp. 1–17), IFRA Ibadan Special Research
Issue, 3, 1–17.
Generally, corruption is viewed in the article as a universal

epidemic. Meaning that corruption as a malaise is not the
exclusive preserve of any nation, race or section of the world but
transcends national boundaries and cultural frontiers. The paper
first conceptualizes corruption, evaluates its evolution, forms,
causes and effects. The author discusses her view on corruption
in Nigeria as systemic, in the sense that it affects the proper
performance of all sectors of the economy. Corruption in Nigeria
has several dimensions and springs from multiple sources such as
poor reward, poor leadership and bad values. The manifestations
of corruption in Nigeria itself occur in petty and grand forms, and
create a concentric ripple that leads millions to their early death.
165
Corruption is intelligible only in a social context, because it is an

antisocial behavior which brings about under-development. The
article concludes that efforts to eliminate corruption must be
devoid of compromise
.
242. Amaraegbu, A. D. (2008). Anti-corruption in Africa:
The cases of Nigeria and Ghana (PhD Thesis). School of
Government and International Affairs, University of Durham,
Durham, U.K.
Since the last two decades, anti-coruption projects have

proliferated across African as part of a global push for economic
recovery. This doctoral thesis analyzes the case of two countries,
Nigeria and Ghana. In the study, the author reviews the major
intervention measures and institutional frameworks that were put
in place to tackle corruption between 1999 and 2007. The author
attributes much of the problem to the character of Africa's ruling
elites, their attitude towards public good and their competition for
political power, arguing that the burden of reinventing Afric a rests
on their shoulders. He further observes that the anti-coruption
policies of Nigeria and Ghana, as elsewhere in the developing
world, developed in response to the demands of a renewed good
governance strategy, but notes the improper implementation of
these policies, which are driven more by politics than by
objectivity, as will be seen in the presence of a polity of contesting
interests and government interference with the judicial process
regarding the prosecutorial powers of anti-coruption
commissions, especially in high-profile cases. As a result, public
office holders take advantage of their positions for primitive
accumulation and often get away with it because institutions that
should supposedly bring them to justice are weak, compromised
and profligate. He recommends that governments in both
countries should take concrete steps and design counter measures
166
that are capable of creating the proper values for public office
holders, because values are central to the fight against corruption.
243. Amede, L O. (2010). Corruption and human rights:

The challenges of mineral resources stewardship. American
Society of International Law Proceedings, 250–254.
Development experts have long pointed to the negative

consequences of corruption on socio-economic rights of citizens,
especially the poor. This article takes a look at the interface
between corruption and human rights. It argues that corruption
obstructs honest initiatives or policies that aim at generating and
liberating resources that can be used to ensure that the
fundamental rights of the people are protected. It further posits
that while empirical evidence suggests that there is a science to
the organic evolution of competing jurisdictions into choice
mining destination, the endeavor is hardly rocket science. The
political economy of the productive discovery, delineation,
development, and management of mineral resources reflects an
aggregation of complex variables that transcends the boundaries
of pure science.
244. Amujiri, B.A. (2002). Corruption in the government

circle. In C. O. T Ugwu, (Ed.), Corruption in Nigeria: Critical
perspectives: A book of readings (pp. 68–84). Nsukka, Nigeria:
Chuka Educational Publishers.
It has been argued that corruption is pervasive and corrosive in

Nigeria. This article examines the causes and effects of corruption
and concluded on the ways to stem the tide of corruption. It
identifies different perspectives on the meaning of corruption and
concludes that corruption is the use of state power for selfish ends.
It identifies poor wages, flamboyant lifestyle, societal factors, and
bureaucratic bottleneck as some of the major causes of corruption
167
in government. The author identifies the pros and cons of

corruption but concludes that in the case of Nigeria, corruption
has stifled socio-economic growth and that drastic steps should be
taken to combat the menace like was done in other climes like
China and former Soviet Union where community justice was
adopted to fight corruption.
245. Amujiri, B. A. (2003). The phenomenon of

corruption in Nigeria: Implications for public accountability. In E.
O. Ezeani (Ed.), Public accountability in Nigeria: Perspectives
and issues. Enugu, Nigeria: Academic Publishing Company.
The impact of corruption on public administration in Nigeria has

generally been negative. This study examines corruption from that
perspective. The author attempts to show that corruption has
destroyed completely merit in as appointments, advancements,
conversions, transfers and secondments. The public sector in
Nigeria is tainted with irregularity and fraudulent acts. Procedural
arrangements are hardly adhered to. He also observes that various
laws promulgated have been unable to control the high level of
corruption in the Nigerian society and that various probes and
commissions of inquiry never led to the punishment of culprits
most especially government officials. He posits further that the
higher the office of the offender, the more likely it is that the
offender will not be punished. For him, apprehending and
punishing these “big fishes” is the surest way to reduce corruption
in Nigeria.
246. Anatusi, T. C. and Nnabuko, J. O. (2014). Corruption

and tourism: Restructuring Nigeria’s image for development
using public relations strategies. Arabian Journal of Business and
Management Review, 3(7), 51–65.
168
One of the major challenges to actualizing the Nigerian dream is

the issue of corruption. It has been argued that endemic corruption
is responsible for Nigeria’s stunted socio-economic development.
This article examines how effective public relation strategies
could be used to tackle the issue of corruption in Nigeria. It
describes corruption in Nigeria as hydra-headed as it has defied
solutions over the years. It identifies lack of good ethical standard
in public governance, poor reward system, large family system;
weak institutions as the primary causes of corruption in Nigeria.
It asserts that corruption has dented the image of Nigeria in the
international community and it requires concerted efforts to rid
Nigeria of corruption. The author concludes by recommending the
adoption of an effective public relations efforts, strategies and
proactive approach to issues of combating corruption in Nigeria.
247. Anazodo, R., Okoye J.C., & Ezenwile, U. (2012).

Leadership Corruption: The bane of Nigerian development.
African Journal of Political Science (Social Sciences), 2(3), 124–
134.
Against the backdrop of entrenched corruption in every facet of

the Nigerian polity, the article sought to analyze with the help of
questionnaires, the relationship between leadership-corruption
and development and the extent to which it affects service
delivery in Nigeria. The study establishes that leadership
corruption seriously affects development and the level of service
delivery in the country. The author makes the following
recommendations; the reduction of the cost of election, tackling
of the problem of godfatherism, constitutional reforms eradicating
regional and ethnic discrimination and favoritism and making the
punishment for corruption higher than the gains in all political
institutions.
169
248. Anikpo, M. (1986). Reflections on the nature of

Press.
While corruption is a universal phenomenon, its manifestations

and effects tends to differ from one society to another. This article
provides deep knowledge and awareness about the context and
concept of corruption by examining the social structures and inter-
relationship that generate corruption and the existing notions of
corruption. The article is primarily concerned with establishing
the general analytical components of corruption and not
necessarily the stakeholders or the practical reflections of
corruption. The article, by offering a conceptual model of
corruption not necessarily rooted in the social structure or
economic base, is an important contribution to the analysis of
corruption.
249. Animashaun, M. A. (2007). Corruption and public

confidence in state leadership: A study of Nigeria’s Fourth
Republic. In A.D. Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the challenge of
human development (pp. 435–445), Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria:
Citizens’ perceptions of corruption and anti-coruption efforts go

a long way in shaping the legitimacy of governments. It is against
this background that this article examines the challenge of
corruption and its effect on citizens’ perception of governance in
Nigeria with a focus on the Fourth Republic. It evaluates the
official concerns and efforts (such as the development initiatives
NEEDS) of the Obasanjo administration and examines the results
of such efforts. It argues that the character of the Obasanjo
presidency and the way and manner the anti-coruption war was
prosecuted by the administration not only demonstrated the
170
insincerity of the regime but also engendered public cynicism in

the entire anti-coruption project. The article adopts a statist
development model and state capitalism to explain how capitalist
class uses state power for surplus appropriation and primitive
accumulation. It argues that the institutional approach remains the
most effective instrument in controlling corruption in Nigeria and
that the failure of this approach in the past is a result of the
operations by state leaders who often sabotage its effectiveness.
Policy proposal recommendations include the need for
institutional reform and a return to a developmental socialist state
that invests in social citizenship. It also recommends that the
funds for the operation of the institutions such as the ICPC, EFCC,
and Code of Conduct Bureau, be charged to the Consolidated
Revenue Fund to avoid their manipulation by state leadership. It
emphasizes the need to pass the freedom of information bill before
the National Assembly.
250. Anugwom, E. E. (2002). The normalcy of vice: The

public sector and corruption in Nigeria. In C. O. T. Ugwu (Ed.),
Corruption in Nigeria: Critical perspectives: A book of readings
(pp. 85–96). Nsukka, Nigeria: Chuka Educational Publishers.
It has been identified that Nigerians are not averse to corruption

given that their attitude against it is very tolerant, thus making all
citizens complacent. This article examines the widespread nature
of corruption in Nigeria. It argues that prevalent corruption arise
as a result of the overcentralization in the economy and concludes
that Nigerians are not averse to corrupt and sharp practices
because of the low moral stand of the civil populace. The author
traces the genesis of institutional corruption which is the major
form of corruption in Nigeria and identifies economic hardship as
the major cause of it. The author concludes by suggesting a
multidimensional approach to the fight against corruption in the
political process.
171
251. Anyim, P. A. (2002). Towards a corrupt free

sustainable development and challenges of good governance and
prosperity in Nigeria. In G. Onu (Ed.), Corruption and
sustainable development: The Third World perspective (pp. 1–3).
Awka, Nigeria: Bookpoint.
The role of corruption in retarding development needs little

debate. According to this author, the severity and evident volumes
of data which prove the incompatibility between corruption and
development led to the very first bill passed by the Nigerian
National Assembly on the February 15, 2000. The Law according
to him contains several provisions designed to prohibit all corrupt
acts in the public service. Yet, according to him, the strategies for
fighting corruption and promoting sustainable development in the
country has taken other forms, such as liberalizing and
democratizing conditions for doing business in Nigeria, including
programs of privatization of public enterprises to allow for greater
private sector participation. The author however argues that apart
from corruption, other problems like insecurity constitute threat
to the challenge of a sustainable development, democracy, good
governance, prosperity and transparency. He, therefore,
emphasized the need for Nigerians to critically discuss and proffer
solutions that can help minimize the effect of these challenges.
252. Apampa, S. (n.d.). Governance initiatives in the fight

against corruption. In A. M, Rafsanjani & C. C. Ekwekuo (Eds.),
Anti-corruption programming: A practitioner’s manual, Abuja,
Open Society of West Afri ca (OSIWA) (pp. 81–97).
Since the return to democratic rule in 1999, Nigerians have seen

the conception and application of some far-reaching anti-
coruption initiatives. What is debatable is the effectiveness of
these measures and their relative impact compared to similar
initiatives taken prior to this dispensation. This article examines
172
the subject of corruption and chronologically traces the various

initiatives by successive governments in Nigeria to curb
corruption, including both military and civilian administrations.
The article assessed and evaluated the initiatives used to curb
corruption between 1960-1999 and 1999-2007. Finally, it
recommends a schematic analysis of anti-coruption initiatives and
strategies of governments in Nigeria.
253. Aransi, I. O. (2007, September 6). Effect of

corruption and unethical conduct on accountability in Nigerian
public service: A critical examination. Paper delivered at
International Conference on Nigeria in the 21st Century: Issues
and Challenges, Faculty of Administration, Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife/Conference Centre of the Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Corruption and unethical conduct have deeply affected the

performance and image of the Nigerian public service. This paper
attempts a critical examination of the effects of corruption and
unethical behaviors on accountability in the Nigerian public
sector. The author argues that unethical conduct and corruption
inhibit accountability in the Nigerian public sector. Unethical
conducts include the misuse of power by public officials for
private gains, political intolerance, unlawful private enrichment,
abuse of office, etc. The paper argues that military intervention in
politics has further compounded the issue of accountability in
Nigeria, concluding that there is a need for Nigerians to return to
the practice of their time-honored value system. It also cites the
need to tackle poverty as essential.
173
254. Aransi, I. O. (2005, October). The impact of

globalization on local administration and good governance in
Nigeria. Ife Social Science Review, Special edition, Journal of the
Faculty of Social Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, 98–
108.
The rhetoric of “good governance” has recently come to dominate

global discussions about the African state, Nigeria inclusive.
Every country of the globe strives after good governance. The
article discusses the various impacts of globalization on local
administration and good governance in Nigeria. It attempts a
conceptual elucidation of the concepts of globalization, local
administration, and good governance and examines the challenges
facing democracy and good governance in Nigeria. In addition, it
considers the place of Nigeria in the global economy and how the
planned economy can guarantee political stability, effective and
efficient local administration and good governance in Nigeria. It
posits that every country in the globe should strive for good
governance. The current drive towards globalization has made it
imperative for Nigeria to learn from the advanced countries of the
world about democratization, good governance, and local
administration. Sustainability and consolidation of democracy
and good governance in Nigeria are crucial in view of the
fundamental changes to be effected in governance modes, which
may lead to an extraordinary revival of Nigeria’s sociopolitical
institutions as well as her economies. The article concludes that
democracy and good governance, as well as political stability, can
be guaranteed in Nigeria if her level of corruption can be reduced
to the barest minimum. Strategies towards attaining good
governance and efficient and effective local administration
include the need for establishment of a truly democratic and just
federal arrangement in order to address the issues of justice,
equity, and a sense of belonging among the federating units. In
addition, government has the right to examine critical reform
174
policies suggested by foreign countries and multilateral

institutions. Efforts should be geared towards institutionalizing
participatory democracy instead of military domination, which is
antithetical to good governance and political stability.
255. Aremu, M. A. & Ahmed, Y. A. (2011). An

investigation of security and crime management in developing
society: The implication on Nigeria’s democratic set-up. Int.
Journal of Academic Research of Business and Social Sciences,
1(3), 390–399.
Scholars have argued that crime is as old as human society and

that the types of crime vary from one nation to another. Therefore,
this article tries to examine the causes and types of crime
prevelent in Nigeria and how they can curbed. The writer
describes the nature of crime in Nigeria as multidimensional. It
identifies direct violent crime as the major threat to national unity.
It describes that the nature of crime in Nigeria is borne out of the
lack of political will to maintain law and order in the country, the
breakdown of social values, disregard for the rule of law and
social justice, and corruption. The writer contends that in order to
reduce violent crime in Nigeria, the government should ensure
adequate and equitable provision of socioinfrastructural facilities,
provision of gainful employment for youth, and other public
goods. It should also adopt proactive measures that would
improve the standard of living for the masses. It concludes that
government should strengthen anti-coruption agencies among
others in order to curb the rising rate of violent crime in Nigeria.
256. Arowolo, D. (2008). The state, bureaucracy and

corruption in Nigeria. In Proceedings of the 1st International
Conference on Socio-Economic Policies and Millennium
Development Goals(MGDs) in Africa, Faculty of Social Science,
Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba, Nigeria, 176–182.
175
Transparency international consistently rates the levels of

corruption in Nigeria among the highest in the world. Pervasive
corruption appears to permeate all levels of Nigerian society.
Corruption has been a detrimental force that hinders democracy
and democratization, and as such, inhibits economic growth and
development as it also represses individuals in all spheres of life.
In order to illuminate the factors accounting for the obstinate
nature of corruption, the article adopts both descriptive and
analytical methods. It also makes use of scientific analysis of
corruption by employing public choice theory to explain how self-
styled leadership has facilitated the unholy alliance between states
and bureaucracy in their engagement in kleptocratic practices.
The article concludes by putting forth some necessary
recommendations.
257. Awopeju, A. (2009). Godfa therism and good

governance: Contradictions in the Nigerian body politic. African
Journal of Institutions and Development, IV (5–6), 109–118.
Godfatherism is commonly viewed as one of the major obstacles

in Nigeria’s nascent democracy. This study examines the issue of
godfatherism and the conduct of good governance in an opposite
direction using Oyo state as a case study. It reveals that the
godfather-godson relationship has negative and devastating
effects on the conduct of good governance because the latter
panders to the whims and caprices of the former in order to retain
his position. The study also reveals that the developmental
policies and projects in many places are abandoned in a senseless
tussle for power and supremacy. In a situation where the godson
refuses to cooperate, a tough battle for the control of the state
ensues, and the godfather might turn the whole state into anarchy
and make it ungovernable for his son. The article emphasizes the
need to address the problem of godfatherism in Nigeria, in order
not to ruin its nascent democracy. It recommends a need for a
176
reorientation of the political class and the need for the federal
government to stop giving these godfathers political support. In
addition, political posts in Nigeria should be made unattractive to
enable those who are willing to serve the chance to contest for
elective posts. Furthermore, the conduct of elections requires
overhauling, to guarantee free and fair elections. Democratic
practice must be the watch word of every facet of the Nigerian
polity.
258. Awopeju, A., Afinotan, L. A., & Ilegbusi, M. I.

(2009). The National Assembly and anti-corruption drive in
Nigeria. Journal of Contemporary Politics, 2(1), 7–20.
Corruption is a prevalent issue in Nigeria. This is largely due to

the ineffectiveness of many existing anti-coruption institutions in
the country. It is against this background that this article draws
attention to how Nigeria’s National Assembly took steps to ensure
that there is zero tolerance for corruption in the country from
2007–2009, with particular reference to the highly corrupt power
sector. The article reveals that the war against corruption can be
won if there is political will to combat it. But this has been made
difficult in Nigeria, as according to him, most members of the
National Assembly are even corrupt and are not sincere with the
anti-coruption drive of the Assembly.
259. Ayoade, J. A. A. (2006). Godfather politics in

Nigeria. Money, Politics and Corruption in Nigeria. A
Publication of IFES, 78–87.
Godfathers have become a disturbing trend in contemporary

Nigerian politics. This article is an exploration on the Godfather
concept in the Nigerian politics. The article traced the origin and
contextual meaning of Godfather politics in Nigeria. It also
sequentially analyzes how politicians in Nigeria systematically
177
turned themselves to godfathers of politics and critically

differentiates the concept of godfather from some other terms that
mean different things such as mentor, financier, benefactor just to
mention but a few. The article evaluates how godfathers force the
cost of elections up, produces an unresponsive leadership and has
created doubt about the legitimacy of electoral process and those
elected into offices in Nigeria.
260. Ayodele, A. S. (2006). Corruption and poverty in

Nigeria’s process of socio-economic development: Impact
analysis. In B. Aboyade & S. Ayodele (Eds.), Fighting corruption
in Nigeria: Challenges for the future (pp. 29–38). Ibadan, Nigeria:
Development Policy Center.
The relationship between corruption and development has

attracted considerable debate. This author examines the effect of
corruption on socio-economic development in the country. He
identifies corruption as involving corrupt practices such as fraud,
bribery, forgery, embezzlement, and exhortation , which he notes
are a function of the prevailing socio-economic conditions. He
states that the country’s expectations for sustainable economic
development have not materialized due to corruption, which has
been identified by several economic analysts as the major
hindrance to the attainment of development goals. The article
suggests several policy options to deal with corruption, including
sustaining privatization programs, readjustment of labor income,
deconcentration of power, regular monitoring and assessment,
and the adoption of the monetization policy.
261. Ayodele, A.S. (2008). Eradication of corruption in

Nigeria. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on
Socio- Economic Policies and Millennium Development Goals
(MGDs) in Africa, Faculty of the Social Sciences, Adekunle
Ajasin University, Akungba, Nigeria, 118–134.
178
Eradicating corruption from Nigeria’s body politic has been a

sought of albatross giving that the problem seems to have defied
all solutions. The main objective of this article is to highlight
policy measures that could help redress the undesirable corruption
situation in Nigeria. The article discusses Nigeria’s
democratically elected governments’ identification of corruption
as the bane in the wheel of socio-economic development of the
country. This was followed by a general review of past efforts
taken to eradicate corruption by successive administrations in the
country. The article then asserts that there is an urgent need to
strengthen all anti-coruption laws, provide necessary facilities for
quick apprehension, investigations and arraignments of offenders
etc.
262. Bello-Imam, I. B. (2004). Corruption and national

development. In I.B. Bello-Imam, & I.M. Obadan, (Eds.),
Democratic governance and development management in
Nigeria’s Fourth Republic: 1999 –2003 (pp. 266–281). Ibadan,
Nigeria: JOPAD Publishers.
In Nigeria, corruption has proved an intractable challenge for

democratic governance and development. This explains its
prominence in policy and academic discussions in Nigeria. This
study offers a holistic analysis of the vice of corruption in Nigeria.
In the work, the author begins by defining the concepts and their
various causes and consequences in Nigeria. The author argues
that corruption is unproductive and antithetical to development
and should be combated. In conclusion, he argues that though a
successful war against corruption is very possible, it will require
strong political will on the part of both the governors and the
governed.
179
263. Bello-Imam, I. B. (2005). The war against

corruption in Nigeria: Problems and prospects. Ibadan, Nigeria:
College Press and Publishers.
The battle against corruption in Nigeria has been ongoing for quite
a while. In many ways however, the one launched after Nigeria
returned to democracy in 1999 has been the most intensive. This
book is a detailed critical review of this effort.. In the book, the
author critically analyzes the problem of corruption and other
economic crimes in Nigeria, then discusses the various
institutions created to manage the problem via detection,
investigation, and prosecution. While noting the challenges
encountered by these institutions in their quest to discharge their
mandate, the writer concludes on a positive note, arguing that with
the increased commitment of the leadership and the people,
Nigeria will slowly but steadily arrive at good governance.
264. Benjamin, S. A. (2006). The role of the civil society

in fighting corruption in Nigeria. In B. Aboyade & S. Ayodele
(Eds.), Fighting corruption in Nigeria: Challenges for the future
(pp. 59–79). Ibadan, Nigeria: Development Policy Center.
Civil society actors are increasingly active partners in the global

fight against corruption. This article examines the role of the civil
society in fighting corruption in Nigeria and the environment in
which the civil society is situated. The presenter gave an
introduction, a conceptual and theoretical framework of civil
society and corruption, the categories of civil society, before
zeroing on role of civil society in reducing corruption in the
country. The article argues that although the civil society has an
active role in history, the unevenness in the development of civil
society in Nigeria has been a factor hindering its performances as
an anti-coruption institution, which explains its failures in the past
decades. The author calls on civil society to imbibe the spirit of
180
patriotism and nationalism, develop a willingness to fight the

battle against corruption and begin to condemn, in strong terms,
the various atrocities in the government circle, rather than remain
docile.
265. Bolaji, K.A. (2007, September 6. Governance failure

and state fragility: Nigeria’s Niger Delta region examined. Paper
presented at the International Conference on Nigeria in the 21st
Century: Issues and Challenges, Faculty of Administration,
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife/Conference Centre of the
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile -Ife, Nigeria.
The fragile character of the African state is a source of continuing

debate. This paper attempts an examination of the link between
governance, its failure, and the state of fragility in Nigeria with a
focus on the Niger Delta region. It questions the irony of the
sufferings of the populace in the midst of plenty and asks where
the resources are despite the claims of the federal government to
have pumped trillions of naira into the region. The paper
conceptualizes good governance and argues that transparency,
rule of law, participation, accountability, equity, effectiveness and
efficiency, and strategic vis ion are among its characteristics.
Using the World Bank conceptual framework, the paper examines
state failure as a result of failure in governance in the Niger Delta.
The paper argues that allowing the Niger Delta to disintegrate will
be a “lose-lose” situation for all the parties involved, especially
the common people. In proffering solutions, he argues that the
economy needs an urgent revitalization, and that there is also a
need to fight corruption, boost employment generation, ensure
devolution of power, and increase integrity.
181
266. Brimah, A. N., Bolaji, I. A. & Ibikunle, O. H. (2013).

Corruption in social administration: A barricade to citizens
welfare and Nigeria's development. Arabian Journal of Business
and Management Review, 2(12), 59–65.
Corruption is a cancer that has eaten away at the fabric of the

Nigerian polity. The general global perception about bribery in
Nigeria is that it is a pervasive phenomenon. This article examines
the dimensions of corruption by our leaders in social
administration. It wonders at the way politicians treat citizens they
are supposed to be serving and analyzes the celebrated cases of
corrupt acts in the Nigerian social administration. The study goes
further to compare the earnings of Nigeria’s lawmakers with those
of their counterparts from countries around world. The study
concludes that the next step toward democracy is the abolition of
corruption among the executives, legislators, and judges.
267. Brownsberger, N. W. (1983). Development an d

governmental corruption: Materialism and political fragmentation
in Nigeria. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 21(2), 215–
233.
The article attempts a review of corruption as a deep-rooted

phenomenon, arguing that it is a product of materialism and
political fragmentation. The article identifies the causes of
corruption in developing countries and attempts a review of
political patterns that encourage corruption. Customs, attitudes,
and habits, pressure on officials, the nature of the political
environment, and ethnicity are identified as causes. The article
further looks at the costs and benefits of corruption by arguing
that corruption may have advantages as well as disadvantages in
the society. It looks at the economic and political dimensions and
concludes that it is not possible to generalize about when
corruption will be beneficial on balance. The article looks at kinds
182
of corruption such as polite, nepotism (or parochial corruption),

alienated (or market) corruption, and their relevance in Nigeria.
The article then offers a hypothetical explanation as to why
materialism seems to be so prevalent in Nigeria. It concludes by
emphasizing the need for good governance and the expansion of
the private economy.
268. Cleen Foundation (2010). Corruption and

governance challenges, Cleen Foundation Monograph Series.
(No. 7) Abuja, Nigeria. Retrieved from
http://www.cleen.org/Corruption%20and%20Governance%20C
hallenges%20in%20Nigeria%20-%20Final%20Version.pdf .
This publication is a summary of the proceedings of a conference

organized in response to increasing cases of corruption in Nigeria
and the absence of sustained national discourse on the issue. The
CLEEN Foundation, in collaboration with the Ford Foundation’s
West Africa office , organized the two-day national conference in
Nigeria in January 2010. The report contains a number of papers
read at the conference. One of the papers is titled “Corruption and
governance in Africa: How do we break the cycle in Nigeria?” by
Chidi Odinkalu. In it, the author argues that the challenge of
combating corruption effectively demands that the government
confronts four cumulative crises of political legitimacy, agency
credibility, elite values and institutional capabilities. All of this
has made the fight against corruption difficult. The conference
came to the conclusion that ending corruption in Africa lies in the
hands of the people.
269. Chuta, S. C. (2004). Corruption in Nigeria. Nsukka,

Nigeria: Afco-Orbis Publications.
The origin of corruption in Nigeria is as controversial as the

causes. This small book offers a review of corruption in Nigeria
183
from a historical point of view by tracing corruption to precolonial

times. The author shows that no regime in Nigeria, either military
or civilian, have been spared widespread corruption which has
taken many different forms, including corner-cutting, immorality,
abuse of office and power, favoritism, extortion, bribery,
falsification, etc. He also chronicles the causes of corruption,
including poor leadership, lust for power and wealth, social
pressure, poverty, and lack of patriotism. He then argues that the
many negative consequences of corruption and a drastic reduction
of corruption can only be alleviated through tackling these
changes.
270. Daloz, J. P. (2005). Nigeria: Trust your patron, not

the institutions. Comparative Sociology, 4(1–2), 155–174.
In an environment where informal compacts weigh more than

institutional regulations, the article attempts to analyze the
enduring primacy of particularistic ties and the ensuing
weaknesses of institutionalization in Nigeria. It goes further to
proffer historical, cultural, and instrumental explanations
differing from standard interpretations in looking at the issue of
trust and distrust in elite-population relationships in Nigeria. The
article argues that trust and mistrust remain a permanent and
sensitive issue in the Nigerian polity due to its exceptional size,
its unstable history, and its extreme levels of corruption. The
article also argues that Nigerians will readily applaud when one
of their own political leaders appropriates millions in the capital
city but will at the same time expect him to be scrupulously honest
in the management of his village finances. The paper concludes
that African states would undoubtedly stand to benefit from a
more regulated economy but the main political and economic
elites are able to use the absence of transparency as a most
valuable resource.
184
271. Dangado, K. I. (2007, September 6). The

constitutional fight against corruption in Nigeria: Is it enough.
Paper presented at the International Conference on Nigeria in the
21st Century: Issues and Challenges, Faculty of Administration,
Corruption is a nebulous phenomenon with several dimensions.

This paper seeks to examine the various dimensions and
categories of corruption, as well as the degree and extent to which
corruption is practiced by the perpetrators. The paper also
attempts an analysis of the provisions of the constitution meant to
fight corruption in Nigeria. It examines the weakness and failure
of these provisions and argues, using socio-political theory, that
the government is too fragile to tackle the menace in the society,
and lacks the will power or action to proffer solutions to it. The
paper concludes by asserting that the Nigerian constitution is not
strong or stringent enough to tackle corruption. Hence, there is an
urgent need to redefine and refocus the provisions embedded in
the constitution in relation to the fight against corruption. For
instance, the redefinition can include among others, the enactment
of the Sedition Act along with its five clauses by the National
Assembly and the strict enforcement of the relevant anti-
coruption and law enforcement agencies.
272. Danlami, U. D. (2006). The effect of corruption on

the advancement of persons with disabilities. In B. Aboyade, & S.
Center.
The negative impact of corruption is usually felt more severely by

the most vulnerable members of the society. Along this line, this
article examines the effects of corruption on the progress and
185
advancement of persons with disabilities in Nigeria, its

implication for the advancement of democracy, the society and
structure, as well as its hindrance to the economy. According to
the writer, the vulnerable suffer from a lack of basic amenities and
poverty, and poverty is itself a factor causing disability. The
recommendations suggested for addressing the corruption
problem include the need for EFCC and ICPC to intensify its
efforts in curbing the menace and the need to deal with corruption
with greater intensity at the top. The author also emphasized the
need to expunge the immunity clause from the 1999 constitution,
the increase jail terms and the education and enlightenment of the
citizenry.
273. Diamond, L. (1991). Political corruption: Nigeria’s

perennial struggle. Journal of Democracy, 2(4), 73–85.
Historically, democracy and corruption are the two most recurring

challenges faced by Nigerians since independence from Britain.
This article looks at the attempt by Nigeria at democracy and the
challenges it faced in its transition to a Third Republic. Chief
among the challenge faced is the issue of corruption. The author
analyzes the growth of corruption in Nigeria and argued that as
much as there is difficulty in establishing cases of corruption in
any type of government especially the military, the General
Ibrahim Babangida government was clouded with several
compelling rumors of corruption by both the military and civilian
government officials. The article goes further to look at the
challenges of political distortions vis-á-vis corruption and also the
empty promises made by Nigerian politicians and public servants.
The article argues that corruption is seen as a cause of the problem
and only flourishes because of the perverse incentives which offer
a low-risk path to easy riches through political corruption that
only structural change can remedy. The author argues that the
186
legacy of accountability with realism is, therefore, needed in order

to witness a significant drop in corruption.
274. Dibie, R. (2003). Managing ethics and corruption. In

Dibie, R., Public management and sustainable development in
Nigeria military-bureaucratic relationship (pp. 307–337).
Aldershot, Hampshire, England.
Corruption is a reoccurring challenge working against the

effective performance of both the public and private sector in
Nigeria. This author argues that the problems of development and
productivity in the Nigerian public and private sector are resultant
effect of corruption. The author examines the dynamics of
corruption, unethical behavior and mismanagement that has
become a norm in the Nigerian system. It argues that ignorance of
ethical principles, lack of accountability by private and public
officials are the result of government excessive regulation of the
economic activities as well as the control of the economy of the
state. The article goes further to argue that public accountability,
justice, equity, and morality are required in managing corruption
and, thus, eradicating it. It also argues that to root out corruption
and carry out sustainable development, solutions to unethical
practices such as whistle-blowing, social responsibility must be
employed. To this, Nigeria must develop a public administration
that is responsible to the needs of the people, and an effective rule
of law must also be in place.
275. Dike, V. (2005). Corruption in Nigeria: A new

paradigm for effective control,
Retrieved from www.africaeconomicanalysis.org.
Most of the recent publications on corruption in Nigeria,

including this one, focus on the attempt to curb corruption. This
author argues that corruption has been an unresolved scourge in
187
Nigeria and that its effect, which is evident in all spheres of

national life, has been catastrophic. It argues that though
corruption is as old as civilization itself, and evident in all spheres
of human existence its prevalence in Nigeria is spectacular and
pandemic. The article attempts a conceptualization of corruption
and gave the forms of corruption to include political corruption
(grand), bureaucratic corruption (petty), and electoral corruption.
Other forms are embezzlement, extortion, bribery, fraud,
favoritism, and nepotism among others. The article analyzes the
causes, effect and evils of corruption in Nigeria. The article also
proffers solutions to eradiating corruption to include the
reorientation of the public, adherence to ethical standards in
decision-making, tough penalties for corruption culprits,
adherence to the rule of law, media education. Others include
introduction of watch-dog agencies into governance, ensuring that
enforcement is predictable and forceful, criminalizing the acts of
bribery, and scrutinizing sources of income, declaration of assets
and higher political will to fight corruption. According to the
author, when all these are in place, the fight against corruption
becomes effective.
276. Dosumu, A. (2009), Elite politics and the

accumulation pandemic in Nigeria: A critique of derisive
democracy and vindication of classical elite theories. Africa
Journal of Institutions and Development, IV (5–6), 188–196.
The author, using the elite theory as a framework for analysis,

attempts to capture the actual scenario of the activities of the
power elites in Nigeria. It captures the power tussle in Nigeria
among the elites and the techniques and methods employed by
them in a bid to accumulate capital and human resources and
human domination in their respective domains. According to the
author, the failure of the present democratic formula, the
pandemic accumulation formulas by the political elite, the
188
professionalization of politics by the ruling elite, and the control

of natural resources, among others, form the motivation for the
study of elite politics in Nigeria. The author states that democracy
in Nigeria is nothing but a conspiracy of the political elite to
perpetually subjugate the masses. This is because since Nigeria’s
First Republic, democracy in Nigeria has been characterized by
the continuous transfer of power from one elite group to the other,
leading to a continuous circulation of power between the same
groups of elites.
277. Dukor, M. (2006). Corruption in Nigeria: The moral

question of statehood in Africa. In H. Saliu, E. Amali, J. Fayeye,
& E. Oriola (Eds.), Democracy and development in Nigeria (pp.
52–86). Lagos, Nigeria: Concept Publications.
Although corruption is not peculiar to African states, widespread

corruption has been identified as one of the major causes of
political instability in postcolonial Africa. This article examines
how political corruption has eroded public confidence in
government as an institution of the state for the promotion of the
welfare of the citizens. Against the backdrop of widespread
corruption in public institutions in Nigeria, the author identifies
the role of political elite and their capitalist inclination as the
major factors influencing the growing rate of corruption in
Nigeria and Africa as a continent. It queries the legitimacy of the
Nigerian state to fight corruption with its neoliberal policy. The
author, therefore, concludes that endemic corruption in Africa is
responsible for its stunted socio-economic growth and
recommends that people with high moral standard and proven
integrity should be saddled with the responsibility of
administering the state with the utmost responsibility of
promoting the well-being of the citizenry.
189
278. Ebegbulum, C. J. (2012). Corruption and leadership

crisis in Africa: Nigeria in focus. International Journal of
Business and Social Science, 3(11), 221–227.
Scholars have argued that a crisis in leadership is one of the

reasons for pervasive corruption and for the stifled socio-
economic growth rate in sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, the main
thrust of this article is to examine the relationship between
corruption and leadership crisis with Nigeria as the focus. The
author contends that corruption and leadership are the main
problems of the Nigerian state and they are exemplified by
insincerity and insensitive to the plight of the masses. It identifies
massive failure of leadership in Nigeria as a product of corruption
and is responsible for the near total collapse of socio-economic
infrastructure, weak social structures, poor economic
performance and lack of faith in government programs and policy.
This study also identifies corruption as the cause of democratic
instability in Nigeria with the institutionalization of godfatherism
in the democratic process. The article concluded that with the twin
challenge of corruption and bad leadership, Nigerians have been
robbed of the benefit of development.
279. Echekwube, A.O. (2007). Corruption-free society as

the basis for political stability and national development in
Nigeria. In A.S. Akpotor, A.O. Afolabi, M.O. Aigbokhaevbolo,
B.O. Iganiga, & O.S. Odiagbe (Eds.), Cost of governance in
Nigeria: An evaluative analysis (pp. 438–460). Ekpoma, Nigeria:
Ambrose Alli University Publishing House.
Aside from corruption, political instability is perhaps the most

serious challenge faced by Nigeria. This article examines the
challenges of political instability and national development in
Nigeria. It identifies bad governance, failure of leadership and
corruption as the major challenges to achieving national unity and
190
identifies people-centered and popular participation as the basis

for political stability in Nigeria. The author blames the colonial
masters for the problem of bad leadership. The study further
emphasizes that political power should not be used to advance
personal political interests but to deliver the common good and
concludes that responsible and purposeful leadership is the key to
achieving national cohesion. This article recommends that the
government should tackle the predisposing factors to corruption
in Nigeria.
280. Egbo O., Nwakoby I., Onwumere J., & Uche C.

