Praise for Matt Fitzgerald:

“To be a great athlete, you need more than natural ability; you
need mental strength to keep going when your body wants to quit.
In his new book, writer Matt Fitzgerald dives into the research
behind these coping skills and highlights the top athletes who use
them. Anyone, whether pro or everyday exercisers, can use these
tactics to push further.”
—Men’s Journal

“Fitzgerald has been writing about the psychology of endurance

performance for more than a decade now and is really one of the
pioneers in terms of trying to take this body of research out of the
laboratory and into the field for everyone to try. His latest book
examines a series of notable races through the lens of Samuele
Marcora’s ‘psychobiological’ theory of endurance. The races
make it a fun read, and the psychology is thought-provoking.”
—Runner’s World magazine

“At the highest level of sport, it’s often not physiology but
psychology that separates the best from the rest. Matt goes well
beyond just telling stories of great athletes (though he’s really
good at doing that, too) and delves deep into cutting-edge brain
science to show us all how we can strengthen our own mental
muscle.”
—Huffington Post, Best Health and Fitness Books in 2015
“This book teaches you how to avoid the many pitfalls of fueling
for endurance running and how to use nutrition to improve your
performance. I wouldn’t marathon without it.”
—Jenny Hadfield, author of Marathoning for Mortals
“From training day 1 through mile 26.2, Fitzgerald has laid out a
nutritional game plan to get you through the wall and to your best
marathon yet.”
—Desiree Davila, American long-distance runner
“Most nutrition books for athletes are complete garbage. The New
Rules of Marathon and Half-Marathon Nutrition presents relevant
information in a way that is interesting and practical—a fantastic
source.”
—Brad Hudson, founder and owner of Performance Training
Group, coauthor of Run Faster from the 5K to the Marathon

“Nutrition is a proven key to success in endurance sports yet the

correct approach is often neglected or misunderstood. . . . It is
extremely refreshing to see the applications of years of sound
sports nutrition spelled out in a precise, comprehensive, and easy-
to-read fashion. The New Rules of Marathon and Half-Marathon
Nutrition is a must-read for beginner and elite-level runners.”
—Kimberly Mueller, MS, RD, CSSD, sports dietitian, owner of Fuel
Factor Nutrition Coaching, and elite marathoner
“A crucial resource for anyone who wants to run their best
marathon. I highly recommend it!”
—Ryan Hall, American record-holder, half marathon and 20K, and
Olympian

“Extremely well done. . . . A must for marathoners!”

—Library Journal

“You will gain valuable information and insight about how to fuel
your body from this book.”
—Portland Book Review

“Written in a friendly and approachable manner and colored with

many anecdotal stories from elite running history, this book is an
easy and informative read that can help propel your runs to the
next level.”
—San Francisco/Sacramento Book Review
“I highly recommend reading Racing Weight even if you don’t need
to lose any excess poundage. You’ll come away with a better
understanding of your physiology and also of food.”
—Joe Friel, founder of TrainingBible Coaching and author of The
Triathlete’s Training Bible and The Cyclist’s Training Bible

“In his latest book, Matt Fitzgerald successfully explains the mind–
body method of running. . . . Anyone trying to improve and realize
their true running potential should read Run.”
—Kara Goucher, 2008 Olympian and world championship medalist
“Racing Weight answers the difficult questions athletes often have
about dieting, including how to handle the off-season. The book
gives readers a scientifically backed system to discover your
optimum race weight, as well as five steps to achieve it.”
—Triathlete magazine

“Reaching an ideal weight for endurance sports is important, but

doing it the right way is even more important. Matt Fitzgerald
provides scientific and sound advice for anyone trying to achieve
their racing weight.”
—Scott Jurek, seven-time winner of the Western States
Endurance Run and two-time winner of the Badwater
Ultramarathon
“Fitzgerald is a fountain of information on current research studies
and findings from the sciences of healthy nutrition and exercise
performance.”
—Ultrarunning magazine

“Even if you are already a lean machine, you’ll likely still learn
something from Racing Weight. From how to determine your
optimum weight, to improving your diet and training around it, to
controlling your appetite and making your own fuel—it’s all in this
book.”
—BikeRadar
“The mysteries of weight and its relationship to performance are
unlocked in Matt Fitzgerald’s Racing Weight. If you’ve got a basic
handle on both training and nutrition, this book offers the means to
improve both your diet and athletic performance.”
—DailyPeloton.com
“Captivating, animated, uniquely readable and downright thrilling.
[Iron War] is a truly great read—and an ode to our sport with all its
quirky characters and epic venues. . . . It is absolutely comparable
to Krakauer, Bowden (Blackhawk Down), or Sebastian Junger
(The Perfect Storm). . . . Iron War is what we buy books for:
Excitement, entertainment, information and inspiration.”
—TriSports.com
“For any triathlete or endurance athlete, or anyone who wonders
what it takes to be the best in sport, Iron War is an excellent read. .
. . Readers will come away with a very strong understanding and
appreciation for two of the true legends of our sport . . . as well as
a very clear look at the greatest race ever run.”
—Triathlete.com
“Iron War by Matt Fitzgerald recounts the fabled Ironman world
championship battle between triathlete legends Dave Scott and
Mark Allen. By the end of the story, [triathletes] will feel like [they]
personally know the athletes, raced side-by-side with them, and
understand the amazing contribution they made to the sport.”
—Active.com
“The mind is the next frontier for significant performance gains. . . .
Mental fitness, says Fitzgerald, means becoming your own sports
psychologist and developing coping mechanisms to help you suffer
better. Which, while not entirely satisfying, is a good start.”
—Outside Magazine

“Imagine you could get into the mind of an elite athlete and use
their skills to improve your sporting potential. That’s the premise of
Matt Fitzgerald’s How Bad Do You Want It?”
—Triathlon Magazine Canada

“Fitzgerald is a skilled writer and the drama and excitement of the

various races really jump off the pages. If you are feeling a bit
unmotivated about running, this would be a great book to pick up,
as you are likely to be inspired by all of the thrilling stories.”
—Run Oregon

“What better way to reach your goal than with delicious meals
designed for weight loss? Racing Weight Cookbook delivers 100
recipes targeted for athletes looking to manage their weight.”
—Women’s Running magazine

“If you’re looking to get to your peak performance weight or

explore the mind–body connection of running, writer Matt
Fitzgerald has some advice for you. . . . Fitzgerald, an expert in
endurance training and nutrition, explores a wide range of topics
and cutting-edge developments from the world of running and
endurance sports.”
—ESPN.com
“Being a three-time Olympian, I thought I knew all there was to
know about diet and training, but Matt blew me away. I can’t wait
to start implementing all his knowledge into my running.”
—Shalane Flanagan, Olympic bronze medalist and American
record-holder
Also by Matt Fitzgerald

How Bad Do You Want It?

Iron War
The New Rules of Marathon and Half-Marathon Nutrition
Racing Weight Cookbook
Racing Weight
Brain Training for Runners
Performance Nutrition for Runners
Diet Cults
80/20 Running
Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products
are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book and Da Capo
Press was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial capital
letters.

Copyright © 2016 by Matt Fitzgerald

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the
United States of America. For information, address Da Capo Press, 44 Farnsworth Street,
3rd Floor, Boston, MA 02210

Designed by Amnet Systems

Set in 11.5 point Goudy Std by the Perseus Books Group

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Fitzgerald, Matt, author.

Title: The endurance diet: discover the 5 core habits of the world’s greatest athletes to
look, feel, and perform better / by Matt Fitzgerald.
Description: First Da Capo Press edition. | Boston, MA: Da Capo Lifelong Books, a
member of the Perseus Books Group, 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and
index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016033907 (print) | LCCN 2016041446 (ebook) | ISBN
9780738218984 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Physical fitness. | Exercise–Physiological aspects. | Health. | BISAC:
HEALTH & FITNESS / Diets. | HEALTH & FITNESS / Exercise.
Classification: LCC QP301 .F565 2016 (print) | LCC QP301 (ebook) | DDC 613.7–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016033907

First Da Capo Press edition 2016

ISBN: 978-0-7382-1898-4 (e-book)

Published by Da Capo Press

A Member of the Perseus Books Group
www.dacapopress.com

Note: The information in this book is true and complete to the best of our knowledge. This
book is intended only as an informative guide for those wishing to know more about health
issues. In no way is this book intended to replace, countermand, or conflict with the advice
given to you by your own physician. The ultimate decision concerning care should be
made between you and your doctor. We strongly recommend you follow his or her advice.
Information in this book is general and is offered with no guarantees on the part of the
authors or Da Capo Press. The authors and publisher disclaim all liability in connection
with the use of this book.

Da Capo Press books are available at special discounts for bulk purchases in the U.S. by
corporations, institutions, and other organizations. For more information, please contact the
Special Markets Department at the Perseus Books Group, 2300 Chestnut Street, Suite
200, Philadelphia, PA, 19103, or call (800) 810-4145, ext. 5000, or e-mail
[email protected].

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 CONTENTS

Foreword by Asker Jeukendrup

1 The Diet of the World’s Fittest People
2 Why You Should Eat Like an Elite
3 Habit 1: Eat Everything
4 Habit 2: Eat Quality
5 Habit 3: Eat Carb-Centered
6 Habit 4: Eat Enough
7 Habit 5: Eat Individually
8 Building Elite Eating Habits
9 Fine-Tuning Your Endurance Diet
10 Endurance “Superfoods”
11 Endurance Diet Recipes
12 Diet–Exercise Synergy
Appendix A. A Perfect Day Sample Table
Acknowledgments
References
Index
About the Author
 FOREWORD

MOST ATHLETES WOULD AGREE THAT NUTRITION IS

IMPORTANT FOR PERFORMANCE. For endurance athletes, it
may be so important that it is the difference between winning a
race and not even making it to the finish line. When Haile
Gebrselassie—who had won pretty much every distance between
1500 and 10,000 meters and set multiple world records in the
process—moved up to the marathon distance, he was facing Paul
Tergat in a show-off at the London marathon. Haile was in top
shape and ready to take on the world . . . who could beat him? It
turned out that poor nutrition beat him. With 12 kilometers to go,
he felt his energy disappearing, his stomach was protesting, and
he had to abandon the race. When he figured out his nutrition in
the following years, this did not happen again. Similar mistakes are
made by many athletes with their day-to-day diet.
Although most athletes are aware of the importance of nutrition
and sometimes are even obsessed with their nutrition, very few
athletes get it right. In races and training, some athletes overfuel,
some underfuel, some overdrink, some underdrink. A large
percentage of athletes experience gastrointestinal distress, and
often these things are completely preventable. There are multiple
reasons why athletes struggle to get their nutrition right, including
(1) not having a plan, (2) following bad advice, (3) not listening
enough to their bodies, (4) sticking to a plan at all cost, and (5) not
being flexible enough with an existing nutrition plan. People
generally think getting nutrition right is complicated, technical, and
difficult to achieve. There is an overload of information and often
contradicting advice. Today the general trend is to remove specific
foods from the diet and focus on eating a smaller number of so-
called healthy foods (current popular examples are the meat-free
diet, the low-carb diet, the paleo diet, and many other variations).
If foods with little nutritional value are removed and replaced by
other more nutritious foods, that may be a good choice. But if the
result is that the diet is less diverse, the outcome may not be that
positive. Additionally, there are commercial interests,
sensationalism, and everyone who writes a blog about nutrition
seems to be an expert. It is therefore not surprising that athletes
are confused.
As a sports nutrition scientist, I have been at the forefront of
research in this field; many of the studies we have done in our labs
at the University of Birmingham in the United Kingdom have
contributed to the recommendations that we have for athletes to
date. My entire career I have tried to translate the sometimes
complicated science into practical strategies. Studies are often
performed in laboratories so that all variables can be controlled,
and this is necessary and it is a good thing. However, laboratories
also have a limitation: they are not the same as the training or the
races we do. In a lab we can mix a drink using very pure
ingredients; in the field we use drinks, products, and foods, and we
mix all of them.
The basis of any sensible advice has to be evidence. But this is
also exactly the origin of a lot of confusion because people have
different views of what evidence is. For some, evidence is a friend
who had a good race and says that he took a particular sports
drink. For others evidence is a great-looking product they buy at
an expo the day before a race. The packaging says “scientifically
proven.” For me, none of this is evidence. To obtain evidence, a
series of rules needs to be followed so that you can establish the
actual reason for the good performances.
 And that is exactly where Matt Fitzgerald is so brilliant! To
distinguish between good and bad science and to separate good
and bad communication of science, which is not easy without the
specific training and without specific skills, we need people that
use their skills to communicate the science and the evidence to
the wider audience. Matt is able to read and interpret the science
and make it very simple and usable for any athlete. He separates
facts from fiction.
In fact, what he communicates may come across as common
sense, but that is exactly what is missing sometimes when athletes
approach their nutrition.
Matt has researched and explored what elite athletes eat,
spending countless hours talking to many of them about their diet.
In doing so, he discovered that there are a number of factors that
are the same in all the diets of elite endurance athletes all over the
world. Many of those athletes had never spoken to a nutritionist,
never read about sports nutrition. Yet, their habits have some
remarkable similarities.
The Endurance Diet offers the five key nutrition habits Matt has
identified, and it turns out that those five common habits are all
supported by existing literature and evidence obtained mostly in
laboratory studies. And yes, these are elite athletes and they are
much faster than the average endurance athlete. But believe it or
not, elite athletes are also human. Although there are certainly
individual differences, the basic principles of physiology and
biochemistry in human bodies are fundamentally the same.
In The Endurance Diet, nutrition is brought back to its bare
bones. The bells and whistles are removed, the fad diets are
broken down, and common sense comes first. I often ask why
athletes tend to build their nutrition pyramid starting from the top
(often, supplements are the first questions I get from athletes),
followed by questions about sports drinks, gels, etc. Far fewer
questions are about a balanced healthy diet. This book will help
you build the foundation first, well-balanced healthy nutrition, then
will help you adapt depending on your activity and your goals.
The beauty is that Matt’s endurance diet is not extreme; it is
very achievable, it is very sustainable, and it will certainly produce
results. Better health as well as better performance. I have found
this book to be immensely useful. I hope you will too.
Asker Jeukendrup
Professor of Exercise Metabolism
Loughborough University
Director of mysportscience.com
 1 The Diet of the World’s Fittest
People