(2010). Legitimizing corruption in government: Security votes in
Nigeria. ASC Working Paper 91.
The practice of allocating huge sums of money to be spent by state

governors for security purposes according to their discretion,
otherwise known as security votes, has gradually transformed into
a huge avenue for embezzling public funds. This paper
investigates the history and practice of the use of security votes in
Nigeria. The authors argue that the growing abuse of security
votes across all tiers of government in the country has been
facilitated by the structure of government in place in the country
which are autocratic or semidemocratic in nature. This, according
to them has been influenced by the country’s colonial heritage and
its emergence as a state dependent mainly on oil revenue. The
practice of security votes undermines development and
accountability among the political class. They argue that to curb
such corruption, citizens must regain the ability to call their rulers
to order even in the current democratic dispensation.
281. Egbuji, J.O. (2007). Corruption: Issues and trends in

the public sector. In A. D., Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the
challenge of human development (pp. 447–459). Ilishan-Remo,
Nigeria: Babcock University Press.
191
Although corruption in Nigeria is not the exclusive preserve of the

public sector, its seriousness in that sector has made it a subject of
intense investigation. This article examines the impact of
corruption in the public sector –the issues, trends, and ways and
means of reducing corruption in the country. It traces the history
of corruption in Nigeria, levels of corruption and their
characteristics, its main causes as well as the negative effects on
the Nigerian economy. The author also examines the laws and
government institutions fighting corruption in Nigeria. The article
demonstrates how the impact of corruption on the economic
development and socio-political life of the civil servants affects
the citizenry and larger society and recommends strategies on how
to combat corruption in the country. The measures proposed to
tackle corruption include the establishment of good governance,
devolution of powers, and upward review of the living wage of
the working class. The author also calls on the government to
address the problem of income distribution and income inequality.
282. Egwemi, V. (2012) . Corruption and corrupt practices

in Nigeria: An agenda for taming the monster. Journal of
Sustainable Development in Africa, 14(3), 72–85.
To many analysts, no issue in Nigeria is more pressing than

corruption. This is why most of the country’s ills are attributed to
the menace. This article examines the phenomenon of corruption
in Nigeria. It argues that although corruption is prevalent
everywhere, its manifestation varies from country to country. The
author is particularly concerned about the resilient nature of
corruption in the country in spite of the different efforts taken to
stem the scourge. He also notes that the anti-coruption agencies
all seem to have lost focus. In response, he proposes an agenda
for dealing with corruption. The article insists on synergy among
relevant anti-coruption institutions and the need to muster the
192
much needed political will in order to address the problem of

corruption.
283. Ehwariemme, W. (2011). Between the devil and the

deep blue sea: The displacement of ethnicity by corruption in
Nigeria’s electoral politics. Journal of Third World Studies, 28(2),
181–206.
This article sought to account for the change in the determining

factor of electoral success in Nigeria. It identifies ethnicity which
it referred to as the ‘red devil’ as the determining factor i n
electoral politics spanning the time of introduction of the elective
principle in 1923 to independence and the First Republic. It took
into consideration the presence of corruption in the
preindependence election of 1959 but accorded it secondary
status. The end of the First Republic saw corruption which is
referred to as the deep blue sea becoming salient, and in the 1979
elections, corruption gained the upper hand. In brief, the article
undertakes a historical analysis of election in Nigeria from 1923–
2007 to empirically demonstrate the old and emerging patterns in
elections in Nigeria. Finally, the study examines the trend of
corruption occurring during the elections and its implications.
284. Ekeanyanwu, L. (n.d.). The Nigerian integrity

system. In A. M. Rafsanjani, & C. C. Ekwekuo (Eds.), Anti-
corruption programming: A practitioner’s manual (pp. 33–68).
Abuja, Nigeria, Open Society of West Africa (OSIWA) .
Every country has a set of institutions that work together to reduce

corruption. This is what is usually referred to as the National
Integrity System. This article gives an explicit account of the
Nigerian National Integrity System (NNIS) and the responsibility
of each agency and department that makes up the NNIS.
According to the author, these agencies constitute the tools for
193
enabling good governance, rule of law, and the assurance of a

state run in accordance to approved, transparent and accountable
process. The article also gave account of the function and
coordination of each agency as well as the problems mitigating
the success in effectively carrying out their constitutional
responsibilities.
285. Ekeh, P. P. (1975). Colonialism and the two publics

in Africa: A theoretical statement. Comparative Studies in Society
and History, 17, 91–112.
Most of the problems evident in contemporary postcolonial

Nigeria are rooted in the country’s colonial experience. This is
exactly what this article tries to address. The author argues that
the experience of colonialism in Africa have led to the emergence
of a unique historical configuration. According to him,
colonialism has led to the emergence of two publics in
postcolonial African society. One public has been the civil public
and the other the primordial public, with the initial considered to
be amoral and the latter to be moral. The article argues that the
outcome of, or the dialectics between, the two publics in
postcolonial Africa produces corruption. This rises directly from
the amorality of the civil public and the legitimization of the need
to take from the civil public in order to benefit the primordial
public. The author argues that the colonial experience helped to
shape our present, and that the problem we face can only be
understood and solved by the realization of the rivalry of the two
publics and also the fact that the civil public is starved of badly
needed morality.
286. Eker, V. (1981). On the origins of corruption:

Irregular incentives in Nigeria. The Journal of Modern African
Studies, 19(1), 173–182.
194
As the title suggests, the origin of corruption in Nigeria can be

traced to the nature of the incentive structure existing in the
country. This article examines the concept of corruption and the
conditions that breed corruption in Nigeria. It argues that
corruption is more prevalent when the “necessary” and the
“sufficient” conditions operate together. But corruption will exist
when warranted by the moral code and the authority structure,
even if the country does not enjoy great wealth. It was also pointed
out from this study that periods of strong economic activity may
provide an environment for the flourishing of corrupt practices,
particularly where most sectors of development are controlled by
a central and powerful administration. This study, therefore,
predicts a bleak future in the fight against corruption by asserting
that since neither the moral code nor the authority structure are
likely to undertake major changes in the future, the end of
corruption remains elusive.
287. Eme O. I., & Okoh C. I. (2011). The role of EFCC in

combating political corruption. Arabian Journal of Business and
Taking a cue from the 2011 genera l elections, this piece examines
the threats and challenges posed to Nigeria by political corruption.
It further explores the concept of political corruption, its causes
and implications, and suggested ways of checkmating political
corruption in the polity. The article adopts the extractive
corruption theory as its framework of analysis which posits that
the state is the stronger part in the state-society relationship. The
article concludes with a call for stronger cooperation between
EFCC and other anti-coruption agencies. It also made
recommendations in the lines of voters’ empowerment and mass
political awareness.
195
288. Emmanuel, O. O. (2003). The phenomenon of

corruption and the challenges of democratic consolidation in
Nigeria: A prognosis. In G. Onu (Ed.), Corruption and
311), Awka , Nigeria: Bookpoint.
Historically, Nigeria was under a firm military autocracy for 29

years starting in 1966 when the military made its first incursion
into politics and governance following the collapse of the First
Republic in 1966. In May 1999, Nigeria commenced another
democratic experiment, after 16 years of continuous military rule,
beginning in 1983 when the Second Republic was terminated by
the military amidst allegations of corruption. The study delves
into the phenomenon of corruption and the challenges of
democratic consolidation in Nigeria and the nexus between them.
It provides some conceptual clarification of the term corruption
and democratic consolidation, a chronicle of the manifestations of
corrupt practices within the first two years of Nigeria’s
democratic experiment (1999–2001) and government’s efforts at
curbing it. As the study shows, other than the military which has
always been perceived as the crux of Nigeria’s nascent
democracy, pervasive corruption and the concomitant problem of
underdevelopment are potent threats to Nigeria’s democratic
consolidation. The article then submits that for both economic and
democratic development to be enhanced, Nigerians at all strata of
the society should imbibe the culture of probity, transparency and
accountability in public office. All hands must be on deck to fight
corruption so that its debilitating effect do not truncate the nascent
democracy, while the society itself in general should be reoriented
for democracy to be consolidated.
289. Enakhimion, I. L. (2001). Corruption In Nigeria

(Unpublished Master’s dissertation). School of Economics and
Management, Lund University, Lund, Sweden. Retrieved from
196
http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOI
d=2174526&fileOId=2174528.
The study, which is partially descriptive and partially exploratory

in nature, attempts a look at corruption from an institutionalized
or systemic point of view. It explores the effects and
consequences of corruption in Nigeria from independence until
2007. The writer argues that corruption has defied a single
definition because of the nature of the subject matter itself. This
is because it goes beyond amoral practices by public officials to
also include a whole range of other social behaviors. He goes
further to note that successive Nigerian governments have in
several ways attempted to halt corruption but over time find
themselves perpetrators of the same acts. The author also looks at
trends and the magnitude of corruption by looking at successive
governments from 1960–2007, the causes and consequences of
corruption, anti-coruption policies in Nigeria, and reasons why all
the measures employed to combat corruption have failed. He
concludes by making some policy recommendations which
include, among others, strong political will, independence of the
judiciary, revoking the immunity clause in the Nigerian
constitution, and improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the
anti-coruption agencies.
290. Enweremadu, U. D. (2006). The struggle against

corruption in Nigeria: The role of the National Anti- Corruption
Commission (ICPC) under the Fourth Republic. IFRA Ibadan
Special Research Issue, 2, 41–66.
The reemergence of democratic rule in Nigeria saw the creation

of specialized anti-coruption bodies to deal with corrupt practices.
One of these bodies was the Independent Corrupt Practices and
Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC) created in 2000. This
article reviews the operations of the ICPC one of the major tools
197
used by the Obasanjo administration to combat corruption and its

dismal performance as evidenced in its failure to secure the
conviction of corrupt officials, endless scandals associated with
the commission, and the increasing rate of corruption in Nigeria
since its inception in 1999. The failure of the commission to
perform effectively was attributed to limited political will,
inadequate structures, internal contradictions, inefficient judiciary
and laws, and most importantly the neopatrimonial orientation of
the Nigerian political class. It recommends the reposition and
strengthening of the commission through the infusion of credible
leaders, proper equipment, and funding, as well as radical reform
of Nigeria’s justice system among other things.
291. Enweremadu, U. D. (2006). Lutte anti-corruption et

politique au Nigeria sous la quatrieme republique (1999-2006)
(PhD Thesis) Bordeaux, Centre d’Etudes d’Afrique noire/Institut
d'Etudes Politiques de Bordeaux, Université Montesquieu
Bordeaux IV, France.
In 1999, after completing a transition from military to civilian

rule, Nigeria began implementing comprehensive reforms aimed
at curbing corruption which is widely regarded as the most
important factor retarding the country’s socio-economic
development. This book describes in a very detailed and critical
manner many of the reforms pursued under the Olusegun
Obasanjo presidency, including establishment of new anti-
coruption agencies, reform of the public services including the
Judiciary, and an international campaign to stop the transfer of
assets looted by Nigerian officials and repatriate what had been
transferred abroad by past Nigerian leaders. The author contends
that despite their unprecedented nature, the impact of these
reforms was not easily seen, as corruption continued to manifest,
even as the anti-coruption campaign became increasingly
politicized. The author opines that there are three factors that
198
undermine the efforts of Obasanjo’s efforts at curbing corruption.

They are; the weak capacities of the various anti-coruption
agencies established; the inadequate engagement of the civil
society and subnational authorities. All of these suggest the
absence of an internal political coalition against corruption.
292. Enweremadu, U. D. (2010). Anti-corruption reforms

and democratic change: Nigeria and Indonesia in comparative
perspective. Ibadan Journal of the Social Sciences, 8(1), 1–10.
This article was written against the background of the widespread

clamor for democratization in Nigeria and Indonesia in the early
and middle 1990s. The clamor was anchored in the belief that
authoritarian rule breeds corruption and lack of accountability.
This article shows how this desire turned to reality for both
countries and led to the proliferation of anti-coruption and public
sector reforms aimed at curbing, if not eradicating corruption.
Owing to the seeming similar experiences of both countries, the
article attempts a comparative analysis of the various anti-
coruption reforms and their performance after a decade using in-
depth interviews. The analysis shows that despite instituting some
important anti-coruption programs, both countries continue to
have serious difficulties with corruption, a pointer to the
inadequacies of the policies.
293. Enweremadu, U. D. (2010). La société civile et la

lutte contre la corruption au Nigeria: Le cas des ONG anti
corruption. (Working paper No. 89). African Studies Centre,
Leiden University.
With the exception of the press and spontaneous movements,

struggles against corruption waged by successive governments in
Nigeria have gone on without the active participation of non-state
actors and institutions, otherwise called civil society. In recent
199
years, the participation of these actors has grown. This article

reviews the role played by selected civil society actors in
Nigeria’s campaign against corruption especially between 1999
and 2007. The institutions considered included NGOs, the media,
labor unions, business and professional associations, and ethno-
religious movements. According to the author, though the
commitment of these actors goes beyond doubt, the effectiveness
of their interventions were undermined by several factors, such as
lack of access to independent sources of funding and information,
preoccupation with material issues, and inability to go beyond
primary group solidarity. These groups were also affected by the
incapacity of their leaders to network among themselves, the
hostile attitude of government officials, and the rent-seeking
behavior of their own leaders among many other factors. These
made them appendages of politicians who also used them for
political gain.
294. Enweremadu, U. D. (2011). Ending the vicious

circle: Oil, corruption, and violent conflict in the Niger Delta.
Nigeria Journal of Oil and Politics, 2(3), 88–114.
Since the return to civil rule in 1999, Nigeria has faced growing
violent conflicts, notably in the oil-rich Niger Delta region. This
article explains why this is so. The article reviews the nature of
the conflicts and highlights the existing explanations given by
scholars and analysts. The conflicts arise from environmental
degradation, rising social-economic inequality in the midst of
plenty, absence of basic social amenities, youth unemployment,
unwholesome practices of the multinational oil companies
operating in the region, marginalization in national politics vis-á-
vis the skewed nature of the revenue-sharing formula, lack of
capacity of the security force, limited economic opportunities, and
prevailing poverty. The author also states that these popular
perceptions and the dominant scholarly explanations are
200
inadequate. He employs the use of the oil cause paradigm to

establish a causal relationship between oil and bad governance.
The result shows the characteristics of the culture of waste and
corruption. It is reported in this study that violent conflicts occur
when political actors perceive unfairness in the redistribution of
resources or jostle for a slice of the cake. In conclusion, the author
advocates the tackling of the culture of corruption and financial
mismanagement which has helped to fuel violence in the Niger
Delta through wider government reforms as this is a better way to
restore relative peace in the long run.
295. Enweremadu, U. D. (2011). De l’abuse endémique a

l’exemplarité électorale? Les élections de 2011 au Nigeria.
Afrique contemporaine, 239, 119–132.
Nigerian elections have often been disputed as a result of electoral

malpractices, including ballot stuffing, vote buying, and violence.
Following the widely discredited 2007 elections, the country
instituted some reforms ostensibly to help improve the credibility
of the April 2011 elections. The reforms initiated included the
establishment of a reform committee, appointment of a new
leadership for the Independent National Electoral Commission
(INEC) and some reorganizations within key security
organizations. This article examines the impact of these reforms
on the conduct of the 2011 elections, in particular on the level of
corruption and electoral malpractices observed during the
elections. The findings show that, although the reforms were not
fundamental, they did have some significant impacts on the
credibility of the elections unlike the other elections held since the
return of democracy. The results of the 2011 elections were
greeted by widespread applause, suggesting that the elections
were relatively free and fair. More importantly, the level of
observed malpractice was substantially lower compared to
previous elections. The improvements observed during the
201
elections were however not only caused by the reforms

implemented by the federal government, it is also as a result of
the heightened awareness of the public and the personal
commitment of the new INEC Chairman.
296. Enweremadu, U. D. (2013). Nigeria’s quest to

recover looted assets: The Abacha affair. African Spectrum, 48(2),
50–70.
With the death of General Sani Abacha and the successful

transition to democracy, concerted efforts were made to recover
some of the billions stolen from Nigeria and socked away in the
West. This article chronicles the efforts made by two successive
regimes —Abubakar (1998–1999) and Obasanjo (1999–2007)—
to locate and recover looted funds and the challenges that
combined to hamper the success of these efforts. According to the
author, issues such as an inefficient domestic judicial system,
insufficient domestic political will, and limited international
cooperation were the most important factors found to have
affected the success of these efforts. For him, even though these
efforts cannot be said to have failed entirely, much success ha s
not been recorded given that, after a decade, the bulk of these
stolen funds are yet to be repatriated.
297. Enweremadu, U. D. (2010, November). Anti-

corruption policies in Nigeria under Obasanjo and Yar’ Adua:
What to do after 2011. (Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Foundation (FES)
Discussion Paper No. 1).
Since 1999, Nigeria has been ruled by three popularly elected

presidents. The paper sought to undertake a comparative analysis
of the policy stand and inclinations of the Obasanjo and Yar’ Adua
led administrations on corruption and the performance of the two
anti-coruption agencies; the Independent Corrupt Practices and
202
Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC) and the EFCC under

their watch. It noted that the implementation of the anti-coruption
policy has been perceived to be less vigorous under President
Yar’Adua as compared to Obasanjo due to the persecution of anti-
coruption officials, attempts to shield some accused persons, and
Yar’Adua’s refusal to make the fight against corruption a top
priority. Consequently, the author recommends that the incoming
administration should make anti-coruption a strong priority and
reduce political interference in the work of anti-coruption
agencies.
298. Enweremadu, U. D. (2012). Anti-corruption

campaign in Nigeria (1999-2007): The politics of a failed reform.
Leiden, Nigeria: IFRA/African Studies Centre.
This 200-page book takes a critical look at the origin and

conception of the various policies and institutional reforms
carried out by the Obasanjo administration in its quest to curb
corruption, redress Nigeria’s economic decline, and restore the
country’s badly tarnished international image. The book focuse s
on the actual application of these strategies between May 1999
and May 2007 and the three key factors that contributed to
defeating the goals of the Obasanjo anti-coruption policy— the
inadequate capacity of anti-coruption agencies, lack of support
from subnational authorities, and limited engagement of civil
society. It argues that, though well -conceived, economic and
institutional reforms are necessary, but they can only be
successful when and where their implementation is favorably
received by the key stakeholders.
299. Enweremadu, U. D., & Okafor, E. E. (Eds.). (2009).

Anti-corruption reforms in Nigeria since 1999: Issues,
challenges, and the way forward. Ibadan, Nigeria: French
Institute for Research in Africa.
203
The years 1999–2009 were arguably the most remarkable in

Nigeria as far as anti-coruption initiatives are concerned. This
book is a collection of articles from different authors cutting
across several disciplines, such as law, history, religious studies,
anthropology, sociology, economics , and political science, aimed
at a multidisciplinary analysis of corruption and anti-coruption
war in Nigeria between the years 1999–2009. The first four papers
attempted to identify the various forms of corruption and
associated economic crimes, their perpetrated and specific ways
in which they interact and have interacted with wider social,
political, economic and historic dynamics within and outside the
country. The last six papers, on the other hand, focus on the
various anti-coruption mechanisms introduced in Nigeria since
1999, their impact, limitations, and possible remedies. The book
aims at offering a way forward in view of the many policy failures
that have been recorded by Nigeria in this area in recent times and
the promise of reform made by the new political leadership in the
country.
300. Eze, U. J. (2002). Corruption in the field of sports:

The Nigerian example. In C. O. T. Ugwu (Ed.), Corruption in
Nigeria: Critical perspectives: A book of readings (pp. 298–308).
Like other aspects of our national life, the sports industry is not
immune to the onslaught of corruption. This article focuses on
malpractices in the field of sports in Nigeria, examining the
background of Nigerian sports, identifying corrupt practices, and
recommending solutions. The article describes sports traditionally
as activities for entertainment and exercise. It identifies
falsification of documents, contract inflation, match or game
fixing, hoarding of tickets, embezzlement, and fixing of games as
among the major types of corruption in Nigerian sports. The
author concludes by suggesting values reorientation,
204
deemphasizing materialism, and harsher punishment as strategies

for deterring corruption in sports.
301. Fadahunsi A. (1986). Corrupt states and state of

underdevelopment. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in
Press.
The relationship between corruption and development remains a

very contentious one. This article emphasizes the role of
corruption as a major factor that has led to the present state of
underdevelopment in many low-income countries, despite huge
investments by national and international agencies. The article
analyzes corruption in the context of its ordinary meaning. The
article also examines the model of the corrupt state and the major
organs of the state critically. Finally, the article describes the
scenario of corruption in the Third World. In conclusion , the
policy implications of corruption on national development, global
welfare, and security are discussed.
302. Fatile, J. O. (2012). Corruption and the challenges of

good governance in the Nigerian public sector. Africa’s Public
Service Delivery and Performance Review, 1(3), 46–65.
The role of the public service in achieving good governance and

overall national transformation cannot be underestimated. This is
because the public service plays a central role in the formulation
and implementation of policies designed for the development of
the society. In some countries, such as Nigeria, this task has been
undermined as a result of rampant and uncontrolled corruption.
This article examines the impact of corruption on the performance
of the public service, and by extension good governance in the
country. The author contends that the per formance of the public
service have been generally poor due to nonaccountability and the
205
ever-present manifestation of crude corruption that is open,

naked, undisguised, and yet legally untameable. He further argues
that many of the anti-coruption efforts have been erroneously
based on the assumption that corruption is an individual act or
personal misuse of public office for private gain. As a result, the
intentions of government in putting in place institutions and laws
meant to curb corruption and the enforcement of these laws has
been ineffective because they fail to take into account much of the
dynamics that support corruption in the country. He concludes
that there is a need to consciously transform social values as well
as state institutions that work as enabling environments for
corruption.
303. Fatokun, O.S. (2012). Corruption and the crisis of

development in Nigeria: The way forward. African Journal of
Stability and Development, 6(2), 84–110.
Corruption is a concept that is often evoked in discussions on

development in Africa, and in Nigeria specifically. This study
examines the negative effects of corruption on development in
Nigeria. According to the author, corruption, like a cankerworm,
has eaten deep into the Nigerian society; it features in virtually all
sectors of society, including households. This work examines
corruption in Nigeria from a broad perspective, with a special
focus on the causes of corruption and its implications for
development. Its findings show that most of the essential aspects
of development, such as human development, have not been fully
realized in Nigeria due to corruption.
304. Femiloni, K. (2005). Political economy of

corruption. In L. Olurode & R. Anifowose (Eds.), Rich but poor:
Corruption and good governance in Nigeria (pp. 39–63). Lagos,
Nigeria: Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Lagos.
206
The impact of corruption on Nigeria’s political economy has

continued to receive scholarly attention. In line with that, this
author attempts a historical review of corruption by exposing its
nature and characteristics, effects as well as the strategies and
interventions for the management and control of corruption. The
author argues that the military’ brutalized the nation’s psyche and
left a stain of corruption in its trail. This resulted in the diversion
of public resources into private pockets, which undermined
effective governance, endangered democracy, and eroded the
social and moral fabric of the nation. He also takes note of the
anti-coruption wars waged by different regimes and
administrations including those of Murtala Mohammed, Shehu
Shagari, and the subsequent military regimes including that of
Babangida, Abacha and Abdulsalami Abubakar . Measures taken
by the subsequent Olusegun Obasanjo government aimed at
tackling corruption and increasing transparency and
accountability were also included. The author concludes that lack
of commitment to following through was one of the major
hindrances to the success of these efforts.
305. Gbercbie E. D., Shodipo O. A., & Oviasogie, O. F.

(2013). Leadership and accountability, the challenge of
development in Nigeria, thought and practice. A Journal of the
Philosophical Association of Kenya (PAK) New Se ries, 5(1), 121–
140.
Scholars hold a popular research-based belief that leadership

which adheres to accountability in the management of public
resources is fundamental to the development of any state. This
article uses historical research as a methodology in examining
leadership and accountability as they relate to the development
challenges in Nigeria. It posits that the challenges to development
in Nigeria are premised among other things on poor leadership at
all levels of government that failed to adhere to proper
207
accountability in the management of public resources. It

advocates enforcement of strict compliance with rules governing
the management of public resources, thereby curbing corruption
by public officials and improving the living standards of
Nigerians.
306. Gberevbie, E. I. D., & Iyoha O. F. (2007). Corruption

and cost of governance In Nigeria. In A. S. Akpotor, A. O.
Afolabi, M. O. Aigbokhaevbolo, B. O. Iganiga, & O. S. Odiagbe,
(Eds.), Cost of governance in Nigeria: An evaluative analysis (pp.
401–418). Ekpoma, Nigeria: Ambrose Alli University Publishing
House.
For several years, there have been calls on successive

governments in Nigeria to reduce the cost of governance in the
country. This article identifies pervasive corruption and increased
number of federating states that are not economically viable in
Nigeria as the reason for the high cost of governance and the
socio-economic and political crisis that have engulfed the
Nigerian state in recent times. It further identifies the selfish
interests of public officials as well as the inflation of contracts as
other factors that contribute to the high cost of governance in
Nigeria. It calls for a more aggressive war against corruption,
restructuring the polity, downsizing ministries and
extraministerial departments, as well as a thorough consideration
of the clamor for more state creation, respectively, as a way of
reducing the cost of governance, checking political corruption,
and engendering economic development in Nigeria.
307. Goodling, A. N. (2003). Nigeria's crisis of

corruption—Can the U.N. global programme hope to resolve this
dilemma? Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law , 36, 997–
1010.
208
Transparency International has consistently rated Nigeria among

the worst countries in the world for corruption. Corruption has
remained ubiquitous and seems to infiltrate many strata of the
Nigerian society. However, there has been effort by the Nigerian
government to combat this problem through the cooperation of
the United Nations Global Program. This article examines the
structure and objectives of the Global Program and appraises
Nigeria's participation in the project. This article begins by
providing a background analysis of corruption, the implications
of corruption, and Nigeria's efforts to curtail corrupt practices.
This is followed by an analysis of the essential structure of the
Program and delineates Nigeria's efforts in the pursuant of the
Global Program. It concludes by recommending that more
resources and programs in such a project should focus on
education and social remediation and in order to strengthen the
program, more economic incentives that would ensure full
compliance of members should be provided.
308. Gore C. & Pratten D. (2003). The politics of plunder:

The rhetorics of order and disorder in southern Nigeria. African
Affairs, 102(407), 211–240.
Using the case study method, this article looks at four cases of
youth-led, identity-based social movements in Benin City and in
the Annang area of southern Nigeria. It examines local responses
to disorder and the idioms of accountability in which they are
framed, and it emphasizes the historical trajectories of these
idioms. The article locates youth and their organizations within
the “deep”, vertical politics of patrimonialism. It argues that since
1999 and the return to multiparty democracy, Nigeria has
witnessed intensified contests concerning rights over economic
redistribution and judicial authority and the privileges of
representation and patrimony. The article highlights the ways in
which people do not simply acquiesce in or oppose the political
209
instrumentalization of disorder but rather come to terms with it by

means of mediation, by inserting themselves within political and
economic niches. It argues that the fear of domination and
marginalization resulting from a “crisis of patrimonialism” and
the inequitable redistribution of national resources has led to
regional, ethnic, and localized responses. The article concludes
that though micropolitical activities and “invisible governances”
might undermine the social cohesion necessary for the creation of
meaningful institutions, they point to the creative potential of
youth in southern Nigeria in not only surviving but reinventing
and restructuring disorder.
309. Haliso, Y. O. (2007). Corruption in Nigeria:

Locating the discourse within theoretical expositions of the nexus
between political culture and democratic prospects. In A. D. Aina
(Ed.), Corruption and the challenge of human development (pp.
147–159). Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria: Babcock University Press.
Culture has long been advanced as an important contributor to

corruption in Africa. This article examines the discourse on
corruption with a view to relating it to the discourse that identifies
it as a critical aspect of the cultural environment within which the
political system operates and which dictates policy and process
outcomes including democratic prospects. It argues that while the
discourse on corruption in Nigeria is often located within the
discourse on prospects for development, it must not be divorced
from the discourse that identifies it as a critical aspect of the social
environment. The study gives an understanding of the political
culture with reference to various scholars. It also reexamines the
theoretical and empirical referents of democracy using the
procedural and substantive approach. The study discusses the
nexus between political culture and democratic culture using the
systems approach. The author locates corruption within Nigeria’s
political culture by identifying it as perhaps the most popular
210
political culture in the country. It also highlights the implication

of corruption for democracy in Nigeria. The article submits that,
for democracy to thrive, it must have a supportive political
culture. However, Nigeria’s political culture falls short of
expectation. There is, therefore, the need to accelerate a process
of re-socialization of the entire social system and demilitarize the
national psyche to be more accommodating for democratic
attitudes and a further reopening of the political space to allow for
wider debate, dialogue, and discussions on political issues that
affects the citizens.
310. Hannaford, C. S. (2013). Corruption in Nigeria:

Towards a Theory of Corruption Containment . (Masters
Dissertation) Utica College, New York, U.S.A.
This dissertation discusses several definitions of corruption as

well as some of the challenges corruption poses to Nigeria. It
reviews the anti-coruption mandates of the Economic and
Financial Crime Commission, the Independent Corrupt Practices
and Other Related Offenses Commission, and the Code of
Conduct Bureau and argues that each of these agencies faces
immense challenges in carrying out its roles and responsibilities.
It therefore concludes that the corruption challenges facing
Nigeria, it becomes clear that fighting corruption is not just a law
enforcement problem. The dissertation further argues that all
aspects of Nigerian society must be examined and opportunities
for corruption minimized and introduces the concept of a
corruption containment membrane. This membrane is described
as composed of different pressures on corruption within society
that will inhibit the growth of corruption.
211
311. Hoffmann, L. (2010). Fairy godfathers and magical

elections: Understanding the 2003 electoral crisis in Anambra
State, Nigeria. Journal of Modern African Studies, 48(2), 285–
310.
The phenomenon of godfathers in Nigeria’s highly patrimonial

political system has continued to generate intense scholarly
interest. The crisis that rocked Anambra state in 2003 between
Chris Ngige, the former governor of the state, and political
godfathers sparked a debate on the politics of godfatherism in
Nigeria and its role in corruption. This article appraises the
diverse complex networks of patron-client relationships that the
ruling elites sustain in Anambra state and, by extension, in
Nigeria. It further examines the major players behind the political
crisis that shook the state, tracing it to the power dynamism within
the central government, specifically the government of President
Obasanjo, facilitated by the ruling party and the usual struggle
among Nigerian political elites for access to and control of
patronage, notably in the form of government appointments and
contracts upon which these elites depend for survival. The article
shows how corruption serves as a unifying force for Nigerian
elites.
312. Ibeanu O., Epueke F., & Ikenga F. (2003). Impact of

democratization on the public bureaucracy in Nigeria: A study of
recruitment and promotion in the civil service of Anambra State.
In G. Onu (Ed.), Corruption and sustainable development: The
Third World perspective (pp. 312–327). Awka : Bookpoint.
During the era of military rule, recruitment and promotion were

politically motivated and marred by corrupt practices and
irregularities. Thus, due process, competence, seniority, and
achievement were often not considered in recruitment and
promotion. This constituted a major obstacle to national
212
development. With the new democratic order, many countries of

the world, including Nigeria, have moved towards standardizing
and formalizing methods of recruitment and promotion in public
bureaucracy. Technical qualification, achievement , and merit
have become the universally accepted basis for recruiting and
promoting staff. Accordingly, this article evaluates the impact of
democratization on the public bureaucracy in Nigeria in light of
the widespread assumption that the democratization of public
bureaucracy will improve the system and make recruitment and
promotion more efficient and less prone to corruption.
Specifically, it looks at the impact of democratization on
recruitment and promotion in the civil service of Anambra state.
It adopts the bureaucratic theory as its analytic framework. It
makes a critique of classical liberal and Marxist bureaucratic
theory and emphasizes the need to integrate a Weberian
institutional framework and a Marxist social relations framework.
The authors find that with the present democratic rule in Nigeria,
not much has changed. Prospects for recruitment have not
improved, nor has adherence to procedures. Political patronage
remains a major factor in recruitment and promotion in the
Anambra civil service. These fundamental problems arise from
the character of the Nigerian state and its lasting tendency to be
cornered by personal and sectional interests. It suggests the need
to integrate the social forces perspective into the Weberian -
institutional interpretation of bureaucracy.
313. Ibekaku, U. J. (n.d.). International standards and best

practices in the fight against corruption. In A. M. Rafsanjani & C.
C. Ekwekuo (Eds.), Anti-corruption programming: A
practitioner’s manual. Abuja, Nigeria: Open Society of West
Africa (OSIWA).
The menace of political corruption is assuming a frightening

proportion and frustrating efforts at achieving sustainable
213
development in several countries such that the international

community can no longer stand by and watch without making an
effort to curb it. It is against this backdrop that this article sets out
to examine measures instituted by supranational organizations
like the United Nations towards eradicating corruption in the
society. The author conclude s that these efforts have positive
impacts on local initiatives to fight corruption and should,
therefore, be vigorously pursued.
314. Ibrahim J. (2003). Corruption in Nigeria: The role of

civil society. In A. Aderinwale (Ed.), Corruption, accountability
and transparency for sustainable development (pp. 211–230).
Ota, Nigeria: African Leadership Forum.
The survival of democratic governance in Nigeria is dependent on

a number of factors including good governance. This article sets
out to illustrate the adverse effect of political corruption on the
Nigeria’s body polity and the roles democratic structures like the
civil society, rule of law and due process come to play to
ameliorate the menace of corruption in governance. According to
the author, these structures, notably the civil society, must be
strengthened and given an enhanced role in governance if Nigeria
is to actualize its vision of a corrupt-free society.
315. Ibrahim, J. (2003). Corruption in Nigeria: Transition,

persistence and continuity. The Nigerian Social Scientist, 6(2),
3–13.
The advent of the Fourth Republic opened a twist on the issue of

public corruption in Nigeria. This article examines several
manifestations of official corruption in Abacha’s government and
how they affected the transition programs to the Fourth Republic.
It equally examines the role of civil societies in promoting open
democratic culture in governance in order to stamp out corrupt
214
practices in governance. The author reasons that, despite the

transition, Nigeria is still grappling with the menace of corruption,
which suggests that the government needs to do more to
ameliorate the situation.
316. Ibrahim, K. M. (2012). Corruption and national

development in Nigeria's Fourth Republic. Journal of Research in
National Development, 10 (3), 227–233.
Employing the secondary method of data collection, the article

attempts to take a look at corruption in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic
and the menace it creates. The article also makes use of the
theories of prebendalism and clientalism in explaining the
prevalence of corruption in Nigeria. It argues that corruption is
the single largest problem in society today. According to the
author, corruption is the bane of democratic stability and survival
in Nigeria. The intricacies of corruption have eroded morality,
equity, transparency, and public accountability which breed
insecurity and conflict, as demonstrated by the activities of violent
ethnoreligious or regional militia groups who now constitute a
challenge to state power. The article concludes by making
recommendations on the way forward. These include the holding
of workshop and seminars for officials at the three tiers of
government, establishing offices of the anti-coruption agencies in
all the states, severe penalties for offenders, collaboration of
religious bodies, entrenchment of the rules of law, and merits in
job offers to mention a few.
317. Idemudia, U. (2010). The Challenges and

opportunities of implementing the integrity pact as a strategy for
combating corruption in Nigeria's oil rich Niger Delta Region.
Public Administration & Development, 30(4), 277–290.
215
In recent years, Nigeria has witnessed some significant initiatives

aimed at curbing corruption believed to be the major factor
undermining socio-economic development in Nigeria. This article
aims at assessing these initiatives, using the experience from the
process of implementing the Integrity Pact in the Niger Delta
Development Commission as a case study. The author suggests
that the Integrity Pact in principle offers real opportunities that
can both reinforce and complement existing anti-coruption
initiatives in Nigeria's public sector. However, political
instability, lack of continuity in civil service leadership and
limited capacity are core challenges that confront the successful
implementation and institutionalization of the Integrity Pact as a
means of fighting corruption and meeting sustainable
development objectives in the Niger Delta. The author argues that
these realities have serious implications for the fight against
318. Idigbe, P. (1986). Patterns of corruption in the

development of customs and excise. In F. Odekunle (Ed.),
Nigeria: Corruption in development (pp. 117–122). Ibadan,
This article started by treating corruption as worldwide epidemic,

after which the writer then emphasized mainly on corruption
within the Department of Customs and Excise of Nigeria. The
article highlights the types of corruption peculiar to Nigeria’s
custom and excise organization and analyzes some recorded cases
of corruption against officers of the Department of Customs and
Excise. The writer concludes that corruption in the Customs
department mainly involves the collusion of some officers of the
agency with importers or agents and that lower level officer are
much more likely to be involved in the various forms of corrupt
practices associated with Customs.
216
319. Idris, M. (2013). Corruption and insecurity in

Nigeria. Public Administration Research, 2(1), 59–66.
Since its return to democratic rule, Nigeria has faced severe

security challenges. This article examines the issues of corruption
and insecurity in Nigeria between 2001 and 2010 and the
relationship between the two. The researcher uses a content
analysis research design of secondary data. Spearman’s Rank
Correlation Coefficient was used to test the hypothesis. The result
of the research shows that the cause of insecurity is corruption and
the failure of government to fulfil the fundamental objective and
directive principles of state policy as contained in the constitution
of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Others causes identified
include greed by insurgent groups and the proliferation of
weapons. The study reveals that there is perfect correlation
between corruption and insecurity and that greed by insurgent
groups and corruption by politicians are the causes of deprivation,
alienation, conflict, and insecurity in Nigeria.
320. Ifeka, C. (2001). Playing civil society tunes:

Corruption and misunderstanding Nigeria’s “Real” political
institutions. Review of African Political Economy, 28(89), 461–
479.
Civil society groups have gained tremendous popularity as agents

of positive change in Africa. This article examines the effort of
civil society in the promotion of reforms in Nigeria. It argues that
donor-driven reforms have largely operated with a Euro-
American conception of civil society as the context within which
states and citizens negotiate power by the ballot box, and
consequently such understandings have underestimated the place
of clientelism within the context of Nigerian politics. The author
argues that while it is hoped that donor driven democratic reforms
can subdue clientelism and its manifestations within formal
217
political democratic arrangements, the interplay between donor-

driven democratic reforms and clientelism has generated
“masquerade” democracies.
321. Ifesinachi, K. (2003). The political economy of

corruption in Africa: A focus of Nigeria. In E.O. Ezeani (Ed.),
Public accountability in Nigeria: Perspectives and issues (pp. 22–
39). Enugu, Nigeria: Academic Publishing Company.
The use of the political economy perspective in order to explain

the problem of lack of accountability in Nigeria is not a very
popular approach. Yet, the search for the causes of corruption
must transcend the colonial legacy, the African tradition of gift-
taking and gift-giving, and the distorted value system. This is the
point made in this study. According to the author, the incidence
of endemic corruption in Africa was anchored in the analysis of
genealogy and the dialectics of the global movement of capital
and the persistence of primitive capital accumulation in Africa.
This is why the panacea to corruption must be seen as much more
than the application of laws and administrative mechanisms of
control. The writer sees the problem of corruption as a structural
imperative arising from the structure of accumulation of social
wealth in Africa and in Nigeria, with the state as the major means
of production. The work highlights a number of structural
impediments to accountability, such as lack of credible census
figures and elections, low wage policy, absence of equal
opportunity and social security and the institutionalization of
mediocrity in political recruitment and governance. Thus, until a
leadership that can address the phenomenon of primitive capital
accumulation emerges, expectations of public accountability will
remain a forlorn hope in Africa’s postcolonial states, including
Nigeria.
218
322. Igbudu, S. O. (2008). Anti-corruption and financial

transparency legislations. Kaduna, Nigeria: Joyce Publishers.
This is a comprehensive compendium of recent Nigerian and

international anti-coruption legislation and conventions. The book
covers in detail the following pieces of legislation and
conventions: ICPC Act 2000, EFCC (Establishment) Act 2004,
Code of Conduct Bureau and Tribunal Act 1989, Fiscal
Responsibility Act 2007, Public Procurement Act 2007, Nigerian
Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Act 2007, Freedom
of Information Bill, African Union Convention on Prevention and
Combating Corruption 2003 and United Nations Convention
Against Corruption 2003. The book was written to help create
awareness and understanding of the provisions of the current anti-
coruption legislation.
323. Igbuzor, O. (2008). Strategies for winning the anti-

corruption war in Nigeria. Action Aid Nigeria (Briefing Paper No.
2).
Nigeria’s recent efforts to curb corruption have attracted much

scholarly attention. This paper examines Nigeria’s recen t efforts
to curb corruption with a view to suggesting more effective
strategies for advancing the efforts. The paper also analyzes some
of the causes and manifestations. The author argues that
corruption has had negative consequences on Nigeria’s
development because the law of corruption has not been effective.
The reasons include the disconnection between the position of
leaders and their conduct, limited coverage of anti-coruption laws,
lack of continuity and failure to locate the anti-coruption struggle
within a broader struggle to transform society. He argues that if
these factors are addressed faithfully, there will be significant
reduction in corruption in Nigeria.
219
324. Ighodalo, A. (2009). Political corruption and

challenges of anti-corruption crusade in Nigeria. In U. D.
Eweremadu & E. E. Okafor (Eds.), Anti-corruption reforms in
Nigeria since 1999: Issues, challenges and the way forward (pp.
19–32), IFRA, Ibadan Special Research Issue, 3.
In the last couple of years, the Nigerian government has continued

to restate its commitment to fight corruption. This article
examines the federal government’s efforts to fight corruption and
to what extent the agencies put in place by the government like
the ICPC and EFCC have discharged their mandate credibly. The
author believes that even though these commissions have made
arrests and tried and convicted people, their efforts to combat
corruption in the country can be described as mere window
dressing or a mirage. These failures, he argues, have allowed
corrupt practices to eat deep into the entire fabric of the country
and deny the political community valuable resources for national
development. The author explains that political corruption in
Nigeria is closely linked to the patron-client politics or the
patronage system prevailing in the country. In the concluding
section of the article, some suggestions were put forward to help
the antigraft agencies and the federal government fight corruption.
325. Igwilo, N. C. (2009). Economic and Financial

Crimes Commission (EFCC): Assessing the impact of corruption
management in Nigeria. African Journal of Institutions and
Development, IV (5–6), 147–155.
The pervasive nature of political corruption in Nigeria is

negatively affecting the growth of the Nigerian society as well as
its image in the international community. However, in a bid to
stem this ugly tide, far-reaching measures are instituted by
successive administrations to curb this social malaise, including
the setting up of anti-coruption agencies like the EFCC.
220
Therefore, this article sets out to examine the roles and

responsibilities of the EFCC in the fight against economic and
financial crimes in Nigeria. The article highlights some key
challenges confronting this institutions and suggests ways they
can be overcome.
326. Ihionkhan, P. A. & Okpamen, P. E. (2007).