WHAT DO PROFESSIONAL RUNNERS IN THE UNITED

STATES, NATIONAL-TEAM rowers in Austria, world-class
swimmers in Argentina, and champion triathletes in South Africa
have in common?
Their diet.
It’s true. Elite endurance athletes in every sport and in all parts
of the planet eat the same way. Underneath superficial differences
in their specific food choices, the world’s fittest people share a
common set of eating habits that constitute what I call the
Endurance Diet. Unlike familiar weight-loss and general-health
diets, most of which were invented by a single person or group of
people, the Endurance Diet evolved over many generations inside
the crucible of international competition. Through this process,
eating habits that impeded performance were gradually weeded
out and only those that best supported it survived.
Yet, although the Endurance Diet is the product of real-world
trial and error, not science, the best and latest science
demonstrates that its five habits really do maximize the benefits of
cardiovascular exercise. A good cardio training program reduces
body fat levels, strengthens the heart, improves circulation,
increases the body’s ability to absorb and adapt to stress,
improves metabolic efficiency, sharpens the nervous system, and
boosts fatigue resistance in the muscles. These and other
physiological adaptations to cardio exercise constitute endurance
fitness, or the specific type of fitness that elite endurance athletes
need to win big races. Studies show that the habits of the
Endurance Diet enable athletes to get more endurance fitness out
of the same training and also to train more effectively.
Endurance fitness is important not only to elite endurance
athletes seeking to win international competitions but also to
everyone else who engages in cardio exercise. Endurance fitness
is the key to losing weight, improving health, looking better, living
longer, functioning and feeling better in everyday life, and
achieving any kind of athletic goal, whether it’s finishing a half
marathon or qualifying for the Ironman World Championship. And
the Endurance Diet is the key to maximizing endurance fitness, not
just for elite athletes but for everyday athletes and exercisers like
us as well.
The only problem is that, although nearly all elite endurance
athletes follow the Endurance Diet, very few others do—yet. The
purpose of this book is to correct this problem. Whatever form or
forms of cardio exercise you may do, and whatever your goal may
be, the Endurance Diet will give you better results and a better
chance of achieving your goals than any other way of eating. To
become as fit as you can be, all you have to do is eat like the
world’s fittest people. And it’s easier than you might think.

Discovering the Endurance Diet

If you’re like most endurance athletes and exercisers, you have
been exposed to many contradictory claims about what
constitutes the optimal diet for endurance fitness. You have
probably heard or read that a meat-free diet, a low-carb diet, an
ancestral diet, and a host of other diets are best for people
seeking endurance fitness. But you probably have not heard or
read that the diet shared by virtually all of the world’s most
successful endurance athletes is the way to go. That’s because it
was only recently discovered that elite endurance athletes all over
the world share a common set of eating habits.
The road to this discovery began in 2009, when I was working
on a previous diet book for endurance athletes and exercisers.
That book included a chapter called “What the Pros Eat,” which
presented one-day food journals from eighteen of the world’s best
cross-country skiers, cyclists, mountain bikers, rowers, runners,
swimmers, and triathletes. My reason for incorporating this
information was that I believed endurance athletes could not
possibly succeed at the highest level unless they ate in a way that
supported endurance fitness.
My previous exposure to the diets of elite endurance athletes
—going back to 1995, when I wrote an article about the diet of
champion triathlete Mike Pigg—had revealed a noteworthy
consistency. Almost every world-class performer I’d ever dined
with or questioned about his or her eating habits maintained a very
balanced and inclusive diet based on natural foods. But the
eighteen food journals I collected for my book greatly deepened
my appreciation for how similarly top athletes from all over the
world nourished themselves. Even some of the same specific
menu items—oatmeal, for example—kept popping up.
As I thought about these patterns, I was reminded of the work
of Stephen Seiler, an American exercise physiologist who works at
the University of Agder in Norway. In the late 1990s, Seiler
embarked on a long-term project that entailed rigorously
quantifying the training methods of elite endurance athletes in
various disciplines. He discovered that world-class athletes in the
full suite of endurance sports share a common training approach.
Specifically, they spend about 80 percent of their total training time
at low intensity and the other 20 percent at moderate to high
intensity. Seiler also dug into historical data and learned that elite
endurance athletes had not always followed “the 80/20 rule,” as
he called it. Past generations had experimented with all kinds of
methods. But, over the course of many decades, a gradual
convergence had occurred.
Seiler has argued persuasively that the reason today’s best
endurance athletes all train the same way is that the 80/20
approach works better than any alternative. Championship-level
competition ruthlessly exposes what works and what doesn’t.
Athletes who train with superior methods win; athletes who train
with inferior methods lose—and then trade their methods for those
of the winners. The result is an evolutionary process through
which training methods move gradually toward optimal
effectiveness.
Having observed that elite endurance athletes from all over the
world shared a similar way of eating, I couldn’t help but wonder if
this pattern did not exist for the same reason elite athletes
everywhere had converged on the same training system. It
seemed to me more than plausible that the dietary practices that
were most broadly shared by elite athletes everywhere were the
products of the same type of evolutionary process that had
produced their common approach to training, and that these
eating habits thus constituted the optimal diet for endurance
fitness. I found myself wishing that some ambitious scientist would
do the same thing with diet that Seiler had done with training:
meticulously examine the eating habits of elite endurance athletes
across the globe in order to identify specific practices that are
universal within this special group. Then I decided to just go ahead
and do it myself.
The research project that I subsequently embarked on took
two years to complete. My goal was not to publish the results in a
scientific journal for a few dozen PhDs to appreciate but rather to
identify a concrete set of best practices for all seekers of
endurance fitness to follow. I knew before I even started the
project that I would find features common to the diets of most
endurance athletes, because I had already seen evidence of their
existence. But I hoped to distill the vaguely defined similarities I’d
observed previously into a precise, replicable dietary formula,
much as Seiler had already done with training.
I spent time eating with and interviewing world-class endurance
athletes on five continents. I broke bread with triathletes in Brazil,
with cyclists in Spain, with cross-country skiers in Canada, and
with Kenyan and Japanese runners. Additionally, I designed a
formal diet questionnaire that I sent to world-class athletes in
many other countries. A total of thirty-two nations and eleven sport
disciplines are represented in the responses I gathered. When my
research was complete, I had discovered the Endurance Diet—the
optimal diet for endurance fitness.

The Five Key Habits

The Endurance Diet comprises five eating habits that are present
in the diets of nearly 100 percent of the athletes I interacted with
both directly and indirectly in my research. Expressed in the form
of rules, they are as follows:

1. Eat everything
2. Eat quality
3. Eat carb-centered
4. Eat enough
5. Eat individually

These five habits are the final products of a multigenerational

process of dietary evolution carried out by elite endurance athletes
all over the world, a process in which less effective practices were
discarded and more effective practices retained until no further
improvement was possible. As such, they represent the necessary
and sufficient dietary conditions for attaining the highest possible
level of endurance fitness—the rules that today’s professional
endurance athletes must follow in order to win races. Let’s take a
closer look at what each habit entails and how it benefits the pros
who depend on it.
Habit 1: Eat Everything
There are six basic categories of natural whole foods: vegetables
(including legumes); fruits; nuts, seeds, and healthy oils;
unprocessed meat and seafood; whole grains; and dairy. The
overwhelming majority of elite endurance athletes regularly
consume all six of these “high-quality” food types. The reason
they do so is that a balanced, varied, and inclusive diet is needed
to supply the body with everything it needs nutritionally to handle
the stress of hard training and to derive the maximum benefit from
workouts.
In addition to the six high-quality food types, there are four
“low-quality” food types: refined grains, sweets, processed meats,
and fried foods. Most elite endurance athletes allow themselves to
eat small amounts of each of these food types. Indulging in a treat
here and there does them no harm and is even beneficial in the
sense that it makes their overall diet more enjoyable and
sustainable. (I’ll talk in much more detail about food types in
Chapters 3 and 4).

Habit 2: Eat Quality

While most elite endurance athletes eat everything, they don’t eat
equal amounts of everything. Instead they skew their diet heavily
toward high-quality foods and eat low-quality foods in moderation.
High-quality foods tend to be more nutrient dense (i.e., richer in
vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants) and less energy dense (i.e.,
lower in calories) than low-quality foods. Basing their diet on high-
quality foods enables elite endurance athletes to get more overall
nutrition from fewer calories, and this in turn allows them to
maximize their fitness while maintaining an optimal racing weight.

Habit 3: Eat Carb-Centered

Elite endurance athletes select high-quality carbohydrate-rich
foods such as whole grains and fruit as the centerpiece of most
meals and snacks. As you probably would expect, there is a great
deal of diversity in the specific foods that professional racers from
different cultures rely on to meet their carbohydrate needs.
Ethiopian runners eat a lot more teff than Chilean mountain bikers,
who eat a lot more potatoes than Chinese swimmers, who eat a lot
more rice than Danish cross-country skiers. But all of these foods
are rich in carbohydrates, and all of these athletes maintain carb-
centered diets.
Overall, carbohydrates account for 60 to 80 percent of total
calories in the diet of the typical elite endurance athlete. As the
primary fuel for intense exercise, carbs enable these athletes to
absorb their workouts with less physiological stress and to extract
more benefits from their training.

Habit 4: Eat Enough

Elite endurance athletes do not consciously restrict the amount of
food they eat by enforcing inflexible calorie counts or portion-size
limits or by eating less than is needed to satisfy their hunger, as
many recreational athletes and dieters do. Nor do they mindlessly
overeat as a majority of people in affluent societies do today.
Instead, they pay mindful attention to signals of hunger and satiety
and allow these signals to determine when and how much they
eat. This is the only reliable way to eat sufficiently but not
excessively—that is, enough to meet the energy demands of
training but not so much as to gain or hold onto excess body fat.

Habit 5: Eat Individually

Elite athletes are mindful of, and responsive to, not only their
appetite but also their dietary needs in general. Each athlete is a
unique person in a unique situation. The diet that works best for
one athlete is unlikely to work best for another athlete in every
detail. For example, while all endurance athletes perform best on a
carb-centered diet, some function better when they get most of
their carbs from nongrain sources. Elite athletes are good at
listening to their bodies, paying attention to how different foods
and eating patterns affect them, and modifying their diet according
to what they learn. As a result, each professional endurance
athlete develops his or her own version of the Endurance Diet.
Among the dozens of elite endurance athletes whose diets I
analyzed in my research was Jasmine Alkhaldi, an Olympic
swimmer with a Filipino mother and a Saudi father who was
competing for the University of Hawaii at the time I interacted with
her. Alkhaldi’s eating patterns offer a good example of what the
Endurance Diet looks like in practice. The table below presents a
typical day in her gustatory life.

One-Day Food Journal of Jasmine Alkhaldi, Filipino/Saudi Swimmer

Breakfast:
Scrambled eggs with cheese and turkey, old-fashioned oatmeal, banana, coconut water

Snack:
Granola bar (whole grains, nuts, seeds), Muscle Milk™ protein shake

Lunch:
Grilled fish, quinoa, mixed-greens salad, fruit juice

Dinner:
Beef steak, grilled mixed vegetables, fruit juice

All five habits of the Endurance Diet are manifest in this sample
day’s eating. For starters, it includes each of the six high-quality
food types and only one of the four low-quality food types (the
Muscle Milk protein shake counts as a sweet). High-carb foods
(oatmeal, quinoa, etc.) are the centerpiece of most of her meals
and snacks. The frequency and size of her meals are controlled by
her appetite, not by calorie counts or plate-cleaning instincts. “I
focus on making sure I eat enough because I know I burn all the
calories,” she explained to me. “I want to make sure that I have
something to burn and something that will help my body recover.”
 Finally, Alkhaldi practices the habit of eating individually by
tweaking her diet according to her perception of her body’s unique
needs. While some elite endurance athletes avoid red meat, for
example, Alkhaldi eats it almost daily. “For me personally,” she
said, “having red meat is a must before any competition because it
helps me feel stronger in the water and gain more energy.”

The Great Diet Divide

As a certified sports nutritionist, I work one-on-one with nonelite
endurance athletes and exercisers who come to me for help with
their diet. The most striking thing I’ve observed in these clients is
how few of them eat like the pros before I place them on the
Endurance Diet. The majority of these recreational seekers of
endurance fitness instead follow popular diets like the Paleo Diet
or else they eat the way the average nonathlete does—which here
in the United States, unfortunately, means eating the so-called
Standard American Diet (SAD), where 11 percent of total calories
come from fast food and 13 percent from added sugars.
Athletes who reach out to me for help are always motivated by
a specific problem they’re facing, and in almost every case the
problem is a direct result of inferior nutrition. The most common
problem I see in athletes on the Standard American Diet is difficulty
losing weight. But the popular diets, although seemingly healthier,
generate negative outcomes, too. After the Paleo Diet became
popular, for example, I was contacted by a steady stream of
athletes complaining of chronic fatigue and poor performance in
workouts.
Why is it that nearly 100 percent of elite endurance athletes
like Jasmine Alkhaldi practice all five habits of the Endurance Diet,
while most recreational endurance athletes and exercisers do not?
The reason has to do with where each group goes for information
about how to eat. Elite endurance athletes take their dietary cues
from other pros—especially the most successful ones. Nonelite
athletes and exercisers, meanwhile, tend to obtain diet information
from sources in the mass media and popular culture.
The best athletes do not start off eating differently from the rest
of us. In childhood, they (like all of us) eat whatever their parents
feed them. Because they are talented, however, they experience
great success in their sport even when the food they get at home
leaves much to be desired. But when these gifted young athletes
finish school and begin to compete against the very best athletes
in the world at the professional level, two things happen: (1) they
begin to lose races (perhaps for the first time in their life), and (2)
they notice that the athletes who are beating them in races eat
differently.
The natural response to this situation is also the right one. The
defeated younger athletes simply imitate the eating habits of the
established winners. Because the overwhelming majority of
successful endurance athletes follow the habits of the Endurance
Diet, this process invariably consists in the younger athlete
adopting any of the five key habits of this diet that he or she is not
practicing already. This is how the Endurance Diet perpetuates
itself. Having evolved to the point of perfection over the course of
many decades, it is now handed down from veteran elite athletes
to less experienced ones.
Consider Molly Huddle, one of America’s top distance runners.
Huddle grew up in Elmira, New York, on what she described to me
as “the typical American diet” of cereal for breakfast, sandwiches
for lunch, and meat and potatoes for dinner. This diet fueled
Huddle to a fourth-place finish at the Foot Locker High School
Cross Country Championship and a national high school record for
two miles (10:01).
In college, Huddle ate like a typical college athlete. Her dietary
mainstays were cold cereal with milk and bagels with peanut
butter. Conscious of the need to consume vegetables, she ate
salads “occasionally.” During her four years at the University of
Notre Dame, this diet fueled Huddle to nine All-America selections
and a runner-up finish in the 2006 NCAA Championships 5000
meters.
After graduating from college, Huddle moved to Providence,
Rhode Island, to train with a group of elite female runners coached
by Ray Treacy. Her professional career got off to a shaky start.
Huddle struggled initially to keep up with the women she trained
with and competed against at the elite level. No longer could she
rely on her talent and work ethic alone to dominate her peers. So
Huddle decided to change her diet. Wisely, she did not attempt a
complete overhaul. She just made a few commonsense
adjustments such as eating more salads and less breakfast
cereal. In other words, she adopted the Endurance Diet habit of
eating quality. The most important change, however, concerned
not what she ate but how much. A naturally light eater, Huddle
noticed that the athletes around her ate more, so she began to
“eat enough” as well.
“It helped me to see that the women I was training with were
eating full, carb-heavy meals and kicking my butt in races,” Huddle
told me, “so I figured they were doing everything right!”
Her assumption was correct. Running and other endurance
sports are so competitive at the elite level today that athletes
cannot be successful—no matter how talented and hardworking
they are—without doing everything right. They cannot train with
inferior methods from yesteryear, use second-rate equipment, or
get away with bad dietary habits that affect how their bodies
perform in and respond to workouts. Huddle’s decision to emulate
the eating habits of the best athletes around her just made sense,
and it was validated, in the years that followed her dietary
adjustments, when she won twenty-three national championship
titles and set four American records.
The pattern of Molly Huddle’s dietary evolution is extremely
common among elite endurance athletes. The only thing that
differs from one case to the next is the specific dietary change a
given athlete makes at the point of transitioning to the professional
level in order to make his or her eating habits conform to the
proven best practices of the most successful athletes.
Paweł Ochal is an elite Polish runner with a personal best time
of 2:12:20 for the marathon. He comes from a poor family and was
raised on an unbalanced diet that contained few fresh fruits and
vegetables and no fish whatsoever. After gaining financial support
for his running, Ochal greatly increased the variety in his diet. He
now eats at least one fruit or vegetable with each meal and snack
and spends three months of every year training in Portugal, where
he eats fish daily, sometimes twice a day. These improvements
have made a marked difference in his body’s ability to absorb the
training that he must do to be competitive at the pro level and have
powered him to successes that include a victory at the Warsaw
Marathon.
Stone Tsang, a Chinese adventure racer based in Hong Kong,
made an effort to improve the overall quality of his diet as a young
professional. He cut down on snack chips and fried food and
increased his intake of vegetables, fruit, and nuts. “I’ve found I
feel better and stronger when I eat healthier,” he told me.
Dmitry Polyanskiy, a Russian triathlete who finished the 2014
season ranked seventh in the world, grew up on a typical Russian
diet. But when he joined his country’s national triathlon team and
began to share meals with other elites at training camps, his diet
made a significant shift toward carbohydrate-rich foods such as
pasta. He discovered that he had a lot more energy for training
and racing on a carb-centered eating routine.
Naydene Smith, a South African rower who finished sixth in the
2014 World Rowing Championships Women’s Pair, grew up on her
mom’s home cooking (roasted chicken was a family favorite), but
after turning pro she had to modify her diet in a couple of ways to
meet her individual needs. She addressed a tendency toward low
iron levels with increased red meat consumption and
supplementation. Smith also suffers from occasional nondiabetic
hyperglycemia, so she is careful to strictly limit her intake of
refined sugars.
I could supply many more examples, but these few speak for
the rest: Paweł Ochal added balance and variety to his diet
(Endurance Diet Habit 1). Stone Tsang elevated the overall quality
of his food choices (Endurance Diet Habit 2). Dmitry Polyanskiy
increased the amount of carbohydrate in his diet (Endurance Diet
Habit 3). Molly Huddle began to make sure that she ate enough
(Endurance Diet Habit 4). Naydene Smith adjusted her diet to
better meet her individual needs (Endurance Diet Habit 5). These
five dietary changes constitute a complete list of the types of
dietary changes that elite athletes commonly make in order to
excel at the highest level of competition. In each case, the aspiring
professional athlete does not abandon the culturally normal diet
that he or she grew up on. Instead, a targeted change or set of
changes is implemented to make the young athlete’s diet more like
those of established champions.

Too Much (Mis)Information

Recreational endurance athletes and exercisers like us are in a
completely different situation. Unlike the pros, we do not belong to
a peer group that clearly has the whole diet thing figured out. For
us, discovering the optimal diet for endurance fitness is not a
simple matter of copying the eating habits of the Olympians and
world champions we train with and compete against. We are left to
look for dietary guidance elsewhere. The most popular resources
are books, magazines, websites, podcasts, and blogs focused on
endurance or general nutrition.
The major drawback of this approach is that the guidance
available through such resources is inconsistent. Whereas nearly
all elite endurance athletes practice the same five key dietary
habits, the authorities offering dietary advice through mass and
social media channels have widely varying beliefs about what
constitutes the optimal diet for endurance fitness (or weight loss or
general health). This lack of consistency leaves many athletes and
exercisers confused about what to eat.
A typical case is Kate, a runner in her twenties who works for a
nonprofit organization in San Diego. Kate has bounced around
from pescatarian to plant-based to other diets and has not been
satisfied with any of them. Problems ranging from anemia to
severe cravings for “forbidden” foods have caused her to abandon
the various eating programs she’s tried with initial high hopes.
Kate gets much of the information on which she bases her dietary
decisions from running websites and publications, but she finds
the recommendations they offer to be maddeningly variable.
“I read every running magazine out there,” Kate told me. “I’ve
noticed advice given in one issue is completely different than
advice in the next issue—and I’m talking about the same
publication. How are we supposed to know what is right?”
It’s not only twenty-something female runners who are
confused about what to eat and whose bewilderment leads them
to jump from diet to diet without getting the results they seek. Mike
is a fifty-something triathlete who works as a corporate executive
in Hoover, Alabama. He has tried high-protein diets, liquid diets,
“grazing” diets, and many others. Not an actual client of mine,
Mike is still searching. “I have yet to find (or properly execute) a
diet where I can successfully manage my weight and feel good in
long-distance racing,” he told me.
The dietary confusion that endurance seekers feel is
exacerbated by the fact that the popular diets they are persuaded
to try don’t work. And they don’t work to the precise extent that
they deviate from the way elite endurance athletes eat.
Most popular diets have rules that contradict one or more of
the five habits of the Endurance Diet. Many of them explicitly forbid
eating everything. Plant-based diets, which forbid meat, seafood,
and dairy, are one example. Popular diets also tend to look past
the simple concept of quality in favor of other, more esoteric, ways
of distinguishing “good” and “bad” food types, such as glycemic
index scores and pH values. A large number of popular diets place
strict limits on carbohydrate intake. Others contradict the
Endurance Diet habit of eating enough by prescribing calorie
counts, portion-size limits, or frequent fasting. And nearly all
popular diets at least tacitly discourage individuality, forcing all of
their followers to start over with a one-size-fits-all solution instead
of allowing them to simply improve their existing (and presumably
preferred) eating habits.
Although such rules may sometimes work for people who don’t
exercise much, they seldom pan out for those who vigorously
pursue endurance fitness, regardless of their ultimate goal. I’ve
seen the consequences of each contradiction often enough to
have identified consistent patterns.

Dietary Self-Sabotage
Athletes and exercisers who try diets that eliminate entire food
groups often come to me with complaints of poor performance in
workouts and competitions, compromised recovery, stagnating
fitness development, chronic fatigue, injuries, frequent infections,
and iron-deficiency anemia. There are also psychological
consequences of such restrictions, which include obsessive fear
of eating the wrong thing and binge episodes followed by bouts of
extreme guilt.
Those who fall for low-carbohydrate diets commonly develop
symptoms of overtraining, the worst of which are persistent
lethargy, declining performance, hormonal disruptions, and sleep
and mood disturbances. Sad to say, the rising popularity of low-
carb diets among recreational endurance athletes has been very
good for my business as a sports nutritionist.
Athletes and exercisers who approach the task of regulating
the amount of food they eat with a negative mind-set, always
worrying about gaining weight, usually end up pinballing between
overeating and undereating. The latter is just as bad as the
former. Consistently falling even slightly short of meeting the
athletic body’s calorie needs results in poor workout performance,
slow recovery between workouts, stagnating fitness, persistent
fatigue, mood and sleep disturbances, more frequent illnesses,
and elevated risk of injury. There are, of course, many athletes
and exercisers who consistently eat too much, but this error is
caused not by paying mindful attention to the body’s true energy
needs, as elite athletes do, but instead by eating low-quality foods
that promote overconsumption and by eating “mindlessly” (e.g.,
cleaning one’s plate despite feeling stuffed).
There are also psychological consequences associated with
worrying a lot about overeating. Like the mistake of eliminating
entire food types from the diet, focusing on not eating too much
fosters a fear- and guilt-based relationship with food. I have never
met an athlete or exerciser who has an unhealthy relationship with
food and yet manages to maintain a consistently healthy diet that
produces the desired results.
At the very least, obsessive worry about eating too much
causes stress, which sabotages health and fitness as much as
healthy food helps it. In the worst cases, this error leads to
disordered eating, a problem that is very common at the subelite
level of endurance sports and is an outright epidemic among
female college runners.
Interestingly, eating disorders are virtually nonexistent among
elite endurance athletes. The reason is simple: any elite athlete
who develops an eating disorder is not going to stay elite very
long! The foundation of endurance fitness is all-around health, and
eating enough keeps elite endurance athletes healthy in body and
mind.
The most insidious damage that popular diets do to athletes
and exercisers results from the discouragement of individuality. A
healthy diet is only as effective as it is sustainable. Improved
eating habits are more sustainable when they retain some of a
person’s dietary preferences, but popular diets frequently leave
little room for the exercise of such preferences. What’s more, one-
size-fits-all diets systematically train their followers to ignore their
bodies’ individual needs, and as a result some of these needs are
not met.
For every recreational endurance athlete or exerciser who
addresses his or her confusion by cycling through various popular
diets, there are several more who react by throwing up their hands
and reverting to the Standard American Diet, which has the virtue
of being comfortable, at least. One such athlete is Stephanie, a
runner and schoolteacher in Linwood, New Jersey, who told me, “I
pretty much eat whatever I want, whenever I want, even though I
know it’s not healthy.” Athletes like Stephanie knowingly persist in
eating poorly because they are turned off by or burned out on the
rigid, perfectionistic popular diets they see as the only alternative
to eating “like a normal person,” as they often put it.
Features of the SAD have spread well beyond America’s
borders, so that athletes and exercisers in many parts of the world
are now eating too many low-quality foods and not enough high-
quality foods. This is one reason why, according to a scientific
survey I helped administer in 2008, three out of four recreational
endurance athletes report being dissatisfied with their weight at
any given time.