Corruption and Good governance in the Nigerian State: The way
forward. In A. S. Akpotor, A. O. Afolabi, M. O. Aigbokhaevbolo,
B. O. Iganiga, & O. S. Odiagbe (Eds.), Cost of governance in
Nigeria: An evaluative analysis (pp. 324–340). Ekpoma, Nigeria:
Ambrose Alli University Publishing House.
Many analysts have expressed the view that good governance,

which includes effective control of corruption, is a prerequisite
for development in third world nations, like Nigeria. This article
examines the corrosive effects of corruption on the Nigerian state.
Besides explaining the twin concepts of corruption and good
governance, it examined the effect of corruption on governance.
It identifies bureaucracy and political institutions as the harbinger
of corruption in Nigeria while describing the phenomenon as
counterproductive and inimical to sustainable economic
development and good governance. The work also highlights
forms of corruption which are inter-related and their causes in
Nigeria, like breakdown of societal values, inequality, and failure
of government among others. As a way out, the writer suggests
transparent leadership, strong political will, and international
collaboration with relevant anti-coruption agencies overseas.
327. Ikoiwak, E. A. (1986). Political office holders,

bureaucrats and corruption. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria:
Corruption in development (pp. 82–91). Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan
University Press.
221
Despite calls for an end to corruption, many public officials in

Nigeria still take advantage of their offices to perpetrate different
forms of corruption. This article attempts to examine how
politicians and bureaucrats entrusted with political power grossly
abused the trust reposed on them by the state and the citizens of
Nigeria via corruption. The article analyzes how the politicians
and bureaucrats entrusted with political and economic power of
the state enrich themselves to the detriments of Nigerians since
independence. It asserts that politicians and bureaucrats through
corruption create artificial imbalance of economic and political
power. Finally, the article argues that the behavior of politicians
and bureaucrats is in some way inevitable giving the social,
economic and political structures inherited at independence.
328. Ikwukananne, I. U. (2013). An institutional and

architecture based view of corruption in Nigeria: A developing
economy’s analysis of formal and informal structures. Journal of
Business Studies Quarterly, 4(3), 230–239.
Corruption remains an omnipresent and troubling issue for most

Nigerians and for potential investors in Nigeria. The study
examines the Corruption Perception Index for Nigeria in the last
10 years and attempts to establish the link between corruption and
crude oil. The research employs an institutional and architectural
perspective to glean the nature and consequences of corruption in
Nigeria. It further draws attention to the fate of the average
Nigerian who has not benefited from the country’s abundant
resources due to the high level of greed and mismanagement
allowed under the current market-based capitalism, which still
lacks the requisite regulation. The article ends by expressing hope
that other developing economies with abundant natural resources,
as is the case in Nigeria, using the matrix provided in this article,
can study the nature of the formal and informal institutions that
222
exist within their boundaries to enhance a better understanding of

the nature of corruption.
329. Ilorah, P. (2004). Corrupt practices: A Nigerian

perspective. Abuja, Nigeria: Sungold Concepts Ltd.
Corruption has eroded much of the Nigerian nation despite efforts

to curb its power. This book attempts to provide insight into the
nature and extent of corrupt practices in Nigeria both during the
military and civilian eras. The book contains useful data and
specific accounts of several important cases of corruption in
different sections and institutions of national life, including the
banking sector, civil service, judiciary, police etc. The author
blames the elite for much of the problem. As a way out, he
recommends stiffer punishment, special courts for corrupt
practices, values reorientation, and strengthening of anti-
coruption institutions.
330. Iroanusi, O. S. (2006). Corruption: The Nigerian

example. Lagos, Nigeria: Sam Iroanusi Publications.
Corruption is a very complex and difficult concept to define and

explain. To shed more light on this, this book examines the nature
and character of corruption in Nigeria. The author argues that
cases of political corruption in Nigeria are not a recent
development. Scholars have traced it to successive
administrations from the early days of political independence
from the British colonial government. This article examines the
various cases of alleged corruption with different political
administrations with its attendant effects on the body politics. The
author concludes by calling for drastic measures to be taken
against the perpetrators of corruption in Nigeria to serve as a
deterrent to others.
223
331. Iyanda, D. O. (2007). Bureaucratic corruption as an

impediment to national development in Nigeria: A way forward.
In A. D. Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the challenge of human
University Press.
The extent to which bureaucratic corruption has been a major

challenge to national development in Nigeria has been a subject
of scholarly debate. The article gives a background on
bureaucratic corruption in Nigeria. Drawing from Max Weber’s
thesis on bureaucracy, the article explains the nexus between
bureaucracy and corruption. The article also explains corruption
using various theories such as the idealist, modernist,
functionalist, and dialectical materialist approaches. It focuses
especially on the causes of bureaucratic corruption and its impact
on national development. It proffers solutions on possible policy
measures to tackle the problem. The study states that bureaucratic
forms of corruption impact negatively various aspects of the
society and have defiled all measures adopted to combat it in
Nigeria because those involved in the fight are also corrupt. This
article, therefore, calls for an in-house sanitization of all
individuals and agencies involved in the fight against corruption.
Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for the Code of Conduct
Bureau (CCB) and the Public Complaints Commission (PCC) to
be separated from the executive influence to become effective and
calls on the government to provide the basic needs of the people.
It stresses that leaders should lead by example not by precepts and
that the laws addressing corruption must be not only made but also
enforced.
332. Joda, H. T. (2011). Anti-corruption handbook for

public and civil servants: A strategic framework for eliminating
corruption in business processes of government in Nigeria.
Abuja, Nigeria: Succez Guide Consulting.
224
One of the greatest public policy issues in contemporary Nigeria

is corruption. This small book exposes the nature and extent of
corruption in the Nigerian public and civil services. The book lists
and discusses all the major dimensions of corruption in the public
service, such as the ghost worker epidemic, pension scam,
nepotism in the recruitment and contract-awarding process,
bribery, fraud, and embezzlement. The author reveals the reasons
for thriving corruption and its effect on the nation. He concludes
by suggesting a host of institutional, attitudinal, and policy
changes that could help deal with the situation.
333. Johnson A.U. (2007, September 6). Patron client ties

and crisis of governance in Anambra State, Nigeria. Paper
Studies have shown that patron-client ties are at the heart of

governance and politics in Nigeria. What is not clear is whether
the peculiarity of politics in Nigeria has made patronage politics
inevitable. Taking An ambra state as a case study, this paper
attempts to explore factors responsible for patron-client politics.
The paper traces the development of Anambra state since creation
in 1976 through both civilian and military administrations
analyzes the politics in the state that helped the evolution of
patronage politics. The paper highlights, in particular, the patron-
client ties and politics in Anambra state in the Fourth Republic,
the connection of power elites in the state to the federal
government, and the politics of patronage in Anambra state. The
author concludes that there is a pervasive influence of patronage
politics in the Fourth Republic, and that giving its linkage with
political corruption, it is imperative for political leaders to
demonstrate commitment to constitutionalism and integrity.
225
334. Joseph, A. I. (2008). Corruption in Nigeria: An

impediment to achieving the Millennium Development Goals.
Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Socio -
Economic Policies and Millennium Development Goals( MGDs)
in Africa, Faculty of the Social Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin
University, Akungba, Nigeria, 135–143.
Many developing countries are counting their successes or

failures in terms of meeting the development targets set for them
by the United Nation’s Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
The study explores the channels through which corruption acts as
an impediment to achieving the MDGs in Nigeria. The scope of
the paper covers the period from 1975 to 2006. The author argues
that corruption has impacted negatively the achievement of the
MDGs in Nigeria. The impulse response results indicate that
corruption accounts for negative shocks in the variables of GDP
growth, secondary school enrollment, life expectancy, etc.
335. Kano, M. Z. (1986). Corruption in Nigeria: A

critique of selected theoretical perspectives. In F. Odekunle (Ed.),
Nigeria: Corruption in development (pp. 267–273). Ibadan,
Even though corruption is a universal phenomenon, it has been

conceptualized in different ways by different people. This article
analyzes different definitions of corruption, in order to underline
the enormous diversity of corruption. The article also gave
evaluative dictionary definitions of the concept and shows how
the definitions affects the way writers analytically conceptualizes
the phenomenon of corruption. Finally, the article examines
corruption from the perspective of culture. According to the
author, corrupt practices are cultural phenomena which are
generated by the system as the result of scarcity of resources by
some groups, and the inability of the system to redistribute
226
resources equitably. He further concludes that if the various

contradictions in the Nigerian social system disappear, corruption
as a cultural form will inevitably change and no longer play such
a significant role in the sociocultural exchange of the people.
336. Keeper, D. G (n.d.). Systemic corruption In Nigeria:

A threat to sustainable development. Proceedings of the 1st
International Technology, Education and Envrionment
Conference, African Society for Scientific Research (ASSR)/
Human Resource Management Academic Research Society , 172–
179.
It is very common to hear Nigerians denounce corruption as a vice

that promotes underdevelopment. Following that line of thought,
this article examines the concept of corruption, as well the causes
of corruption and its implication on the economy of Nigeria. The
major kernel of the article is the examination of corruption as the
major problem of sustainable development in the country. The
author adopts functionalist theory as the basis of analysis, arguing
that corruption emanates from the social structure of the society.
The article concludes on a very cynical note, noting how various
governmental institutions have failed to reduce corruption. The
writer’s recommendations for improvement include the need for
leadership change and values reorientation, beginning with the
family.
337. Komatsuzaki, Y. (2013) Why Are Anti-Corruption

Agencies Unable to Successfully Fight Oil Revenue Corruption?
- Case Study in Nigeria. (Masters Dissertation) University of
Birmingham, Birmingham, U.K.
This dissertation aims to identify the challenges to successfully

combating oil revenue corruption in Nigeria. The research finds
that the quality of institutions, in relation to the rule of law,
227
accountability, and political influence, are significant factors that

deepen oil corruption. Oil revenue corruption is difficult to
combat owing to the roles played by the complicated process of
oil production and the multi-stakeholder relationship between
multi-national companies (MNCs), national oil companies, and
the Nigerian government, including the Ministry of Petroleum,
the National Assembly and the cabinet as well as the judiciary.
The dissertation argues that although international anti-coruption
frameworks such as the United Nations Convention against
Corruption (UNCAC) 2003 and the Extractive Industries
Transparency Initiative (EITI) have been put in place, there are
still difficulties in their implementation, including the lack of
independence of anti-coruption agencies resulting from their
subjection to high levels of political influence. It concludes that
the EITI framework lacks accountability, because it is focused
solely on revenue rather than expenditure, and the EITI lacks
components of enforcement and sanctions.
338. Kukumah, A.S. (2008). No more eclipse of

development by corruption: An inevitable challenge to all
patriotic and progressive political leaders of modern Nigeria.
Abuja, Nigeria: Model Press Ltd.
Most works on corruption in Nigeria deal with specific aspects of

the subject, but this 427-page book provides an extensive analysis
of corruption. The author argues that corruption has contributed
to underdevelopment in the country. The major aim of the book
was to create awareness and challenge political leaders who
constitute the main audience, to support the government of the day
in its attempt to fight corruption. The book provides detailed
analysis of several aspects of corruption theories, causes, types or
forms and some overview of previous anti-coruption crusades as
measures. The author also offers some useful recommendations
228
on how to fight it, such as good leadership, public education, true

federalism, and religious and family values.
339. Lafenwa, S. A. (2010). Corruption and

developmental challenges in Nigeria: The role of the legislature.
In M. Olujinmi, A. A. Alabi, & O. W. Egbewole (Eds.),
Perspectives on the legislature in the Government of Nigeria,
Morocco. African Training and Research Center in
Administration for Development (AFRAD), Morocco.
The legislature is among the most important pillars of good

governance. For this reason, this article seeks to examine the
significance and developmental role of the legislature, the factors
that have militated against its role in eradicating corruption, and
the conditions under which these factors can be changed to bring
about development. The author identifies corruption as one of the
challenges confronting democracy and sustainable development
and the need for the legislature play active role in tackling these
development challenges. Specifically, this work examines the
involvement of the National Assembly in the fight against
corruption since the return to civil rule and identifies various
factors that render anti-coruption initiatives ineffective. The
discourse advocates for a deep institutionalization of the
legislature as against deinstitutionalization. It recommends the
need for sustained efforts, partnership and resources to strengthen
the legislature, the legislative committee system and the need for
the National Assembly to be proactive in making laws that will
combat corruption, beginning with itself.
340. Lafenwa, S. A. (2010). The legislature and the

challenges of corruption in Africa: The Nigerian case. Ibadan
Journal of the Social Sciences, 8(2), 190–204.
229
The legislature, especially at the federal level, is widely perceived

as a major center of corruption in Nigeria. This is despite their
constitutional role as representatives of the people and watchdogs
against abuse of power by other arms of government. The article
examines the power and roles of the legislature in resolving
political corruption in Nigeria. It adopts the neo-liberal
democratic theory to understand the role of the legislature as the
representative assembly that is expected to promote popular
participation and as an effective check on government, and the
horizontal accountability thesis in understanding the relevance of
a law-making organ in democratic governance. The article reveals
that contrary to the opinion that national legislatures are declining
in terms of the roles they perform in democracies, the National
Assembly is central to the resolution of the challenge posed by
political corruption to Nigeria’s democracy and development. The
National Assembly, through its exercise of investigative powers
and the establishment of some legal instruments, was able to
expose some corrupt practices between 1999 and 2008. The major
argument advanced in this article is that the fortunes or
misfortunes of democratic governance in Nigeria will be
determined by the powers, functions, and performance of
legislative institutions. In other words, democracy can flourish in
Nigeria, and in Africa as a whole, only if the capacity of the
legislatures at all levels are strengthened to address critical issues,
including corruption and abuse of office. By implication, a more
proactive National Assembly that is ready to set the priorities
right, as well as resolve its internal crisis democratically, is truly
needed in Nigeria.
341. Lawal, G., & Ariyo, T. (2006). Bureaucratic

corruption, good governance and development: The challenges
and prospects of institution building in Nigeria. Journal of
Applied Science Research, 2(10), 642–649.
230
This article argues that good governance encompasses three

different but unrelated dimensions. These are political, technical
and institutional dimensions. In view of these, any effort geared
toward promoting development in the society must take the three
dimensions into consideration. It further posits that the bane of
Nigerian public administration is that of corruption which has not
allowed the interrelationships that exist among the three variables
to provide built-in mechanism that has the capacity of
engendering good governance. The author, therefore, submits that
corruption must be positively addressed and reduced in the public
bureaucracy for Nigeria to be able to meet the challenges of the
21st Century.
342. Lawal, T. & Ogunro, K. V. (2012). Com bating

corruption in Nigeria. International Journal of Academic
Research in Economics and Management Sciences, 1(4), 1–7.
It has been established that corruption impedes development and

negates good governance. Corruption has flourished and pervaded
every segment of the society for the past fifty years. Relying on
secondary data, this article examines the types, causes, and effects
of corruption in Nigeria. In conclusion, this study states that
corruption breeds political instability, damages economic
development and reforms, and unequal distribution of wealth. The
author recommends that to genuinely war against corruption,
necessary anti-coruption institutions should be made effective and
independent.
343. Madugwu, M. O. (1996). Nigeria in search of

political culture: The political class, corruption and
democratization. In A. Gboyega (Ed.), Corruption and
democratization in Nigeria (pp. 13–24). Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan
University Press.
231
In Africa, corruption has not only negative economic

consequences but also negative political effects. This article
examines the failure of democracy in Africa and Nigeria as caused
by corruption. The writer observes that corruption in Nigeria is a
crime against humanity. Despite the vast and enormous wealth in
Nigeria, as evidenced by the presence of rich natural and human
resources, the development and economic impact of these
resources on the populace has been insignificant. Drawing from a
1993 report written by a U.S. congressman during the Babangida
regime, which shows how those in government directly looted
billions of dollars, the author demonstrates how endemic and
threatening to democracy corruption has become in Nigeria.
Causes of corruption and some measures that can help combat it
were identified. The article suggests that there should be an
introduction of new constitutional procedures that will put an end
to corruption.
344. Maier, K. (2000). This house has fallen: Nigeria in

crisis. London: Penguin Books.
Set in a wide socio-economic and historical context, this work

attempts to portray the main crisis points of political, religious,
ethnic, and economic turmoil in contemporary Nigeria. It is a
well-researched narrative of the colonial legacy and postcolonial
power brokering. It offers a description of the country's recent
political past and the succession of military coups and democratic
failures since independence. This article clearly demonstrates that
the fundamental causes of the Nigerian crisis are a result of failure
in leadership and a state structure that consumes its own
resources. The article argues that Nigeria represents a criminal
enterprise in which the bosses are armed and have locked
themselves in the company safe. The study focused on the past
and present ethnic secessionist movements, religious cleavages
throughout the country and concludes with a cautious assessment
232
of the nation's prospects in which the author echoes a widely held

belief that Obasanjo's rule represents a last chance to establish
economic and political stability and avoid the breakup of the
country.
345. Makinde, T. (2013). Global corruption and

governance in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development, 6(8),
108–117.
In an era of globalization, local political processes are, to a large

extent, influenced by events occurring at the international scene.
This article, while trying to examine the effect of global
corruption on corruption and governance in Nigeria, employed an
historical approach in first relating the political history of Nigeria
from preindependence till the postmilitary era. The central
argument consists of debunking the general notion that owning to
the fact that the military were in power for long a time, they are
solely responsible for corruption and its negative effect on
Nigeria’s development. For the author, global corruption is the
key variable. This implies corruption that goes beyond local, state
and national levels, but has international dimensions. Global
corruption comes in different styles namely, bribery, unequal
trade agreements, structural adjustment policies, and award of
loans or grants to developing countries which are known to be
corrupt, among others. On governance in Nigeria, the article
argues that low level of accountability, inefficiency of
government, lack of transparency, responsiveness, and poor
leadership are responsible for corruption. The article concludes
that in addition to some internal causes of failure in governance
which includes ethnicity and poor leadership, global corruption
stands out as a major contributing factor to failure in governance
in Nigeria.
233
346. Malaolu, N. (2007). Political corruption and

Nigeria’s crisis of governance: Perspectives of an observant
participant in the new political process. In A. D. Aina, (Ed.),
The need to focus on the individual citizen has largely been

ignored in existing literature on corruption in Nigeria. This article,
therefore, examines the challenges facing the political actors who
have to grapple with the issues of governance and corrupt
tendencies in their day-to-day work environment. It addresses the
problem of corruption and proffers solutions towards combating
the menace. The study identifies the law enforcement agencies,
the judicial system, civil society, and the press as four institutions
pivotal to the fight against corruption. The article emphasizes the
need for honest service to the nation, a reorientation exercise of
the public service in general, a continuous review of welfare
packages of public officers, and the proper equipping and
manning of the audit departments of government agencies. It calls
on the civil service to work with the press in obvious cases of
corruption and to challenge leaders to account for their
stewardship. In the opinion of the author, the civil society and the
press, through conscientious efforts, can expose all forms of
corruption and other acts of sleaze.
347. Mande, D. A. (2007, September 6). Struggle against

corruption as a panacea for sustainable democracy in Nigeria’s
21st century. Paper presented at the International Conference on
Nigeria in the 21st Century: Issues and Challenges, Faculty of
Ife/Conference Centre, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile -Ife,
Nigeria.
234
From every indication, corruption has taken root in the very fabric
of the Nigerian system. It has become a way of life despite its
many consequences for social, economic and political
development. This paper examines the fight against corruption as
a means for achieving sustainable democracy. The article argues
that despite the many attention, given to the issue of corruption in
Nigeria; it still remains one of the major problems in
contemporary Nigeria. It attributes the failure of the First and
Second Republic in Nigeria to corruption and argues that the
Fourth Republic is also following suit. To effectively combat
corruption, the article advocates reforms in the civil service, as
well as political, economic, judicial reforms, which will carry the
citizenry along.
348. Manfredi, V. (1986). Corruptio n and legitimization

in Nigeria. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in
Press.
Many civilian regimes have been toppled in Nigeria after having

been accused of corruption by their military counterparts. This
creates the impression that the military are less corrupt than the
civilians. This article is first and foremost a critique of the micro-
definition of corruption, and legitimization in Nigeria. In this
wise, the article analyzes the world’s system, using the
contradictions in Economic naturalism. The article also compares
corruption and corrupt practices under a civilian government and
a military government. According to the author, a major hallmark
of the civilian regime is its open double standard on corruption.
As he argues, one is thus resignedly accommodated to corruption
at the same time that all sorts of probes and purges are being
launched.
235
349. Mimiko, O. N. (2009). Corruption and its outcomes:

The Terra nullius complex in Nigeria. African Journal of
Institutions and Development, IV (5–6), 1–9.
From a purely theoretical perspective, this author explores the

social dimensions of corruption and forces propelling it. It
interrogates its effects on the Nigerian political economy, and
against the backdrop of strong anti-coruption initiatives, the
country has experimented with, canvases a holistic approach to
the management of corruption. It argues that corruption and the
evident lack of capacity by the Nigerian state are themselves
precipitates of the illegitimacy of political Nigeria. It identifies the
challenges faced by Nigeria to include the problem of how to
build an attitudinally unified entity from a multitude of ethno-
national allegiances that currently defines the country, how to free
the economy in a transparent and effective manner from the
stronghold of the state and allow the market a degree of autonomy
without which growth and development may continue to be
elusive. Accordingly, it states that illegitimacy produces active
corruption in the public realm as there is low commitment to the
country on the part of the average Nigerian, which in the
consciousness of many Nigerian is effectively “Terra Nellius,” a
land belonging to no one. The article concludes that treating
corruption as a pure criminal matter will not suffice; rather, any
meaningful fight against corruption, must take into consideration
its social, political, and economic dimensions, and be at both
micro and macro levels. At the micro level, it should take into
consideration several variants of corruption outside bribery and
stealing of public funds. At the macro level, law and order must
be strengthened, electoral offences must be created and
sanctioned, leadership by example, building support for civil
society initiatives on corruption and good governance, including
the creation and sustenance of a culture that do not make
corruption attractive and easily probable.
236
350. Mohammed, A. A. (2007). Legislative corruption

and democratic sustenance in Nigeria, in A. D. Aina (Ed.),
530). Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria: Babcock University Press Ltd.
The legislature in Nigeria, especially at the federal level, has been

consistently accused of corruption. Yet not m any empirical
studies exist on this. This article examines how legislative
corruption impacts good governance and the sustenance of
democracy in the country. It explores various literatures available
with regards to democracy, the role of the legislature in
democracy, causes of legislative corruption, dimensions of
legislative corruption and its impact on good governance and the
democratic processes. It also gives a background to the context in
which Nigeria’s legislature emerged in the Fourth Republic and
the cushion effects it has on its work and conducts. The article
recommends that the current anti-coruption strategies must be
strengthened to ensure total cleansing of the social malady. This
must be accompanied by the political will to ensure success. It
also emphasizes the need for a reorientation of the legislators on
the one hand and on the other, the entire political class, to eschew
monetization of politics as well as to appreciate crucial nature of
the legislative institutions in the success of any democratic
project. It stresses the need for the citizens and civil society to be
more proactive in serving as both watchdogs for elected public
holders, particularly the legislature.
351. Mohammed, S. (2000). Corruption in Nigeria.

Lancaster University Management School (Working Paper No.
2000/006).Retrieved from http://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/48533/1/
Document.pdf. There is a general consensus among most scholars
that corruption is central to understanding Nigeria’s social-
economic malaise. This paper attempts a general analysis of
corruption in Nigeria vis-á-vis its many consequences in Nigeria.
237
First, the paper discusses the extent of corruption in Nigeria, the

causes as well as the consequences of corruption in Nigeria. The
paper provides statistical evidence on the magnitude of the
phenomenon and its impact on the Nigeria’s economy. Employing
theories such as game theory, public choice theory and the
transaction cost economic, the paper attempts to analyze the
causes of corruption as well as the factors that influenced
corruption. The paper concludes that corruption posed serious
consequences for growth and development in Nigeria. Hence, the
need for the government to take the issue of corruption seriously
and introduce appropriate measures to remedy this chronic
problem.
352. Mohammed, A. S. (1986). Nepotism as a form of

Press.
Nepotism is one of the most common forms of corruption

practiced in Nigeria. The article chronologically presents a
theoretical overview of nepotism and corruption. It also presents
some outstanding and high profile cases of nepotism from Nigeria
and some other underdeveloped countries. The article attempts an
explanation and exploration of the concept of nepotism in
underdeveloped countries through the way of context and
manifestation in the underdeveloped countries. The article
recommends and adopts four basic criteria for analysing
corruption and nepotism. Application of these criteria could
facilitate proper comprehension and assessment of corruption.
353. Mohammed, U. (2013). Corruption in Nigeria: A

challenge to sustainable development in the Fourth Republic.
European Scientific Journal, 9(4), 118–137.
238
The negative effect of corruption on development has attracted

much scholarly interests. This article examines corruption as a
challenge to sustainable development in the Fourth Republic.
According to the author, the increasing level of corruption is
capable of undermining sustainable development. He notes that
despite the establishment of several new antigraft commissions,
corruption has continued to escalate like wildfire. According to
him, the factors responsible for these high profile corrupt
practices are traceable to historical and cultural factors of the
components that make up the country. Therefore, unless these
historical and cultural factors are dealt with, sustainable
development will be a mirage with dare consequences on the
economy, the citizenry and on our collective image globally.
354. Musa, A. A. ( 2006). Pathway to sanity: Analyses of

anti-corruption crusade in Nigeria. Kaduna, Nigeria: Printworks
Publication.
Nigeria’s political history has been marked by the frequent launch

of anti-coruption crusades. This book highlights Nigeria’s efforts
to tackle corruption over the years, showcasing the achievements
and failures of each. The work also highlights the causes and
effects of corruption in several critical sectors, such as the
National Assembly, judiciary, media, o il sector, banking sector,
etc. The author also reviews the role of some rare vanguard men
and women who have distinguished themselves in their various
fields by way of rendering selfless services. He argues that the
celebration of these individuals can have a positive impact on the
nation’s efforts aimed at eradicating corruption.
239
355. Musa, S. (1991). Anatomy of corruption and other

economic crimes in Nigerian public life. In U. A Kalu, & Y.
Crimes in Nigeria, Federal Ministry of Justice Law Review
Series, Vol. 2, 15–29.
It has been argued that corruption in Nigeria is institutionalized

and official. This article examines the anatomy of corruption and
other economic crimes in Nigerian public life. It describes
corruption as misappropriation of public funds for personal use
and as an economic crime. It identifies factors that promote
corruption in Nigeria as a result of civil war, oil boom, and the
indigenization policy among others. In his quest to identify
attempts made to curb official corruption, the author discovers
that the phenomenon has developed into a hydra-headed monster.
This article concludes that corruption can only be minimized or
curbed if we adopt people oriented policy that would alleviate the
fear of the unknown.
356. Muslim, Y. Y. , & Tiamiyu, R. A. (2011). Scorching

the corruption pandemic: A panoramic view. In A. B. Sunday
(Ed.), Corruption, democracy and good governance in Nigeria
(pp. 19–36). Saki, Nigeria: Real Success Consults.
Corruption has been a social challenge in Nigeria since

independence. It has transformed into a socio-political crisis
profound and prominent enough as to deal a lethal blow to the
basic ethical and moral fabric of the Nigerian state. This article
uses a panoramic approach, with fairly complex interrelationships
between education, law, economy, governance, society , and
globalization as they affect the process of exterminating
corruption in Nigeria. The article takes a look at the historical and
social dimensions of corruption. It argues that while corruption
became manifest in the period between 1963 and 1996, it can be
240
said to have had incipient traces in the preindependence era.

Owing to the ubiquitous and pervasive nature of corruption in
Nigeria, it is necessary to fashion a more universal and
multifaceted approach to curtail the menace. The article presents
in a diagrammatic and graphical manner, a single model and
holistic approach; a framework, which will run through the
provisions in education, economy, law, governance, globali zation
and the society. For each of these major variables, a number of
subvariables or components are identified. This is followed by a
sketchy discussion on what can be done about the identified
components to evolve a workable combat kit against corruption.
357. Myadze, T. (1986). When deviancy becomes normal:

Consequences for development. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria:
Corruption in development (pp. 153–163), Ibadan, Nigeria:
Deviancy involves behavior that deviates from accepted norms

within a social system. When a deviant behavior becomes a
routine and is accepted, it transforms into a norm. The spread of
corrupt practices in Nigeria suggests that the acts are on the verge
of becoming an accepted norm. This article conceptualizes
deviancy and normalcy, but with a focus on deviancy from norms
established by public institutions, to buttress how deviance has
become normal. The article focuses on public institutions
including those owned by the government as models of society,
directly involved in planning for development. Finally, the article
elaborates on the consequences of routine deviance for economic,
political and social development.
358. Nagel, S. (2003). Channelling greed towards the

public interest. In G. Onu (Ed.), Corruption and sustainable
development: The Third World perspective (pp. 19–45). Awka ,
Nigeria: Bookpoint.
241
It has been logically reasoned that public servants are crucial to

the fight against graft. This article, therefore, discusses four major
ways of stimulating management for good governance in the
public sector by channelling the behavior of public administrators
towards the public interest. This is to be achieved by such
innovative ideas as payment based on performance, vouchers,
contracting and competition, especially from a win-win
perspective. These approaches are designed to enable public
administrators to use their self-interest and profit motive in more
constructive ways. The article offers diverse examples generally
from economic, technological, social, political, international and
legal policy perspectives, and attempts to integrate the four
examples with additional examples. It also analyzes win-win
contracting, explaining the progressive contracting of legal
services and in general as well as private sector prisons and public
schools. It further discusses win-win vouchers giving examples
from economic policy such as minimum wage vouchers,
technology policy such as workers and farmer’s productivity
policy vouchers, social policy such as housing and school
vouchers, and political policy such as decentralized education
vouchers. It also highlights the ways of integrating government
innovation ideas.
359. Ngwube, A., & Okoli, C. (2013). The role of the

Economic and Financial Crime Commission in the fight against
corruption in Nigeria. Journal of Studies in Social Sciences, 4(1),
92–107.
Since its creation in 2003, the Economic and Financial Crime

Commission, EFCC, has championed the battle to rid Nigeria of
corruption. The article attempts a conceptualization of corruption.
It also offers an in-depth analysis of the causes of corruption, as
well as the consequence and effect of corruption. The major
objective of the article was however to examine the relevance of
242
the Economic and Financial Crime Commission as an anti-

coruption agency. This was done through an examination of how
the EFCC has been able to address corruption in Nigeria. The
author concludes that there is an urgent need for the
institutionalization of appropriate laws and policies, and for
Nigeria to have a societal reorientation. He also made
recommendations that could help in building a case for the
legitimizing the activities of EFCC: such as the granting of full
autonomy to the same institution. He also emphasized the need
for other stakeholders to rise to the occasion by supporting the
fight against corruption.
360. Nkemdili, N. A., Bonaventure, U., & Anigbogu, K.

(2013) No light at the end of the tunnel: Corruption and insecurity
in Nigeria. Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and
Nigeria has seen a serious increase in insecurity in recent years.