Here’s Your Opportunity

Chances are you do not currently eat the same way the world’s
fittest people do. Even if you’re not currently following a popular
diet or stuck on the Standard American Diet, it is unlikely that you
are practicing all five habits of the Endurance Diet like the pros.
This book will give you the opportunity to learn from the world’s
most successful racers how to eat for maximum endurance
fitness. It will give you a virtual seat at the table with top runners,
cyclists, and other athletes from a variety of countries so you can
see that they do indeed share a common core diet—a diet that
works better than any other diet for athletes and exercisers at all
levels.
In Chapter 2, I will explain why it makes just as much sense for
you to adopt these eating habits as it does for rookie pros like
Molly Huddle. Chapters 3 through 7 will supply real-world and
scientific proof that these habits are more effective than the
alternatives for every endurance fitness seeker, along with specific
guidelines on putting them into practice.
The remainder of the book is dedicated to showing you how to
make these habits stick and how to fine-tune the Endurance Diet
to fit your needs, preferences, and lifestyle. Included in this section
is a collection of original recipes for delicious, nourishing, and
easy-to-make meals favored by elite endurance athletes all over
the world. They were created by Georgie Fear, my longtime
collaborator and herself a former triathlete and ultrarunner. The
concluding chapter addresses the subject of training, explaining
the approach to exercise that best complements the Endurance
Diet, the cornerstone of which is Stephen Seiler’s 80/20 Rule.
Are you ready for a diet that will cure you once and for all of
confusion about how to eat to maximize the results you get from
the time and energy you invest in exercise? A diet that will power
you beyond all of the nutrition-related obstacles preventing you
from achieving your goals? A diet that is as enjoyable and easy to
sustain as it is effective because it accommodates individual
preferences and needs? Then follow me—or, better yet, follow the
athletes who have already gotten where you want to go.
 2 Why You Should Eat Like an Elite

AMÄEL MOINARD IS A FRENCH MEMBER OF THE BMC

PROFESSIONAL CYCLING team who has completed eleven
Grand Tours, including six Tours de France. He is also among the
many elite endurance athletes who supplied me with a one-day
food journal when I was conducting research on the Endurance
Diet.
On the particular day he chose to record his food and
beverage intake, Moinard breakfasted on porridge with raisins,
banana slices, and soy milk and a cup of tea. He then mounted his
bike for a three-hour ride, during which he ate a scone and a
cereal bar and drank a bottle of PowerBar Perform and a Coke.
Immediately after the ride, Moinard drank a protein shake. His
lunch consisted of vegetable-filled strudel with steamed carrots
and olive oil and an orange. At midafternoon, he ate an apple and
a muffin and drank tea with milk. For dinner, he ate minestrone
soup, brown rice, whole wheat bread with butter, and Swiss
cheese.
All five habits of the Endurance Diet are manifest in this menu.
You will recall from the previous chapter that the first habit is
“eating everything,” which entails regularly consuming all six of the
high-quality food types (vegetables; fruits; nuts, seeds, and
healthy oils; unprocessed meat and seafood; whole grains; and
dairy) and not forbidding the four low-quality food types (refined
grains, sweets, processed meats, and fried foods). Moinard’s food
journal includes every food type except fried foods and
unprocessed/processed meat and seafood. Moinard explained to
me that he consumes meat or fish every other day. If he had
recorded his food journal one day earlier or one day later than he
actually did, we would have seen meat or fish on his dinner plate.
Habit 2 is “eating quality.” This means basing your diet on the
high-quality food types and eating only small amounts of the low-
quality food types. Most of the low-quality foods and drinks
recorded in Moinard’s food journal were taken in during exercise,
when the normal rules of healthy eating are suspended, for the
simple reason that the purpose of consuming nutrition during
exercise is to enhance performance, not health, and the most
performance-enhancing forms of nutrition you can consume
during exercise are sports drinks and other high-sugar products
that are not healthy to consume outside of exercise. The only low-
quality foods Moinard ate in the context of regular meals and
snacks were strudel and a muffin (both made with refined grains)
and milk chocolate (a sweet).
The third habit of the Endurance Diet is “eating carb-centered.”
Practicing this habit is a matter of putting carbohydrate-rich foods
at the center of most meals and snacks. Moinard certainly did so
on this day, eating porridge and a banana at breakfast, taking in
lots of carbs on the bike, eating strudel at lunch and brown rice
and bread at dinner, and snacking on fruit. Over the course of the
full day, Moinard got more than 70 percent of his total calories
from carbs (including nutrition taken in on the bike).
Habit 4, “eating enough,” consists of regulating the amount of
food that you eat by paying mindful attention to, and heeding,
internal signals of hunger and satiety. Athletes who do so eat
enough to maximize the benefits of their training without
overeating. The alternatives to mindful eating are restricted eating
(e.g., counting calories), which tends to result in yo-yoing between
undereating and compensatory overeating, and mindless eating
(e.g., plate cleaning), which tends to result in consistent
overeating.
 It is not possible to discern from a food journal whether an
athlete eats mindfully, but it is possible to quantify how much he
eats, and it’s clear from Amäel Moinard’s food journal that he eats
a lot. There are six separate eating occasions recorded in his
journal, and even the snacks are substantial. Nothing less would
have sufficed to meet his energy needs. Moinard burned more
than 5,000 calories on the day in question. But he did not meet his
energy needs by consciously limiting himself to 5,000 calories.
Instead he ate by feel, taking in just enough food to satisfy his
appetite and stave off the return of hunger until it was time to eat
again.
The fifth habit is “eating individually.” This entails applying the
other four habits in a way that accommodates an athlete’s
individual needs and preferences. Like Habit 4, this one is all about
paying attention to yourself. But whereas eating enough results
from eating mindfully, eating individually results from the
somewhat broader practice of eating consciously, or paying
attention to how your body responds to various eating patterns
and adjusting them to enhance positive outcomes and eliminate
negative outcomes.
Moinard’s practice of alternate-day vegetarianism is a great
example of eating individually. It’s not something that many elite
endurance athletes do, but Moinard has found that when he eats
meat and fish more often, he gains weight, whereas if he eats
them less often, he loses power on the bike.
Another elite endurance athlete who supplied me with a one-
day food journal is Gwen Jorgensen, an American triathlete who
won the ITU Triathlon Series World Championship in 2014 and
2015 and the 2016 Olympic Women’s Triathlon. Despite living in a
different country and competing in a different sport than Amäel
Moinard, she maintains a diet that is very similar to his.
The breakfast Jorgensen recorded in her food journal
consisted of a bowl of oatmeal with banana slices, raisins, goji
berries, strawberries, nuts, coconut oil, yogurt, peanut butter, and
two poached eggs; coffee; and a piece of dark chocolate. After her
first workout, she ate a snack of rice cakes with peanut butter and
Greek yogurt. Lunch consisted of steamed rice with lamb and
vegetables and a second piece of dark chocolate. Following her
afternoon workout, Jorgensen ate dried apples, hummus, and
raisins. Dinner was a one-pot dish with sweet potato, veggies,
chicken, feta cheese, and avocado. Dessert was another piece of
dark chocolate. Before going to bed, Jorgensen snacked on
muesli with yogurt and fruit.
Perhaps the most striking feature of this menu is the sheer
volume of food Jorgensen ate. If she’s not practicing the habit of
eating enough, I’m Santa Claus! Almost as striking are the variety
and balance of Jorgensen’s diet. Her food journal includes three
servings of vegetables, four servings of fruit, four servings of nuts,
seeds, and healthy oils, two servings of whole grains, three-and-a-
half servings of dairy, and four servings of unprocessed meat and
seafood (including the poached eggs). Clearly, she is fully on
board with the habit of eating everything.
Almost all of the variety in Jorgensen’s food selections comes
from the six high-quality food categories. The only exceptions are
the two servings of white rice she ate (one in the form of rice
cakes) and her second and third squares of dark chocolate (the
first one deserves a pass, as research indicates that dark
chocolate is healthy in small amounts).
Like Moinard, Jorgensen puts high-carb foods at the center of
each meal and snack, from the oatmeal she consumes almost
every day at breakfast to the muesli she ate before bedtime on
this particular day. And like Moinard again, Jorgensen permits
herself a few dietary eccentricities that demonstrate a habit of
eating individually. For example, lots of people add fruit and nuts to
their oatmeal, as Jorgensen does. But not many also add coconut
oil, yogurt, peanut butter, and poached eggs! Jorgensen created
this unusual breakfast dish as a way to get the dietary variety and
balance she feels her body needs.
No Coincidence
The fact that Amäel Moinard and Gwen Jorgensen’s diets are so
similar would hold no real significance if other elite endurance
athletes did not eat similarly. But in fact nearly all of the
professional racers whose diets I have analyzed practice all five
habits of the Endurance Diet.
Even this broader pattern would mean little, however, if most
recreational endurance athletes and exercisers and even
nonathletes throughout the world practiced the same habits. If this
were the case, then the Endurance Diet would be nothing more
than the way everyone eats. But data from large-scale scientific
surveys and from epidemiological research clearly shows that few
people other than professional endurance racers practice all five
habits of the Endurance Diet.
What’s more, even elite endurance athletes themselves did not
follow the Endurance Diet. Looking at what earlier generations of
elite endurance athletes put into their mouths, we find that they
deviated from one or more of the five habits far more often than
today’s athletes do. Here are some notable examples:

• The first great runner of the twentieth century, Hannes

Kolehmainen, who lived from 1889 to 1966, did not practice
the habit of eating everything. He was, in fact, a vegetarian.
• Johnny Weissmuller, the greatest swimmer of the 1920s,
did not eat quality. He survived mainly on hot dogs and ice
cream and consumed few vegetables except when his
coach was looking over his shoulder.
• Jacques Anquetil, who won the Tour de France five times
between 1957 and 1964, did not eat a lot of carbohydrates.
He was raised on the high-fat, dairy-rich diet of working-
class Normandy, which he supplemented as an adult
professional cyclist with copious amounts of protein-packed
steak and lobster as well as vast quantities of champagne
(alcohol is not a carb!).
 • Peter Reid, a Canadian triathlete who won the Ironman
World Championship three times between 1998 and 2003,
did not eat enough. A big man by the standards of world-
class triathletes, Reid sometimes went to bed at night so
hungry that he had a headache, all for the sake of getting
down to what he considered to be his ideal racing weight of
164 pounds.
• Wang Junxia, a Chinese runner who set a women’s 10,000-
meter world record in 1993, did not eat individually,
adjusting her diet to meet her personal needs and
preferences. Junxia was trained by an infamously despotic
coach named Ma Junren, who ruled his all-female roster of
athletes with an iron fist, micromanaging every aspect of
their lives, diet included. Although he allowed them to eat
some normal foods, like rice, he also forced them to
consume turtle’s blood, caterpillar fungus, and other
supplements with supposed endurance-boosting powers.

Taken together, these three facts—(1) that nearly all elite

endurance athletes today share the same five key eating habits,
(2) that most recreational endurance athletes and exercisers and
most sedentary people do not practice all of these same habits,
and (3) that elite endurance athletes of past generations were far
more likely than today’s top racers to disobey one or more of the
“rules” of the Endurance Diet—demand an explanation. Why did
this way of eating evolve to become almost universal at the top
level of every major endurance sport while remaining uncommon
elsewhere?

Survival of the Fittest

The short answer is competition. Endurance races like the Boston
Marathon and the Ironman World Championship determine
winners and losers with brutal clarity. The rewards for winning
these competitions—money, fame, glory, and the thrill of victory
itself—are significant and function as strong incentives for athletes
to do everything in their power to cross the finish line first.
Most races are won by the fittest participant. Technique and
tactics matter less in endurance competition than they do in
games like tennis and soccer, while fitness matters more. The
fittest athlete on the start line of a race is very likely to be the first
one to cross the finish line, even if he or she is not the best
tactician and does not have the most refined technique. In a
sense, then, most races are decided before they even start. The
true challenge for elite endurance athletes, therefore, is to arrive
at the start line with the highest level of fitness.
The three main contributors to fitness are talent, training, and
diet. Talent, of course, is fixed at birth, whereas training and diet
are controllable and are thus the focus of each athlete’s efforts to
prepare for competition. In a race contested by athletes of equal
talent, the fittest participant and the probable winner will be the
one who is best prepared, and the one who is best prepared will
be the one who trained and ate in the most effective ways before
the race.
If there were only one way to train or eat, then almost every
race would be won by the most talented athlete. But in fact there is
an almost infinite variety of ways to train and eat in preparation for
endurance competition. Knowing this, and knowing the importance
of training and diet to fitness, elite athletes who fall short of victory
in major races often try to find out how the winners train and eat
and then imitate those practices.
The history of endurance sports is filled with examples of such
copycatting. Consider the case of Finnish runners Hannes
Kolehmainen (mentioned above) and Paavo Nurmi. In 1912,
Kolehmainen won Olympic gold medals in three running events
and became a national hero. In the wake of these triumphs,
thousands of Finnish boys took up running in the hope of
becoming their country’s next athletic icon. Many of these young
runners also emulated the specific methods that were perceived
as the secrets to Kolehmainen’s success.
There were two salient ways in which Kolehmainen’s methods
of preparing for competition differed from the methods used by
most of his contemporaries. On the training side, Kolehmainen
was innovative in his use of high-intensity intervals. On the diet
side, he stood out as a vegetarian. Paavo Nurmi was fifteen years
old when the Summer Games of 1912 were staged in Stockholm.
He took up running and became a vegetarian the very same year.
For whatever reason, though, he did not immediately incorporate
high-intensity intervals into his training routine. After showing initial
promise, Nurmi struggled to improve. Then, at age twenty-one, he
gave up vegetarianism and started doing high-intensity intervals.
Soon thereafter, Nurmi experienced a breakthrough, lowering his
5000-meter time by 32 seconds and qualifying for the 1920
Olympics in Antwerp, where he won the 10,000 meters and the
individual cross country event and led Finland to the team cross
country title.
This example perfectly illustrates how the evolution of training
methods and dietary practices has occurred at the elite level in
endurance sports. Most of the major endurance sports can trace
their origins to the late nineteenth century. (The first European
Rowing Championship was held in 1893, for example, and the first
Olympic Marathon in 1896.) Among the first few generations of
modern endurance athletes, training methods and dietary
practices were extremely diverse and constantly changing. But as
up-and-coming athletes like Paavo Nurmi emulated champions like
Hannes Kolehmainen, an evolutionary process began to unfold.
Not everything that the champions did differently was
necessarily better. In those early days, exceptionally talented
athletes were able to win despite making mistakes. But things
sorted themselves out over time, as up-and-comers with varying
degrees of talent tested out training methods and dietary practices
borrowed from the champions. Some methods and practices, such
as high-intensity intervals, proved to be effective for everyone,
whereas others, such as vegetarianism, proved to be less
effective than a specific alternative (in this case eating everything).
As the decades passed, two things happened. First, there was
a gradual convergence of the training methods and dietary
practices used by elite endurance athletes all across the world. At
the same time, the top racers got fitter and faster—proof that this
evolutionary process was moving elite athletes inexorably toward
optimal, unimprovable ways of preparing. Kolehmainen’s best time
for 5000 meters was 14:36.6. The women’s world record at that
distance now stands at 14:11.5.
Each of the five habits of the Endurance Diet traveled its own
path toward universality within the elite athlete population.
Prioritizing carbohydrates in the diet, for example, has been the
norm since the 1960s. Eating quality, on the other hand, did not
become universal until more recently. The most dominant
marathoner of the late 1970s, Bill Rodgers, for example, had a
notoriously junk-filled diet.
There is compelling evidence that it is no longer possible for
even the most extraordinarily talented athlete to win major
international competitions despite defying one or more habits of
the Endurance Diet. Consider the case of Peter Reid, the three-
time Ironman champion who defied the Endurance Diet habit of
eating enough. Only once since Reid won his last Ironman title in
2003 has the winning time of that event been slower than Reid’s
best winning time. Two of those faster victories were achieved by
Chris McCormack, who weighed 177 pounds, or 13 pounds more
than the weight that Reid starved himself down to for race day.
Notably, McCormack’s first Ironman win came in the Australian’s
sixth attempt, and he’d been as light as 171 pounds in some of his
previous attempts. Only when he stopped worrying about being as
light as possible and started to eat enough did McCormack break
through to victory.
 What’s true of the habit of eating enough as it relates to the
Ironman World Championship is also true of the other four
Endurance Diet habits and for every other major international
endurance sports race. Over the past 120 years, the crucible of
championship-level competition, by rewarding superior fitness and
mercilessly punishing its lack, has led elite endurance athletes to
discover the very best way to eat for endurance fitness. Athletes
who do not eat this way simply cannot win at the highest level.

The Science of Trial and Error

We have just seen convincing historical evidence that the
Endurance Diet is in fact the optimal diet for endurance fitness. But
historical evidence is not scientific proof. Nowadays, people
expect diets to have a scientific basis. Can we really trust that a
real-world process of blind trial and error enabled elite endurance
athletes to discover the diet that supports endurance fitness better
than any other way of eating?
Why not? Trial and error solves all kinds of real-world
problems. Most notably, natural selection, which influences how
living species survive in challenging and changing environments, is
a form of trial and error. Natural selection parallels the process by
which the Endurance Diet evolved in the environment of elite
endurance competition. Like endurance athletes, animals, plants,
and other living species seek fitness—not endurance fitness, in
their case, but the fitness of being well adapted to their
environment. The individual members of a living species have
different physical traits that confer varying degrees of fitness in
relation to their environment. Each trait represents a distinct
potential solution to the problem of the species’ survival. These
traits are the functional equivalent of the various training methods
and dietary practices that athletes use to pursue endurance
fitness.
 Whereas endurance athletes compete for race victories,
organisms compete to procreate. Individual organisms whose
traits render them better adapted to their environment are more
likely to live long enough to produce offspring. Consequently,
favorable traits tend to spread throughout a species over
succeeding generations, whereas unfavorable traits tend to get
weeded out.
The trial-and-error approach to problem solving—whether the
problem is the survival of a species in a changing environment or
discovering the optimal diet for endurance fitness—is essentially a
form of random guessing. The downside of random guessing is
that it’s inefficient. Consider how long it would take you to guess a
randomly chosen number between one and one million (unless you
got incredibly lucky). The upside of trial and error is that, given
enough time, it’s guaranteed to succeed. As biophysicist John
Mayfield wrote in his book, The Engine of Complexity, “Random
guessing will eventually answer any question.” If you’re given a
million chances to guess a randomly chosen number between one
and one million, you can’t possibly fail.
There are far more than one million combinations of dietary
patterns that could conceivably combine to define the optimal diet
for endurance fitness. The human body produces an estimated
2,709 enzymes that facilitate approximately 896 chemical
reactions. In athletes, all of these enzymes and reactions serve as
direct or indirect links between diet and fitness. Each specific
change in diet—for example, altering the ratio of cooked foods to
raw foods that are consumed—has the potential to influence this
complex biochemistry in ways that may in turn affect endurance
fitness. A very large number of “random guesses” are therefore
needed to answer the question of how to eat for maximum
endurance fitness.
Not an infinite number, however. The past 120-plus years have
given elite endurance athletes around the world enough
opportunity to test just about every possible solution to the
problem of how to eat for maximum endurance fitness. The fact
that, after fourteen or so generations, elite athletes across all
disciplines and on every continent have settled on a common
solution assures us there is little left to try.
Does this mean that science has no role to play in identifying
the optimal diet for endurance fitness? Not at all. Sports
nutritionists and exercise physiologists contribute to the process
by testing the relative effectiveness of different dietary practices in
a more formal and focused way than real-world racing does.
Research of this kind has consistently demonstrated that
Endurance Diet habits yield better results than the alternatives,
and that the various popular diets often followed by recreational
endurance athletes fail to live up to their promises.
A good example is the Zone Diet. The creator of the Zone Diet,
Barry Sears, was working as a biochemist when he came across a
scientific paper that caught his interest. In it, Sanford Byers and
Meyer Friedman of Mount Zion Medical School in San Francisco
reported that they had reversed symptoms of atherosclerosis in
rabbits by injecting them with phospholipids, a type of fat used
mainly in cell membranes.
Several years later, Sears learned of new research on a class
of molecules called eicosanoids, which are synthesized from
phospholipids and participate in many biological functions,
including inflammation. This new research convinced Sears that
eicosanoids were much more important than he had previously
known. Many years later he wrote, “These hormones . . . are
among the most powerful and important substances in the body.
They act as ‘master switches’ that control virtually all human body
functions. . . . Eicosanoids are so crucial to our health and well-
being that I came to think of them as the ‘molecular glue’ that
holds the human body together.”
Having come to this conclusion, Sears set out to discover a
way to balance eicosanoids for maximum health. This mission led
eventually to his development of the Zone Diet. The original
version of the diet offered a very simple prescription: get 40
percent of your daily calories from carbohydrates and 30 percent
each from fat and protein. A later iteration of the program
introduced an element of essential fatty acid supplementation.
Sears brought the Zone Diet to the masses with his first book,
Enter the Zone, which was published in 1995 and became an
international bestseller. The Zone Diet gained popularity with
recreational endurance athletes after Sears licensed the 40-30-30
concept to a sports supplement company that incorporated the
formula into a line of energy bars and marketed them aggressively
to athletes.
Although the Zone Diet was not created for endurance
athletes, Barry Sears was able to create a post factum argument
to support the idea that it was optimal for endurance fitness
nevertheless. Specifically, he argued that his diet increased the
body’s production of particular eicosanoids involved in muscle
growth and repair, blood flow and muscle oxygenation, and
inflammation. If eicosanoids truly were as all-important as Sears
contended, this argument probably would have stood up to formal
testing. But in a 2002 study, researchers at England’s Kingston
University found that switching over to the Zone Diet reduced
running performance by almost 10 percent in a group of
moderately fit young men.
One of the reasons the Zone Diet became so popular among
recreational endurance athletes was that it seemed so scientific.
But there’s a difference between seeming scientific and being
scientific. A biochemical explanation for why a certain diet ought to
maximize endurance fitness should not be mistaken for proof that
it does. And if that biochemical explanation is based on just one or
two small pieces of the huge and complex puzzle of human
metabolism—such as eicosanoids, which do not, in fact, “act as
‘master switches’ that control virtually all human body functions”
and are not, in fact, “the ‘molecular glue’ that holds the human
body together”—then it really isn’t much better than a random
guess. A stronger hypothesis would have to consider the complete
metabolic puzzle—all of the human body’s estimated 2,709
enzymes and 896 chemical reactions—and that is simply
impossible. It’s better just to skip the hypothesizing and revert to
trial and error, a process that, thankfully, has already been fully
played out in the real world.
Other popular diets that are followed by endurance athletes
have similar flaws. Proponents of plant-based diets, high-fat diets,
and other regimens offer very scientific-seeming biochemical
explanations for why they ought to maximize endurance fitness.
But like Barry Sears’s case for the Zone Diet, these explanations
are nothing more than highly reductionistic stories of “biological
plausibility”—wild guesses dressed up in the language of
biochemistry—so it shouldn’t be surprising at all that, when
actually put to the test, these guesses turn out to be wrong.
But although human metabolism is just too complex to allow
scientists to deduce the optimal diet for endurance fitness through
biochemistry, science can, in addition to testing the effectiveness
of different dietary practices in a more formal and focused way
than races do, shed light on why the most effective practices work
and why the least effective ones don’t. For example, recent
research indicates that the problem with the Zone Diet is that it’s
too high in protein. (To meet the 30 percent protein requirement of
the Zone Diet, the average American would have to almost double
his or her protein intake, and the average American’s diet is
already high in protein by global standards.) A 2013 study by
Japanese scientists found that eating a lot of protein inhibits the
development of endurance fitness by reducing the number of
mitochondria—the little “factories” inside muscle cells where
aerobic metabolism occurs—that the body creates in response to
training. This is not to say that 30 percent protein is “bad”—in fact,
as I will discuss in Chapter 9, it’s actually good for short-term
weight loss—it’s just not good for building endurance fitness.
 In the coming chapters I will share much more scientific proof
that the Endurance Diet habits are essential to maximizing
endurance fitness, as well as research showing how these habits
work. But the most persuasive argument in favor of these habits is
the real-world evidence we’ve already seen: winners use them.