This study looks at the connection between corruption and
insecurity. It attributes the deepening insecurity in the country to
the problem of sore values. The article argues that the country is
mired in the crises of governance owing to a misdiagnosis of the
problem which renders ineffective the efforts of state agencies to
checkmate the problem. The author contends that the persistent
nature of corruption has been fuelled by perverted social values.
The article argues that the solution to the problem is values
reorientation.
361. Nnadozie O. (2003). Corruption and productivity in

the public services of Third World countries: The challenge of
good governance in Nigeria. In G. Onu (Ed.), Corruption and
274). Awka: Bookpoint.
243
Most public services in third world countries are afflicted with the
problem of low productivity and corruption. This article examines
analytically the issue of corruption and productivity. It attempts a
clarification of key concepts and examines the political economy
of the Nigerian public bureaucracy with an attempt to place
corruption in the Nigerian public service within the socio-
economic and political milieu of the Nigerian society. It also looks
at the inevitability of corruption within the Nigerian public
bureaucracy and why corruption remains a viable means through
which the Nigerian leaders satisfy their private interests through
the public service. It examines the futility of past reforms in the
service, particularly with regard to curbing corruption. It argues
that corruption within the public service like the other sectors of
the society is predicated upon the materialistic and acquisitive
basis of the society, lack of social security and unequal access to
the resources of the society. The article further asserts that the
inability of the public service to provide basic amenities and
services to the citizenry is only a natural aftermath of corruption
in the service. This is because, corruption serves as a viable means
through which money and other resources of the state supposedly
budgeted for the provision of such amenities and services are
usually misappropriated by the governing class including the high
echelon of the service. Hence, understanding the nature of the
state and character of politics played in the system is a key to
addressing the problems of public services in such societies.
362. Nwachukwu, O. K. (2002). Implications of

corruption on national economy, ethics and political process. In
C. O. T. Ugwu (Ed.), Corruption in Nigeria: Critical
Corruption has been identified as responsible for the loss of

confidence in government. This article examines different kinds
244
of corrupt practices in Nigeria, factors that aid it and its

implication on national development. It identifies fraud,
embezzlement, money-laundry, examination malpractices as the
main forms of corruption in Nigeria. It further highlights poverty
and lack of basic amenities, insatiable craving for wealth, poor
leadership and ostentatious lifestyles as the factors that give rise
to corrupt practices in Nigeria. The author concludes by
examining the effects of corruption in Nigeria and suggesting
decentralization of power, removal of the immunity clause from
the constitution, and reorientation of values as the solution.
363. Nwankwo, A. C. (2003). Forms and Incidence of

Corruption in the Present Day Democratic Dispensation in
Nigeria: Implications for Counselling. In G. Onu (Ed.),
Corruption and Sustainable Development: The Third World
Perspective (pp. 208-217). Awka: Bookpoint Limited.
Several forms of corruption can be observed in the present

dispensation and the frequencies at which these corrupt practices
occur in the Nigerian society have become worrisome. This study
is an empirical investigation to this phenomenon. The author
sought the views of children, adolescents and adults on the forms
and incidence of corruption in the country. The purpose is to
identify the prevailing forms of corruption, ascertain the rate at
which they occur in the present day democratic dispensation in
order to know where and how counseling could be given. Based
on the analysis, there are up to 38 forms of corruption in the
present day democratic dispensation and there is a very high
incidence of most of the forms of corruption in the country today.
In addition, there is no significant difference in view of male and
female respondents with regard to the forms and incidence of
corruption, while the views of children, adolescents and adults did
not differ significantly on the forms and incidence of corruption
in Nigeria today. The article contends that an excessive pursuit of
245
the factors of life is detrimental to the growth and progress of any

society and that greed has been observed as the permanent seed in
the heart of many Nigerians. Implications of the findings to
counseling include the need for serious counseling services and
programs in schools, homes, villages and establishment involving
all categories of people. In addition, the anti-coruption act should
make leaders engage in self-evaluation and self-criticism with a
view to adopting a culture of accountability.
364. Nwaze, C. (2011). Corruption in Nigeria exposed:

With, scams, laws and preventive measures. Lagos, Nigeria:
Control and Surveillance Associates.
This book is part of a growing body of literature addressing the

problem of corruption in Nigeria. Its 432 pages offer a
comprehensive exposition of the phenomenon of corruption in
Nigeria. The analysis includes the meaning, nature, causes, and
effects of corruption and the various legal provisions against it.
The work also chronicles many of the celebrated cases of
corruption in different sectors of Nigerian life such as the police,
civil service, public corporations, educational institutions, and
even the private sector. The author concludes by saying that
corruption is by far the most important challenge facing Nigeria,
emphasizing on the urgent need to fight it to perish.
365. Nwokereke, E. (2002). The causes of corruption in

Nigeria and the way forward. In C. O. T. Ugwu (Ed.), Corruption
in Nigeria: Critical perspectives; A book of readings (pp. 1–15).
Scholars have argued that corruption has eaten deep into the
identity of the people such that it is becoming increasingly
difficult to differentiate it from our cultural practices. This article
examines the causes of corruption in Nigeria, its effects, and how
246
it can be curbed in the Nigerian society. The author identifies get-

rich-quick syndrome, ineffective leadership, and poverty as the
major causes of corruption in Nigeria. It further highlights capital
flight, battered reputation, and mass unemployment among others
as the effects of the high rate of corruption in Nigeria. The article,
therefore, concludes by suggesting a moral rebirth and continuous
public enlightenment on the ills of corruption for both individuals
and society at the large in order to redeem the society from the
shackles of corrupt practices.
366. Nwolise, O. B. C. (2006). Corporate governance and

corruption: Public and private sector approaches. In B. Aboyade
& S. Ayodele (E ds.), Fighting corruption in Nigeria: Challenges
for the future (pp. 98–118). Ibadan, Nigeria: Development Policy
Center.
Corruption is an important challenge to a number of countries

today. This article identifies corruption as the second most crucial
concern of the contemporary world, the first being terrorism. The
article began by presenting a tabulated view of notable world
corruption incidents in various countries including Russia,
Pakistan, Britain, Iraq and the United States of America. He also
conceptualizes corruption and provides suitable theories to
understanding the menace in part three of his work. The theories
include the functionalist school, Human Psychology School,
Bureaucracy and Patrimonial theories. He provides a review of
corruption in Nigeria and the various measures by successive
governments to combat it. To effectively check corruption, the
article emphasizes the need for corruption to be tackled at two
levels: the level of causation (root causes) and the level of
manifestation (symptoms). He also draws attention to the need for
the state to pay employees a timely living wage and purge itself
of acts that generate and reinforce corruption in the country.
Finally, he stresses the need for the public and private sectors to
247
fashion out internal combat strategies peculiar to each sector to

check against corrupt practices.
367. Nwolise, O. B. C. (2010). Corruption and under-

development. In D. Irele, & B. A. Ekanola (Eds.), The
development philosophy of Emmanuel Onyechere Osigwe Ayim-
Osigwe: Economic existence, awareness and responsibility (pp.
170–194). Ibadan, Nigeria: Hope Publications.
The seeming convergence between high levels of corruption and

underdevelopment has raised questions about whether corruption
is a cause of underdevelopment. This discourse examines the
nexus between corruption and underdevelopment and strategies
that can be adopted towards combating corruption in Nigeria. It
also explores the relevance of the views of Emmanuel Onyechere
Osigwe on corruption with regards to Nigeria’s contemporary
situation. The author argues that there is a strong linkage between
corruption and underdevelopment. After reviewing some of the
problems confronting the fight against corruption in Nigeria, he
proffers new strategies to energize the campaign, including more
roles for civil society and citizen involvement, including whistle
blowing, rediscovery of the culture of shame, constitutional
amendment of the immunity clause, good governance,
government cultivation of political will to act, sanitization of
courts, rediscovery and inculcation of African metaphysics,
conduct of democratic elections, and others. The article also
reinforces the ideas of Emmanuel Osigwe Ayim-Osigwe on the
importance of pursuing spiritual development along with
economic progress and well-being.
248
368. Nze, C. F. & Nkamnebe, A. (2003). Internalizing

effectiveness and accountability for the public good: Strategic
choices for public sector bureaucracies in Africa. In G. Onu (Ed.),
Public sector bureaucracies in Africa constitute the major

instruments for designing socio-economic and political
development policies. However, they have been criticized for not
living up to the imperative of an effective, efficient, transparent
and results-oriented public sector, thus, undermining good
governance and engendering corruption. This article focuses on
ways of internalizing effectiveness and accountability in African
public sector bureaucracies. It presents a profile of an intellectual
African civil service and discusses the strategies of internalizing
effectiveness within the context of strategic choices. It includes
an appreciation of the “pervading influence” of civil service
bureaucracies in Africa in planning and development of the
continent. The article argues that new strategies and philosophies
would be required to make the public sector in the continent more
effective and transparent. To enhance the effectiveness of civil
service in Africa, to better serve the public good, the political and
career executives should adopt strategic planning as an important
management tool, while nurturing the entrepreneurial spirit. It
also emphasizes developing strategic accountability mechanisms
and fostering organizational integrity and forging strategic
partnerships with universities for policy research. In addition, it
calls for instituting environmental scanning capabilities,
establishing forums for creating and communicating meaning to
citizens, and sharing policy ideas.
249
369. Obasanjo, O. (2003). Corruption and poverty:

Partners in social and economic dislocation. In A. Aderinwale
(Ed.), Corruption, accountability and transparency for
sustainable development (pp. 43–49). Ota, Nigeria: African
Leadership Forum.
During his time as president of Nigeria, President Olusegun

Obasanjo (1999–2007), gave speeches where he condemned
corruption and urged Nigerians to shun it. This article, presented
at a workshop organized by the African Leadership Forum and the
Independent Policy Group was one of those speeches. In this
speech, the former president lamented the state of moral
degeneration in the country, noting that “we have sunk deep into
the abyss of corruption as individuals, families, communities and
as a country.” He noted that the fight against corruption must be
through three interrelated areas of restigmatizing corruption,
redignifying the values of honest existence, and building an
institutional framework that would make corruption costly and
unattractive. He, however, noted that the tasks are not for the
government alone but for “us all” and must begin from the home.
Obasanjo emphasized his government’s commitment towards
moral regeneration in the country, including the setting up of an
Independent Corrupt Practices Commission (ICPC) as well as the
signing into law of the Corrupt Practices and Other Related
Offences Act No. 5 of 2000. He noted that ICPC has been a
reasonable success, but called for an all-inclusive partnership with
the government by other sectors of the society.
370. Obi, M. A. O., & Ugwu, O. J. (2012). Politics and

the wreckages of corruption in South-East Nigeria.
Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business,
4(3), 501–513.
250
Most scholarly writings about corruption in Nigeria have tended

to focus on corrupt practices taking place at the national level,
ignoring the fact that much of the corruption seen in Nigeria are
occurring at the local levels. The article looks at the prevalence of
corruption in the southeast region of Nigeria. The article argues
that corruption has led to the deterioration of the region’s
development indices. The article laments the fact that, since 1999,
there have been inverse relationships between corruption and
development due to rising levels of poverty, unemployment , and
crime. The authors attribute this to the level of unbridled
corruption in the region because the leaders have proved
insensitive to the plights of the people.
371. Obuah, E. (2010). Combating corruption in a “failed”

state: The Nigerian Economic and Financial Crimes Commission
(EFCC). Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 12(1), 1–
25.
The prevalence of corruption in the Nigerian body politic has led

to the creation of a handful of anti-coruption agencies. The article
examines the various types and causes of corruption in Nigeria. It
further reviews the multiple efforts of successive Nigerian
governments to combat it. Drawing from some of the most
important theoretical perspectives on corruption, notably the
institutional and rent-seeking theories, the work offers some
deeper insights into the systemic nature of corruption in the
country. The article contains elaborate documentation of the
activities of the EFCC, which exposes some of the challenges
facing the agency. According to the author, uncertain Nigerian
political landscape is one of the serious challenges faced by the
commission. This has to do with the uncertain relationship
between bureaucrats and their superiors, which provokes contests
for positions and lack of transparency in public institutions.
251
372. Obuah, E (2010). Combating corruption in Nigeria:

The Nigerian Economic and Financial Crimes Commission
(EFCC). African Studies Quarterly, 12(1), 17–44.
The creation of the Nigerian EFCC was marked by much

optimism. This was as a result of the perceived ineffectiveness of
existing anti-coruption agencies at the time. Since then, the
achievement of the EFCC has remained a subject of much
controversy. This article looks at the extent to which corruption
has permeated the Nigerian society and the efforts of the Nigerian
government to combat it through the EFCC. It looks at the various
perspectives for understanding the causes of corruption, and
argues that both rent-seeking and institutional theories offer
deeper insights into the systemic nature of Nigerian corruption.
The article concludes by looking at the activities of the EFCC and
notes that it faces serious challenges despite its determined efforts
to curb corruption.
373. Obukohwo, E.A. (2007). Corruption, cost of

governance and sustainable democracy in Nigeria. In A.S
Akpotor, A.O. Afolabi, M.O. Aigbokhaevbolo, B.O. Iganiga, &
O.S Odiagbe, (Eds.), Cost of governance in Nigeria: An
evaluative analysis (pp. 373–399). Ekpoma, Nigeria: Ambrose
Alli University Publishing House.
One of the major subjects of public debate in contemporary

Nigeria is the prohibitive cost of governance which is depriving
the country of much-needed development funds. This article
examines the relationship between corruption, cost of governance,
and sustainable democracy in Nigeria. It traces the root cause of
corruption in Nigeria to the period of colonial rule when
indigenous norms and values were subverted by the colonial
government for their selfish ends. It identifies widespread
corruption in governance as the fallout of colonial rule and the
252
main reason for increased government expenditure and concludes

that the failure to deliver the public goods is the major reason for
social unrest and vices in the society which portends a grave
danger to sustainable democracy in Nigeria. It recommends public
enlightenment and ethical reorientation as a measure to arrest the
rising wave of corruption in Nigeria.
374. Ocheni, S. & Nwankwo, B. C. (2012). The

effectiveness of anti-corruption agencies in enhancing good
governance and sustainable developmental growth in Africa: The
Nigeria paradox under Obasanjo administration, 2003-2007.
Canadian Social Science, 8(3), 16-21.
There is hardly any country that has been more stigmatized for
corruption than Nigeria. Since the early 2000s when Transparency
International ranked the country the second most corrupt nation
in the world, the Nigerian government has made important steps
to curb corruption and restore the international image of the
country; consequently, several anti-coruption agencies have been
established, both public and private, all aimed at fighting against
corruption and establishing better governance. This article offers
a critical appraisal of some of these anti-coruption agencies with
a view to determining their actual impact. The author offers three
major observations about the work of these agencies. One is that
these agencies collectively lack the political will to prosecute
corrupt people no matter how highly placed. Secondly, the modus
operandi of EFCC involves a lot of noise instead of investigation.
Thirdly, there is inadequate funding of these agencies. He argues
that these challenges need to be tackled for any meaningful war
against corruption to take place.
375. Ochulor, C. L., Metuonu I. C., & Asuo, O. O. (2011).

Corruption in contemporary Nigeria: The way out. American
Journal of Social and Management Sciences, 2(1), 91–99.
253
This article analyzes corruption in Nigeria and itemizes the efforts

already made to eliminate it. The authors believe that although
corruption exists in all societies, the significance of corrupt
activities, as well as the effectiveness of efforts deployed to stop
them, varies according to society. For the authors, corruption
thrives in Nigeria mainly because our culture has in a way allowed
it. While some argue that corruption is foreign to our culture, the
authors believe that the phenomenon is not new but a different
variant of what already exists as a part of our reality. While taking
note of different strategies employed over the years by successive
Nigerian governments to curb corruption, the article argues that
to remedy corruption, there is a need to reeducate Nigerians on
the menace of corruption, ensure the enthronement of the rule of
law through strengthening and sanitizing the judiciary and also
the anti-coruption agencies.
376. Oddih, M. (2003). Corruption and socio-political

development in Nigeria: Causes and solutions. In G. Onu (Ed.),
Perspective (pp. 328–343). Awka : Bookpoint.
Corruption remains the ugliest and deadliest disease any human

or social organization could suffer. It is most rampant in
developing countries, constituting the major agent of mistrust,
instability, conflict, decadence, and underdevelopment. As a
socio-political concept, corruption could have a devastating and
stultifying impact on any human organization striding towards
growth and development. According to this author, this has been
the case with Nigeria from independence in 1960 to the present
day. For him, the basic obstacle to any effective anti-coruption
crusade in Nigeria is bad leadership. He recommends the need to
restructure Nigeria’s substructure and socio-political order to
reflect collectivization and egalitarianism. In addition, religious
leaders should endeavor to lead by example, strengthening the
254
judicial system and putting in place morally upright judges and

well-trained, dedicated, honest, and contentious law enforcement
agencies with adequate equipment. Leaders must also render
accounts of their stewardship before they are certified free to leave
office, while corrupt and guilty public officials should be made to
face public execution to serve as a deterrent to intending
offenders. Other suggestions made include an active participation
of nongovernmental group, women organizations and interest
groups in the campaign against official and private corrupt
practices and adoption of a bachelor’s degree as the minimum
entry qualification for contesting elections.
377. Odekunle, F. (1991). Illustrations of types, patterns

and avenues of corruption in Nigeria: A typology. In U. A. Kalu,
& Y. Osinbajo (Eds.), Perspectives on Corruption and Other
Economic Crimes in Nigeria, Federal Ministry of Justice Law
Review Series, Vol. 2, 93–99.
Corruption has been underlined as the bane of Nigeria’s socio-

economic and political development, particularly corruption in
the banking sector which has serious implications on the Nigerian
economy. This article examines the impact of corruption in the
banking sector with its implication on Nigerian economy. It
identifies instances of corruption in the sectors, causes,
implications on Nigerian economy and suggestions for
ameliorating it. It highlights inadequate internal control systems,
poor supervision, and inadequate sanctions to deter others as the
major causes of corruption in the sector while it leads to loss of
investors’ confidence, capital flight among other s. The author
recommends moral discipline, strengthening of internal control
mechanisms, and stiff penalties for corrupt officials as measures
to minimize corruption in the banking sector.
255
378. Odekunle, F (1991). Controlling indiscipline and

corruption in Nigeria: Fundamental and short-term measures. In
U. A Kalu, & Y. Osinbajo (Eds.), Perspectives on Corruption and
Other Economic Crimes in Nigeria, Federal Ministry of Justice
Law Review Series, Vol. 2, 15–29.
The anti-coruption fight by successive governments in Nigeria

has been rhetorical in view of the pervasive nature of corruption
in all facets of our national life. This article examines effective
short- and long-term effective strategies for combating the rising
wave of corruption in Nigeria. It identifies the political elite as the
major culprits of corruption and calls for the total overhauling of
the present social system given that the existing system is an
accessory to the growing tide of corruption, but it identifies short-
term measures to counter corruption and lack of discipline.
379. Odey, J. O. (2001). The anti-corruption crusade: The

saga of a giant. Enugu, Nigeria: Snaap Press.
This book was written within the context of the war against
corruption launched by President Obasanjo in the early days of
his tenure in office. The book was an attempt to rally support for
the newly launched crusade against corruption by highlighting the
serious damage done to the nation by corruption. After examining
all the dimensions of the problem, causes, manifestations and
effects. The author demonstrates how individual Nigerian leaders
have contributed to making corruption such an abiding feature of
public life in Nigeria.
380. Odinkalu, C. A. (2010). Corruption and governance

in Africa: How do we break the cycle in Nigeria? In Cleen
Foundation, Corruption and Governance Challenges, Cleen
Foundation Monograph Series. (No. 7) (pp. 14–42). Abuja,
Nigeria.
256
This article sets out to analyze how Nigeria became a state

characterized by so much corruption. The author argues that the
challenge of combating corruption effectively confronts four
cumulative crises of political legitimacy; agency credibility; elite
values and institutional capabilities. In the ensuing atmosphere of
political abnormality as normalcy, the fight against corruption has
thus been made to look unserious and artificial. In his view, there
can be no successful fight against corruption without credible
elections founded on credible electoral reform. To achieve this , a
thorough reform that guarantees the development of institutional
skills, autonomy, modernization and independence of the
institutions of the electoral umpire, the public service, the police
and the judiciary will be required.
381. Odutola, O. (1986). The structural-break hypothesis

towards a theory of corruption in developing societies. In F.
Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in development (pp. 262–
The rising wave of corrupt practices among developing countries

has led to debates as to whether some types of systems are more
prone to corruption than others. This article focuses on the role of
bribery as an element of corruption. Service in this case can be
legitimate or illegitimate as judged by the law or moral codes of
the society. This article asserts that hypothesis is the starting point
for more opportunities for detailed empirical research.
382. Offiong, D. (1986). The prevalence and

repercussions of corruption. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria:
Corruption in development (pp. 164–175). Ibadan, Nigeria:
More than any social category, the political elite in Nigeria has
been responsible for the institutionalization of corruption. This
257
article deals specifically with corruption by the political class. It

conceptualizes corruption and briefly reviews the extent of its
practice in Nigeria. The article offers three not unrelated
explanations for the omnipresence of the phenomenon in Nigeria
and concludes by observing some of the repercussions that
emanate from the institutionalization of corruption.
383. Ogban-Iyam, O. (1996). The National Assembly,

corruption and democratization. In A. Gboyega (Ed.), Corruption
and democratization in Nigeria (pp. 24–36). Ibadan, Nigeria:
The article describes the Nigerian National Assembly as the hub

of corruption in Nigeria and also major contributors to the docility
of Nigerian democracy. The article notes that the majority of law-
makers have abused their offices, and it decries the situation
where government business is done as a private affair. The author
blames the present corruption on previous leaders and the
Nigerian system since 1960. He contends that the recruitment
process of representatives in the National Assembly is corrupt and
causes looting, which is a subversion of democracy. Various
forms of corrupt practices were discussed, and suggestions and
recommendations on how to end corruption were given.
384. Ogbeche, F. (1997). Harvest of corruption. Suleja,

Nigeria: S. Danjuma Printing Works.
This short play is a conscious effort to mirror the contemporary

Nigerian society plagued by various forms of corruption. It
focuses essentially on such vices as sexual immorality, bribery,
large-scale fraud in political offices, and drug trafficking
involving highly placed individuals in collusion with political
leaders and law enforcement officers. The author contends that
these evils daily affect the lives of innocent young Nigerians. To
258
address these challenges, the author suggests a moral rebirth to be

achieved through adoption and implementation of relevant laws.
385. Ogbeidi, M. M. (2012). Political leadership and

corruption since 1960: A socio-economic analysis. Journal of
Nigeria Studies, 1(2), 1–25.
This study examines the connection between political leadership

and corruption since 1960. The article argues that the phenomena
of corruption have greatly stunted the socio-economic
development of Nigeria. At the heart of the article is the
assumption that political leadership and the phenomena of
corruption are interwoven and, therefore, examines dynamic
interrelationship between these two variables. The study
concludes by positing that sustainable social and economic
development can take place through a new crop of leaders that are
committed to the ethos of accountability and transparency in
government.
386. Ogbonna-Nwaogu, I. (2010). Contradictory

positions of government and its anti-graft agencies: An analysis
of the Halliburton case from media reports. Journal of Alternative
Perspectives in the Social Sciences, 2(2), 648–672.
Taking the Halliburton case from media reports as a case study,

the article tries to establish the illusions and politics evident in the
interplay of actors and processes at the level of government and
its antigraft agencies in the Nigerian polity. The article takes the
Fourth Republic from the Obasanjo regime to the present
Jonathan regime as the scope of analysis to argue that claims of
successive government about combating corruption are mere
illusion and play of politics. It argues that instead of solving the
problem, it had further worsened the situation as selfish interest
of government and antigraft agencies officials’ overrides pub lic
259
interest. The article analyzes the Halliburton bribery scandal and

the media reportage of the contradictory actions of government
vis-á-vis the scandal. The article concludes by asserting that
though the government fight against corruption may have been
compromised and seriously undermined, the government must
bear its responsibility. The bane of governance is , thus, to make
those choices that will remedy the menace of the graft and not to
avoid them under the illusion of searching for a nonexistent truth.
387. Ogbonna, M. (2004). The ICPC and the fight against

Corruption. In H. Saliu, E. Amali, & R. Olawepo, (Eds.),
Nigeria’s reform programme: Issues and challenges (pp. 171–
194). Ibadan, Nigeria: Vintage Publishers.
As the title suggests, this study examines the efforts of past

governments to curb corruption, especially through the
instrumentality of the ICPC Act of 2000 and the ICPC which now
serves as Nigeria’s main national anti-coruption commission. In
this essay, the author considers some key provisions of the anti-
coruption law, achievements and the constraints of the ICPC in
terms of fighting corruption. The article reveals that corruption is
a malignant tumor that will gradually bleed the nation to death if
not quarantined. She recommends, among others, that the judicial
system should be strengthened; government should ensure that the
rate of unemployment is reduced and the already employed should
be well remunerated so as to check gratification.
388. Ogbugo U. (n.d.). Private and public sector

corruption. In A. M. Rafsanjani & C. C. Ekwekwo (Eds.), Anti-
corruption programming: A practitioner’s manual (pp. 69–80),
Abuja, Nigeria: Open Society of West Africa (OSIWA) .
The writer’s major concern was the fact that the war against
corruption has for a long time focused on only public sector
260
corruption to the exclusion of the private sector, while the

centralization and monopolistic nature of the economy by the
public sector rendered the private sector as the supply side of
corruption to the public sector. He, therefore, stresses the need to
have a holistic anti-coruption war that covers both the public
sector as well as the private sector. According to the writer, types
of public sector corruption include bribery, extortion, over
inflation of contracts and embezzlement, while that of the private
sector corruption include commercial bribery. It notes that there
is a close connection, both in cause and impact, between public
and private sector corruption. He examines cases involving public
and private partnership to fight corruption, such as NEITI and the
new CBN code. To deal with private sector corruption, he
recommends the establishment of strategic objectives and a set of
corporate values, clear lines of responsibility and accountability,
balance of power, an effective and efficient audit committee
board, and a regular management reporting and monitoring
system, among others.
389. Ogoloma, F. (2012). Curbing the ills of corruption in

Nigeria. African Research Review, 6(1), 402–409.
The article argues that corruption is the bane of Nigeria’s under

development and that it had reached an endemic stage that if
nothing is done, the society might collapse. It went on to give
different types of corruption to include autogenic, defensive,
extortive, invective, nepotistic, supportive, and transactive
corruption. The article employs two approaches concerning
corruption. They are the idealist and Marxian approach. While
idealism holds that reality is basically mind or spirit, and thus
tends to see corruption as an elite affair, Marxism “believes that
corruption is a structural problem, derived from the socio-
economic organization of society.” The author identifies some
causes of corruption, including family size, lack of social service,
261
poor leadership, political instability, inequality in rule application.

The article concludes by stating that the remedy to curb corruption
can be followed logically from the highlighted causes. Thus
citizens enlightenment, increase in workers remuneration,
applying effective sanctions, improvement in leadership among
others are ways to curb corruption.
390. Ogundele, O. J. K. (2005, October). Corruption in

Nigeria: Leadership at the crossroad. Ife Social Science Review.
Special edition. Journal of the Faculty of Social Sciences,
Obafemi Awolowo University (123–134).
Most problems experienced recently in Nigeria are attributed by

most people to poor leadership, due to the high level of corruption
among political leaders. This article empirically examines the
pattern and effects of unethical behaviors or corrupt practices of
leaders in educational institutions in Nigeria. It has two models
which depict the consequences of corruption or otherwise on the
nation. The result from the analysis of data obtained in a field
survey revealed that leadership in Nigeria commits several acts of
indiscipline or corrupt practices. Respondents listed 47 unethical
acts committed by their leaders. These have created difficulty in
goal attainment, leading to low productivity and lack of
development in work place. Accordingly, Nigeria requires honest
and religious leaders. Practical definition of leadership was
provided based on a number of theories surrounding the construct.
Efforts towards eradicating the self-inflicted poverty involve the
need for leaders to make a dramatic change in their behaviors, by
upholding upright moral principles, which are the laws of God.
This is because honest leadership can breed committed
followership. A nation or an organization can only expect honest
followership if it can install honest leadership. It is only then that
we can have a workforce that will exhibit high level of
productivity, which will lead to desirable development.
262
391. Ogundiya, I. S. (2009). Political corruption in

Nigeria: Theoretical perspective and some explanation.
Anthropologist, 11(4), 281–292.
Most research works on corruption in Nigeria usually address a

single aspect of this multifaceted phenomenon. This article gives
a more comprehensive account of the problem. It explains
political corruption in Nigeria, the precipitating factors, as well as
reasons for the failure of anti-coruption measures. It analyzes the
concept of political corruption in Nigeria within the framework of
patrimonialism, neo-patrimonialism, clientelism, soft state thesis
and the theory of two publics. It concludes that there is
interconnection between citizenship question, nature and
character of the Nigerian state and the endemic and persistent
corruption ravaging the country. It contends that contrary to the
popular theoretical thinking, the robbery at the public realm
further pauperizes the primordial realm rather than strengthening
it. It recommends constitutional reform; erasing the concept of
indigeneity, demystification of ethnicity, strong political will,
making the cost of corruption higher than the gains as measures
that will help in the fight against political corruption.
392. Ogundiya, I. S. (2010). Corruption: The bane of

democratic stability in Nigeria. Current Research Journal of
This piece analyzes the scourge of corruption in Nigeria and its

inevitable consequence on the fragile democracy in Nigeria.
According to the article, the practice in the new democracy since
1999 has followed the same path that led to the collapse of
previous democratic dispensations in Nigeria. The central
argument in this article is that corruption has grave consequences
which threaten the survival of democracy in Nigeria. It not only
erodes the basis of the authority of the state, but also challenges
263
the legitimacy of democracy as the best form of governance. The

article argues that in as much as there are other variables
accounting for democratic instability in Nigeria - ethnicity,
religious bigotry, recycling nature of the political elites, bad
governance, fragile party structure, deteriorating economy etc. -
corruption still stands out as a cogent reason for the fragile and
unstable political base in Nigeria. The article argues that to
redeem the Nigerian situation, strong anti-coruption policies
backed with action must be employed.
393. Ogunfolu, T. (2005, October). Corruption and

Human Rights in Nigeria. Ife Social Science Review. Special
Awolowo University, 163-173.
Corruption is a major problem in Nigeria, which has impacted

negatively the realization of human rights. This article attempts
an analysis of the impact of corruption on the socio-economic
rights contained in chapter 2 of the 1999 constitution. It begins
from the premise that all human rights are independent and
indivisible. The state operates through the executive, legislative,
and judicial arms of government. The quality of personnel
manning these branches determines the enjoyment of human
rights by the citizens. The article establishes the fact that a corrupt
political leadership would either deny or violate human rights of
the governed in order to steal public revenue. The guaranteed civil
and political rights in chapter 2 of the 1999 Nigerian constitution
become meaningless when a corrupt government decides not to
implement unjustifiable socio-economic rights which require a
positive action on the part of the government. The article
concludes that human rights violations only thrive under a corrupt
government. In other words, corruption and human right abuses
go hand in hand. Section 15 (5) of the 1999 constitution which
states “the state shall abolish all corrupt practices and abuse of
264
power,” if properly implemented, would lead to the removal of

the greatest impediment facing human rights in Nigeria, which is
corrupt leadership. Only then, can Nigerians begin to enjoy
human rights in its ramifications.
394. Ogunlana, O. A. (2008). Corruption: The dimensions

and implications for development in Nigeria. Retrieved from
http://www.cenbank.org/OUT/
PUBLICATIONS/TRANSPARENCY/2008/TRANSPARENCY
2008.PDF.
The author attempts to analyze the phenomena of corruption as

well as its implications to the sustainable development in Nigeria.
The article argues that corruption is relative to persons, time, place
and law of the society. He identifies types of corruption to include
grand corruption, political corruption, bureaucratic/official
corruption, judicial corruption, moral corruption, petty
corruption, religious corruption, controlled and uncontrolled
corruption, to mention but a few. The article argues that the causes
include among others, poverty, greed and high tolerance for
corruption, weak legal and judicial processes, failure to apply
standards and clear cut operational procedure, long period of
military rule, and inadequate education of the members of the
public. The article also looks at the negative effect of corruption
on economic development and social services which has led to
deterioration in the quality of life, absence of peace and security,
and unstable political system. The article equally attempts a
review of existing anti-coruption laws in Nigeria, and then went
further to proffer measures to tackling corruption in Nigeria.
395. Ojukwu, C. C. and Shopeju, J. O. (2010). Elite

corruption and the culture of primitive accumulation in 21st
century Nigeria. International Journal of Peace and Development
Studies, 1(2), 15–24.
265
The article attempts an appraisal of the Olusegun Obasanjo

administration which commenced in May 29, 1999, and ended in
May 29, 2007. Taking the elite theory as a framework for analysis,
the article argues that the bane of development in Nigeria had
been the resultant effect of elite corruption. The article argues that
Nigeria as a nation has been synonymous with corruption largely
due to the effect of elite corruption. It went further to observe that
despite the enormous human and material resources available in
Nigeria, the country is still under-developed largely due to
mismanagement by the elites. The factors responsible for this
quagmire in Nigeria are attributed to poor leadership, selfish
interest and most importantly, corruption. Leadership positions in
Nigeria are seen as opportunities for personal aggrandizement.
The article argues that elite corruption became even more
pronounced during the eight year regime of Chief Obasanjo,
whose policies and operations were organized and structured
around some cabals and elites who directly or otherwise aided and
abated gross corruption at various levels of governance. The
article concludes by emphasizing the need for morality in the fight
against corruption in all its forms.
396. Olabode, B. O., Badmus, A. S., & Elegbede, O. T.

(2011). African Democracy and imperatives o f Good Governance
and Sustainable Development. In A.B. Sunday (Ed.), Corruption,
democracy and good governance in Nigeria (pp. 120–141). Saki,
The last two and half decades of the 20th century has witnessed
renewed hope about the re-birth of democracy and good
governance in Africa. This article focuses on the need for good
governance in Africa, which is rendered by the devastating effects
of corruption on the social, economic, and political foundations of
nations. It seeks to identify links between good governance and
sustainable human development in Africa in general and Nigeria
266
in particular and address the question of the correlation between

democracy, continental integration and socio-economic
development in Africa, and how good governance can be
entrenched to give a push to sustainable development. The article
conceptualizes corruption and explains its causes and its relation
to democracy in Nigeria. It explains that the forceful creation and
amalgamation of the Nigerian state and the selfish ambition of the
colonial masters encouraged the nurturing of corruption during
the postindependence period. This is because the state under
colonial rule grew apart from the society and was made to serve
the colonial masters. The article calls for a total transformation of
the state beyond its present decadent, dependent, irresponsible
and irresponsive nature. This should involve a democratic re-
negotiation and an inculcation of the right democratic ethos in
citizens’ right from infancy. It also calls for a vibrant civil society
that can stimulate political consciousness and transparency in
governmental functions.
397. Oladeji, M. O. (2011). Corruption in Nigeria:

Causes, consequences and cure. In Sunday, A.B. ( Ed.),
Corruption, democracy and good governance in Nigeria (pp.
177–199). Saki, Nigeria: Real Success Consults.
Contrary to widely held opinion, corruption is not a uniquely

African phenomenon but a universal problem that plagues both
developed and developing countries of the world. In Nigeria,
however, corruption has become deep-seated and has remained
the bane of the society since independence in 1960. The severity
of the problem, therefore, requires sophisticated solutions. This
article examines corruption in Nigeria, its causes and
consequences and seeks to propose strategies for the eradication
of the menace. It also takes a look at the various measures by the
Nigerian government to combat corruption. It adopts the
“economic model” and the “governance model” to explain
267
corruption and its consequences. The article notes that the causes
of corruption are myriad and they have political and cultural
variables. Accordingly, corruption adversely affects governance
and the larger social, political and economic structure of the
country. The article stresses that anti-coruption programs and
strategies must shift their focus from enforcement to action. The
article suggests enhancing state capacity and public sector
management, strengthening political accountability, creating
effective civil society participation, and establishing a
competitive private sector.
398. Olaifa, T. (2012). Corruption and sustainable peace

in Nigeria: Equipping youth for reconstruction. International
Journal on World Peace, XXIX (3), 85–101.
For so many years, corruption has been left unchecked in Nigeria,

resulting in devastating socio-economic consequences for the
nation. Recent efforts being made to address the vice have
produced very few results. This development has prompted a call
for a generational shift in the country’s leadership. This article
looks at ways that morality could be infused in Nigerian youth
consciousness and how the country can reverse the decadence
caused by endemic corruption in the Nigerian polity. After noting
the immorality that characterizes political activities, e.g.,
assassination, thuggery, rape, unbridled spending, executive
“sexcapades”—all of which are hallmarks of corruption—the
author concludes that there is no clear-cut demarcation between
immorality and the Nigerian brand of politics. As a way out, the
author believes that the Nigerian youth need to be educated in
ethics in order to be able to take the mantle of leadership in this
country.
268
399. Olaniyan, A. (2005). Corruption and economic

development: How Nigeria was underdeveloped by its elite.
Lagos, Nigeria: Woodhaven Nigeria.
This short book chronicles the endemic nature of corruption in

Nigeria, its negative impact on different aspects of development
in the country, as well as the unique role of the country’s elite in
sustaining it. The author emphasizes the impact of military rule in
encouraging the spread of corruption and believes that the return
to democratic rule offers some prospects of genuine reforms. He
advocates a review of Nigeria’s 1999 constitution along the line
of true federalism to correct decades of imbalance and suspicion,
otherwise, no meaningful change can occur. The author also
called for independence for anti-coruption agencies and support
from international organizations.
400. Olowu, D. (1983). The Nature of bureaucratic

corruption in Nigeria. International Review of Administrative
Sciences, 49(3), 291–296.
This article challenges the conclusions of a 1982 article titled

“Bureaucratic Corruption in Nigeria: The Continuing Search for
Causes and Cures” that was published by Sola Aina in the Journal
of International Review of Administrative Sciences.. While
Olowu generally agrees with the major points of the original
article,, he disagrees with its treatment of the nature of
bureaucratic corruption in Nigeria, the measures proposed for
dealing with the problem, and its rather pessimistic conclusions.
The central argument of Olowu’s 1983 article is that bureaucratic
corruption is an extension into the public sector of the widespread
political corruption which pervades the polity of all developing
countries, in historical and contemporary periods. For him, in
countries at this stage of socio-economic development, corrupt
practices are pervasive because government property is regarded
269
as the spoils for those fortunate enough to be in government at any

point in time.
401. Okafor, E. E. (2005). Corruption and its socio-

economic implications in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Clinical
and Counseling Psychology, 11(1), 1–19.
Corruption has been identified as a clog in the wheel of Nigeria’s

progress as it is adversely affecting the institutions of governance.
This article tries to identify the impact of corruption on the
democratic practice in Nigeria. The author identifies the growing
rate of corruption in the country as the greatest challenge
confronting it. He explains the scope of corruption in Nigeria by
tracing it to the periods before independence. The author states
that corruption became institutional with successive military rule
and highlights its adverse impact on Nigeria’s socio-economic,
political, and infrastructural development. The author concludes
that for corruption to become a thing of the past, an integrative
approach to anti-coruption crusade must be adopted.
402. Okeke, C. C., (2003). Public policy and

accountability factor in the implementation of universal basic
education (UBE) schemes in Nigeria. In G. Onu (Ed.), Corruption
and sustainable development: The Third World perspective (pp.
286–293). Awka , Nigeria: Bookpoint.
The management of innovations in the public sector in Nigeria

has been posing a lot of problems, particularly in the education
sector. Consequently, national development is found to suffer if
innovations in education are poorly managed. This article
examines the accountability factor in the implementation of the
Universal Basic Education Policy, launched in 1999. It identifies
lack of accountability on the part of those entrusted with the
implementation as one of the factors hindering the success of such
270
innovations. Accordingly, the success of the Universal Basic