We’re All Human

In 2015, I gave a presentation titled “Why You Should Eat Like an
Elite” (sound familiar?) at a summit for running coaches. Halfway
through my talk, an audience member raised a hand and said, “I
don’t get it. Elite athletes are completely different from the people I
coach. How can the diet of an Olympic champion possibly apply to
someone who runs a 25-minute 5K?”
It was a fair question, and perhaps one that has crossed your
mind as well. If so, I’m glad, because it means I’ve probably
succeeded in convincing you that the Endurance Diet is at the very
least the optimal diet for elite endurance athletes. But does it really
work for everyone?
Here’s what I told that skeptical coach: Elite endurance
athletes aren’t as different from the rest of us as you might think.
DNA analyses have demonstrated that a mere handful of genes,
such as certain variants of the FIF5B gene, distinguish Olympic
champions from the average Joe and Jane. Most of these genes
relate to body size, natural speed, and aerobic capacity. They
have nothing to do with how food is digested and metabolized.
Nor, for that matter, do these genes have anything to do with
how the body responds to training. Scientists have determined
that the genes that confer the ability to gain aerobic fitness in
response to training (or “trainability”) are quite widespread in the
human population. In one study, exercise physiologists created a
system for scoring trainability based on how many of the relevant
genes a person had. Although there was a significant degree of
interindividual variation, a greater number of subjects (52) had the
highest possible score than the lowest (36).
Recreational endurance athletes and exercisers typically do
not train nearly as much as the pros do, and it is widely assumed
that most of them couldn’t match elite training volumes even if they
wanted to. But genetic findings like those I just described indicate
that a majority of nonelite endurance athletes actually could get
much fitter if they emulated the high-volume training of the pros.
Running is a bit of an exception. Most recreational runners
could not handle 120 miles of running per week. But this limitation
is mainly related to body size, not trainability. Recreational runners
tend to be much larger than the pros (the current world record
holder in the men’s marathon is five-foot-seven and weighs 121
pounds), and therefore their bodies absorb much more impact
force with each mile, causing greater wear and tear.
Another popular assumption is that recreational athletes can
and should “make up for” training less than the elites by doing
more of their training at high intensity. This assumption is also
false. Studies have shown that recreational athletes who exercise
less than 45 minutes a day, on average, get the best results when
they spend 80 percent of that time at low intensity and 20 percent
at moderate to high intensity, just like the elites.
The science is clear: elite and recreational endurance athletes
are similar enough physiologically that the training methods that
work best for the pros are also most effective for the rest of us.
And diet? Some proponents of popular diets for endurance
athletes have proposed that recreational athletes and exercisers,
because they do not train as much as the elites, cannot “get away
with” eating as the elites do. These Endurance Diet skeptics see
habits such as eating everything, eating carb-centered, and eating
enough as forms of dietary laxness that require several hours of
daily training to neutralize. But elite athletes don’t practice these
habits because they can—they practice them because they must.
 If the goal of elite athletes were merely to look good naked,
many of them could eat fast food three times a day and still
maintain their washboard stomachs by virtue of burning thousands
of calories a day through exercise. But elite athletes are trying to
achieve something far more difficult than looking good naked—
they are trying to win major international competitions. To achieve
this goal, they need to be significantly leaner and fitter than they
would have to be merely to look lean and fit. Therefore, they
cannot afford to have any true laxness in their diet.
A 2009 study involving elite runners drives this point home.
Twenty-one top-level Ethiopian milers—ten women and eleven
men—were statistically lined up in the order of their best race
times. All of these athletes were very fast, but some were
marginally faster than others. In a second part of the experiment,
the same runners were statistically lined up in the order of their
body fat percentage. All of them were very lean, but some were
just slightly leaner than others. As it turned out, the two lineups—
the speed-based arrangement and the fat-based arrangement—
were almost identical. The fastest runner among the twenty-one
was also the leanest, the second fastest was the second leanest,
and so forth.
These findings make it clear that elite endurance athletes do
not have any margin to “get away with” sloppy eating habits.
Whatever may appear like sloppiness to some—such as eating
lots of carbs—is actually necessary to attain the razor-thin
advantages that separate winners from losers at the elite level.
It is interesting to see what happens when an elite athlete
whose diet really is substandard—meaning it does not fully
conform to the five habits of the Endurance Diet—brings it up to
standard at midcareer. One such case involves the American
triathlete Hunter Kemper. Through the first several years of his
professional career, Kemper was a somewhat careless eater with
a weakness for Krispy Kreme donuts. Despite this weakness,
Kemper performed very well, winning three national championship
titles between 1998 and 2004 and finishing as high as eighth in the
world championships—and he certainly looked lean and fit. But he
wanted more.
After a disappointing ninth-place finish at the 2004 Olympics in
Athens, Kemper decided to make some changes. He consulted
with a sports nutritionist and subsequently improved his diet
quality by eating more vegetables and unprocessed meats and
fewer donuts and other sweets. He lost a couple pounds of hidden
body fat and finished the 2005 season as the ITU World Cup
champion and the number-one ranked triathlete in the world.
Recreational endurance athletes with far less talent and
significantly milder training schedules than Hunter Kemper achieve
similar results when they make similar changes. Take Cassandra,
a formerly overweight fifty-something triathlete and network
specialist from Spokane, Washington. Cassandra used my Diet
Quality Score tool (which I’ll describe in Chapter 4) to improve her
diet and subsequently lost 110 pounds without making any other
changes to her eating or exercise habits. “It was pretty easy to
drop the weight without ‘dieting’ or adversely affecting my triathlon
training,” she told me via Facebook.
As you see, the eating habits that work best for athletes at one
end of the talent and training spectrum really do work just as well
for athletes and exercisers at the opposite end. It’s a simple fact: if
you want to become as healthy and fit as you can be given the
amount of time you’re able to invest in your training, you need to
eat like an elite.
 3 Habit 1: Eat Everything

IN THE WINTER OF 2015 I TRAVELED FROM MY HOME IN

CALIFORNIA’S CENTRAL Valley to the Spanish resort village of
Mojácar Playa to spend a few days with the LottoNL-Jumbo
professional bike racing team. I met the cyclists at the Hotel
Marina Playa, a four-star accommodation situated fifty meters
from a private beach on the Mediterranean Sea and equipped with
four pools, indoor and outdoor bars, a golf course, a full-service
spa, and racquet courts. The mostly Dutch athletes were not there
to enjoy such amusements, however. They had come for a ten-
day training camp, and their attitude was all business, for the
stakes were high.
Earning a position on a World Tour cycling team like LottoNL-
Jumbo is about as difficult as making the roster of a Major League
Baseball team. Holding on to such a position isn’t any easier. Most
of the twenty-five members of the LottoNL-Jumbo team are on
one- or two-year contracts. Each rider must consistently perform
well in races to get his contract renewed. And a rider must first
prove himself in training before he is even given the opportunity to
represent the team in the bigger races. (Only nine men are
selected for the Tour de France, for example.) The proving
process begins with the team’s annual late January training camp
on Spain’s southeastern coast.
The team’s managers are under no less pressure than its
athletes. Only eighteen teams are selected annually by the Union
Cycliste Internationale (the international governing body of the
sport of cycling) to participate in the World Tour, which comprises
the twenty-eight premier international cycling events. A team that
makes the cut one year will be left out the next if its riders fail to
perform.
In short, everything depends on results, and results, in turn,
depend on doing everything right, beginning with training and diet.
A substantial portion of Lotto’s resources, therefore, are devoted
to regulating the riders’ eating. In Mojácar Playa, support staff
outnumbered athletes eighteen to sixteen (the other nine riders
were racing in Australia), and a third of those staff members
served in nutrition-related capacities. Nutritionist Marcel Hesseling
planned all of the riders’ meals. Team chef Jesper Boom prepared
the meals with the help of his assistant, Marije Hengeveld. Frank
van Eerd was responsible for the baking. Van Eerd owns and
operates a specialty bakery in Holland but is contracted to supply
the team’s bread products. (“We Dutch take our bread very
seriously,” he told me.) Also in Spain were Gerard Rietjens, an
exercise physiologist who plans and executes much of the testing
that leads to adjustments in the team’s fueling practices, and
Louis Delahaije, who bears the title of “high-performance
manager” and does wide-ranging research in pursuit of better
ways to nourish the riders.
The Hotel Marina Playa has a large buffet of decent quality.
The cost of eating three meals a day there is included in the price
of a room at the resort. It would have been convenient and cost
effective for the LottoNL-Jumbo riders to have relied on the buffet
to fill their bellies throughout the training camp. But they did not.
Instead, the team shipped two pallets of their own food from
Holland.
One of LottoNL-Jumbo’s sponsors is a Dutch food service
called Daily Fresh, which prepares high-quality fresh meals in
small portions and then vacuum seals them at their facility for
quick and easy reheating wherever the team happens to be. The
riders get all of their hot meals in Daily Fresh form during races.
One of the benefits of this system is that it virtually eliminates the
risks of food poisoning and of consuming foods tainted with
substances (such as certain steroids used on livestock) that might
trigger a positive result in a doping test. Another benefit is that it
gives the team management an extremely high degree of control
over what goes into the riders’ bodies. In Spain, the team did not
rely on this system quite as heavily as it does at races. Hot entrees
from Daily Fresh were supplemented with fresh produce and
breakfast foods brought from Holland and with select items from
the buffet.
The team took their meals in a medium-size room called the
“Sala Oriente” that was situated just off the main dining area. My
first meal with the athletes was a Saturday breakfast, served at
eight o’clock. This was the one meal of the day for which Chef
Boom did not prepare a special menu, instead supplying the riders
with a selection of staple items available at every breakfast. These
included cereals, breads, and crepes made by Frank van Eerd, a
variety of spreads, and fresh fruit. Athletes who wanted hot items
other than the crepes could get them from the buffet.
Steven Kruijswijk, a twenty-seven-year-old racer whose
palmarès included an eighth-place finish at the 2011 Giro d’Italia,
mixed plain yogurt, whole-grain granola with raisins and currants,
whey protein powder, and banana slices in a big bowl and gobbled
it up. He rounded out the meal with several orange wheels and a
generous blob of cottage cheese, washing it all down with a cup of
unsweetened tea. Maarten Wynants, a thirty-two-year-old cyclist
who took tenth place at Paris-Roubaix in 2012, ate a whole-grain
spelt crepe with apple butter, a plain one-egg omelet, and a few
pieces of whole-grain bread, one covered with peanut butter,
another with Nutella, and one or two more with marmalade honey.
He drank coffee.
It was an important meal for all of the athletes. Later that
morning they would complete their first major fitness test of the
2015 season. Their performance in this workout would provide the
coaches with crucial data that would influence their decisions
concerning early season racing opportunities. Many of the athletes
were as nervous as they would have been before an actual race.
I got into a team car with Louis Delahaije and Gerard Rietjens
and was driven to the top of the mountain where the testing was to
take place. The cyclists took the scenic route to the base of the
mountain, arriving there after two full hours in the saddle. At that
point the riders were sent off individually at one-minute intervals.
They were instructed to climb steadily for six minutes, stopping
when they reached the spot where the team car was parked.
Delahaije and Rietjens would then take a tiny blood sample from a
fingertip and measure its concentration of lactate, a metabolic
marker of exercise intensity. The coaches would also collect heart
rate and power output data from the rider before freeing him to
pedal back down the mountain, turn around, and climb again. The
athletes would complete a total of six climbs, pushing a little harder
each time and going all-out in the final ascent.
Throughout the ride, the cyclists fueled themselves with
energy gels and sports drinks; if the workout had been longer and
less intense, they would have gotten less of their energy from
such products and more from real foods, including homemade
energy bars made with fruit and whole grains by Frank van Eerd.
From our vantage, we could see the riders negotiating the
switchbacks most of the way up. At the starting point they
appeared as tiny splotches of yellow. It seemed incredible to me
that in just six minutes they were able to climb all the way to where
we waited. Several of the riders sustained outputs exceeding 500
watts on the last climb, enough power to have propelled them at
nearly 35 mph for more than three miles on a flat road.
When the test was complete, the riders returned to the hotel,
taking the short way this time. The total duration of the ride was a
little under four hours. As soon as the cyclists dismounted, they
were handed bottles containing a whey protein drink. They then
showered and went straight to the Sala Oriente for a late (3:00
p.m.) lunch. Chef Boom had prepared a diverse banquet centered
on a pair of hot entrees: a lasagna and whole-grain focaccia
topped with cheese, olives, and other goodies.
LottoNL-Jumbo team leader Laurens ten Dam, a climbing
specialist who finished ninth in the 2014 Tour de France, ate both
entrees and a large garden salad with tomatoes, celery, and
peppers plus a few slices of cold roast beef. For dessert he chose
melon slices and pineapple chunks. He drank water and coffee,
and, just before leaving the Sala, he made a small turkey
sandwich to eat later. Sep Vanmarcke, a rising star who took
second at Paris-Roubaix in 2013, skipped the lasagna, added pine
nuts to his salad, chose turkey slices instead of roast beef, and
finished the meal with yogurt. On the way out he grabbed one of
van Eerd’s homemade energy bars.
After lunch, the athletes took turns visiting the rooms of the
team soigneurs for massages. These rooms were well stocked
with snacks: bananas, golden raisins, grapes, gummies, muesli,
oranges, pretzel sticks, protein shakes, snack bars, soy milk, trail
mix, and yogurt. Whether or not the riders availed themselves of
any of these items, at 5:30 in the afternoon all of them were given
a smoothie made with avocado, banana, honey, and yogurt to
drink.
The Spanish eat dinner late, a custom that suited team
LottoNL-Jumbo just fine on this day. At 8:00 the riders were again
seated in the Sala Oriente. On Chef Boom’s menu was a salad of
mixed greens with broccoli florets, beets, goat cheese, and pine
nuts; ratatouille; risotto; salmon with beurre blanc sauce on a
puree of sweet potato; bok choy; and spelt pasta. Tom Van
Asbroeck, another up-and-comer who posted several top-ten
finishes in the 2014 racing season, ate all of these things as well
as a few slices of bread with hazelnut butter. Nick van der Lijke, at
twenty-three years of age the youngest member of the team,
passed on the pasta and the bread and took his salmon without
sauce. He did, however, enjoy a glass of wine, which is made
available to the cyclists at every dinner.
Dessert was a new concoction from the bread lab of Frank van
Eerd, a dense cake made with brown rice, plums, cherries, dark
chocolate, and just a sprinkle of sugar. Van der Lijke ate two bites
and pushed it away. I snarfed mine in two minutes and was
tempted to ask van der Lijke for the rest of his.

Elite Endurance Athletes Eat Everything

The few days I spent with the LottoNL-Jumbo professional bike
racing team revealed to me that its members practice all five habits
of the Endurance Diet. Even Habit 5, eating individually, was on full
display, despite the fact that the sixteen cyclists took all of their
meals together. As you saw from the examples given in the
previous section, no two plates were identical.
Habit 4, eating enough, was even more evident. Recall that this
habit entails regulating food intake by paying mindful attention to
internal signals of hunger and satiety. Unlike many restrained
eaters, who often undereat, the LottoNL-Jumbo cyclists did not
count calories or measure portions, and yet, unlike many mindless
eaters who tend to overeat, these cyclists frequently left food on
their plates.
Equally difficult to overlook was the cyclists’ practice of Habit 3,
eating carb-centered. The team’s diet was jam-packed with
carbohydrate-rich foods, from the crepe with apple butter that
Maarten Wynants ate for breakfast to the lasagna and focaccia
that Laurens ten Dam ate for lunch to the pasta and risotto that
Tom Van Asbroeck ate with his dinner.
Habit 2, eating quality, was exhibited as well. Almost everything
the team ate belonged to one of the six categories of high-quality
foods (vegetables; fruits; nuts, seeds, and healthy oils;
unprocessed meat and seafood; whole grains; and dairy). The only
low-quality food types they consumed were refined grains and the
occasional sweet. They ate no processed meats or fried foods
whatsoever.
If I had to pick one Endurance Diet habit that team LottoNL-
Jumbo best exemplified, however, it would be Habit 1: eating
everything. The balance and variety in their diet were truly
impressive. Few riders left their table in the Sala Oriente after any
meal without having consumed all six high-quality food types, not
to mention healthy beverages such as unsweetened coffee, tea,
and wine.
Take another look at Sep Vanmarcke’s lunch. The focaccia he
ate checked the boxes for whole grains (spelt), dairy (cheese),
and vegetables (olives, etc.). Granted, it contained only a small
amount of vegetables; but the salad he ate with it was all
vegetables except for the added pine nuts and dressing, both of
which belong to the category of nuts, seeds, and healthy oils. The
unprocessed meat category was covered by the turkey slices
Vanmarcke selected, and the pineapple chunks he had for dessert
took care of the last category, fruit. His dessert of yogurt added
more dairy and the homemade energy bar he left with doubled up
on the whole grain, fruits, and nuts, seeds, and healthy oils
categories.
The riders not only ate a balance of all six high-quality food
types but also consumed a wide range of foods within each
category. Consider Frank van Eerd’s baking, for example. Van
Eerd works with no fewer than eighteen different grains (none of
which is wheat or corn). His breads and other baked goods
frequently contain a variety of nuts, seeds, and fruits as well.
Eating everything means eating some low-quality foods, too.
Sweets and refined grains added to the variety of the LottoNL-
Jumbo team’s diet in Mojácar Playa. Although their meals and
snacks were dominated by high-quality food types, nothing was
explicitly forbidden or completely avoided. Recall that gummy
candies were among the items available to them in the soigneurs’
rooms.
 The LottoNL-Jumbo professional bike racing team is not
unusual in this way. Choose an elite endurance athlete at random
and you are almost certain to discover that he or she eats
everything. Take Gina Crawford, a professional triathlete from
New Zealand who has won thirteen iron-distance events. Her
typical breakfast is a homemade porridge with oats (whole grain),
chia seeds (nuts, seeds, and healthy oils), flaxseed (same),
coconut (fruit), raisins (same), and whole creamy organic milk
(dairy), supplemented with seasonal fruit. Lunch is often boiled or
scrambled eggs or an omelet (unprocessed meat and seafood)
with seasonal vegetables or a tossed salad (vegetable), cheese
(dairy) on toast (whole grain), and more fruit. Dinner is another
balanced meal with chicken, beef, or venison (unprocessed meat
and seafood), brown rice (whole grain) or potatoes (vegetable),
and a big salad (vegetable). Dessert consists of yet more fruit plus
yogurt (dairy) or ice cream (sweet).

Why You Should Eat Everything

There are three reasons why you should follow the example of the
LottoNL-Jumbo cycling team, Gina Crawford, and other elites and
eat everything. First, eating everything is healthy. Second, eating
everything is natural. And third, eating everything is enjoyable.

Eating Everything Is Healthy

On January 26, 2012, London’s Daily Mail newspaper published a
story about a seventeen-year-old girl named Stacey Irvine, who
had recently been rushed to the hospital after she collapsed at
home with breathing difficulty. Tests done there revealed that she
suffered from severe anemia, inflamed veins in her tongue, and
multiple vitamin deficiencies, which were treated with vitamin
injections. But what made this story newsworthy was the reason
Stacey Irvine collapsed. The teen told doctors that she had
subsisted on a diet of fast-food chicken nuggets since she was a
toddler. She had never eaten a single fruit or vegetable that she
could remember and the only food she ate regularly besides
chicken nuggets was French fries. Her drink of choice was Coke.
Stacey Irvine’s story is an extreme example of the
consequences of eating a diet with too little variety. Sure, she
could have picked a better food than chicken nuggets to eat three
times a day, but she would have developed health problems on
any single-food diet. Only one food in nature contains all of the
nutrients required to support human life: breast milk. Everything
else is incomplete. Even foods we think of as very healthy would
eventually kill us if we ate them exclusively. Vegetables are
certainly very healthy, but no vegetable contains all nine essential
amino acids that the body needs to build the proteins we’re made
of. If you ate nothing else besides spinach you would die of heart
failure at some point.
It is possible to live on just two foods, if you choose the right
pair. But research has shown that people are healthiest when they
eat a wide variety of foods. In 1987, Susan and James Krebs-
Smith analyzed the diets of 3,701 American men, women, and
children. A tool called the Mean Adequacy Ratio (MAR) was used
to assess how well each subject’s diet satisfied basic human
nutritional needs. The Krebs-Smiths also collected information on
how often the subjects ate foods of different types. When these
two measurements—MAR and dietary variety—were compared, it
was discovered that the subjects whose diet included the greatest
variety in food types did the best job of meeting their nutritional
needs.
Nearly twenty years later, Suzanne Murphy at the University of
Hawaii went a step further, dividing each basic food type into
subtypes and measuring how often each subtype was consumed
by each of ten thousand adult subjects. Separately, Murphy
quantified the subjects’ intake of healthy nutrients such as
vitamins and unhealthy nutrients such as refined sugar. She found
that people who ate a wider variety of food types consumed more
healthy nutrients and fewer unhealthy nutrients and that people
who ate a wider variety of subtypes consumed even more of the
good stuff and even less of the bad stuff.
There is some evidence that the benefits of dietary variety
extend beyond food types and subtypes to individual foods. A
2006 study involving Iranian women revealed that those who ate
the greatest variety of whole grains were most likely to get enough
vitamin B2, while those who ate the greatest variety of fruits were
most likely to get enough vitamin C, and the women who ate the
greatest variety of meats were most likely to get enough protein.
So it appears that dietary variety is beneficial at every level,
from types to subtypes to specific foods. Variety at the level of
basic food types is most important, though. Put another way, it is
healthier to eat just one food of each of the six high-quality food
types than it is to eat six different foods of any single type. The
reason is that foods within each type are not as diverse
nutritionally as are foods of different types.
Each high-quality food type has a distinct but limited nutrient
profile that is complementary to the other types. Vegetables
contain a more diverse array of antioxidants than fruits, which
contain more fiber than nuts, seeds, and healthy oils, which
contain more unsaturated fat than unprocessed meat and
seafood, which contain more protein than whole grains, which
contain more starch than dairy, which contains more probiotics
than vegetables. A diet that includes a balance of all six of these
food types is therefore more nutritionally complete than is a less
inclusive diet.
Each high-quality food type supports health in a different way.
The antioxidants in vegetables prevent cellular wear and tear, the
fiber in fruit promotes digestive health, the fats in nuts, seeds, and
healthy oils are good for the nervous system, the protein in
unprocessed meat and seafood supports tissue regeneration, the
starch in grains provides energy for both mental and physical
exertion, and the probiotics in certain dairy foods benefit immune
function. What’s more, the health effects of the various high-
quality food types are synergistic. Each food type is more
beneficial when the other five are also included in the diet.
Before the 1980s, nutrition scientists tended to study the
health effects of individual nutrients, foods, and food types in
isolation. But over the past thirty years nutrition scientists have put
greater emphasis on identifying the healthiest combination of food
types. There is now a general consensus that a diet including all
six high-quality food types is best. This consensus is based on a
number of large-scale epidemiological studies including a 2014
study undertaken as part of the ambitious Dietary Patterns
Methods Project. Its authors reported that, within a population of
424,000 older men and women, those who ate all of the high-
quality food types most frequently were more than 20 percent less
likely to die of heart disease, cancer, and other causes over a
fifteen-year period compared to others.
Such findings have immediate relevance to endurance athletes
and exercisers, because overall health is the foundation of
endurance fitness. Every component of health is a component of
endurance fitness also. Consider these few examples:

Antioxidant defenses: Nonathletes need strong antioxidant

defenses to prevent bodily wear and tear and to slow the aging
process. Endurance athletes need even stronger antioxidant
defenses to absorb the stress of training.
Lean body composition: Nonathletes need a lean body
composition to minimize their risk for a long list of chronic
diseases. Endurance athletes need to be even leaner to
maximize their efficiency of movement on the racecourse.
Insulin sensitivity: Nonathletes need their body tissues—
particularly their muscles—to be highly sensitive to the action
of the hormone insulin, so that they are better able to absorb
and utilize carbohydrates obtained from food, leaving fewer
carbs to be converted to body fat or get stuck in the
 bloodstream and wreak havoc. Endurance athletes need even
greater insulin sensitivity to burn carbs effectively during
workouts and races.

Each of the six high-quality food types makes a unique

contribution to endurance fitness. Vegetables promote a lean body
composition; fruit helps the immune system stand up to the stress
of training; nuts, seeds, and healthy oils keep postworkout
inflammation in check; unprocessed meat and seafood enables the
muscles, bones, and connective tissues to adapt to training; grains
provide fast fuel for workouts; and dairy accelerates muscle
refueling and repair.