Education in terms of implementation should be everybody’s
responsibility including the government, teachers, parents,
voluntary organizations, local communities, individuals, and
students. Findings reveal that accountability existed in the old
African society because every member of the society knew the
role expected of him. Such roles were performed for the wellbeing
of the society. Detection of nonperformance was possible because
deviations were minimal. In Nigeria today, mere lip service is paid
to school activities and any education policy, as such the bane of
Nigeria in the educational sphere is unpreparedness. Therefore,
careful feasibility studies should be conducted to identify the
needs in terms of curriculum, resources, both human and material,
fund, infrastructure, and the scope. Gradual approach is
recommended so as to be able to grapple with unexpected
problems arising from the innovation.
403. Okeke, I. V. (2002). Corruption in Nigeria: A

theoretical appraisal. In C. O. T. Ugwu (Ed.), Corruption in
Nigeria: Critical perspectives: A book of readings (pp. 128–139).
Scholars have argued that in spite the awareness created about the
negative effects of corruption on the Nigerian body-politics, the
phenomenon is on the increase. This suggests that not much is
known about the causes of corruption. This article examines
different sociological theories explaining the causes of corruption
in Nigeria. The author reviews public choice theory and the
functionalist theory to evaluate the nature of corruption in Nigeria
and concludes that corruption is responsible for the increased
level of poverty in the country, and then recommends
restructuring of the country along noncapitalist lines.
271
404. Okekeocha, C (2013). A case study of corruption and

public accountability in Nigeria. (Master’s dissertation).
Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA. Retrieved from
http://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/etd/566/.
This dissertation examines the impact of corruption on public

accountability in Nigeria. The researcher uses an exploratory case
method to trace the political history of Nigeria and later explores
the impact of politics on the culture of corruption. The researcher
also examines the origin of corruption in the public sector and
provides explanation for why government officials engage in
corruption contrary to the expectations of their jobs. The article
concludes with some recommendations on how to ensure
accountability and reduce corruption in the public sector.
405. Okeshola, F. B. (2009). Towards eradicating

corruption in Nigeria: The role of civil society. In O. A. Oludayo,
I. S. Ogundiya, & J. Amzat (Eds.), State or civil society relations
in Nigeria (pp. 337–343). Ibadan, Nigeria: Hope Publications.
The role of civil society in eradicating corruption in Nigeria is

among the newest dimensions in corruption research in Nigeria.
The article examines the measures put in place by the federal
government to stamp out corruption in Nigeria from the
perspectives of the civil society. The author argues that civil
society has considerable role to play in enthroning accountability
and sustainable democracy in Nigeria. The civil society ensures
that their in-built process is transparent, effective and capable of
yielding credible and acceptable results. Beyond the civil society,
this article identifies the need for the government to rescreen its
current political and public office holders to rid itself of persons
perceived as discredited or to be of questionable character in order
to enhance the credibility of anti-coruption campaign.
Furthermore, it notes that the setting up of special anti-coruption
272
courts will enhance speedy disposal of potentially large number

of cases that are likely to emanate from the work of an efficient
anti-coruption commission. There should also be a quantitative as
well as qualitative assessment of organized crime in the country.
406. Okoli A. C. (2007, September 6). The contradictions

of godfatherism in Nigerian politics (1999–2006). Paper
Century: Issues and Challenges, the Faculty of Administration,
Employing the Marxian political economy and historical

perspectives, this paper discusses the phenomenon of
godfatherism in Nigeria from the year 1999 to 2006, with
references to its inherent contradictions which engender political
crisis. The article argues that power struggle within the state had
been a feature of the Nigerian polity since independence and
through both military and civilian rule. The article argues that
though the phenomenon of godfatherism has assumed prominence
in the contemporary Nigerian polity, its origin dates back to power
struggles since time immemorial. It argues that this practice has
informed serious tension and crisis, tending towards political
gangsterism. The article further analyzes the trends and
contradictions of the politics of godfatherism in Nigeria from
1999–2006, and concludes that the phenomenon of godfatherism
is the latest and worst form of complication of the Nigerian
politics. For the author, if the country must evolve a viable
democracy, vices such as political godfatherism must be dealt
with.
407. Okoosi, A. T. (1993). Gove rnment and corruption in

Nigeria: A general impression. Annals of the Social Science
Council of Nigeria (SSCN), 5, 110–118.
273
Successive political administration has identified pervasive

corruption as the major challenge of national development in
Nigeria. Critics have raised questions bordering on the sincerity
of the successive Nigerian government to truly fight corruption.
This article, therefore, examines effort of government thus far in
its fight against corruption taking a closer look at the period of
1986–1993. The author identifies complicity of government
officials and complete breakdown of moral and ethical values as
the major factors encouraging pervasive corruption in the
Nigerian state. The article further highlights the lack of political
will to prosecute differing cases of alleged corruption against
public officers by successive government as exacerbating the
social malaise in our society. Hence, this study advocates for the
strengthening of laws establishing public institutions like the
Code of Conduct Bureau to try public officers that are found
wanting of graft, social reorientation, decentralization of power
among others to remedy the situation.
408. Okoosi-Simbine, T. A. (2 005, October). Corruption

as a major obstacle to Nigeria’s international image. Ife Social
Science Review. Special edition. Journal of the Faculty of Social
Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, 174-189.
In recognition of the devastating effect of corruption in Nigeria

and the threat it poses in the international scene, successive
administrations in place since 1999 have taken steps towards
stemming the tide of corruption. However, following
Transparency International (TI)’s consistent ratin g of Nigeria as
one of the most corrupt countries in the world, this article observes
that the issue of corruption is not only disrupting internal progress,
but has also blighted the international image of the country. This
study argues that it is the internal dimension of the problem that
requires tackling if the destructive impact of international
corruption is to be reduced and the perception that others have of
274
Nigeria and Nigerians is to be improved. Success in dealing with

corruption will involve combining a wide range of strategies.
These strategies must include measures that reduce the
opportunity for and benefits of corruption, increase the likelihood
that it will be detected, and make punishment of corrupt persons
likely. Also , there is a need to decriminalize politics in Nigeria
through a new process of political recruitment that downsizes the
prohibitive cost of seeking elective offices. Access to information
and alliance with the civil society organizations, effective reform
programs and ensuring the independence of key policy
institutions, effective pension schemes, and adequate salaries are
possible ways of winning the war against corruption.
409. Okoosi-Simbine, A. T. (2006). Fighting corruption

in political and electoral processes in Nigeria. In B. Aboyade, &
S. Ayodele (Eds.), Fighting corruption in Nigeria: Challenges for
Center.
This article identifies corruption as a pattern of behavior that can

be found in almost all spheres of life, adding that no country in
the world today is immune from corruption’s corrosive influence.
It provides an understanding as to why things rarely work as they
should in Nigeria. The study is divided into five sections namely:
an introduction, justification of study, conceptual and theoretical
framework, and manifestation of corruption in political and
electoral processes in the country. The author proffers some
recommendations to include an urgent need to focus on the root
causes of corruption, the need to play political, democratic and
electoral games by the rules that govern them, and a sustained
campaign to stem corruption. In her opinion, electoral processes
should aim to further unify Nigerian citizens, and there is also a
need to reconsider, through constitution amendments, new
275
electoral provisions. All these can be championed by a fearless

leadership that leads by example.
410. Okoosi-Simbine, A. (2006). Democracy and

development: Two heavy pillars for Nigeria’s greasy hands of
corruption. In H. Saliu, E. Amali, J. Fayeye, & E. Oriola (Eds.),
Democracy and development in Nigeria: Special issues and
external relations (pp. 30–51). Lagos, Nigeria: Concept
Publications.
Democracy and development are two challenges that have for

long proved intractable in Nigeria. Many kinds of explanations
have been offered for this. This essay examines the role of
corruption in deepening the problem. After examining the
manifestations, causes and dynamics of corruption in Nigeria, the
writer concludes that the country’s problems with both corruption
and development stems largely from the way it has allowed
corruption to become the full-blown cancer that it is now. She
submits that unless the greasy hand of corruption is wiped clean,
the twin issues of democracy and development will be difficult
for Nigeria to carry through. To address the challenges, the author
recommends that the country should enthrone good governance
by attending to efficiency of public services, seeing through and
sanctioning corrupt acts and sustain its current fight against
corruption.
411. Okoosi-Simbi, A. T. (2011). Corruptio n in Nigeria.

In S. Adejumobi (Ed.), State, economy and society in post-
military Nigeria (pp. 157–180). New York , NY: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Endemic corruption has been identified as the bane of Nigeria’s

national development. Several factors have been identified as
influencing widespread corruption in the country. This article
276
discusses the major cause of corruption with its impact on national

development. It examines the concept of corruption, different
manifestations of corruption at all levels of government and in
other public life. The author identifies different views about the
problem of corruption in the polity as well as highlights different
efforts adopted at combating the hydra-headed monster in the
country particularly with the setting up of ICPC and EFCC by the
administration of President Olusegun Obasanjo. The article did
not conclude without recommending autonomy for the anti-
coruption bodies set up, the passing of freedom of information
laws among others for the anti-coruption crusade to make any
meaning.
412. Okpala, E. K. (2013). Public Accounts Committee

and oversight function in Nigeria: A tower built on sinking sand.
International Journal of Business and Management, 8(13), 111–
117.
The aim of establishing the Public Accounts Committee of the

National Assembly (PAC) in Nigeria is to investigate federal
government’s (FGN) accounts showing the appropriation of the
sums granted to meet the public expenditure and the Auditor's
report thereon. This study seeks to examine the roles of the PAC
in tackling the significant financial indiscipline and wastages of
national resources in Nigeria public sector. Using quantitative
analysis, the findings reveal that PAC has not effectively
exercised her oversight function due to late submission of audited
reports by Auditor General of the Federation, weak regulatory
framework and poor qualification and experience of the
committee members. It, therefore, recommends that the
appointment of PAC members should be based on professional
competence and cognate experience, regulatory framework
should be overhauled and time frame for submission of financial
and audited reports and PAC examination should be strictly in line
277
with the 1999 constitution with punishment awarded for

noncompliance.
413. Olagunju, O. (2012). Corruption control in Nigeria:

Holistic approach. Advances in Arts, Social Sciences and
Education Research, 2(1), 76–84.
This article attempts a holistic look at corruption, including

definitions of corruption, its nature, causes and effect on the
Nigerian socio-economic, cultural and political sphere. The article
argues that corruption is not only a menace which had lingered for
a long period in Africa as a whole, and has become a permanent
feature of the Nigerian polity in particular, but also a malady that
cut across religion, region or age grade. The article identifies
different forms of corruption which includes bureaucratic and
electoral corruption. While the causes of corruption in Nigeria
includes weak government institutions, lack of openness and
transparency in public service, ineffective political processes,
culture and acceptance of corruption by the populace, among
others. To halt the menace of corruption, the article recommends
a combination of sociological, political and theological
approaches.
414. Olu-Adeyemi, L., & Obamuyi, T. M. (2010). Public

accountability: Implications of the conspiratorial relationship
between political appointees and civil servants in Nigeria.
iBusiness, 2, 123 – 127.
Retrieved from http://www.SciRP.org/journal/ib.
In contemporary Nigeria, the government has ultimately become

inseparable from the day to day life of the citizens because the
government is now involved in the over-all social and economic
development as against its traditional role of mere maintaining
law and order. This research focuses on how the conspiratorial
278
relationship between the political appointees and the civil servants

has led to flagrant and deliberate abuse of best practices and due
process all in a bid to steal public funds. It draws attention to the
absence of public accountability which inevitably increased the
chances of corrupt practices by both political appointees and their
civil servant counterparts. It further examines the correlation
between the summary statistics of corruption in Nigeria (1980–
2003) and annual salaries of certain public officers in Nigeria. The
article concludes by advocating for administrative reform and
good governance, encompassing public accountability to ensure
that the people at the helm affairs are held accountable for their
behaviors as a deterrent to corrupt practices.
415. Olujinmi, A. M., & Fashagba, Y. J. (2010). The

legislature and anti-corruption crusades under the Fourth
Republic of Nigeria: Constitutional imperatives and practical
realities. International Journal of Politics and Good Governance,
1(1.2), 1–39.
Owing to the duty of the legislature as the accredited

representatives of the people to monitor and protect public funds
and resources, to ensure the judicious utilization for the overall
benefit of the people, its vantage position in the making and
unmaking of all laws, including those pertaining to the
eradication/reduction of corrupt practices in public and private
life; there appears to be a convergence of views that national
representatives stand in good stead to curb corruption. The article
examines how the legislature has fared in performing its
constitutional duty in this regard and found disparities between
constitutional prescription and political realities in the country.
This it attributed to several factors, such as the burden of crisis of
legitimacy hanging over a huge proportion of Nigerian legislators,
primitive accumulation of wealth by the legislators, the nature of
the Nigerian state and lack of political will amongst others. It
279
recommends that for the fight against corruption to succeed, the

legislature must make up its mind to be committed to anti-
coruption war and the need for the Nigerian masses to vote in
people with integrity into the assembly.
416. Oluwaniyi, O. O. (2011). Police and the institution

of corruption in Nigeria. Policing & Society, 21(1), 67–83.
The Nigerian police feature prominently in the rankings of the

most corrupt institutions in Nigeria, making it one of the most
despised public institutions in Nigeria. The negative implications
of such widespread corrupt practices by police officers on the
security of citizens and national development cannot be
overemphasized. This article explores the role of the police as the
key promoter of corruption in Nigeria. According to the author,
who used Lagos state as a case study, corrupt practices in the
police force are not a “one-off event”; rather, they constitute a
“web of structural and accentuating factors,” which are
interwoven with the political, economic, social, and cultural
milieu. Flowing from that observation, he argues that combating
this phenomenon will necessitate a holistic approach that
transcends mere income improvement. Despite being very
widespread, there are not much studies directed at dealing with
police corruption. This study is, therefore, not only timely but
urgent.
417. Okekocha C. (2013). A Case Study of Corruption in

Public Accountability in Nigeria. (Masters Dissertation).
Kennesaw State University, Georgia, U.S.A.
Adopting a qualitative analysis method to review existing

literature, the study generally explores corruption and public
accountability in Nigeria, and attempts to offer suggestions for
reform, to reduce corruption in the Nigerian public sector. The
280
researcher discusses the causes of corruption in the public sector

under the following sub-headings: lack of accountability;
inequality in the distribution of resources; promotion of ethnicity
and lack of nationalism; lax social and governmental enforcement
agencies; lack of a proper tax system; and policies that enhance
corruption. Some case studies were also analysed to illustrate the
problem of corruption and these covered payroll fraud, tour
allowance fraud and money laundering. The researcher
recommends the strengthening of internal audits systems, payroll
systems, improving the remuneration of public officials,
entrenching meritocracy and holding leaders accountable.
418. Okoli, A. C. (2007, September 6). The contradictions

of godfatherism in Nigerian politics (1999–2006). Paper
Employing the Marxian political economy and historical

perspectives, this paper discusses phenomena of godfatherism in
Nigeria from the year 1999 to 2006, with references to its inherent
contradictions which engender political crisis. The paper argues
that power struggle within the state had been a feature of the
Nigerian polity since independence and through both military and
civilian rule. The paper argues that though the phenomenon of
godfatherism has assumed prominence in the contemporary
Nigerian polity, its origin dates back to power struggle since time
immemorial. It argues that this practice has informed serious
tension and crisis, tending towards political gangsterism. The
paper went further to analyze the trends and contradictions of the
politics of godfatherism in Nigerian from 1999–2006, and
concludes that the phenomenon of godfatherism is the latest and
worst form of complication of the Nigerian politics. For the
281
author, if the country must evolve a viable democracy, vices such

as political godfatherism must be dealt with.
419. Olu-Adeyemi, L., Tomola, M., & Obamuyi T. M.

(2010). Public accountability: Implications of conspiratorial
relationship between political appointees and civil servants in
Nigeria. iBusiness, 2, 123–127.
The long period of military rule in Nigeria has been identified as

the reasons for the breakdown of ethical practices in the public
services and the country in general. This paper examines the effect
of the conspiratorial relationship between public officials and
civil servants with attendant disregard for ethical best practices of
good governance. The writer argues that corruption thrives in
Nigeria because political leadership lack the moral strength to
curb corruption, excessive regulation of the business climate in
Nigeria, civil service complicity in spite several measures in place
to curtail it in public domain. It suggests that public
accountability, good governance and administrative reforms are
required for curbing institutional corruption in Nigeria. It
concludes by advocating for a mutual relationship between public
officials and civil servants that engender development than a
conspiratorial one that endangers the country.
420. Olurode, L. (2005). The burning of the threshold and

the metamorphosis of the debasement of public life. In L.
Olurode, & R. Anifowose, (Eds.), Rich but poor: Corruption and
good governance in Nigeria (pp. 19–38). Lagos, Nigeria: Faculty
of Social Sciences, University of Lagos.
That Nigerians have much tolerance for corruption is an often

restated fact. But what exactly explains this tolerance is rarely
discussed. This contribution seeks to provide an explanation for
the blurring of the tolerance threshold of corruption in Nigeria. In
282
accomplishing this objective, it draws on the role of the military

in blurring our vision of what is moral and immoral, legal and
illegal. In doing this, it does not seek to paint an innocent picture
of the past. It identifies the impact of the colonial revolution in
Africa and the military’s role in engendering corruption in
Nigeria. Accordingly, it posits that the character of the state and
its key actors and institutions are among the important variables
as the determinants of the threshold of corruption. According to
the author, since the inception of the new civilian administration
in 1999, corruption has become more blatant and the money
culture has produced instability at the National Assembly. In other
words, the money culture has taken over the government in
Nigeria. Thus, in the post military era, the military heritage looms
large over Nigeria and many, including civilians have since
perfected the military culture of pillage and plundering. The
author commends President Olusegun Obasanjo efforts in the
fight against corruption. Some of the features of his
administration include abundance of international and
institutional support for the anti-coruption posture of government
and the fact that government functionaries are being prosecuted
and huge sums of money are being recovered. Accordingly,
corruption is today much talked about than ever before especially
at the apex of government.
421. Omobowale, O. A., & Olutayo, A. O. (2007). Chief

Lamidi Adedibu and patronage politics in Nigeria. Journal of
Modern African Studies, 45(3), 425–446.
Nigeria’s politics is often accompanied by patronage politics,

otherwise known as godfatherism or neopatrimonialism, whereby
certain personalities exact great influence on the political process,
using their positions in or connections to government to
appropriate resources which they then distributes to their clients
or political supporters. This article analyzes the role of one of
283
Nigeria’s most prominent political godfathers, Chief Lamidi

Adedibu and his patronage networks in Nigerian politics. In the
study, the authors shows that Adedibu gained political patronage
and prominence during Nigeria’s Third Republic in the 1990s,
through the provision of the survival needs of the poor majority
who are, mostly, used as thugs for protection against challenges
from opponents and for political leverage. Since then, he has
remained, in the words of the author, a “valuable tool” of “any
government in power” and politicians ready to provide the
necessary goods for onward transmission to clients. This article is
a major contribution to an increasingly topical issue in the
Nigerian Fourth Republic.
422. Omolayo, B. & Mokolu, B. (2005, October).

Political power as a factor influencing corruption in Nigeria. Ife
Social Science Review, Special edition, Journal of the Faculty of
Social Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, 90–97.
The essence of human social existence is politics. It is essentially

the struggle for power and influence by which those who succeed
struggle in the country, are able to make decisions that affects
every citizens within the country. The study examines political
power wielded by political actors as a factor influencing
corruption in Nigeria. Corruption is perceived as the negative and
indiscriminate embezzlement and misappropriation of public
funds to serve one’s selfish interest. Findings reveal that a major
problem confronting the development of the country is corruption
among public office holders. The political office holders who
enjoy all the paraphernalia of office will find it difficult to lose all
at the point of exit from office, and thereby use the position they
occupy to enrich themselves by engaging in corrupt practices
instead of fulfilling public needs and yearnings. This corrupt
action of the political office holders has made the full growth and
development of Nigeria to be elusive and unachievable. Strategies
284
that can be adopted in the fight against corruption include a

reorientation as regards the value system of the society which will
bring back self-esteem to the consciousness of political office
holders. Political office holders should be given one term of four
years, while the age and educational qualifications for elective
offices should be reviewed. The political office holders should
imbibe the spirit of nationalism and patriotism and money politics
should be discouraged. To reduce and eliminate corruption in
Nigeria, the root which is poverty, ignorance and unemployment
must be uprooted.
423. Oni, M. A. (2007). Institutional approach as a

strategy for anti-corruption practices in developing nations: A
review of ICPC and EFCC. In A. D. Aina, (Ed.), Corruption and
the Challenge of Human Development (pp. 257–274). Ilishan-
From an institutional and comparative perspective, this article

examines the nature and role of anti-coruption agencies in Nigeria
and some selected developing nations. The article considers both
the EFCC and ICPC as extralegal institutions established to help
checkmate corruption. The main objective of this article was to
identify the factors affecting the performance of the anti-
coruption agencies and propose solutions. The author cites family
pressure, hero worship, and poverty as some of the causes of
corruption while the types of corruptions are political, economic
and moral-ethical. According to the author, these factors pose as
hindrances to the agencies and their war against corruption in
Nigeria. The article recommends the adoption of preventive,
rather than curative approach. This approach could include for
instance, the introduction of a book of offences to be used to label
bad leaders as evil.
285
424. Onu, C. E. (2006). Corruption and social vices:

Effect on youth and society. Abuja, Nigeria: Jaifese Enterprises.
This short book written by a high school student examines the

negative effect of corruption on the Nigerian society in general,
specifically the Nigerian youths. As should be expected, the
author’s main concern was corruption occurring in the
educational sector such as exam malpractices,
bribery/falsification of education records, cultism and violence
among Nigerian students, sexual immorality, drug abuse and
addiction etc. The author emphasizes the need for the
government’s anti-coruption programs to include these vices. He
also noted the roles of individuals, students, parents/guardians,
teachers and religious bodies.
425. Onuoha, B. (2005). The State, corruption and the

challenges of Ggood governance in Nigeria. In L. Olurode, & R.
Anifowose (Eds.), Rich but poor: Corruption and good
governance in Nigeria (pp. 64–87). Lagos, Nigeria: Faculty of
Social Sciences, University of Lagos.
From a political economy approach, this work attempts a critical

analysis of corruption and the challenges it poses to good
governance in Nigeria. The goal of the writer was to examine the
nature and character of the state and its apparent failure as a major
contributory factor to corruption in Nigeria. The author argues
against the partial analysis and popular tendencies of neoliberal
scholarship as championed by the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), which is rooted in the
imperative of market fundamentalism to regulate popular choices.
It argues that while the pervasion, corruption and failure of most
government agencies and the realities of bad governance are
undeniable even to the most prejudiced analysts, these issues
should be viewed less in economic terms but much more in the
286
political economy and the underlining conditions of the social

relations of productions and class configuration in Nigeria.
According to the author, the failure of several efforts and
extraconstitutional measures employed overtime to combat the
scourge, has also been due to a lack of the necessary political will
and abject cynicism concerning its eradication on the part of the
civil society. Suggestions for combating the menace in the
country advanced by the author includes reforming the decadent
Nigerian state structure, reforms of the political system, the need
to strengthen institutions that control corruption as well as the
need for a well stipulated procedure of accountability in
governments at all levels.
426. Onwueme, M. S. (1986). Corruption in the Nigerian

police force. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in
development (pp.111–116). Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University
Press.
This article contains a thorough analysis of how corruption

emanates in a developing country. The study emphasizes that
corruption is not only a modern aberration but occurs in traditional
societies as well. The article insists that the quest for materialism
is the major bane of corruption in Nigeria. The article traces the
introduction of the Nigerian police force and its connection with
corruption. It also highlights the major sources of corruption by
the Nigerian police. The article recommends a total overhaul of
the Nigerian police force, emphasizing reorientation as a way to
check growing corruption among members of the Nigerian police
force.
427. Onwuka, C. C., Okoh, I. C., Eme, I. O. (2009).

Corruption in Nigeria: Nature, forms, challenges before anti-
corruption agencies. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary
Research in Business, 1(8), 114–132.
287
Corruption has reached alarming rates in Nigeria; more alarming

is the fact that corruption impedes development. It’s an ailment
that has refused all cures till now. The article, therefore, sought to
investigate the theoretical foundation of corruption, its causes,
nature, and consequences with the hope of readdressing and
reorienting the mindset of both the leaders and the followers. The
article discusses the definition and categorization of corruption;
causes, manifestation, and cost of corruption; consequences of
corruption; and challenges facing anti-coruption agencies. In its
conclusion, it provides reasons for the failure of the anti-coruption
agencies and also made recommendations for reinforcing these
agencies.
428. Onyemelukwe, I. O. O. (2003). Corruption and the

political economy of sustainability transition in Africa. In G. Onu
(Ed.), Corruption and sustainable development: The Third World
perspective (pp.173–184). Awka : Bookpoint.
Corruption in Africa has developed to constitute one of the most

serious threats to the transition to sustainable development. The
study examines the impact of corruption in light of the political
economy of sustainability transition in Africa. It provides an
understanding of sustainability transition and examines the nature
of corruption in the African context. In the light of the clash of
interpretations and reactions regarding the goal of sustainable
development, the article characterizes sustainable development
into economic, developmental and radical views and examines the
impact of corruption on these three dimensions. The article argues
that sustainable development is the goal of the sustainability
transition, and corruption is the greatest impediment to
sustainability transition. It introduces a mathematical model titled
Corruption Pay-Off Model to highlight an economic motivation
for corruption, and recommends the model as a guide to public
policy on corruption in Africa. It frowns at a cosmetic fight
288
against corruption in countries of Africa. It proposes that a

comprehensive package of public policy for the eradication of
corruption in an African country should have punitive laws,
prompt exposure and ethical principles indoctrination. In other
words, the fight against corruption in African countries should not
be limited to punitive laws, but should include relaxation of libel
laws as well as massive funding of campaigns to indoctrinate and
educate the people on the dangers posed by corruption on
sustainability of individuals and the society at large.
429. Onyishi, T. O. & Eme, O. I. (2013). The presidency

and cost of governance in Nigeria: A case of Jonathan’s
administration. Arabian Journal of Business and Management
Review, 3(2), 1–24.
This study raises and answers salient questions as regards the

position and desire of the President Goodluck Jonathan on the
need to prune down the growing cost of running public affairs.
Using concrete indexes such as the soaring cost of foreign trips,
Presidential Air Fleet ad infinitum, regular contract awarding by
the Federal Executive Council, disdain for due process, and
different forms of corruption, etc., the authors examines the cost
of governance under Jonathan’s presidency in a thematic form.
The article also examines the role of the office of the Presidency
in increasing the cost of governance in Nigeria, and concludes by
positing that the rising cost of governance is an unnecessary waste
of public funds in payment of entitlements due to bloated
administrative cost, which has above all, given rise to the current
unhealthy rivalry and widespread bitterness between the so-called
clause of “senior ministers and junior ministers of state.
289
430. Opara, I. (2007). Nigerian anti-corruption initiatives.

The Journal of International Business & Law, 6, 65–93.
This article takes a cursory look at the anti-coruption crusade

adopted by other countries such as Britain and America before
comparing it to the anti-coruption bodies set up by the government
of Nigeria. The author illustrates the various actions of the
government in collaboration with international bodies such as the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) and Extractive Industries Transparency Initiatives
(EITI). The author draws attention to the activities of the various
anti-coruption bodies as a right step in the right direction and
concludes on the importance of the international community
supporting the country’s quest for corrupt free nation.
431. Opara, P. I. P. (2007). Dividends of anti-corruption

crusade in Nigeria and its sustainability. Jos, Nigeria: Lizborn
Printers and Publishers.
This short book written by a high school teacher offers an insight

into the major forms of corruption currently found in Nigeria. The
author argues that corruption has facilitated Nigeria’s descent into
the status of a failed state. The book also reviews the operations
of new ACA, which came with the return to democracy. The book
generally highlights the positive achievements of the ACA which
he saw as unprecedented, as well as the efforts of past political
leaders whose transparent life styles are serving as role models for
the younger generation. In conclusion, the book suggests ways of
helping to further energize the war against corruption, urging the
citizens to be hopeful.
290
432. Orhero, E.A. (2007). Perspectives on corruption and

cost of governance in Nigeria: Analysis of corruption practices in
the public sectors. In A. S. Akpotor, A. O. Afolabi, M. O.
Aigbokhaevbolo, B. O. Iganiga, O. S. Odiagbe (Eds.), Cost of
governance in Nigeria: An evaluative analysis (pp. 355–372).
Ekpoma, Nigeria: Ambrose Alli University Publishing House.
This article examines the causative factors of corruption in

Nigeria's public sectors before the advent of and during the Fourth
Republic. It identifies various incidences of corruption and its
effect on the Nigerian society. The study identifies such factors as
get-rich-quick syndrome, the failure of government and
colonialism as the major causes of corruption in Nigeria but
emphasizes that official corruption is responsible for the
deepening level of poverty in Nigeria. It identifies political
instability, loss of confidence in government and stagnant
development as the major effects of corruption in Nigeria. It then
recommends policies that would alleviate poverty and empower
the people as well as enthrone transparent leadership as a way to
stem the tide of institutional corruption in Nigeria.
433. Osah, G., Osundina, O., Ayim, O., Nwokocha, C.

and Chioma, P. (2014). The political economy of corruption and
leadership in Nigeria. Arabian Journal of Business and
One of the most important concerns of the world in the 21st

century is corruption, which from all indices affects other aspects
of life. This article examines the experience of Nigeria with
corruption, exposing poor developmental performances, civil,
ethnic and religious unrest, and the outright collapse of other
viable sectors of the economy. The article adopts the Political
Economy approach as its theoretical framework to explain how
endemic the issue has become within the Nigerian polity and it
291
mirrored the involvement of leaders at the political level whether

military or civilian, indicating misappropriation, stealing,
nepotism, favoritism, mediocrity, opportunism, god-fatherism as
the fallout of the actions of these corrupt leaders. This article,
therefore, recommends that the only way the circle of corruption
can be broken is when the society collectively reject and punish
offenders with heavy sanctions such as total refund of the amount
involved and outright banning of such persons from holding key
societal positions.
434. Osakwe, A. A. (2002). Application of elite theory to

corruption in the Nigerian society. In C. O. T. Ugwu (Ed.),
(pp. 175–190). Nsukka, Nigeria: Chuka Educational Publishers.
Scholars have argued that corruption remains a major challenge

in the quest for national rebirth. This article attempts to identify
the root causes of corruption in Nigeria vis-à-vis the application
of elite theory to analysing the causes and effects of endemic
corruption in Nigeria. The author argues that the Nigerian elite are
the reason for the inability to minimize corruption in the country
due to insatiable craving for wealth. It enumerates the effects of
endemic corruption and concludes by suggesting ethical
reorientation, enactment of a national code of conduct, provision
of social amenities, and visionary leadership as the panacea for
pervasive corruption in the country.
435. Osakwe, E. (2011). Democracy and the crisis of

accountability in the public service in Nigeria. Arts and Social
Sciences Journal, 26, 1–5.
This article attempts to address issues in relation to accountability

and the Nigerian politics. It argues that corruption had continued
to flourish in the public service and in the general polity, beca use
292
of the lowness in the general moral standards in Nigeria. This

according to the author has had adverse effect on democracy and
political development in Nigeria. For the author, the public
service is faced with serious challenges of accountability because
the political sphere is clouded with political actors whose sole
agenda is self-enrichment as opposed to selfless-service. Lack of
accountability, especially the corruption aspect of it has arisen not
necessarily only from greed, but from the mindset as well. The
article argues that the lack of accountability can manifest in
several areas, including political antagonism/vendetta,
discrimination, and the wide array of uncompleted projects all
over Nigeria. The article concludes by listing the benefits of
accountability to the Nigerian polity and democracy.
436. Osiobe, P. O. & Isedu, M. O. (2007). Corruption and

cost of governance in Nigeria. In A. S. Akpotor, A. O. Afolabi,
M. O. Aigbokhaevbolo, B. O. Iganiga, & O. S. Odiagbe (Eds.),
Cost of governance in Nigeria: An evaluative analysis (pp. 419–
437). Ekpoma, Nigeria: Ambrose Alli University Publishing
House.
This article examines the forms and causes of corruption in

Nigeria, as well as its effects on the cost of governance in Nigeria.
The author advances that, although corruption is not unique to
Nigeria but is universal; its pervasive nature in Nigeria is
responsible for the breakdown of societal values, poor ethical
standards in public administration and undermining of societal
development in Nigeria. He asserts that corruption has destroyed
the legitimacy of a government in Nigeria, and has encouraged
brain drain. The author identifies various forms corruption such
as political corruption, bureaucratic corruption, and electoral
corruption among others. The author offers some far reaching
recommendations on how to tackle corruption in order to bring
about development in Nigeria.
293
437. Osoba, S.O. (1986). Corruption in Nigeria: Historical

perspective. Review of African Political Economy, 23(69), 371–
386.
This article attempts a theoretical review of the root and causes of

corruption. The study traces corruption to the colonial era
characterized by a fraudulent and corrupt accumulation system
which facilitates the appropriation of huge surplus for shipment
to the metropolis (Britain).This same trajectory was maintained
by the fledgling Nigerian bourgeoisie during the decolonization
era except then it was for the enrichment of the emerging
bourgeois class. It attained greater heights with the military
intervention in Nigerian politics leading to the entrenchment of
the culture of corruption in all facets of life. The article also
chronicles the cumulative impact of corruption on the Nigerian
state which has put the Nigerian state in a paradoxical situation in
which the scandalous almost legendary wealth of key ruling class
members exist to mock the unspeakable mass poverty, misery,
and the degradation of the Nigerian people. In conclusion, it posits
that for the fight against corruption to yield result, it is absolutely
important to institutionalize the ethos of popular participatory
democracy.
438. Osumah, O. (2013). Tonic or toxin? The state,

neopatrimonialism and anti-corruption efforts in Nigeria. The
Korean Journal of Policy Studies, 28(1), 111–134.
The constant ranking of Nigeria as one of the most corrupt nations

in the world by Transparency International and the effect of
corruption of the socio-economic and political development of the
state has made most recent writers attempt to address Nigeria anti-
coruption efforts. This article use secondary data to explore the
character of the Nigerian state and neo-patrimonialism in Nigeria.
The study also discusses the extent to which the anti-coruption
294
efforts has been helped or hindered. It argues that the

contradictions in the character of the Nigerian state and the logic
of neo-patrimonialism hinder Nigeria’s anti-coruption efforts. It
also notes that Nigeria’s anti-coruption efforts lacks attributes
such as high level political commitment, popular support and
strong legal and institutional mechanisms. It recommends the
reinvention of the Nigerian state to limit its encouragement of
corrupt behaviours and hindrance of anti-coruption efforts and
institutions and the rejuvenation of the value system to remove
neo-patrimonial influence on political interactions.
439. Ottong J. (1986). Towards effective control of

official corruption. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in
Press.
As a result of the serious nature of corruption in Nigeria,

successive governments have experimented with different legal
and institutional arrangements. Yet corruption has shown no sign
of abating. This article focuses mainly on the analysis of the
mechanisms and strategies for the effective control of official
corruption in Nigeria. The article examines briefly the concept of
corruption and why the practice continues and persists. Measures
deployed by successive governments for the control of official
corruption in Nigeria were examined thoroughly and
recommendations were made towards a more effective control of
the practice in the country.
440. Owagbemi, O. G. (2012). Anti-graft policy of the

federal government of Nigeria: The case of the Economic and
Financial Crimes Commission. African Journal of Stability and
Development, 6(2), 111–130.
295
Corruption often appears on the list of factors obstructing the

Nigeria’s path towards sustainable development. This study
examines efforts by the government using the EFCC to curb
corruption. After examining the facts, the author observes that
rather than decrease, corruption has proliferated to all segments
of Nigeria, making it the ‘common cold’ of Nigeria’s social ills.
According to him, since the return to civil rule in 1999, the federal
government has taken a bold step to address the problem of
corruption in the country. This necessitates government’s
declaration of a zero tolerance for corruption, through the
promulgation of the EFCC Act, 2003. His finding shows that
despite the successes achieved by this measure, the situation
remains unacceptable, as corruption continues to permeate and
pervade every facet of national life in Nigeria.
441. Owolabi, E. A. (n.d.). Corruption and financial

crimes in Nigeria: Genesis, trends and consequences. Lagos,
Nigeria: CETEP City University.
The paper examines corrupt practices and financial crimes in

Nigeria and the hindrances that this constitutes for the
development of the country. It provides a definition of corruption,
its causes and also examines the issue of financial crime
particularly money laundering. The phenomenon of corruption is
traced from the colonial, late colonial and postcolonial periods.
The author examines the costs of corruption and examines the
previous measures taken to tackle the problem of corruption. The
paper further examines the role of recent financial agencies such
as the EFCC and ICPC which have been mandated by law to
investigate, prosecute and ensure conviction of offenders. The
author concludes by emphasizing the need to tackle corruption
without which the nation would suffer severe setbacks.
296
442. Owolabi, S. A. (2007). Corruption: An impediment

to successful pension reforms in Nigeria. In A.D. Aina, (Ed.),
Corruption and the challenge of human development (pp.337–
The pension system in Nigeria is widely believed to be a major

source of corruption. This article examines the various pension
schemes and reforms in Nigeria and the effect of corruption on
these schemes. The author also focused on the major causes of
corruption, the various pension reforms undertaken in the country,
and proffered solutions to the problems of pension administration
in Nigeria, with particular reference to the Pension Reform Act
2004. The paper was divided into six parts; including a brief
introduction, the objectives and literature review, corruption and
pension reforms in Nigeria, a comparison of the new pension
reform with previous ones. The last section of the article provided
relevant solutions to towards eradicating corruption. These
include the application and adoption of recommended techniques
by Transparency International, a review of the composition of the
membership of the National Pension Commission, adoption of
information technology to eliminate ghost workers and ghost
pensioners and punishment of officials aiding and abetting
corruption and, of course, greater political will by government to
eradicate corruption.
443. Owosekun, A. A. (2006). Socio-economic

development in Nigeria: The impact of corruption. In B. Aboyade,
& S. Ayodele ( Eds.), Fighting corruption in Nigeria: Challenges
for the future (pp. 14–22). Ibadan, Nigeria: Development Policy
Centre.
This lead paper delivered at the two-day National Workshop held

at the Development Policy Centre on the 2nd of January, 2006
traces the growth of corruption in Nigeria from the 1990s, the
297
military era, through to the civilian administration which began in

1999. The author notes that during the military era, the failure of
military decrees in addressing the menace of corruption was
largely due to the draconian nature of the decrees. He notes that
the nature of corruption at the inception of the civilian
administration had assumed a worrisome state and as such,
became detrimental to the social and economic relations with
trading partners in the country. The paper states that desp ite the
efforts of the EFCC and ICPC commissioned in 2003 and 2004 to
combat corruption, the menace still persists, and has the potential
of contributing to the possible collapse of Nigerian state due to its
negative impact on social and economic development. The erudite
scholar notes that although the strategy has been the
criminalization of corruption, the fight against corruption must
address the tripod of scarcity, need and greed.
444. Oyewo, O. (2007). Constitutions, good governance

and corruption: Challenges and prospects for Nigeria. Paper
presented at the VII World Congress of the International
Association for Constitutional Law, Athens, June, 11 –15.
The fact that constitutional democracy is the basis for good

governance and good governance is the antidote for corruption is
a widely acknowledged fact. It was against this backdrop that this
paper undertakes a conceptual analysis of the corruption
phenomenon in Nigeria; and the constitutional mechanism or
framework designed to tackle it. It also discusses governance
issues relating to corruption as a prelude to highlighting certain
emerging prospects for combating and preventing corruption in
the Nigerian state. In conclusion, the paper recognizes that
corruption has been deeply embedded in the Nigerian society,
thus uprooting it will require the application of all the available
mechanisms including the constitution, good governance, and
international support.
298
445. Panter-Brick, K. (1979). Soldiers and oil: The

political transformation of Nigeria. London, England: Frank
Cass.
The latter years of the 1970s marked the end of the first rule in
Nigeria with its attendant socio-economic and political
dislocations. The publication, which is a collection of several
essays, analyzes a number of key problems facing the Nigerian
polity at the time which includes among others, the nature and the
motives of the successive military governments and their relations
with the politicians and civil servants, corruption and other
aspects of the political economy of Nigeria, the crucial change
from a lopsided federation of four regions to a potentially far more
centralized one of nineteen states, the thorny question of how to
deal with the very difficult "traditional" Local Governments in the
north and south, and, the problems of drafting a new constitution.
The book also provides a great deal of useful information on the
major areas of transformation as well as the politics which
revolved round them in Nigeria's political system.
446. Philip, D. D. and Akangbe, O. M. (2013), Corruption

as a bane for underdevelopment in Nigeria: Issues and challenges.
International Affairs and Global Strategy, 15, 76–83.
The failure of successive crusades against corruption has not

deterred the continued search for a cure to this menacing
phenomenon. The article attempts to look at the challenges
hindering the efforts to eradicate corruption in Nigeria despite
several efforts by the government to reduce and manage it. The
article argues that corruption is not unique to the people of Nigeria
but that corruption has continued to grow because the society had
provided over time, conditions conducive for its growth. The
article argues that despite the enormous resources available in
Nigeria, corruption has made it near impossible for the country to
299
witness sustainable development. In the view of the author, the

anti-coruption agencies have been overwhelmed with by the scale
of corruption in Nigeria, making it difficult for it to be effectively
managed. Yet tackling corruption is essential to the survival and
progress of Nigeria. That is, the future of Nigeria will depend
upon the extent to which and the manner in which the leaders and
the people fight corruption. This is why the fight against
corruption must be seen as a fight for all Nigerians.
447. Pogoson, I. (2009). Globalization and anti-corruption

reform in Nigeria: 2003–2007. In U. D Enweremadu, & E. E.
Okafor (Ed.), Anti-corruption reforms in Nigeria since 1999:
Issues, challenges and the way forward. Ibadan, IFRA Special
Research Issue, Vol. 3 , 59–79.
The article linked the global spread of corruption to the end of the
cold war and the processes of globalization. Within this
framework, corruption is viewed as a global phenomenon with
intrinsically global consequences. The article then looks at the
manifestation of the problem in Nigeria, concluding that since
1999, all the reforms made by the government have not addressed
the problem of corruption. Some suggestions or recommendations
were made in the article on how to end corruption. For the author,
the scale of the problem in Nigeria calls for multifaceted strategies
capable of addressing the structure and social challenges spurned
by corruption. These strategies must go beyond law making but
encompass strict enforcement.
448. Rabiu, A. (2007). The administrative functions and

fight against corruption. In A. M. Inuwa (Ed.), Executive Session
on Corruption: Corruption in Contemporary Governance, Public
Complaints and Anti-Corruption Directorate (pp. 70–79). Kano
State Government.
300
This short article discusses the occurrence of corruption in the

performance of administrative functions, which can also be
termed administrative corruption. For the author, corruption
involves not only illegal material gain but also involves abuse of
powers conferred by law on a ministry/agency of government or
the administrator. This can also involve the improper exercise or
use of discretion, such as in granting licensing. His prescription
against such abuse includes a properly constituted, organized and
operated public complaints commission at the state level.
449. Razaq, A. A. (2007). Neo -patrimonialism, the

modern African state and corruption syndrome: A theoretical and
empirical consideration. In A. D. Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the
Challenge of Human Development (pp. 113–122), Ilishan-Remo,
Nigeria: Babcock University Press.
From a historical perspective, this article links corruption in

Nigeria and Africa to neopatrimonialism, or patrimonial system
itself. The objective of the article is to show the relationship
between corruption and patrimonial system, the two being the two
sides of the same coin. Modernization theory was adopted as a
framework of analysis, and the writer rejects the idea that
Weberian rational -legal principle is the main cause of corruption
in Nigeria because the leaders use the tradition patrimonial system
to convert public goods into private property. Within this
framework, the allegiance to political godfathers is seen as a
major cause of corruption in Africa, as seen in the cases of Zaire,
Chad, Cote d’Ivoire, and Nigeria. Some empirical evidence were
given to show how this phenomenon contributes to the spread of
corruption, and why until it is tackled, corruption will remain on
the increase. In a nutshell, the author’s main argument is that
indigenous sociopolitical structures and processes have
contributed in the breeding of corruption.
301
450. Rogger D. (2012). The Life and Times of Corrupt

Civil Servants: A Survey of Public Officials in Nigeria.
Monograph. International Growth Centre, London.
This monograph presents results of a survey conducted among

civil servants in Nigeria with a sample size of 4,425 respondents.
The respondents were sampled from across the three tiers of
government – federal, state and local government. Respondents
were asked questions on a wide range of issues, including their
motivations for joining the civil service, challenges within the
service and their experiences observing corruption within the
public service.
Majority of the respondents said they joined the civil service
based on the nature of the duties they were to perform, rather than
for level of income or for reasons of prestige. However, 40% said
they were dissatisfied with their income, working conditions, or
opportunities for self-improvement. Whilst 60% of the
respondents identified corruption as the root of why public
projects fail, only a third said they had ever received any benefit
from graft. Respondents also reported that in 21% of projects, they
were under pressure to change project locations or specifications,
while 20% stated that they were under pressure to divert some
project funds. The author concludes that the experiences of
corruption by public officers is highly heterogeneous.
451. Routley, L. (2010). The negotiation of “corruption”

by NGOs in eastern Nigeria: Engagements with local culture and
global governance. (PhD Thesis). Department of International
Politics, Aberystwyth University, Wales, U.K.
NGOs are often viewed as anti-coruption agents. Yet very little is

known about their anti-coruption work. The doctoral thesis is an
indepth field work research on the issue of NGOs and corruption
in Nigeria. The research is based upon a nine months of fieldwork
302
undertaken with three national NGOs in Enugu, Eastern Nigeria.

The thesis attempts an analysis of NGOs as agents of anti-
coruption in Nigeria. Using the Homi Bhabha’s concept of
hybridity, the article argues that the practice of corruption vis-á-
vis the works of NGOs operations in Nigeria can be termed as
hybrid. The article argues the complexities of national NGOs in
engaging with state institutions and obtaining services for their
clients and also the ambiguities of their position as assumed
intermediaries between the international and the local level of
governance. The thesis concludes that the examination of national
NGOs in Eastern Nigeria and their relationship to corruption
shows that the terrain that the NGO workers navigate is a
profoundly complex one. It suggests that national NGO workers
in Enugu, and quite possibly millions of other Africans, negotiate
rights and culture, not as oppositional forces, but as part of the
ongoing ‘messy’ negotiations of politics.
452. Sabo, S. A. (2007). Due process and strategic

compliance mechanism. In A. M. Inuwa, (Ed.), Executive Session
on Corruption: Corruption in Contemporary Governance, Public
Complaints and Anti-Corruption Directorate, Kano State
Government (pp. 50–69).
Due process is a concept that has assumed some degree of

importance in the Nigerian administrative lexicon. This article
examines the challenges and prospects associated with
implementation of due process in project conception and
implementation in Kano state. It lists and discusses the various
stages involved in the process and identifies some problems
associated with executing projects especially through contracts
such as delay in payments, frequent stoppage of work, cost
variation due to changes in the economy, ligation by p arties
involved, and so on. The article is useful for understanding major
303
issues involved in public contracting system which is an area

usually associated with large scale corruption and fraud.
453. Salihi, M. H. (2007). Corruption and State Failure.

In A. M. Inuwa (Ed.), Executive Session on Corruption:
Corruption in Contemporary Governance, Public Complaints
and Anti- Corruption Directorate, Kano State Government
(pp.80-107).
This article explores the potential linkage between corruption and

state failure. The central argument is that the prevalence of
corruption especially when it is intense, results in gradual
weakening and eventual collapse of the authority or institutions of
state. He finds that Nigeria has several real indicators of state
failure, such as spiralling crime, violence, and conflict, decaying
infrastructure, political instability, etc. He argues that corruption
is the major cause of these problems that threaten Nigeria’s
existence. For him, eradicating corruption and all indicators of
state failure speedily would make Nigeria a strong and robust
state.
454. Shehu, A. Y. (2004). Combating Corruption in

Nigeria – Bliss or Bluster? Journal of Financial Crime, 12(1), 69-
87.
Nigeria has, since independence, engaged in what can been

described as a perennial struggle against corruption, much of
which has turned out to be deceptive and ineffectual. The article
investigates the problem of corruption in Nigeria as well as efforts
to combat it. The article highlights the challenges to fighting
corruption to include good leadership and bad context or vice
versa. The international and domestic challenges were also
explored in the study. In the final analysis, the author concludes
that the effective fight against corruption requires more
304
pragmatic, comprehensive, and impact-oriented, nonpartisan

reforms.
455. Simbine, A. T. (2003). Public sector (MIS)

management in Nigeria: The quest for good governance in
Nigeria: The case of National Electric Power Authority. In G. Onu
(Ed.), Corruption and Sustainable Development: The Third World
Perspective (pp.105-121). Awka: Bookpoint Limited.
Public administration is the machinery for implementing the

purposes of the state. One of the contrived ways that the process
of administration can interfere in the socio-economic
development of the state is through the establishment of public
enterprises, corporations or utilities that are often service oriented.
It is generally believed that public corporations have failed to
meet up to the reasons and expectations for their establishment
leading to several calls for their privatization and
commercialization. This article, therefore, examines the role of
the National Electric Power Authority (NEPA ) in bringing about
public sector mismanagement and good governance in Nigeria. It
takes a look at the historical background and development
operations of NEPA, the relationships between NEPA’s success,
its commercialization and good governance and problems of
NEPA as it relat es to corruption and mismanagement. It argues
that the failure of public enterprises to meet up to their billings is
due more to incompetent management and corruption and unless
addressed, will hinder the success of any remedying programs
introduced. The article suggests the setting up of a committee by
government to take another look at the best option to
commercialization of NEPA, fiscal discipline and probity of
government officials implementing the program and the need for
public officials to be made accountable for their actions always,
to ensure transparency and accountability. In addition, it
emphasizes the need to tackle the unemployment situation in the
305
country, and introduce a social security regime to cater for the

employed and unemployed alike.
456. Smith, D. J. (2007). A Culture of Deception:

Everyday Deception and Popular Discontent in Nigeria.
Princeton: Princeton University Press.
This book examines the relationship between corruption and

culture in Africa’s most popu lous country. The book can be
considered as an attempt to understand the dilemmas the average
Nigerian faces in his daily life. It also offers answers to the
question of how he can be, paradoxically, an active partner in the
social production of corruption and, at the same time, its primary
victim and principal critic. The 263-page book, which contains
seven chapters, exposes the everyday world of Nigerian citizens
as they encounter a society plagued by corruption. The writer
documents, interprets, and analyzes their multiple responses to the
pandemic. He explains not only the mechanisms and contexts that
explain corruption but also how the intense discontent that
Nigerians feel about corruption propels contemporary events and
stimulates Nigeria’s collective cultural imagination. The author
gives a first person account of his travels and fieldwork in Nigeria.
He explains the events he experienced and how they informed his
notion of the country’s reputation for corruption. Smith presents
an ethnographic study of corruption, demonstrating that there is
much to be learned about social action, collective imagination and
cultural production when they are seen through the lens of an
anthropological account of corruption.
457. Smith, D. J. (2010). Corruption, NGOs, and

Development in Nigeria. Third World Quarterly, 31(2), 243-258.
NGOs have been among the foremost campaigners against

corruption in Nigeria since the return of democracy in 1999. They
306
have also been very vocal in the development sector where they
have pushed for positive changes. This article examines the issue
of corruption in Nigeria’s development sector, particularly the
role of the ever increasing nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs) in it. Grounded in ethnographic case studies, this study
seeks to explain why local NGOs in Nigeria have proliferated so
widely, what they do in practice, what effects they have beyond
their stated aims, and how they are perceived and experienced by
ordinary Nigerians. The study argues that despite the limitations
of Nigerian NGOs, they contribute to the change of ideals and the
rising expectations in the areas of anti-coruption and
development.
458. Soremekun, K., & Ayeni, V. (1990). Nigeria's

Second Republic: Presidentialism, Politics and Administration in
a Developing State. Journal of Modern African Studies, 28, 159-
161.
The Second Nigerian Republic (1979–1983) is considered

notoriously corrupt by most analysts. This essay authors by two
Nigerian scholars’ attempts to describe the workings of th e
institutions and structures of Nigeria's Second Republic mainly in
order to answer the question: Why did it fail? The authors adopt
a political-economy model and depict a fatalistically greedy
ruling class whose members were busy amassing personal
fortunes that they threw overboard the rules of the game. Thus,
like other contributors to this issue, they attribute the fall of the
Second Republic to the failure of the actors involved in operating
the machinery of government in the manner prescribed in the
elaborately constructed presidential constitution, because they
placed their own party and narrow partisan interests above those
of the nation and of consensus-building in a fragile democracy.
They also argue that the whole arena of electoral competition and
bargaining during the Second Republic was shot through with
307
religious symbolism, not to mention the recruitment of personal

fortune-tellers by gubernatorial and presidential aspirants and also
the corruption, suspicion, and inefficiency that characterized the
administration.
459. Thovoethin, P. (2003). Corruption and the Erosion of

Public Accountability in Nigeria. In E. O. Ezeani (Ed.), Public
Accountability in Nigeria: Perspectives and Issues (pp.101-113).
Enugu: Academic Publishing Company.
Over the last few years, a number of works have focused on

corruption and public accountability in Nigeria. This work
examines the state of accountability in Nigeria and submits that
accountability is a form of rhetoric in Nigeria. According to the
author, the more emphasis is placed on accountability, the more
accountability becomes an unimportant matter in the practices of
office holders. The author uses the Nigerian postindependence
sociopolitical and economic experiences to prove the fact. He
observes that since the First Republic, political accountability
based on performance-responsibility evaluation has been very
weak. The work further looks at the corruption level in the
military and civilian regimes and posits that it is almost difficult,
if not impossible, to draw a line between the military and civilian
when it comes to corruption. However, he observes that Nigeria’s
31 years of experience with the military is a pointer to the fact that
the military is more corrupt. His work suggests that corruption can
be reduced when there is creation of democratic structures and
special agencies to combat corruption.
460. Ubeku, A. K. (1991). The Social and Economic

Foundations of Corruption and other Economic Crimes in
Nigeria. In U. A. Kalu, & Y. Osinbajo (Eds.), Perspectives on
Corruption and Other Economic Crimes in Nigeria. Federal
Ministry of Justice Law Review Series, Vol . 2, 39–51.
308
It has been argued that the prevailing socio-economic reality is

one of the reasons for the increasing trend of corruption in
Nigeria. This article examines the foundation of corruption and
related crime in the Nigerian state. It highlights different types of
economic crime in Nigeria and identifies the character of the
Nigerian milieu as the major factor festering corruption in
Nigeria, particularly the absence of ethical moral standard in our
society. It advocates for a stiff penalty for those found wanting for
corrupt practices. The author concludes by recommending the
overhauling of our legal system in order to tackle the economic
crime headlong.
461. Ubi, S. P., Eko, S. A. Ndem B. E. (2012). Corruption

and its Implications for Actualizing Nigeria Vision 20-2020.
Global Journal of Social Sciences, 11(1), 41–51.
Corruption has always been a universal problem not only found

in democratic and dictatorial political systems, but also in feudal,
capitalist and socialist economies. This article conceptualizes the
causes and types of corruption. Using the social control theory and
sociocultural theory, this article takes a sweeping look at the
issues of corruption and the corruption situation in Nigeria. The
research went further to highlight the various and possible ways
through which corruption would impede the actualization of the
Vision 20:20:20 development plan in Nigeria. The author also
argues that the country needs a committed, transparent and
purpose-driven government that is determined to reduce
corruption to its barest minimum. The article suggests that full
autonomy should be given to anti-coruption agencies. It also
posits that the constitution should be amended so as to
accommodate stiffer punishment for offenders, including life
imprisonment as practiced in some countries.
309
462. Uchendu, O. (2003) Bureaucratic Corruption in

Nigeria. In C.N. Ezeani, (Ed.), Public Accountability in Nigeria:
Perspectives and Issues (pp. 173-186). Enugu: Academic
Publishing Company.
Bureaucratic corruption usually involves dishonest or unethical

acts perpetrated by civil servants and other public servants in their
official capacity. These acts include nepotism and favoritism,
bribery, fraud, embezzlement of funds, etc. This study examines
the nature and extent of these types of corrupt behaviors among
Nigerian bureaucrats. The author argues that at any level of the
country’s bureaucracies, corruption exists, and one of the factors
responsible for it is the prevailing attitude in society which
appears to be tolerant of corrupt behavior on the part of both
elected and appointed officials. The author posits further that as a
result of bureaucratic corrupt practices in Nigeria, matters of
financial accountability, award of contract, assessment of workers
for promotion and discipline of staff are nothing but a sham. He
goes further to relate bureaucratic corruption to local government
system in Nigeria and he is of the view that some of the chairmen
sit on the tender boards only to award contract to themselves using
diverse disguise. He finally opines that ethnicity and nepotism
pervades the Nigerian bureaucracy and these can be expressed
through interethnic discrimination in jobs, housing, and admission
into educational institutions, business transactions or the
distribution of social welfare services.
463. Udama, R. A. (2013). Understanding Corruption in

Nigeria and its Implications to National Security and Sustainable
Development. Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 10(1),
60-73.
Corruption has negatively impacted Nigeria in several ways, one

of which is insecurity. This article attempts an examination of
310
corruption in Nigeria vis-á-vis its implications for national

security and sustainable development. The article argues that
despite the so-called wars declared by successive regimes since
independence in 1960, corruption in Nigeria has remained like a
hydra-headed monster that refuses to die. It argues that corruption
is an age-old global phenomenon that is not exclusive to any
particular continent, region, country, form of government,
economic system, or religious group. The frequency and
magnitude of occurrence and how it is tackled differs by country.
The article argues that there is a predominant impression
worldwide that Nigeria has one of the worst reputations for
corruption in the world. Despite the enormous resources available
in the nation, corruption has made economic development
impossible. The article argues that to understand the nature of
Nigeria’s corruption, it is necessary to know the circumstances
and conditions that brought and kept the different ethnic groups
forcefully together and their attitudes towards each other. It
argues that the different ethnic entities are still not fused together
into one indivisible entity but remained diverse and competing
forces that seek power to dominate, oppress, and exploit one
another to satisfy personal and clannish interests. However, the
article concludes that the greatest threat to the nation is the greedy
and corrupt elites and not the ethnic, language or religious
differences in Nigeria. Hence, to effectively combat it, a new
thinking that borders on the revolutionary process is
indispensable.
464. Udofia, U. U. (2004). Corruption in Nigeria: The

Way Out. Uyo: Afahaide and Bros Printing and Publishing Co.
This book examines the different facets of corruption in Nigerian

society, such as bribery, abuse of office, tax credit and customs
fraud, misappropriation and embezzlement, currency violations,
forgery, false accounting, etc. The book is an attempt to develop
311
a typology of corruption and fraudulent activities. The book

emphasizes the futility of current measures being implemented. In
their place, the author recommends new strategies for controlling
corruption in both the long and short term.
465. Ugumanim, O. B., & Williams, U. D. (2007). The

Politics of Anti-Corruption Campaign in Nigeria (1999-2006): A
Critique. Journal of Policy and Development Studies, Vol. 1 (3),
13-29.
In view of the generally accepted notion that corruption is one

fundamental problem that has burdened Nigeria’s developmental
efforts, successive regimes in postcolonial Nigeria have always
declared their intention and determination to fight corruption.
This study focuses its attention on the antigraft campaign of the
Obasanjo government in the Fourth Republic with a view to
demonstrating the usual wide gap between government’s anti-
coruption pronouncements and its action to that effect. It contends
that Obasanjo’s aggressive posture against corruption was not
only farcical but was characterized by hypocrisy and double
standards. At best, it was selective and discriminatory in nature
and character. It advocates the radical transformation of Nigerian
society and the establishment of a true welfare state based on
popular democratic government and an egalitarian economic
arrangement.
466. Ugwu, T. (2002). Forms of Corruption in Nigeria:

The Way Forwa rd. In C. O. T. Ugwu, (Ed.), Corruption in
Nigeria: Critical Perspectives: A book of readings (pp.16–28),
This article, examines the diverse forms of corrupt practices in

Nigeria. It highlights and describes religious, economic,
educational, social, and institutional forms of corruption in
312
Nigeria. The author identifies political corruption as the main

impetus for the increasing rate of corruption and suggests prayers
and the need for religious institutions to step up the campaign
against the vices in our society.
467. Uju, J. O. R. (2002). The Military and Corruption in

Nigeria in Nigeria. In C. O. T. Ugwu (Ed.), Corruption in Nigeria:
Critical perspectives: A book of readings (pp. 110–127). Nsukka:
It has been argued that the high rate of corruption in Nigeria is due
to a failure to combat it directly. This article identifies the lack of
exemplary leadership, a general obsession with wealth, and the
breakdown of social values as responsible for the uncontrollable
rate of corruption in the country. The author further examines the
extent of corruption under successive military administrations in
Nigeria from 1966 to 1998 and concludes that bad leadership
encouraged corrupt practices more than any other factor in
Nigeria. The author further argues that the long period of military
rule subverted the moral ethics in society and reasons that unless
a bold and deliberate effort is adopted, the anti-coruption crusade
will continue to be a farce in Nigeria.
468. Ukwaba, I. (2002). Political Corruption in Nigeria:

An Assessment of the First, Second and Fourth Republics. In C.
O. T. Ugwu (Ed.), Corruption in Nigeria: Critical Perspectives:
A book of readings (pp. 29–49). Nsukka, Nigeria: Chuka
Educational Publishers.
Scholars have argued that corruption is one of the major

challenges facing Nigeria’s national growth and development, a
result of the fact that public officials are corrupt and also that
corruption is official. This article examines the meaning and
nature of corruption in Nigeria and its effects on Nigerian society.
313
It notes that corruption, which was noticeable before

independence from the British, became a hydra-headed monster
in postcolonial Nigeria as a result of the complicity of the political
elite and the insincerity of successive civil administrations in
stamping it out. It recommends the abandonment of neoliberal
policies and the enthronement of a new social order built on equity
and egalitarianism as countermeasures to the rising wave of
corruption.
469. Unuigbkhai, O.A., & Shaib, O.I (2008). Corruption

and its Eradication by Independent Corrupt Practices and Other
Related Offences Commissions (ICPC) in Nigeria. Proceedings of
the 1st International Conference on Socio- Economic Policies and
Millennium Development Goals (MGDs) in Africa, Faculty of the
Social Sciences, AAU, Akungba, Ondo State, 144 -150.
In the last 15 years, Nigeria has taken some important steps to

eradicate corruption within its political system. This study
examines the nature and implications of anti-coruption crusades
in Nigeria, particularly the operations of the Independent Corrupt
Practices and Other Related Offences Commissions (ICPC) from
inception till 2008. The work highlights several achievements
recorded by the ICPC, as well as the problems encountered by the
agency while fighting corruption in Nigeria. It also proffers
solutions in order to achieve corrupt free society in Nigeria.
470. William, A. B. Z., & Alemika, E. (1986). The

Political Economy of Corruption and Underdevelopment in
Nigeria. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in
Development (pp. 290-295). Ibadan: Ibadan University Press,
Ibadan.
Corruption is widely seen as being a sign of individual failings.

Yet individual behaviors are also s haped by the nature of the
314
society, including its political economy. From a political economy

approach, this article on corruption asserts that within peripheral
social formations, corruption is normal. Furthermore, corruption
must be seen as a reflection of the political economy of
underdevelopment, and in particular, as the consequence of the
divorce between wealth and power. The article maintains that
corruption could not be adequately analyzed without a clear
understanding of the class nature of society.
471. Yagboyaju, D. A. (2005). Impunity versus

Accountability: A Comparative Analysis of Political Corruption
Under Two Regimes in Nigeria . In L. Olurode & R. Anifowose
(Eds.), Rich But Poor: Corruption and Good Governance in
Nigeria (pp.160-189). Lagos: Faculty of Social Sciences,
University of Lagos.
This is an interesting comparison of corruption in two regimes in

Nigeria. The author examines the circumstances that surround the
perpetration of political corruption during the Second Republic
(1979–1983) that was headed by Alhaji Shehu Shagari and the
General Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida Military Administration
(1985–1993). Both regimes were expected to serve as new
beginnings at different stages of Nigeria’s socio-economic and
political development. The chapter seeks to delve into what led to
the fall of the Second Republic and why the Babangida regime
could not fulfil its promises especially on the war against political
corruption. This comparative analysis established that the worse
civilian administration is better and less susceptible to political
corruption and venality than the most benevolent military regime.
Even with the rhetorical claim of a corrective mission often made
by the military rulers, especially Babangida’s military
administration’s unusual promise of a rule of law, the regime was
still culpable of graver and more brazen acts of venality than the
Shagari civilian administration. While the civilian had
315
constitutional requirements and provisions to observe and contend

with, the military was more defined by personal rules based on
discretion.
472. Yagboyaju, D. A. (2004). The State and Political

Corruption in Nigeria- A Comparative Analysis of Two Regimes .
PhD Thesis. Department of Political Science, University of
Ibadan, Nigeria.
The study undertakes a comparative analysis of corrupt practices

during the Second Republic (1979–1983) and the military
government of General Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida (1985–
1983). These were the two administrations on which the original
data on corruption were most accessible, comparable, extensive
and systematic during the mid-nineties in Nigeria. Data for the
study were derived largely from the reports of official probe
panels and commissions of inquiry. Additional data were derived
from other relevant reports in Nigeria and international agencies
like the World Bank and Transparency International (TI). The
study finds that the sources of corruption in Nigeria are both
structural and institutional. The structural sources include the
relatively recent and artificial colonial origins of the Nigerian
state, the country’s ethnic pluralism, and the economic centrality
of the state or “statism,” which has been aggravated since 1970s
by the political control and distribution of huge oil revenues. The
institutional sources of corruption involve political instability and
absence of effective regulatory institutions and sanctions. In
essence, despite their reformist or corrective rhetoric,
noncompetitive and extraconstitutional military administrations
are more prone to high-level political corruption than
democratically elected and constitutionally accountable civilian
governments. The findings of the thesis suggest that anti-
coruption strategies in Nigeria should focus not only on the
development of self-enforcing institutions and sanctions but also
316
on the reexamination or reinvention of the legitimacy of Nigeria

as a political entity.
473. Yagboyaju, D. A. (2012). The State and Governance

Crisis in Nigeria-Focus on Two Regimes. Germany: Lambert
Academic Publishing.
Various explanations have been proffered for the evident under -

development in Nigeria and the abysmal performances of
successive administrations since the country’s political
independence in October 1960. Prominent among these
explanations are the ones that focused attention on the colonial
factors, the artificial beginning of the modern state in the country,
ethnic politics, politicization of ethnicity and military rule among
other similar factors. This book emphasized how the combination
of the devastating effects of most of these phenomena contributed
to personal rule, corruption and corruptive tendencies, all of
which adversely affected the functionality of the modern state and
the effectiveness of governance in the country. Adopting a
comparative method, which focused on the Sani Abacha Military
regime (1993-1998) and the Olusegun Obasanjo civilian
administration (1999-2007) as examples of the two prominent
regime types, so far, adopted in the country, the author concludes
that there was hardly any significant difference, in terms of
corrupt activities and their effects on governance. In other words,
the worsening endemic nature of corruption fuelled the crisis of
governance witnessed under the two different regimes. This was
in spite of the elaborate and bold attempt to fight corruption under
the Obasanjo civilian administration, but which was hampered by
the selective nature of its prosecution and punishment of
offenders.
317
474. Yaqub, O. N. (2001). The 1993 Presidential

Elections in Nigeria and The Alleged Use of Excessive Money:
Implications for the Country’s Political Culture and Future
Politics. Journal of Third World Studie s, 18(2), 209-238.
Scholars have argued that money politics has assumed an

infamous popularity in Nigerian politics thereby entrenching the
politics of the highest bidders in the democratic practices. This
article examines the implication of money politics on
contemporary Nigerian politics and its future. It took a look at the
factors that encourage this practice and its consequences on the
body politics in the aborted Third Republic. Thereafter, it suggests
measures to be adopted in order to curb it. The author describes
money politics as not merely the use of excessive money in
political process but an apparent manifestation of corrupt
practices carried out through the instrumentality of money in the
electioneering process. It identifies colonialism, capitalism, and
weak institutions as the impetus for money politics in Nigeria. It
further describes bad governance, executive recklessness, and
financial impropriety as consequence of money politics on the
polity. The writer contends strongly that in order to curb this act,
the form and content of governance should be reviewed,
democratic culture should be deepened and entrenched in the
electioneering process and the military should not be included in
the democratic process.
475. Wilkie, M. K. (2008). The Effects if Foreign Aid on

Perceptions of Political Corruption in Sub-Saharan Africa.
(Masters Dissertation) University of Central Florida, Florida,
U.S.A.
The dissertation set out to test a hypothesis that sub-Saharan

African countries receiving more foreign aid would be more likely
to maintain higher levels of perceived corruption. Using
318
regression analysis, the researcher tests this hypothesis on two

models: the first over a period of nine years and the second, on
just one year. Results suggest a significantly negative relationship
between the two variables, over a period of nine years, with
foreign aid losing its significance on perceptions of political
corruption over a one year period.
Using Nigeria as a case study, the dissertation analyzes the effects
of foreign aid on governance and economic policy environment,
with corruption being a major factor on both. The results suggest
that increases in foreign aid to Nigeria paralleled improved
perceptions of political corruption and that the reforms initiated
during the President Olusegun Obasanjo tenure (1999 - 2007)
were the major facts in this positive perception shift. The
dissertation concludes that foreign aid given to countries with
reform-minded governments is more likely to contribute to the
fight against corruption.
476. Zaka, P. A. (2013). Curbing Corruption in Nigeria,

a Necessity and a Reality. Ilorin: Gosh Impression.
Uncontrolled corruption can lead to waste of public resources,

ultimately contributing to lower development rate. This appears
to be the main problem of Nigeria today. This 209 -page book
examines the growing threat of corruption in Nigeria. The
author’s main objective was to show that all Nigerians have in one
way or the other contributed to the problem. The book covers the
existence of corruption from the precolonial, postindependence
and present era. It also examines the causes and effects of
corruption and past efforts to deal with corruption in Nigeria.
Finally, it offers some recommendations drawn mainly from a
religious standpoint emphasizing the role of the church.
319
477. Zowam, G. (2007). Strategy for a Final Assault on

Corruption. Abuja: Organization and Productivity Consultants
Limited.
Obviously, Nigeria is in search of a stable and prosperous

economy. However, these attributes cannot be actualized if
corruption continues to have a free-hand as it is doing for now.
This informed the actions taken by Nigeria under President
Olusegun Obasanjo to tame the monster of corruption. This book
offers an in-depth review of corruption in Nigeria with emphasis
on the measures taken by the Obasanjo’s administration to fight
it. It also includes some analysis on the meaning, types and causes
of corruption. The book draws from past previews, anti-coruption
crusades and suggests some useful and new ways of dealing with
corruption in the post-Obasanjo era.
Psychology
478. Adebayo, D. O. (2005). Gender and Attitudes toward

Professional Ethics: A Nigeria Police Perspective . African
Security Review, 14(2), 93-100.
The Nigerian police is generally seen as one of the most corrupt

public institutions in Nigeria. Yet within the same police force,
attitudes towards corruption vary. Using a cross-sectional survey,
and socialization theory (Gilligan’s moral development theory),
this article attempts an evaluation of the influence of gender and
age on attitude towards the profession, ethics and corruption in
the Nigerian police. This study discovers that corruption has
become synonymous with Nigeria and its effect on the nation is
enormous. Today, corruption can be seen in almost all sector of
the polity, and the Nigerian police, despite their role in criminal
320
justice are not immune to corruption. Corruption in the Nigerian

police has largely been blamed on a number of institutional and
structural factors, including underpayment, stressful working
condition, poor equipment, and inadequate accommodation. The
article argues that though these factors appear plausible, they
cannot explain the phenomenon completely. According to the
findings of this study, gender and age differences also affect the
ethical beliefs of police officers. Thus, female and older police
officers tend to be more ethical than their male and younger
counterparts.
479. Adejumo, A. O. & Ogbewe, C. (2011). Relationship

between Psycho-Demographic Factors and Perception of
Corruption by Local Government Civil Servants in Osun State,
Nigeria. Ife Psychologia, 19(1), 70–82.
Corruption has become one of the most widely debated and

contentious issues in local and international contexts. This study
investigates the relationship between psychological and
demographic factors in predicting the perception of corruption.
The study further highlights the importance of fraudulent intent,
personality and age as factors critical to the understanding of an
individual’s perception of corruption, suggesting the need for
national reorientation and mobilization to reawaken positive
cognitive appraisal and response to corruption. The research
concludes by calling for the empowerment of both the private and
public sectors and security service agencies to screen members of
the society for the psychodemographic variables found significant
in this study before permitting them for enlistment in legitimate
services.
321
480. Ademola, S. T. & Okezie, N. G. (2007). Empirical

Analysis of Contentment and its Relevance in a Corrupt Society.
In A. D. Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the Challenge of Human
Development (pp. 93-102). Ilishan-Remo: Babcock University
Press.
Whether the cause of corruption is due to individual greed or a

product of the system within which it operates is still a subject of
debate. From an empirical perspective, this article compares the
correlation that exists between corruption and contentment. The
main objective of the work was to explain the causes of corruption
from a scientific perspective and proffer solution on how to
combat the epidemic. The article conceptualizes corruption as the
use of public power for private profit. The article traced the
historical origin of corruption to the Garden of Eden, where Adam
and Eve failed in their assignment due to lack of contentment, and
till date men are not free from selfishness which leads to
corruption. In the specific case of Nigeria, the role played by past
leaders is emphasized as a facilitator of corruption. The
suggestions put forward by the author are simple: if contentment
is available, we will have a corruption free society. The war
against corruption by the government and its anti-coruption
agencies must be intensified to bring corruption to its kneels in
Nigeria.
481. Adeniji, D. O., Adediran, C. A. , & Adedokun, Y.

(2011). Feminine Impact on the Control of Corruption in Nigeria.
In A. B. Sunday (Ed.), Corruption, Democracy and Good
Governance in Nigeria (pp.200-221). Saki: Real Success
Consults.
Nigeria suffers from endemic and systematic corruption which

harms the growth and development of the country. The magnitude
of corruption in Nigeria is so grave that it erodes her sense of
322
discipline and moral values. Much of the literatures, fields and

empirical research work see corruption mainly from the male
gender perspectives, hence the need to consider feminine
approach for attacking corruption. This article examines the
concepts, causes, and consequences of corruption and attempts an
appraisal of various anti-coruption strategies and the feminine
impact on corruption control. It notes that many strategies at
curbing the menace have been adopted, yet the outcome is
insignificant. The article argues that the evils of corruption can be
abated by recognizing the unique role of females in the homefront
and in leadership positions in government, so as to maximally
display their potential in contributing to ensuring a corrupt-free
society. It, therefore, emphasizes among others, the imbibing of
the doctrine of transparency and accountability by political
leaders, inculcating the right democratic ethos in the citizens from
infancy and giving opportunities to women professionals and
technocrats to serve in the country.
482. Ajila, O. C. (2005). Corruption: A Socio -

Psychological Perspective. Ife Social Science Review, Journal of
the Faculty of Social Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University,
Special edition, October, 116-122.
Corruption is an endemic social malaise, and an integral part of

poor governance and the symptom of the moral indiscipline and
moral decadence of the society. Bribery and corruption in Nigeria
has a deep-rooted origin. Corruption has become so endemic in
Nigeria that some people now seek public office to make money
through dishonest means rather than service to people. This article
examines corruption from a socio-psychological point of view.
Specifically, it looks at the definition of corruption and its
precipitating factors. It also presents a socio-psychological
perspective of corruption and proffers solutions on the possible
ways of curtailing or minimizing the social malaise in Nigeria.
323
The article concludes that corruption thrives in Nigeria because

most people are allowed to get away with being corrupt. Hence,
war against corruption should include restructuring the economic
system along with welfarism where basic (psychological) needs
of the people are guaranteed and where the minimum level of
human survival is provided by the system. In addition, the need to
uproot corruption from our national psyche is of great necessity.
Actions taken should focus not only on the costs of corruption but
also address the underlying causes.
483. Alalade, F. O., Bamisay, O. A. , & Fagbadebo, F. O.

(2007). Evaluation of Gender and Corruption in Nigeria Under
President Olusegun Obasanjo. In A. D. Aina (Ed.), Corruption
and the Challenge of Human Development (pp.467-471). Ilishan-
Remo, Babcock University Press Ltd.
Only very few studies have attempted to look at the role of gender
in corruption. This article is an attempt to examine if corruption
is a function of gender, the factors responsible for the
pervasiveness of corruption in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic and the
strategies for combating corruption in Nigeria. The article is
divided into six sections. These sections covers a wide range of
topics including the meaning and components of corruption, the
levels of corruption and its historical antecedents, gender and
corruption in Nigeria and an analysis of Obasanjo’s
administration. Based on its findings, the article concludes that
imputing the prevalence of corruption in Nigeria to gender,
amounts to a fallacy. It affirms that corruption in Nigeria under
President Olusegun Obasanjo can be attributed to the insecurity
of the people at the helm of affairs, who perceive the national
economy as the avenue to secure future prosperity. The article
recommends self-disqualification through self-exposure,
irrespective of gender inclination as the potential platform
through which corruption could be eliminated. It also suggests
324
that the legal instruments should be backed with an astute political

will to make them enforceable.
484. Aremu, O. A., Pakes, F. , & Johnston, L. (2009).

Therapeutic Effectiveness of Self-Efficacy in the Reduction of
Police Attitude to Corruption in Nigeria. The Police Journal,
82(4), 331-348.
How to reform the Nigerian police has become an urgent issue

given the routine involvement of its officers in corrupt practices.
This article gives an appraisal of the therapeutic effectiveness of
self-efficacy as a counseling strategy in tackling the Nigerian
police behavior towards corruption. The study adopts a
quasiexperimental approach, with 200 police personnel
purposively and conveniently sampled from two state police
commands in Ogun and Lagos states. The findings indicate that
the self-efficacy counseling strategy positively influences the
corrupt attitudes of the treated group. Gender was found to
moderate significantly, with female police officers showing more
positive change than their male counterparts. Thus, the result
implies that the inclusion of self-efficacy counseling as a bottom-
up approach framework is effective in tackling corruption in the
Nigerian police. This will also aid policies aimed at police
transformation, police practice and counseling practice.
485. Aremu, O. A., Pakes, F. , & Johnston, L. (2009). The

Effect of Locus of Control in the Reduction of Corruption in the
Nigerian Police. Policing: An International Journal of Police
Strategies & Management, 32(1), 144-156.
The widespread nature of corruption in the Nigerian police has led

to calls for radical reorientation of policemen. This article
examines the concept of locus of control counseling approach and
how it can aid in the improvement of police ethical standards and
325
thus reduce police corruption in Nigeria. Locus of control is the

perception of an individual about events in his or her life. Using a
pretest, post-test, and control group quasiexperimental approach,
200 police personnel were conveniently sampled from Oyo and
Lagos states police commands. Quantitative data were collected
with a 100 percent success rate using a valid and reliable
instrument, the police ethical behavior scale (PEBS). Using
analysis of covariance and t-test statistics on three generated
hypotheses, the findings indicates that locus of control as a
counseling technique could significantly reduce police corruption.
The moderating effect of gender and career status on the
intervention (locus of control) shows that female participants and
senior police officers demonstrate a stronger reduction on the
corruption measure. The study concludes that to successfully
transform the Nigerian police, the locus of control as a counseling
technique should be integrated into the police training. The study
thus fills the existing research gap by utilizing locus of control as
a counseling intervention strategy.
486. Gire, J. T. (1999). A Psychological An alysis of

Corruption in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development in
Africa, 1(2), 1–15.
Scholarly works on corruption in Nigeria have been dominated by

political science and, to a limited extent, sociology and
economics. This work is a major contribution from a psychologist.
Employing Abraham Maslow’s concept of hierarchy of needs and
Albert Bandura’s perspective of social learning theory, the author
attempts an analysis of the physical and psychological conditions
in Nigeria today that tend to have predictable effects on behavior,
including corruption. The article argues that corruption is no
doubt occupying prominence on the reasons for Nigeria’s
economic and developmental ills, but that overlooking the
psychological viewpoint is a major reason why current attempts
326
at tackling corruption have failed. The article made use of the

observational learning processes to ascertain the prevalence of
corruption as well as the causes of corruption. Providing
appropriate punishment for corruption in and of itself is not
sufficient to eliminate corruption as the phenomenon of
corruption has multiple causes. The article concludes by arguing
that increasingly worsening economic situation has led to a
corresponding decrease in the standard of living of most
Nigerians, and coupled with other factors that encourage
corruption. Hence to eradicate corruption, there must be political
will by the government, a conducive economic climate, and
unemployment insurance for the working class to reduce the
worry of job insecurity.
487. Ikpefan, O. A. (2008). Employees’ perception on the

possibility of corruption eradication in Nigeria (A case study of
Edo/Delta state civil service. In Proceedings of the 1st
International Conference on Socio- Economic Policies and
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in Africa, Faculty of
Social Science, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba, Nigeria
Ondo State, 166-175.
Corruption is no doubt endemic in the Nigerian society.

Evidences also abound of how successive government’s effort at
curbing the menace had fizzled out with time. It is on this note
that this study examines employee’s perception of the possibility
of corruption eradication. To consummate this study,
questionnaires were administered in Edo and Delta states as the
demographic areas used as the case study. Further determinants
and control of corruption was explored. Frequency distribution
and the analyses of variance were used in the analysis. The
findings confirmed that age and educational attainment does not
have significant impact on employees’ views on corruption
327
eradication. It was also confirmed that Nigerians believe that total

eradication of corruption is not very feasible.
488. Nwankwo, A. C. (2003). Forms and Incidence of

Corruption in the Present Day Democratic Dispensation in
Nigeria: Implications for Counselling. In G. Onu (Ed.),
Perspective (pp. 208-217). Awka: Bookpoint Limited.
Several forms of corruption can be observed in the present

dispensation and the frequencies at which these corrupt practices
occur in the Nigerian society have become worrisome. This study
is an empirical investigation to this phenomenon. The author
sought the views of children, adolescents and adults on the forms
and incidence of corruption in the country. The purpose is to
identify the prevailing forms of corruption, ascertain the rate at
which they occur in the present day democratic dispensation in
order to know where and how counseling could be given. Based
on the analysis, there are up to 38 forms of corruption in the
present day democratic dispensation and there is a very high
incidence of most of the forms of corruption in the country today.
In addition, there is no significant difference in view of male and
female respondents with regard to the forms and incidence of
corruption, while the views of children, adolescents and adults did
not differ significantly on the forms and incidence of corruption
in Nigeria today. The article contends that an excessive pursuit of
the factors of life is detrimental to the growth and progress of any
society and that greed has been observed as the permanent seed in
the heart of many Nigerians. Implications of the findings to
counseling include the need for serious counseling services and
programs in schools, homes, villages and establishment involving
all categories of people. In addition, an anti-corruption legisation
should make leaders to do self-evaluation and self-criticism with
a view to adopting a culture of accountability.
328
489. Odemba A. S. (2010). Corruption in Sub-Sahara

Africa: A Phenomenological Study. (Doctoral Thesis) University
of Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A.
This doctoral thesis focuses on identifying and describing

challenges encountered by sub-Sahara Africa government leaders
in addressing corrupt practices. Nigeria is one of the countries that
receives significant attention throughout the discussion. The
researcher adopts the qualitative phenomenological research
method developed by Adrian van Kaam and modified by Clark
Moustakas, as premise for the research design. From the interview
data collected, five areas requiring change are identified:
education and behaviors among citizens, media freedom,
government transparency, election reform, and global sanctions.
The researcher consequently makes the following
recommendations to assist government leaders in combating
corruption: civic education of ethics, reform of the legal and
political system, improvement of procurement procedures,
stringent court and departmental punishment; and engagement of
civic organizations in the war against corrupt practices.
490. Omoluabi, P. (2005). Psychological Concomitants of

Corruption in Nigeria. In L. Olurode, & R. Anifowose, (Eds.),
Rich But Poor: Corruption and Good Governance in Nigeria
(pp.109-119). Lagos: Faculty of Social Sciences, University of
Lagos.
The article aims at highlighting, from a psychological perspective,

the concept, characteristics, causes and prevention of corruption,
focusing on those psychological factors, which have predisposed
individuals or groups to engage in corrupt practices as receivers,
givers and extortionists. It conceptualizes corruption, identifies its
main characteristics, the causes, effects, and approaches in the
perpetuation of corruption. It identifies ways of preventing
329
individuals from engaging in corrupt practices to include the

cognitive appraisal approach, due process, refusing unwarranted
offers, resisting unwarranted demands, leaving to delay
gratification needs, enhanced religiosity, and personal principles.
The author is of the view that since we can learn corruption
through socialization, we can unlearn it through the process of
resocialization and by instituting an effective and appropriate
machinery to detect and punish the offence through appropriate
and prompt sanctions. He notes that a sustained anti-coruption
measure must be premised on the provision of reasonable living
standards that seeks to elevate the majority of the people above
poverty line.
491. Oyedipo, F.P.A . (1986). Corruption, personality and

Transcendental Meditation. In F. Odekunle (Ed.), Nigeria:
Corruption in Development (pp. 220-226). Ibadan: Ibadan
University Press.
Corruption is prevalent in the Nigerian society, and several

explanations have been advanced for this. This article basically
tries to examine the relative importance of corruption, and the role
of the extended family in Nigeria. It also examines the
politicoeconomic structure of the country and the value of
socialism and personality requirements. Finally, the article
examines the possible role of transcendental meditation toward
improving any deficiencies in the nationalist personality
formation.
330
Religious Studies
492. Adebayo, R. I. (2013). The Imperative for

Integrating Religion in the Anti-Corruption Crusade in Nigeria: A
Muslim Perspective. Centrepoint Journal, 15(1), 1-24.
The centrality of crusades against corruption in Nigeria cannot be

overemphasized. This article attempts an historical overview of
the crusades against corruption in Nigeria. It recognizes the
efforts of the Nigerian government, both civilian and military
since independence in tackling the menace of corruption, but
notes with dismay the neglect of religion as a viable means for
tackling corruption. The article attempts a justification for
incorporating religion into anti-coruption crusade in Nigeria. It
argues that the scripture contains moral virtues like justice,
sincerity, love, goodness, accountability, truthfulness,
trustworthiness and equity which are no doubt necessary
ingredients for curbing corrupt practices in the nation. The article
also discussed the constraints of using religion to curb corruption,
and went on to discuss the modality for integrating religion into
the anti-coruption crusade. According to the author, the fight
against corruption is not only an existential necessity but also a
divine imperative. This means that religion has a crucial role to
play in the fight against corruption.
493. Agba, M. S. (2010). Combating Corruption for

Sustainable Developmental Growth in Nigeria: Exploring the
Paradigm of Divine Option. International Business and
Management, 1(1), 16-21.
The past few years has seen growing interest in the analysis of
corruption and the attendant effect of corruption to development
in Nigeria. The article argues that corruption has been the
impediment to development in Nigeria. It argues that although
331
corruption is a global phenomenon affecting both developing and

developed nations alike, its effect on Nigeria is quite more
devastating. The author notes that past attempts by government in
curbing or eradicating corruption in Nigeria have failed for
various reasons some of which are decay in societal values;
perception of political office as primary means of gaining
accesses to wealth; the weakness of social and governmental
enforcement agencies; lack of political will to fight corruption and
the absence of a strong sense of national community due to ethnic
diversity of the country. For the author, however, the questions of
corruption and leadership in Nigeria are cardinal in every
development effort in the country. Against that background, this
article explores the paradigm of divine option as potent instrument
in combating corruption in Nigeria. It also emphasizes the need
for strong political will by the leadership and for the various anti-
coruption agencies in Nigeria to network with organizations and
individuals who are known for their straightforwardness in their
effort to stamp out corruption in the country.
494. Aiyede, E. R., Simbine, A. T., Fagge, M. A., &

Olaniyi, R. (2011). Religion, Ethics and Attitudes towards
Corruption in Nigeria: A Historio -grahical Review. Research for
Development, 25(1 & 2), 205-237.
Religious institutions have recently become a critical voice in

Nigeria’s anti-coruption struggles. Yet, their role in promoting the
menace has also been criticized by some analysts. The objective
of the article is to show that religion and ethics in Nigeria cannot
be divorced from the country’s corruption challenges. T he article
conceptualizes corruption as an enigma in the Nigerian system
and maintains that corruption is widespread in the government
parastatals, where it has been given different names. African
traditional religion, Christianity and Islam is not corruption free.
Culture, religion, tradition and modernity all has elements of
332
corruption. The article also reviewed the anti-coruption enterprise

in Nigeria and the role of faith-based organizations in it. The
argument is simple: corruption is heterogeneous and
multireligious in Nigeria and it is a complex phenomenon that cut
across all sectors of Nigeria structures. Corruption goes beyond
mere idea of right and wrong, legal and illegal, as it includes all
disapproved behaviors.
495. Akpabio, E. (2005). The Role of the Church in Anti-

Corruption Campaign in Nigeria. Abuja: White House Press.
Most religions preach virtues that abhor corruption. In an era of

growing corruption, many look up to the Church and its leaders to
provide guidance to help society over the problem of corruption.
The Christian faith is no exception. This short book written by a
Christian clergy represents an effort in that direction. The work
examines the origin, cause and effect of corruption in Nigeria. The
author contends that the government and political leaders are
largely responsible for the spread of corruption, as well as
Nigeria’s refusal to work according to the purpose and teachings
of God. The effect of corruption according to him includes
retarded economic growth and poor international image. He
concludes that the church has a great role to play in bringing about
change (even though the church itself is often in a dilemma) by
inculcating the right attitude to members, discipline its corrupt
members and purge itself of corruption.
496. Alanamu, A. S., Adeoye, M. N. , & Yinusa, M. A.

(2009). The role of Religions in combating corruption in Nigeria.
In U. D. Enweremadu & E. E. Okafor (Ed.), Anti- Corruption
Reforms in Nigeria Since 1999 Issues, Challenges and the Way
Forward (pp.31-42). Ibadan, IFRA Special Research Issue, Vol.
3, 2009.
333
Religion has widely been perceived as a moral force for social

change. Yet in Nigeria, religious institutions have played little or
no role in the continued search for a more honest and accountable
leadership. This article examines the relationship between
corruption and religion, defined as the feeling and experience of
individuals in relation to whatever they consider to divine. Two
theoretical frameworks were used in this study. One is idealistic
explanation, and the other anomie theory which regards
corruption as a form of deviant behavior, that is contrary to the
values being promoted by religious bodies in the country. Some
current trends in corruption in Nigeria, especially those occurring
from 2003–2008 were discussed. The article suggest that the two
dominant religions in Nigeria, Christianity and Islam, which
values purity, chastity, honesty, and modesty etc. should fully
implement the tenets of morality and ethics as imbibed in their
religious holy books and this will help in eliminating corruption.
The authors state that the clergy need to be reawakened on the
importance of fighting corruption in Nigeria since the government
cannot do it alone.
497. Al-Tukry, I. A. I (2007). Islam Probity and

Accountability: A Model for Shariah Implementation State . In A.
M. Inuwa (Ed.), Executive Session on Corruption: Corruption in
Contemporary Governance, Public Complaints and Anti-
Corruption Directorate, Kano State Government (pp. 16-49).
An increasing number of scholars have emphasized the benefits

of a religious approach to fighting corruption. This article
examines the concept probity and accountability and the role of
Islam and Shariah in advancing and entrenching them. Writing
from an Islamic perspective, the author argues that Nigeria is
currently experiencing severe corruption and loss of development
because of the absence of dedicated and God-fearing leadership.
The writer contends that Islam teaches its adherents moral
334
conducts and uprightness which lies at the root of Islamic faith.

He concludes that Shariah practicing states have not always
adhered to this principles and this has severely weakened the
credibility of the Shariah project and given it a negative image.
He recommends ethical reorientation, strong application of laws
and leadership by example.
498. Amanze, O. P. (2007). The Role of Preachin g in

Combating Corruption in Today’s World. In A. D. Aina (Ed.),
Corruption and the Challenge of Human Development (pp. 83-
92). Ilishan-Remo: Babcock University Press.
Nigerians are widely perceived as one of the most religious people

on earth. Yet corrupt ion has continued to grow in Nigeria. This
article addresses the irony of rapid spread of corruption despite
the sporadic growth in the number of churches. The leadership of
the church are being questioned on issues that borders on ethics
and morality among church members. This study conceptualizes
corruption as a global phenomenon but and states that corruption
can be tackled if human development becomes a national priority,
and national progress becomes the focal point of interest. In the
article, the effectiveness of preaching as a tool for combating
corruption was emphasized. The author argues that church leaders
must learn to be selfless in other to assist the government in
combating corruption which is posing a major threat to the socio-
economic development of the country. Suggestions were also
made in the article on a total change needed in the mode of
preaching. Preachers should faithfully teach the true tenets of
Christianity and not see preaching as business as usual while the
nation suffers from under-development. If these are done, the
church will truly play its role in combating all phases of
corruption in our contemporary society.
335
499. Ehioghae, M. E. (2007). Agenda for a Corrupt Free

Society: The Spiritual Dimension. In A. D. Aina, (Ed.),
Corruption and the Challenge of Human Development (pp.31-
39). Ilishan –Remo: Babcock University Press.
The genesis of corruption in Nigeria is one issue that has polarized

corruption experts. This article is another attempt to understand
the origin and evolution of corruption in Nigeria which is
considered as a national threat. The main trust of the work centers
on the spiritual dimensions of corruption, in particular, the roles
of the clergies from both Christian and Islamic religions. The
author argues that the origin of corruption can be traced to the
Holy Bible when Gehazi, servant of Elisha, collected bribes. The
article cites other references to show how corruption emanated
from the spiritual realm. The author investigates the reason for the
inability of the Church and Mosque to help in the elimination of
corruption despites the teachings of their faith. The article states
that greed, poverty and pervasion of social values by both spiritual
and political leadership are the major obstacles to the fight against
corruption. To tackle corruption, in all sectors of the economy, the
spiritual leaders most change their method of preaching.
500. Ejikeme N. R. (undated). Corruption in Nigeria: A

Manifestation of Bad Governance: A Socio-ethical Survey in the
Light of the Social Teachings of the Church; with Particular
Reference to Gaudium et Spes and Poplorum Progressio .
Doctoral Thesis, Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg,
Germany.
This thesis attempts an understanding of corruption in Nigeria

from the religious perspective. It examines the influence of
religion in the socio-political lives of the different ethnic groups
in the pre-colonial and colonial Nigerian eras and suggests that
336
colonialism helped in making political corruption a part and

parcel of governance in Nigeria.
The thesis also examines the social teachings of the universal and
particular Church on corruption with particular attention to
Gaudium et Spes, Populorum Progressio and the teachings of the
Nigerian Catholic Bishops. It concludes that Nigerians have heard
and read enough of skilled homilies and sermons and calls on the
Church to demonstrate more practical leadership in the fight
against corruption. Also that the government should embark on
social justice initiatives while the governed move away from their
passive attitude towards corruption.
501. Ehusani, G. (2003). Religion and the Scourge of

Corruption in Nigeria. In A. Aderinwale (Ed.), Corruption,
Accountability and Transparency for Sustainable Development
(pp.171-184). Ota: African Leadership Forum.
Religious explanations are increasingly becoming common in the

literature of corruption in Nigeria. This article is one of such
attempts. The author gives an account of corruption in Nigeria
bearing in mind, the level of religiosity in Nigeria. Employing
biblical references, the author attempts to analyze corruption in
Nigeria. The article observes that despite the depth of religious
involvement of the Nigerian nation, the practice of corruption is
still at an alarming rate. Corruption according to the article is
responsible for the present deplorable situation in Nigeria.
Accountability, strengthening of the judicial system and law
enforcement, and changing individual minds and the collective
conscience of Nigerians to make them more sensitive to the
concept of right and wrong are needed to halt corruption in
Nigeria.
337
502. Faleye, A. O. (2013). Religious Corruption: A

Dilemma of the Nigerian State. Journal of Sustainable
Development in Africa, 15(1), 170-185.
While most studies emphasize the useful role of religion in

curtailing corruption, the role of religious institutions in fueling
corrupt practices are often ignored. This work, attempts a cursory
look at some of the problems associated with “corrupt evangelism
and indoctrination” in Nigeria, and their implications for national
development. Drawing examples from the experiences of
Christian and Muslim communities, this scholar argues that the
overbearing influence of religion on national values is responsible
for the widespread corruption in Nigeria. He also submits that
religion has also been the vehicle under which other vices such as
terrorism are perpetrated. For these reasons, the author suggests
that religious bodies should also henceforth be held accountable
for the funds they receive and the doctrine they disseminate.
503. Makpu, M. I. (2012). The Biblical Law: A Panacea

to Reduce Corruption in Nigeria. Journal of Arts and
Contemporary Society, 4, March, 42-50.
From a Christian religious background, this article provides

another insight into the concept of corruption and the causes of
corruption. Adopting structural functionalism approach as basis
for analysis, the article attempts to show how and why Nigerian
institutional structures are the main causes of corruption. The
main theme of the article is to examine biblical law as a
framework for reducing corruption in Nigeria. The article
concludes that corruption can be successfully curbed if more roles
are given to the preachers in the various religions who are
considered as the mouthpiece of God. The article also makes
recommendations along the lines of attitudinal change and mass
education of the people.
338
504. Marquette H. (2012). ‘Finding God’ or ‘Moral

Disengagement’ in the Fight against Corruption in Developing
Countries? Evidence from India and Nigeria. Public
Administration & Development, 32(1), 11-26.
There have been growing calls for an enhanced role for religious
institutions in the ongoing fight against corruption. These calls are
often premised on the basis of the assumption that religious
people are more concerned with ethics than with the nonreligious,
despite the fact that many of the most corrupt countries in the
world also rank highly in terms of religiosity. This article
examines the causal relationship between religion and corruption
which the author found to be questionable due to methodologies
being used to build up evidence of a causal relationship. For
instance, the article presents findings from field research in India
and Nigeria that explores how individual attitudes towards
corruption may (or may not) be shaped by religion. The research
shows that religion may have some impact on attitudes towards
corruption, but it has very little likely impact on actual corrupt
behavior. This is because—despite universal condemnation of
corruption—it is seen by respondents as being so systemic that
being incorrupt often makes little sense.
505. Moshood, H. A. (2007). Ethics, Corruption, and

Accountability in Governance in Nigeria: Islamic Approach.
Paper delivered during an International Conference on Nigeria in

the 21st Century: Issues and Challenges, Faculty of
Ife/Conference Centre of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile -
Ife, Nigeria, September 6. Despite being a multireligious society,
some Nigerians have pushed for a religious solution to corruption.
Employing the holy Quran as a model for analysis, this paper
attempts to establish a nexus between corruption,
339
unaccountability and the concept of “shameful deeds” as

mentioned in the holy Quran (Q7:33). The paper argues that these
problems have contributed in no small measure to the challenges
of governance in Nigeria. According to the author, there are three
levels of corruption. This includes street level corruption,
business corruption and high level corruption. In relation to the
volume of resources involved, corruption can be termed either
petty or grand corruption. The paper argues that though grand
corruption affects the country more in view of its magnitude,
much of the negative perspective suffered in Nigeria is as a result
of petty corruption. Corruption is also found both in the public
and private sectors, and both have eaten deep into the very
existence of the nation. There is, therefore, a need for
accountability in order to have good governance. After examining
the Islamic ethics of governance, He argues that the action of
every Muslim should be guided by God and the Quran. The paper
concludes by recommending reforms, made possible through the
adoption of Islamic social ethics, which emphasize the need to put
God first, as ways to solve these problems.
506. Nwaomah, M. S. (2007). The role of the church in

combating corruption in Nigeria. In A. D. Aina (Ed.), Corruption
and the challenge of human development (pp.73–82). Ilishan-
In recent times, the battle against corruption has attracted the

attention of civil society actors, such as the church which has
expressed worry about the increasing cost of corruption. This
article examines the rise of corruption as an enigma in Nigeria and
how different regimes both military and civilian have attempted
to combat it even though they ended up fuelling its spread. It also
examines causes and effects of corruption and shows its negative
impact on the economic, political, social, cultural, and spiritual
order. From the perspective of the church as an institution of
340
holiness, the author describes how the church has helped in the
promotion of corruption which, ironically, the church is expected
to fight against because of its moral and spiritual ethics as written
in the bible. The inability of anti-coruption agencies like EFCC,
ICPC, Code of Conduct Bureau, etc., to curb corruption is seen as
sign of leadership failure and citizen docility. To remedy t he
problem, the author suggests a change in the method of preaching
by church leaders, calling on them to identify with the government
for a holistic battle against corruption.
507. Obeta, J. S. (2002). Corrupt practices in the Old

Testament: Reflections in the contemporary Nigerian society. In
C. O. T. Ugwu (Ed.), Corruption in Nigeria: Critical
Scholars have argued that corruption is not new to human

societies. This article examines various meaning of corruption as
denoted in the Old Testament, various corrupt practices in the Old
Testament and how it is manifesting in contemporar y Nigerian
society. It describes corruption as dishonest, immoral and
idolatrous act. The study identifies the socio-political and
religious manifestations of corruption in the Old Testament that
are manifesting in contemporary society. These include incest,
impersonation, sit-tight syndrome, dishonesty, abuse of office,
political assassination among others. The article argues that in
spite of the prayers that are made to stem the tide, corruption is
growing in Nigeria. The writer concludes, like the prophet Amos
in the Christian Bible that if nothing is done to curb corruption in
the Nigerian society, the country might just attract the wrath of
God.
341
508. Ogunji, J. A. & Adiboye, G. O. (2007). Development

of spiritual intelligence: A panacea for eradicating corruption. In
A. D. Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the challenge of human
University Press.
Analysing corruption from a spiritual prism is an approach that is

novel in the study of corruption. This work examines corruption
from a spiritual dimension, focusing on how to tackle the problem
of corruption in Nigeria. It provides a working understanding of
spiritual intelligence and how it can be developed as a tool against
corruption from a Christian biblical perspective. It explores the
ways of developing spiritual intelligence as well as indicators of
spiritual intelligence which includes love, faith, joy and peace.
The development of spiritual intelligence refers to skills, abilities,
and behaviors required to maintain a relationship with the ultimate
source of life, God. It posits that eradicating human corruption is
not a function of academic enlightenment or law enforcement, but
a function of development of spiritual intelligence or wisdom
which are evident in spiritual values. This article posits that
spiritual intelligence is a tool for eradicating corruption due to its
core operations discernment. Discernment, according to the Bible,
makes people open to learning and seeing the true import of their
actions and how it affects others. It enables individuals to move
from the egocentric intent behind corruption to having a holistic
picture of the negative impact of corruption on human existence.
509. Olabode, B. O. & Oke, O. P. (2011). Corruption and

religious values: An exploration into the manipulation of religion
as an agent of corruption. In A. B. Sunday (Ed.), Corruption,
democracy and good governance in Nigeria (pp.101–119). Saki,
342
The menace of corruption has emerged as a major impediment to

national development in contemporary Nigeria. It is the most
single social problem in the country. Religion, which is central to
all aspects of human development have, however, failed in its
function of checking corruption in the country. Religion in
Nigeria today dampens, destroys and weakens the revolutionary
quest and ability to revolt against unjust social order. This article
examines the role of religion in aiding and abetting corruption in
Nigeria. It adopts a structural strain theory/anomy to
conceptualize corruption and a structural functionalist perspective
to examine religion. It concludes that religion, instead of reducing
corruption, is aiding and abetting it. It emphasizes the need to
deconstruct religion as well as renew and reform our religious
institutions to enable them to perform their socially expected roles
and help provide the impetus for socio-spiritual rebirth.
510. Oke, O. P. , & Adebisi, O. M. (2011). Abating

corruption for good governance: The role of religious leaders. In
A. B. Sunday (Ed.), Corruption, democracy and good governance
in Nigeria (pp.142–155). Saki: Real Success Consults.
Corruption has been threatening the democratic foundations of

Nigeria since independence in 1960, and it has become the biggest
challenge militating against Nigeria’s democratization strides.
This article examines the role of religious leaders in abating
corruption and installing good governance. It conceptualizes
corruption and identifies its root causes and the multidimensional
nature of the cankerworm in Nigeria. It also examines the
manifestation and connection of corruption in religion. The article
concludes that there can be no solution to Nigeria’s manifold
problems, unless the religious leaders take the bull by the horn in
their efforts to fight corruption to the barest minimum. It calls for
repentance and a change of heart on the part of religious leaders
which will lead to the transformation of the church and society in
343
general. It argues that good governance can be achieved only

when religious leaders make a concerted effort, through
leadership by example. It emphasizes the need to create a forum
through which corrupt men of God would be asked to face the
music. Publications on scandalous acts of committed ministers
should not be overlooked. Religious leaders should be
accountable and in collaboration with the government, should
keep members under a close watch.
511. Okwueze, I. M. (2002). Corruption in Nigeria:

Lessons from the Old Testament. In C. O. T. Ugwu (Ed.),
(pp.230–242). Nsukka, Nigeria: Chuka Educational Publishers.
Corruption has been identified as one of the social malaises of any

organized society. The article examines the history and causes of
corruption in Nigeria. The author identifies wrong attitude of the
people to public office holders, collapse of moral value and
obsession for material things as the major causes of corruption in
Nigeria and contends that corruption is responsible for the poor
states of things in Nigeria. It relates the prevailing conditions in
Nigeria with a particular time in Israel where Prophet Amos had
to address the elites on the need to curb corruption. The study,
therefore, suggests that those who occupy public offices should
live above board and should be wearied of good judgment as they
would be accountable to God at the end of time.
512. Onongha, K. (2007). Intersection of corruption and

Christian ethics: Towards a solution to a national problem. In A.
D. Aina (Ed.), Corruption and the challenge of human
University Press.
344
This article seeks to present corruption as a global epidemic which

has spread to all facets of the economy, including the health and
education sectors. The article argues that greed and materialism
are the major causes of corruption in Nigeria and other African
countries, and the cumulative effect of corruption on the state is
under-development. The main objective of the article is centered
on the applicability of the Christian ethics in our public sector. To
end corruption in Nigeria, ethics is considered as the main base
for change. And Christians must embrace moral ethics in other to
better the lots of the country. The article suggests that dependence
on power above and beyond our ability and building a relationship
with our creator and the community will help to contain
corruption. The author, however, acknowledges that the fight
against corruption must not be left to God alone, other anti-
coruption institutions must join in combating this biggest evil in
Nigeria.
513. Orji D. O. (2011) The Role Of The Churches in

Combatting Corruption Among Political Leaders in Anambra
State, Nigeria. (PhD Thesis) University of Nigeria, Nsukka,
Nigeria.
The thesis historicizes corruption in Nigeria generally then

narrows to corruption in Anambra State in South-East Nigeria.
The researcher argues that corruption is endemic among political
leaders in Anambra State and that this is of grave concern to
residents of the State. Avarice, greed and the ge t-rich quick
syndrome are identified as major causative factors of corrupt
actions.
Findings of the study suggest that there are overt causes of
corruption among political leaders in Anambra state arising from
avarice and greed. This has affected the well-being of individuals
and retarded progress in the state. The study also identifies
embezzlement of public fund, rigging of elections, kidnapping of
345
political opponents, thuggery and politically motivated killings as

the core of activities of some of the political leaders. The
researcher finds that the church has used preaching, prayer, social
action, exemplary lifestyle and sacrifice as strategies against
corruption. The thesis concludes that there is a fundamental and
innate relationship between the Church and the State and posits
that the Church is playing her expected role by challenging
political leaders to engage in the activities that are for the interest
of social progress in Anambra state.
514. Simbine, A. T., Aiyede, E. R., Olaniyi, R. , & Fagge,

M. A. (2011). What has religion got to do with it? Ethics and
attitudes towards corruption in Nigeria. Research for
Development, 25(1 & 2), 239–276.
The article examines how religion has been silent in the face of
corruption in public life in Nigeria, and how corruption has
greatly multiplied in the country. So there is need to research on
the determining causes of corruption in the country. The objective
of this work is to answer the questions on how morality, religion
and ethics can help in bringing a corrupt free Nigeria. The article
presents and discusses some facts on the correlation between
religion, ethics and corruption. Clarity was given between private
and public morality, as well as suggestions on how to tame corrupt
practices. The article suggests that the three main religions should
put measures in place to check corruption.
515. Ugwu, T. (2002). The “ cleansed” society: The Igbo

traditional religious attitude towards Corruption. In C. O. T.
Ugwu (Ed.), Corruption in Nigeria: Critical perspectives; A book
of readings (pp.191–199). Nsukka, Nigeria: Chuka Educational
Publishers.
346
Pervasive corruption has been argued to be a product of the

transition into a modern state. This article examines the traditional
Igbo society attitude to corruption and the reason for pervasive
corruption in our society. It identifies the abandonment of
traditional cultural practices which are rooted mainly in the
Supreme Being with other divinities. The author contends that the
Igbo traditional society was built on respect for ancestors, strict
observance of religious laws like oath taking and the observance
of social justice. It contends that while God remained supreme,
there are also respects for their ancestors who are seen as the
invisible guardians of morality and the police of the community.
Therefore, the writer advocates for the adoption of some elements
of traditional practices in our fight against corruption in the
present system in order to deter corrupt practices in our society.
516. Ugwueye, E. L. (2002). Religiosity without religion:

A survey of the decay in God’s house today. In C. O. T. Ugwu
readings (pp. 221–229). Nsukka, Nigeria: Chuka Educational
Publishers.
Religion has been described as the opium of the masses. This

article examines how societal decadence has crept into the
religious institutions particularly Pentecostal churches and the
way out of this poor state of affairs in Nigeria. It identifies
commercial factor as the major reason for establishing some of
these churches because of social insecurity, fear of the unknown,
frustration, unemployment, poverty and ignorance which have
pervaded the country. The author contends that through spurious
soothsaying and offerings, the people are exploited. He suggests
that proper education; help for one another in hours of need and
absolute faith in God is the only way out.
347
517. Umahi, A. G. (2007). Paul’s approach to bribery in

Acts 24:25–27: A Christian response to corruption in Nigeria. In
University Press.
This article is centered on the teachings of Apostle Paul, one of

the pillars of the Christian faith, and Biblical prescriptions on how
Christians and the entire mankind can imbibe the principle of
moral standard to fight corruption. The article highlights some
aspects of bribery and corruption, and its multifaceted nature,
including its political, academic, moral and social forms. Some
cases of past leaders who were found guilty of corruption by the
antigraft agencies and Transparency International were discussed.
These cases shows that the effect of corruption in all sectors of the
country is enormous .The article also examines all efforts made
by the government to fight corruption using bodies like the EFCC,
ICPC etc. Finally, the author suggests strategies for winning the
current war on corruption - total moral change by the Christians
by following the biblical teachings in the Holy Bible as instructed
both in the new and old testaments.
518. Yinusa, A. M. & Adeoye, N. M. (n.d.). Religious

alue: A panacea to corruption in Nigeria. Ilorin, Nigeria:
Department of Sociology, University of Ilorin. Retrieved from
https://www.unilorin.edu.ng/
publications/Religious%20Value%20&%20corruption.htm
In Nigeria, religion is central to all aspects of social, economic

and political life. This article examines the potential role of
religion as an anti-coruption force. According to the authors,
religion can serve as a springboard for the internalization of
values, which are fundamental to achieving correct human
behavior. This is possible because, religion dictates to mankind
348
basic values intended to guide people towards living an ideal

lifestyle. The core values of these religions, especially Islam and
Christianity which are widely practiced in Nigeria, are purity,
chastity, honesty, integrity, quality of moderation and humility. In
their estimation, the menace of corruption in Nigeria can be
drastically reduced and transformed through the internalization of
religious values.
519. Yusuf A., Ajidagba U. A. , & Yusuf, H. T. ( n.d.).

Socio-religious antidotes for combating corruption in Nigeria,
Ilorin, Nigeria: Department of Arts and Social Sciences
Education, University of Ilorin.
The authors of the article provides a critical look at the concept of

corruption and its typology, the concept of democracy and the
interdisciplinary nature of Social Studies education which also
includes the ways the subject could be used to solve the problem
of corruption. In their analyses, the authors observe that efforts to
establish democracy as a form of government are extremely
important in the overall effort to eradicate corruption. They
emphasize the importance of Social Studies education as a core
subject at the primary tier of education, urging that teachers and
school authorities should emphasize the areas in the subject that
instil in students the ethics and values of society.
Sociology
520. Abdulrasheed, A., Babaita I. S., & Yunisa M. A.

(2012). Fraud and financial crimes prevention and control in
Nigeria: A sociological analysis. International Journal of Asian
Social Science, 2(3), 214–219.
349
This article sets out to examine fraud and financial crimes in

Nigeria. It states that financial fraud is one of the most devastating
forms of corruption in the Nigerian system. The article also
discusses the strategies for effective prevention and control of
fraud and financial crimes in Nigeria. In this study, it is argued
that fraud is the single most important financial problem and
threat faced in Nigeria. This reality has hampered growth and
development in Nigeria. The article further argues that despite the
efforts of the government in combating fraud and all forms of
corruption by establishing anti-coruption agencies, such as the
EFCC and the Independent Corrupt (and Other Related Offences)
Commission (ICPC), there has been little success to show for it.
After reviewing existing measures, the article concludes that
effective fraud and financial crimes prevention and control in
Nigeria require the monitoring of financial institutions by
regulatory authorities and accurate intelligence gathering on these
unethical acts.
521. Abu, O. A. and Olabode, B.O. (2011). Cultural

obstacles to the fight against corruption in Nigeria. In A.B.
Sunday (Ed.), Corruption, democracy and good governance in
Nigeria (pp.71–100). Saki, Nigeria: Real Success Consults.
Nigeria is a country with a population of 160 million people,

having diverse cultures. The discovery of oil introduced
opportunities for rent-seeking activities and corruption in both
private and public sectors of the economy. These also led to
frequent change in Nigerian politics and intensified ethnic rivalry.
This article analyzes the cultural obstacles to the fight against
corruption. It argues that the political system and culture of a
society could determine the extent to which citizens become more
prone to corrupt activities. Some causes of corruption in Nigeria
include obsession, materialism and glorification, lack of ethical
standards, poor rewards systems, greed and approbation of ill-
350
gotten wealth by the general public. The article recommends

adherence to ethical standards in decision-making, the rule of law
campaign by mass media in order to educate the people of their
rights as citizens, good and enforceable policies.
522. Acha, N. (1986). Counterproductive effects of

corruption on social and economic development. In F. Odekunle
(Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in development (pp. 142–152). Ibadan,
While corruption may be unavoidable, or even useful under

certain circumstances, its overall effects on a society can be
devastating. This study discusses the general counter-productive
effects of corruption on social and economic development with
regards to Nigeria. An analysis of the misleading belief of cultural
value laden treatment by most Western European writers
regarding their articles on developing countries was made. The
author insists that Western European writers intend to
overemphasize the cultural relativism of corruption. He asserts
that they assume that corruption was a monopoly of the so-called
developing and underdeveloped countries especially in Africa,
Asia and South America. This article posits that corruption and
development are normative concepts which cannot be easily
measured and that value judgments cannot be avoided when
dealing with the effects of corruption on social and economic
development. Finally, this study makes a general conclusion and
gives a specific warning about the monumental consequences of
the massive involvement of Nigerian public officials in systematic
corruption.
351
523. Adeyemi, A. A. (1991). Corruption in Nigeria: The

criminological perspective. In U. A. Kalu, & Y. Osinbajo (Eds.),
Perspectives on corruption and other economic crimes in Nigeria
(pp.1–12). Federal Ministry of Justice Law Review Series, Vol. 2,
1–12.
It is unarguable that corruption has eaten deep into the social

fabric of the Nigerian state as no facet of our national life is
immune of this social malaise. However, this article examines the
causative factors of corruption from the criminological point of
views. It identifies the corruption as a product of transitional
socio-economic situation of average Nigerians. It highlights the
socio-economic cost of corruption as well as strategies for
combating it. The author advocates for the establishment of a
National Corruption Commission to be manned by competent
personnel vast in all the trapping of modern investigation to
handle alleged cases of corruption among others and concludes
that the government should develop the political will to
discountenance the believes in some quarters of official
complicity in institutional cases of corruption in Nigeria.
524. Agogo, O. P. (2002). Abhorrence of indiscipline and

corruption in Nigeria: A focus on Igede cultural provisions. In C.
O. T. Ugwu (Ed.), Corruption in Nigeria: Critical perspectives:
A book of readings (pp. 208–220). Nsukka, Nigeria: Chuka
Educational Publishers.
Scholars have argued that the preponderance of social

delinquency in the society today is due to a breakdown of values
system. This article examines the cultural practices of the Igede
people as they affect lack of discipline and corruption in Nigeria.
The author contends that the Igede people found in Benue, in the
Middle Belt of Nigeria, strongly believe that the adoption of
foreign values weakened the indigenous value system and is
352
consequently responsible for the rising incidence of social vices

in Nigerian society. In addition to changing social values, harsh
economic conditions are also held responsible for indiscipline and
corruption. The writer concludes that if Nigeria is to stem the
rising tide of corruption, it needs to respect its indigenous cultural
values.
525. Aluko, M. A. O., & Adesopo, A. A. (2003).

Bureaucratic corruption in Nigeria: A general and sociological
insight into the problem. In E. O. Ezeani (Ed.), Public
accountability in Nigeria: Perspectives and issues (pp. 157–172).
Enugu, Nigeria: Academic Publishing Company.
The centrality of bureaucratic corruption has much attention of

scholars. This work is one of the many works devoted to the area.
In the study, the writer argues that the problem of bureaucratic
corruption can be conveniently traced to several factors - radical
change in the value-system or breakdown in societal norms; the
interplay with politics, i.e., when politics comes into the realm of
bureaucracy; ethnicity; poor reward system and unfavorable
socio-economic environment which usually leads to increase in
the cost of living and corresponding fall in the standard of living
among the people. Bureaucratic corruption also flourishes and
grows best in an atmosphere where people believe that the risk of
discovery is low or virtually nonexistent or that the punishment is
minimal or can even be evaded. Bureaucratic corruption thrives
where there is a high degree of centralization of political and
economic decision-making in the hands of a few people. For him,
the above causes of bureaucratic corruption show that it is
multidimensional and arise largely from societal values rather
than singularly from individual dispositions. The implication of
this according to their study is that bureaucratic corruption is in
two main perspectives - micro and macro perspectives. The
former according to them arises from individual dispositions.
353
Here, individual bureaucrat is seen as the “creator” of his world,

and he is, therefore, responsible for all the various forms of
bureaucratic corruption that are observed. The latter views
bureaucratic corruption as a social problem; therefore, the authors
recommend that the socio-economic condition of the nation
should be made more favorable for the masses, in general, through
a radical change in the value system, severe punishment of all
corrupt bureaucrats, and confiscation by the state of all stolen
assets.
526. Aluko, M. A. O. (2002). The institutionalization of

corruption and its impact on political culture and behaviour in
Nigeria. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 11(3), 390–402.
Culture is widely believed to be a major cause of corruption. Yet

culture can also itself be negatively affected by corruption. This
study explores critically the institutionalization of corruption in
Nigeria, its subsequent impact on political culture and behavior,
and the implication for development. This institutionalization is
related exclusively to politics and the manifestation of corruption
in the political arena. It argues that the institutionalization of
corruption leads to an overall change in the value system and
norms of behavior in a society. Coming from a sociological
perspective, it posits that all behavior is socially generated,
including corruption, and should be tackled through concerted
socieal efforts. It is the duty of the society to educate and mobilize
its members to uphold basic values like honesty. It advocates the
reconstruction of society through the eradication of poverty and
the establishment of good governance.
527. Auwal, N.M. (1988). Society, Bureaucracy and

Corruption: A Case Study of Kano State Civil Service, Nigeria.
(PhD Thesis) Sussex University, Sussex, U.K.
354
This thesis examines problems associated with public

bureaucracies in developing countries, with specific reference to
the Kano State Civil Service in Nigeria. It is theoretically
informed by Weber's concept of bureaucracy and theories of
modernisation. Specific bureaucratic weaknesses are identified
and analysed. These include a lack of initiative, lateness and
absenteeism, red-tape, formalism, discontinuities and instability,
alienation and corruption. The first part of the thesis treats these
issues at a theoretical level by critically reviewing dominant
perspectives in the literature and identifying appropriate concepts
and ideas which define the focus of the study. Using the
conceptual tools identified, the second part of the thesis critically
examines administrative practices in the Civil Service with a view
to explaining bureaucratic weaknesses. Several social, political,
historical and economic variables are found to have relevance in
explaining these problems. In general, formal bureaucratic
structures are impotent and alienated from their social reality,
while informal and personal influences are overpowering.
Different types of corruption are identified in the Service, and
their causes, prevalence and consequences are examined.
Corruption is found to be pervasive and systemic in the Civil
Service. While it remains a major problem, the general attitude
towards corruption is that of ambivalence and fatalism. The thesis
concludes that bureaucratic weaknesses are best understood when
situated within the particular socio-cultural environment in which
they exist, rather than through the mechanistic and ahistorical
approaches adopted in earlier studies. The empirical analysis
highlights issues arising from such studies and leads to the
conclusion that a more flexible approach is required.
528. Bassey, A. O., Abia, R. P., Attah, F. , & Bassey, U.

A. (2013). Corruption as a social problem and its implication on
Nigerian society: A review of anti-corrupt policies.
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 4(1), 423–430.
355
Corruption in Nigeria is described as endemic and scholars have

considered corruption as a subculture in Nigeria. The article
attempts to examine the level of corruption in Nigeria and tries to
determine if government policies which were made towards the
eradication of corruption has achieved the objectives which they
are made for. It made efforts to analyze the concept of corruption,
evaluate the anti-coruption polices put in place, and the prospect
of eliminating corruption in Nigeria. This study also looks at the
causes and consequences of corruption with a view to providing
theoretical insights into the understanding of the causes of
corruption and the various ways corruption manifest in our the
society. In conclusion, it made recommendations which hinges on
the need for the government to enact laws and constitutional
provisions to punish selfish and corrupt leaders.
529. Ejionye, U. A. & Emereuwaonu, E. U. (1986).

Corruption as culture in Nigerian development. In F. Odekunle
(Ed.), Nigeria: Corruption in development (pp. 274–280). Ibadan,
One of the earliest perspectives on corruption in Nigeria traces the

problem to the country’s precolonial cultural practices and values,
which according to such viewpoints continues to influence
contemporary practices. This article focuses attention on
providing some theoretical explanation to the causes and
consequences of corruption and explores some of the implication
of corruption on national development in Nigeria. This article
traces the problem of corruption in Nigeria to the country’s
historical background, and argues that an understanding of the
country’s past is necessary for any proper comprehension and
analysis of the phenomenon.
356
530. Elechi, O. O., Okosun, T. Y. , & Ngwe, E. J. (2007).

Factors vitiating against the effectiveness of the Nigerian police
in combating the criminal exploitation of children and women.
African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies, 3(1), 1–49.
The rising rate of human trafficking in Nigeria has gotten the

attention of the government but efforts to combat it have not
yielded appreciable results. This study identifies the factors
responsible for this poor result as inadequate policing, corruption
within the policing system, relative deprivation of freedom,
mounting social injustice, lack of conventional social amenities,
increasing conflicting social values, gender imbalance in the
provision of education and economic opportunities and the
breakdown of social institutions. The article examines the nature,
extent, and development of this phenomenon. It outlines two lines
of policy as panacea; a short term policy that will introduce mass
education about the dangers of human trafficking and strengthen
the legal enforcement system and in the long term, the authors
advocate the address of the socio-economic conditions that
sustains the phenomenon in Nigeria.
531. Ezeh, P. J. (2002). Corruption and deviant behaviour

in Nigeria. An anthropological perspective in Nigeria. In C.O.T.
Ugwu (Ed.), Corruption in Nigeria: Critical perspectives; A book
of readings (pp.153–173). Nsukka, Nigeria: Chuka Educational
Publishers.
Most scholars have argued that the anti-coruption crusade in

Nigeria by successive administration lacks the sincerity and
political backing needed to check the menace in the country,
hence the growing trend of the social malaise. This article
examines anthropological causes of corruption in Nigeria. It
describes the current fight on corruption as narrow and simplistic
and identifies globalization, westernization and a calculated
357
attempt at suppressing local values/culture as the factors that are

contributing to increase trend of antisocial behaviors in the
society. The writer highlights three categories of corruption—
incidental, systematic, and systemic—but contends that systemic
corruption is a result of the incomplete transition from a
traditional to postcolonial society. Furthermore, the article
suggests the adoption of contrastive-study strategy to
understanding and fighting corruption in Nigeria.
532. Gbenda, S. J. (2002). African traditional models of a

corrupt-free society: Implications for Nigeria. In C. O. T. Ugwu
readings (pp.200–207). Nsukka, Nigeria: Chuka Educational
Publishers.
It has been identified that corruption with its attendant effects has
retarded the Nigerian society severely. Therefore, this article
attempts to examine the indigenous traditional institutions in the
context of an African model of a corruption-free society using the
Tiv people of the Middle Belt region of Nigeria as a case study. It
argues that because of the respect for their culture and tradition,
particularly the swerm, the traditional leadership rises to the
responsibility of leadership. The author advocates for the adoption
of good ethical standards, right attitudes toward wealth, high
moral standards for aspiring leaders, and reorientation of our
value system in order to stem the tide of corruption in our society.
533. Igbinovia, E. P. (1985). Police misconduct in

Nigeria. Police Studies: The International Review of Police
Development, 8(2), 111–122.
Malfeasance perpetrated by members of the Nigerian police has

increased in recent times despite efforts to reduce corruption in
the country. This author sought to examine the nature and extent
358
of police misconduct in Nigeria. The essay focuses on two areas

of police malfeasance: corruption and violence, adopting Marxist-
Leninist interpretation of crime and police behavior. The article
also points to the strategies in place for deterring and/or curtailing
the incidents of police misconduct in the country. The author
draws inspiration from the words of Nobel Laureate, Professor
Wole Soyinka.
534. Lewis P. & Alemika E. (2005). Seeking the

Democratic Dividend: Public Attitude and Attempted Reform in
Nigeria. Working paper No. 52. Afrobarometer. Cape Town,
Republic of South Africa.
This monograph is based on the findings of a nationally-

representative survey of Nigerians. The third Afrobarometer
survey in Nigeria was conducted in September-October 2003.
This survey of public attitudes follows on previous polls
undertaken in January-February 2000 and in August 2001. In all,
2428 Nigerians of voting age were interviewed to find out what
ordinary people think about recent political and economic
developments, and to assess changes in popular attitudes since the
1999 transition from military rule to a civilian regime.
Results from three surveys allow greater confidence in making
observations about the patterns of Nigerian public opinion over
time. In previous discussions, we noted the sanguine responses of
many Nigerians to the initial transition, and the growing sense of
disenchantment as euphoria gave way to realism in the early years
of civilian rule. Public expressions of satisfaction with democracy
dropped sharply in 2001, along with approval of government
performance, and trust in key institutions and public officials.
General preferences for democracy also declined, though not
nearly as much as political satisfaction. Nigerians continued to
reject military rule by a large majority, and they were committed
to many core democratic values. There was also evidence of broad
359
civic engagement. We concluded at that time that Nigerians had

come “down to earth” in their assessments of politics and the
economy, though there was still a reservoir of democratic
attachments.
The 2003 survey reveals further decline in popular assessments of
the political and economic system, indicating a basic disaffection
among much of the Nigerian public. At the time of the transition
from military rule, Nigerians expected a “democracy dividend” in
the form of better governance, an improved economy, and rising
personal welfare. For the most part, the Nigerian public today
feels that they have failed to see a democracy dividend, and they
are increasingly critical of government, ambivalent about the
democratic regime, and divided about the future direction of the
economy.
535. Okunola, A. R. & Adediran I. D. (2012). Festival of

curses: A traditional crime control method in Edo state –Nigeria.
Issues in Ethnology and Anthropology, 7(1), 85–106.
The rise in the crime rate in Edo state in the South-South

geopolitical zone of Nigeria prompted the people to deploy their
traditional institutions to curb crime. This led to the emergence of
what is known as a “festival of curses” used to deter people from
engaging in criminal activities. This study investigates the
emergence, nature, acceptance, and impact of this festival in the
state. Using mainly secondary sources and in-depth interviews
among a cross section of the Bini, the findings discover that
people who had engaged in criminals acts in the state besieged the
Bini monarch’s palace to confess their atrocities and beg for
forgiveness; there was vast acceptance of the festival despite
religious differences. The study recommends that the festival
should be a tool for policing and fighting crime in Nigeria.
360
536. Olurode, L. (2005). Corruption as a social problem.

In L. Olurode, & R. Anifowose, (Eds.), Rich but poor: Corruption
and good governance in Nigeria (pp.1–18), Lagos, Nigeria:
Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Lagos.
From a sociological viewpoint, this article takes a look at the

social character of the crime of corruption, while emphasizing that
combating it must be rooted in social measures. It is an attempt to
integrate the disparate chapters in the book and provide a theme
across them- that corruption, whatever its positive value remains
an antisocial behavior and is descriptive of the state and its social
institutions. To some extent, corruption is endemic in all social
formations and has existed in varying forms in all societies. The
article identifies varying forms of corruption, and explores some
scholarly definitions. It states that corruption is an ambiguous and
ubiquitous concept and tends to possess a dual nature. This
ambiguity is embedded in the societal reaction to corruption. This
means that there are some corrupt behavior that a community is
prepared to condone and others that it strongly censures.
According to the author, corruption is an incurable disease and it
is cancerous in nature. He emphasizes the need to reform the state,
revitalize our social values and fight corruption at the grassroots.
In addition, the law on corruption must be simple and cases
disposed of quickly. It also stresses the need for collaboration
between countries.
537. Omonijo, D. O., Nnedum, O. A. U., & Uche, O. C.

(2013). Social perspectives in the pervasiveness of endemic
corruption in Nigeria. International Journal of Economics,
Commerce and Management, I(2), 1–26.
Corruption is the major bane militating against the growth and

development of the people and governments of countries in sub-
Saharan Africa. The focal perspectives of the study hinges on the
361
theories of Functionalism, Marxism, Differential Association, and

Elite theory which are deployed to examine the pervasiveness of
corruption in Nigeria. The article also explores the anecdotal bulk
of issues leading to the pervasiveness of corruption in the country
which centers on leadership and systemic failure. The article
concludes that something has gone wrong with the critical
management of the Nigerian state and went on to recommend
ways of correcting, modifying and reconditioning the bifurcating
malaise of corruption.
538. Onyeonuru, I. (2002). Anomie and workplace

deviance: A sociological analysis of bureaucratic corruption in
Nigeria. In C. U. Isiugo-Abanihe, N. A. Isamah, & O. J. Adesina
(Eds.), Currents and perspectives in sociology (pp. 299–333).
Lagos, Nigeria: Malthouse Press.
From a sociological approach, this article probes the systematic

nature of organizational deviance and bureaucratic corruption in
Nigeria, using an open-systems approach, Durkheim’s theory of
anomie, and the political-economic perspective. It also gives
concrete evidence of gross organizational deviance in Nigeria by
highlighting the elements of corruption by public officials-
especially since during the Babangida and post-Babangida era
(1985–1993). According to the writer, political economy and
corruption in Nigeria have been fueled by the nature of the social
structure that emerged in the neocolonial period. Capitalism
foisted on Nigeria by the colonial masters by its nature promotes
corruption through the socio-economic exploitation of the
laboring majority by property owners who often acquire the status
of the privileged ruling class. Their combination of economic and
political power enables them engage in the misappropriation of
public funds which often fuels various forms of illegal acts in the
form of secondary corruption. This study notes that organizational
deviance was heightened by the fact that the federal government
362
has no reliable social security policy. Therefore, the nature of

corruption in any society is invariably related to its political
economy. The writer recommends that anomie and institutional
deviance should be dealt with using a fair and just authority that
will not restrain limitless passions, but will by example
demonstrate to Nigerians that this is possible. The authority must
as a basic prerequisite be accountable in its bid to sanitize the
system. Punitive measures must be taken against erring officials
who plundered and looted the national treasury. They must be
publicly punished in accordance with relevant laws.
539. Onyeonuru, I. & Fayankinnu, A. E. (2003). Social

security question and corruption in Nigeria. In G. Onu (Ed.),
Corruption has become endemic in organizations as a result of

uncertainty, lack of adequate social security arising from poor
conditions of service at work and related uncertainty about
retirement. In Africa and indeed Nigeria, the term social security
is a new name for an old ideal because it is only embodied in a
formal framework, the concept of solidarity which is a basic value
underlying at the very roots of African tradition which unites
families, clans, tribes and small communities before the European
penetration and the dawn of colonization and industrialization.
The article examines the social security schemes in Nigeria—the
National Provident Fund and the Nigeria Social Insurance Trust
and Fund (NSITF). It posits that industrialization brought about
the breakdown of traditional values, which rendered the formal
family support system useless. It adopts an open systems
approach and explains that corruption became a coping strategy
for workers who were thus left unsecured and unsafe. It
demonstrates that bureaucratic corruption is aggravated by the
uncertainty of organizational and postorganizational fears about
363
tomorrow. This is as a result of insecurity and uncertainty

associated with the lack of an adequate social security system and
the absence of a reliable reward system which should help
workers with social sustenance and advancement in the civic
public in Nigeria. This study expresses an optimistic view that
transforming the social security system is a possibility if experts
work together on its reorganization and implementation.
540. Smith, D. J. (2007). A culture of corruption:

Everyday deception and popular discontent in Nigeria. Princeton,
New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Corruption is a multifaceted problem combating the world and

Nigeria is not exempted. The author investigates the link between
culture and corruption in Nigerian society, shedding light on how
corruption is intertwined with complex social and economic
processes such as patron-client relationships, kinship ties,
postcolonial regimes, and the national oil industry. He analyzes
the different categories of corruption noting that corruption in
Nigeria cannot be understood outside politics. Corruption was
traced from colonialism to military regimes in Nigeria not leaving
out complex socio-economic processes, all of which influence and
reproduce the problem of corruption. The study associates
rampant crimes, vigilantism, witchcraft and Pentecostalism with
the high incidence of corruption in the country. The author
identifies corruption as the aftermath of extreme social, economic,
and political inequality that has become the ethos in Nigeria.
541. Ugwuoke, C. U. (2002). Corruption in Nigeria: A

sociological perspective in Nigeria. In C. O. T. Ugwu (Ed.),
(pp.140–152). Nsukka, Nigeria: Chuka Educational Publishers.
364
There has been much debate about whether rising corruption is

responsible for the stunted growth of the Nigerian economy. Thus,
this article examines the problem of corruption in Nigeria from
the sociological perspective. It identifies corruption as a major
challenge to national development and it is accentuated by bad
leadership, political instability, and the breakdown of cultural
values. The author notes that the failure to effectively manage the
nation’s resources for the public good stimulates corruption in the
country and suggests a multipronged approach to effectively
tackle corruption.
Theatre Arts
542. Achebe, C. (1960). No Longer at Ease, New York:

Astor-Honor.
The book's title comes from the closing lines of T. S. Eliot's poem,
‘The Journey of the Magi’ and is the sequel to ‘Things Fall Apart’
written by the same author. The novel opens with the trial of Obi
Okonkwo on the charge of accepting a bribe. It then goes back in
time to a point before his departure for studies in England and
builds up with descriptions of the actions which resulted in Obi
standing trial.
Members of Obi’s tribal association contributed money to send
Obi to England to study law and return to be their mouth-piece in
interactions with the British Colonial Government. Instead, Obi
returns with a degree in English Language. He thereafter takes up
a civil service job at the Scholarship Board where he his
immediately confronted with offers of bribe to award unmerited
scholarships. He initially rejects these overtures.
Over time, Obi goes through a number of difficult challenges
including social pressure over who to marry, the death of his
mother, pressures to repay his education loan to tribesmen and pay
365
for the education of his siblings. All these make him more
susceptible to bribe taking. The novel ends with Obi taking a bribe
and telling himself that this will be his last one, only to discover
that the bribe is part of a sting operation. He is promptly arrested,
bringing us full circle to where the story began.
543. Lincoln, S. L. (2008). Expensive Shit: Aesthetic Economies

of Waste in Postcolonial Africa . (PhD Thesis) Duke University,
North Carolina, U.S.
This thesis proposes a reading of postcolonial African literature

in light of the continent's continued status as a "remnant" of
globalization--a waste product, trash heap, disposable raw
material, and degraded offcut of the processes that have so greatly
enriched, dignified and beautified their beneficiaries. The
"excremental" vision of African authors, poets and filmmakers
reflects their critical consciousness of the imbalances and
injustices that characterize African societies and polities under
pressure from monetized capitalism and domestic corruption. The
figure of superfluity, excess, destruction or extravagance --
concepts gathered together under the sign of "waste"--is a central
thematic, symbolic, and formal feature of many postcolonial
African works, and the researcher suggests that literature
functions in this context to document, critique, and offer
alternatives to the culture of waste that predominates in political
and social life on the continent. Through chapters on excremental
literature and the politics of allegory; corruption, debt and
economy in Senegalese film; magical realism and inflation in
Nigeria; and recycling and aesthetics in transitional South Africa,
the thesis argues for a reading of postcolonial African fiction as a
mode of political ecology, an aesthetics that draws its energies
directly from the problem of waste management figured in the
works.
366
544. Olagoke, D. O. (1972). The Incorruptible Judge. The

Incorruptible Judge. London: Evans Brothers.
This factional work is situated within the Nigerian context. It

describes abuse of power and betrayal of public trust by a senior
public official. The drama weaves a lot of factors that intertwine
with corruption, including impunity, religiosity and morality. The
main protagonists in the play are Ajala Oni, a young job seeker
and Agbalowomeri, a senior public official who attempts to extort
money – “kola” from Ajala before giving him a government job.
Ajala reports the matter to the police who set up a sting operation
with marked money to entrap Agbalowomeri. Agbalowomeri is
apprehended and charged to court and in a twist, he attempts to
compromise the judge through the judge’s wife, father-in-law and
community head. The judge rebuffs all advances, convicts and
sentences Agbalowomeri to prison.
545. Olarenwaju, A. B. (2007). Corruption in national

leadership: The critical stance of Nigerian literary dramatists. In
University Press.
This interesting article examines the treatment of corruption by

Nigerian literary dramatists with a view toward solutions. It looks
at the growth of corruption in Nigeria, the strategies and
approaches adopted by various governments to combat it,
corruption in national leadership, and the literary dramatists’
views on how to tackle the problem. The article espouses the
literary dramatist view that the suffering and emasculation of the
masses which originated in colonial times and the country’s failed
attempt at capitalism are at the heart of the corruption crisis.
Literary dramatists recommend intellectual revolt and collective
rather than individual heroism as solutions. They believe that a
367
collective revolutionary action of the people would be effective in

fighting against corrupt leaders in the polity. The study also
suggests that the citizens should imbibe a culture of “play-
reading” and “theatre-going,” and that literature, in general, and
drama, in particular, should be a part of the school curriculum
from primary school through secondary school.
368
Index
Abacha, 43, 47, 132, 202, 207, 214, 317

Abubakar, 116, 202, 207
ACAs. See anticorruption agencies
Act 2000, 88, 92, 95, 96, 99, 100, 102, 162, 219
African Leadership Forum, 14, 156, 214, 250, 337
agriculture, 61
anticorruption agencies, 54, 84, 142
Awolowo, 2, 22, 23, 24, 27, 55, 57, 60, 67, 68, 78, 82, 114, 155, 158,
164, 173, 174, 181, 185, 225, 234, 262, 264, 273, 274, 281, 284,
323, 339
Azikiwe, Nnamdi, 2, 4, 119
Babangida, 143, 207, 232, 315, 316, 362
Babangida, Ibrahim, 47, 186
ballot stuffing, 201
bank fraud, 17, 42, 44, 45, 52
British, 4, 13, 27, 28, 73, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 109, 114, 119, 223, 314
British Native Authority, 83
building industry, 71, See construction
Bureau for Public Procurement, 122
CBN, 27, 32, 47, 52, 60, 103, 125, 261
Central Bank of Nigeria, 31
Chiroma, Mallam Adamu, 32
Christian, 333, 336, 338, 341, 342, 344, 345, 348
Christianity, 332, 334, 335, 349
civil service, 115, 118, 132, 145, 213, 216, 223, 234, 235, 246, 249,
282
civil society, 138, 180, 214, 217, 234, 272
CLEEN Foundation, 183
clientelism, 217, 263
Code of Conduct, 90, 96, 97, 109, 122, 130, 160, 171, 219, 224, 274,
341
Code of Conduct and Tribunal Act, 96
Code of Conduct Bureau, 90, 97, 109, 122, 160, 171, 219, 274, 341
Coker Commission, 114
colonial, 16, 27, 61, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 109, 119, 134, 143, 147,
184, 189, 191, 194, 218, 223, 232, 252, 267, 283, 294, 296, 312,
369
314, 316, 317, 319, 356, 358, 362, 364, 367

colonialism, 76, 86, 143, 194, 291, 318, 364
construction, 17, 65, 137
Corporate Affairs Commission, 14
Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Act 2000, 97, 110
Corruption Perception Index, 23, 222
Corruption Perception Index of Nigeria, 23
crime rate, 360
democratization, 107, 143, 174, 176, 213, 343
EFCC, 27, 39, 41, 88, 92, 96, 101, 102, 109, 118, 121, 127, 128, 136,
142, 154, 171, 186, 195, 203, 219, 220, 221, 242, 251, 252, 253,
277, 285, 296, 298, 341, 348, 350
EITI, 125, 290
examination malpractice, 75, 76, 77, 78
FCPA, 40, 45, 108
Federal Assets Investigation Panel, 115
festival of curses, 360
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, 40, 108
Foreign Currency Domiciliary, 62
Forensic accounting, 14, 38, 48
Foster-Sutton tribunal, 4
Fourth Republic, 16, 128, 137, 139, 158, 170, 214, 215, 225, 235,
237, 239, 284, 291, 312, 324
Freedom of Information Act 2011, 99
fuel subsidy, 21
globalization, 48, 54, 57, 61, 174, 233, 300, 357
godfatherism, 158, 169, 190, 212, 273, 281, 283
godfathers, 161, 178
good governance, 1, 16, 49, 59, 69, 73, 83, 89, 93, 120, 139, 151,
159, 161, 166, 172, 174, 176, 180, 181, 183, 192, 194, 205, 214,
221, 229, 231, 236, 237, 242, 248, 249, 266, 276, 279, 282, 286,
298, 305, 340, 343, 354
Granger causality test, 15, 49, 54
Hausa, 85
Human Development Index, 67
ICPC, 27, 39, 88, 92, 95, 96, 102, 109, 110, 122, 128, 142, 154, 156,
160, 162, 163, 171, 186, 197, 203, 219, 220, 250, 260, 277, 285,
296, 298, 314, 341, 348, 350
370
income distribution. income inequality

Independent Corrupt Practices, 110, 122, 160, 197, 202, 250, 314
Integrity Pact, 216
Islam, 85, 332, 334, 349
judicial system, 234
Lamido, Mallam Sanusi, 33
literary, 367
materialism, 51, 182, 287, 345, 350
MDGs, 13, 16, 38, 41, 226
military, 28, 34, 38, 60, 83, 107, 115, 143, 144, 145, 147, 151, 155,
161, 165, 173, 175, 184, 186, 196, 198, 207, 212, 223, 225, 232,
233, 235, 265, 269, 270, 273, 281, 282, 283, 292, 294, 298, 299,
308, 313, 315, 316, 317, 318, 331, 340, 364
MNCs. See multinational corporations
money laundering, 31, 45, 48, 62, 64, 88, 101, 103, 296
Money Laundering Act 2004, 99
multinational corporations. See MNCs
Murtala Mohammed, 207
National Provident Fund, 363
natural resources, 15, 23, 53, 55, 59, 68, 71, 143, 145, 222
NCEE, 75
NEEDS, 39, 170
NEITI, 39, 125, 219, 261
neocolonial, 362
NEPA, 305
nepotism, 56, 66, 80, 132, 183, 188, 225, 238, 292, 310
NGO, 67, 78, 81, 120, 160, 303
Niger Delta, 65, 126, 146, 181, 200, 215, 216
Niger Delta Development Commission, 216
Nigerian Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. See NEITI
Nigerian Police Force, 19
Nigerian Stock Exchange, 14
NNIS, 193
NPF, 19
NSE, 14
NSITF, 363
NVS Decree, 62
Obasanjo, 29, 39, 104, 105, 110, 123, 137, 149, 163, 170, 198, 199,
371
202, 203, 207, 212, 233, 250, 253, 256, 259, 266, 277, 283, 312,
317, 320, 324
oil, 21, 23, 28, 32, 56, 59, 65, 66, 71, 96, 118, 120, 146, 148, 162,
191, 200, 222, 239, 240, 316, 350, 364
oil industry, 28, 118, 364
Osigwe, Emmanuel, 248
PCC, 224
police, 90, 91, 95, 120, 147, 155, 223, 246, 257, 280, 320, 325, 347,
358
police ethical behavior scale, 326
politically exposed persons, 101
PPA, 93
privatization, 22, 61, 172, 178, 305
public procurement, 11, 33
Public Procurement Act 2007, 18
religion, 278, 331, 332, 334, 337, 338, 339, 343, 346, 347, 348
SEC, 14
Second Republic, 307, 315
Securities Exchange Commission, 14
security votes, 191
Sedition Act, 185
SFEM, 62
Shehu Shagari, 207, 315
social security, 218, 244, 306, 363
Soludo, Chukwuma Charles, 32
Technical Unit on Governance and Anti-Corruption Reforms, 122
traditional institutions, 81, 358, 360
UNCAC, 99, 124, 126, 147, 219
Universal Basic Education Policy, 270
university system, 73, 79
value reorientation, 243, 245
values, 25, 36, 51, 54, 68, 74, 92, 129, 140, 141, 144, 153, 165, 167,
173, 183, 206, 221, 229, 243, 245, 250, 252, 257, 261, 274, 293,
313, 323, 332, 334, 336, 338, 342, 348, 349, 352, 353, 356, 357,
358, 361, 363, 365
vote buying, 201
World Bank, 50, 68, 139, 181, 286, 316
372

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Cover image: Tayo Adeniyi, Corruption is Like Guinea Worm

Destroying Nigeria. Winner 2013 Images of Corruption

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

© United Nations, 2016. All rights reserved.

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)

UNODC also wishes to acknowledge David Enweremadu, a

Our gratitude also goes to several libraries and experts who

The following past and present staff of the UNODC also

African Union Convention on Prevention and Combating

Nigerian Immigration Service (NIS)

This bibliography was commissioned under the “Support to Anti-

For a couple of years now, the need to strengthen socio-economic

Some of the activities planned for implementation of the anti-

building, and the administration of a nationwide corruption

The compilation of a bibliography of written works on corruption

This compendium is not meant to be comprehensive; however, its

More than a thousand references related to corruption in Nigeria

0 50 100 150 200 250

The collection of materials for this bibliography is limited to

Figure 2. Distribution by year

The academic discipline with the largest number of publications

Figure 3. Distribution by subject area

Of the 545 materials accessed, only 525 could be attributed to

diessertations and publications in top rated journals. Other

Figure 4. Distribution by country of publication.

An almost absolute majority (96%) of the identified 545 materials

Figure 5. Individual vs. institutional authorship.

The number of authors per publication ranges from one to five.

Two, 69, 13%

One, 438, 80%

Figure 6. Distribution by number of authors

1. Abata, A. M., & Adejuwon, K. D. (2012).

Since her independence from Britain in 1960, Nigeria has moved

2. Abimbola, P. O. (2006). Eradication of corruption from

Eradication of corruption has been a major preoccupation of

eradicating corruption in the Nigerian economy. After a brief

3. Abucar, M. H. (1986). The socio-economic structure

While many analysts and commentators will readily proffer

order to maintain their privileged position or expand their market

4. Aburime, T. U. (2009). Impact of corruption on bank

Nigeria’s banking sector has been the focus of many recent

5. Achua, K. J. (2011). Anti -corruption in public

Reforms to create an effective public procurement system, which

connotes. Further, it illustrates the strategies for sustainable anti-

6. Adams, A. J. (2001). Politi cal corruption and national

Since independence in 1960, one recurrent problem in Nigeria has

7. Adebayo, E.O. (2008). An econometrics analysis of

Corruption as a concept has attracted a lot of public outcry and

8. Adegbite, F. F., & Fakile, A.S. (2012). Economic and

Despite the efforts of anti-coruption agencies to curb corruption

community. These issues are some of the major problems that

9. Adegbite, E. (2012). Corporate governance regulation

Corruption has been identified as the major obstacle to economic,

10. Adeleke, J. (2003). Corruption in the private sector:

It is now a widely accepted fact that corruption is as widespread

11. Adenike, E. T. (2013). An econometric analysis of the

As a result of corruption, Nigeria’s abundant natural resources

12. Adesote, S. A. , & Abimbola, J. O. (2012). Corruption

The restoration of democratic rule brought hopes of accelerated