Eating Everything Is Natural

The story of humanity is largely a story of dietary diversification.
Scientists believe that several million years ago our primate
ancestors survived on a diet that consisted primarily of fruits,
leaves, and insects. That’s already a fairly diverse (technically
omnivorous) diet, but our forebears were just getting started.
At some point—exactly when is not known—some of these
proto-apes took a chance on living off the savannah, adding new
foods such as grasses to their diet. Those who stayed behind in
the trees continued to eat fruits, leaves, and insects, as
chimpanzees (their direct descendants) still do today. This first
genealogical split was followed by many others. At each fork in the
road, it was the lineage that went down the path of greater
omnivorousness that led a step closer to modern humans.
Slightly less than two million years ago, for example, a
particular lineage known as hominins split into two groups.
Analyses of food residues left in the fossilized teeth of each
species indicate that Paranthropus had a relatively narrow diet
based on grasses and sedges, whereas Homo had a broader diet
that mixed grasses and sedges with foods from trees, shrubs, and
herbs, as well as from the animals that ate these same foods.
Guess who faded out and who became us?
Paleobiologists have proposed that one of the reasons why the
primate, hominin, and human lineages that expanded their diet
tended to outlast those that clung to narrow tradition was that a
diverse diet offered greater security. The more omnivorous a
species or subspecies was, the more options it had to fall back on
when climatic or other environmental changes eliminated an
important food source.
Such security comes at a cost, though. A species such as ours
that is long accustomed to a highly varied diet becomes
nutritionally dependent on dietary diversity. Because humans have
such a long history of omnivorousness, we require a balanced and
inclusive diet to sustain optimal health. A lion can live a long and
vigorous life without ever eating anything but antelope meat. Poor
Stacey Irvine showed us what happens when a person tries
something similar.
Anatomically modern humans have existed for about two
hundred thousand years. Roughly one hundred thousand years
ago, our ancestors began to spread out from Africa to populate
the planet. As they wandered, separate groups encountered many
new foods, causing the overall diet of the species to become even
more diverse. For example, a tribe known as the Ainu arrived on
the island of Japan roughly fourteen thousand years ago and
began to eat seaweed—not something their ancestors had eaten
very much of.
Until recently, scientists knew little about the biological
mechanisms that made such abrupt dietary shifts possible. It is
now recognized that the microbiome, a collection of bacterial
colonies that live in our gut and do much of our digestive work for
us, are largely responsible. The microbiome is astonishingly
adaptable, altering its composition and function on various
timescales in response to dietary changes. Returning to the
example just mentioned, the Ainu, through contact with marine
microbes, quickly acquired microbiotic genes that produce
enzymes that make seaweed more digestible.
By 10,000 BC, the nomadic era of human history had more or
less come to an end. Individual populations settled down in their
chosen environments, shifted from food gathering to food
production, and gradually developed distinct cultural cuisines
based on favored local foods. If the prior era of human history was
characterized by increasing dietary diversity, this new age was a
time of dietary winnowing. Each society domesticated select plants
and animals and pretty much gave up eating everything else. Their
diets remained diverse, though, because people still craved
variety in their eating and human health still depended on variety,
and a diverse food economy was still needed for food security.
What is most remarkable about the various cultural cuisines
that developed in different parts of the world is their overarching
similarity. Humans everywhere chose the same general types of
foods to domesticate and incorporate into their cuisines.
Populations from South America to Siberia based their diet on five
food types: vegetables; fruits; nuts, seeds, and oils; meat and
seafood; and grains; and a sixth food type, dairy, was added
somewhat later in Europe, North Africa, the Indian Subcontinent,
and a handful of other places.
The Maya, who thrived in Central America between 2000 BC
and 250 BC, ate lots of squash and beans (vegetables), papaya
and pineapple (fruits), Maya nuts (nuts, seeds, and healthy oils),
turkey and shellfish (unprocessed meat and seafood), and corn
(grain). The Assamese people of precolonial India were fond of
yams and gourds (vegetables), bananas (fruit), betel nuts (nuts,
seeds, and healthy oils), duck and sol fish (meat and seafood),
rice (grain), and curds (dairy). Medieval Britons ate (among other
things) carrots and cabbage (vegetables), plums and blackberries
(fruit), hazelnuts and acorns (nuts, seeds, and healthy oils),
mutton and herring (unprocessed meat and seafood), breads
made from wheat, rye, and barley (grains), and cheese (dairy).
You get the idea.
The next big change in human diet occurred in the age of
industrialization, which began in the nineteenth century. This era
witnessed the development and popularization of processed foods
made from the five or six natural food types that all traditional
cultural cuisines had been based on for centuries. Four particular
types of processed foods became central to modern diets: refined
grains, sweets, processed meats, and fried foods. Whole wheat
bread was turned into Wonder Bread, milk into ice cream, pork
into bologna, and potatoes into potato chips, as it were.
Unlike the natural whole foods they come from, these four
types of processed foods are linked to negative health
consequences such as obesity and heart disease. The explosive
increase in the rates of diet-related chronic diseases that occurred
in the last part of the twentieth century in particular gave rise to a
general notion that the modern human diet was in a fallen state—
that we had gone off track with our eating. Although the evidence
clearly showed that it had happened in the industrial age with the
propagation of the four types of low-quality processed foods,
some people placed our fall much earlier. Proponents of the Paleo
Diet argued that we never should have started eating grains,
dairy, or even legumes, and that we should stop eating these
foods now. Vegetarian diet advocates argued that we never
should have started eating seafood, meat, and dairy, and should
reverse those errors today.
Although they disagree on exactly when and how humans fell
from dietary grace, all modern advocates of restricted diets agree
that it is unnatural for humans to eat everything. However, an
unbiased look at human history teaches us not only that it is
natural for humans to eat everything, but that eating everything is
what made us human in the first place and what continues to
define us as human even now. When any species of animal,
humans included, is coerced into defying its own nature, bad
things happen. For this reason, I believe that endurance athletes
(and anyone else seeking health and happiness) should include
not only all six high-quality food types in their diet but the four low-
category food types as well. I will say more about why you should
allow yourself to eat refined grains, sweets, processed meats, and
fried foods in the last section of this chapter.

Eating Everything Is Enjoyable

All animals like what is good for them. Evolution wouldn’t work very
well otherwise. The joy of sex apotheosizes the link between
pleasure and survival. The same principle also applies to diet.
Each species possesses a hardwired attraction to its natural food
sources.
Humans not only are programmed to like certain flavors, such
as sweet, but we also have a built-in liking for diversity in our
foods. Evidence of this predilection comes from studies on the
effect of food variety on energy intake. In one such study, six
young men spent nine days in a clinical environment where they
had free access to food, but the variety of offerings was
manipulated. When the variety of the food was minimal, the men
ate 15 percent fewer calories than they did when the number of
options was maximal, presumably because they got bored with
eating the same things. Scientists refer to this phenomenon as
sensory-specific satiety.
In theory, it’s possible that this preference for variety in the diet
is learned—something society imposes on people—rather than
genetically rooted. But research involving young children, whose
eating choices are based more on instinct and less on
acculturation, suggests otherwise. In a 2012 experiment,
researchers at Cornell University and London Metropolitan
University created images of forty-eight dinner plates featuring
different combinations of foods and asked twenty-three children
between the ages of five and twelve years to choose their favorite.
The most diverse plates contained six foods, and those were the
ones that a majority of the children selected. Adults presented with
the same images favored plates with three foods. So it would
appear that acculturation tends to narrow our naturally diverse
food tastes rather than expand them.
The origins of this taste for eclecticism are ancient. As I
mentioned above, even the common ancestor we share with
chimpanzees was omnivorous, so it is not surprising that scientists
have learned that modern monkeys also like to mix things up in
their diet. In 2010, scientists at Duke University and the Institute of
Cognitive Science and Technology in Rome taught capuchin
monkeys to use tokens to barter for food. After identifying the
monkeys’ favorite food type, the researchers gave them the option
to trade tokens for a large amount of that one type of food or for
an assortment of foods that included their favorite as well as
several others that they did not like as much. They went for the
variety pack.
In a report published in Behavioural Processes, the
experimenters wrote, “These results suggest that variety-seeking
is rooted in our evolutionary history, and that it satisfies the need
of experiencing stimulation from the environment; at the ultimate
level, variety-seeking may allow the organism to exploit novel
foods and obtain a correct nutritional intake.”
This observation closes the loop on the three reasons
endurance athletes (and humans in general) should eat
everything. We enjoy eating everything because it is natural for us
to eat everything, and it is natural for us to eat everything because
it is healthy for us to eat everything.

The Costs of Not Eating Everything

Although nearly all elite endurance athletes eat everything, many
recreational endurance athletes and exercisers do not, and when
they don’t, there’s almost always a price to be paid. In some cases
the costs are physical. In other cases the negative effects are
mainly psychological but no less harmful to health, fitness, and
performance.

Physical Consequences
In my experience, the three high-quality food types that are most
often absent in the diets of recreational endurance athletes and
exercisers are vegetables, unprocessed meat and seafood, and
whole grains. I haven’t yet encountered anyone whose diet lacked
all of these food types. Rather, individual endurance fitness
seekers tend to avoid just one of the three.
Athletes and exercisers (not to mention sedentary individuals)
who avoid eating vegetables do so not because they think veggies
are unhealthy but simply because they don’t like them. These men
and women typically eat some vegetables (and, no, potato chips
don’t count!), but not enough of them to escape physical
consequences, which can range from poor recovery to increased
risk for colds and flu.
An example is Brandon, a subelite runner from Ohio who was
attempting to qualify for the US Olympic Trials Marathon when I
worked with him. Brandon was raised on a particularly low-quality
version of the Standard American Diet and stayed on it throughout
college. He told me that he did not eat a single vegetable during
his five years as an NCAA student athlete. His youth kept him out
of trouble for a while, but eventually he began to suffer from
fatigue, poor recovery, and recurrent injuries. A physician traced
these problems to Brandon’s adrenal glands, which play a key role
in the body’s response to all kinds of stress. His diet was so poor
in key vitamins that his adrenal glands had become overtaxed,
unable to manage the stress of his training. Brandon changed his
diet and his problems went away.
Unlike veggie haters, athletes who shun meat and seafood do
so intentionally, often but not always because they believe they will
be healthier and perform better without animal foods in their diet.
The problem I see with the greatest frequency in athletes on plant-
based diets is iron-deficiency anemia. This problem is common
even in omnivorous athletes, and it is possible to avoid it on a
meatless diet, but it becomes that much more difficult to avoid
when the most iron-rich foods (e.g., beef and shellfish) are
excluded from the diet.
One of the many anemic vegetarians I’ve worked with is
Claudia, who reached out to me in 2012 after unusual muscle
pains and lethargy sent her to a sports medicine clinic, where
testing revealed that she was severely anemic. Claudia was
shocked by the diagnosis because she had been vegetarian for
several years. But I see this quite often. The removal of meat from
the diet does not always lead directly to iron deficiency and
anemia. In many cases it just leaves athletes more vulnerable to
being pushed over the edge by some other factor, such as stress
or increased training.
Many athletes do just fine on a vegetarian or vegan diet, but
you never know how your body is going to react to the elimination
of animal foods. Another athlete I’ve advised, a triathlete from
Florida named Maria, placed herself on a carefully planned vegan
diet for four months and then spent the next four years trying to
recover from immune system and adrenal disruptions that virtually
shut down her training and caused frequent and diverse illnesses.
Grain avoidance has become increasingly popular among
endurance athletes and exercisers in recent years. In many
instances this unnatural restriction leads to chronic fatigue, poor
recovery, and other symptoms of overtraining syndrome, such as
mood and sleep disturbances. An example is Julie, a runner from
my home state of New Hampshire, who came to me after a
disastrous foray into something called the No Sugar No Grains
(NSNG) diet.
“I felt awful,” she told me. “It didn’t just slow me down—I could
barely even run at all.”
I asked Julie what sorts of problems she’d been experiencing
on her normal diet that motivated her to try NSNG. Her answer?
“None.” Julie had just been talked into it by some friends who
were already on the diet. These same friends urged her to stick
with NSNG despite the sabotage it was wreaking upon her
training, insisting that she would eventually “adapt.” She did not
adapt, and after several weeks she pulled the plug.
There are plenty of anecdotal reports of athletes who swear
they are thriving on a grain-free diet. But I’ve counseled enough
Julies to know that, if not impossible, it’s a lot harder to absorb
intensive training on a grain-free diet than it is on the Endurance
Diet, just as it’s harder but not impossible to avoid iron deficiency
on a plant-based diet. My question is this: Why make it harder for
yourself?

Psychological Consequences
Most advocates of unnaturally restrictive diets for endurance
athletes completely ignore the psychology of food, but I believe it’s
just as important as the physical side. Indeed, I have never
encountered an endurance athlete who was unhappy with his or
her diet and happy with his or her training and racing. To
experience lasting success as an athlete, you need more than a
healthy diet. You must also be happy with your healthy diet—and
diets that forbid entire food types breed unhappy eaters. More
specifically, diets based on the total elimination of one or more
high-quality food types promote a fear- and guilt-based
relationship with food that takes the fun out of eating, creates
stress around food, and in some cases leads to full-blown eating
disorders.
Returning to the case of Julie and the No Sugar No Grain diet,
not only did she feel lousy on it, but she also really missed eating
sugar and grains. Eating wasn’t as fun without her morning
pumpkin muffin. Worse, the NSNG diet culture that she found
herself immersed in had a distinctly negative ethos that brought
her spirits down every time she interacted with it (not surprising for
a diet whose name contains four words, two of which are “no”).
 “I was appalled by how people treated each other on their
[online] forum,” she told me.
It seemed to her that everyone was competing to be the purest
and most loyal representative of the diet, and just waiting for an
opportunity to pounce on someone who revealed himself or herself
to be less than 100 percent committed. Julie felt as if she had
woken up in some bizarre dietary police state. When she quit the
diet she had to cut all ties with the culture in order to get her
equanimity back.
The risk of psychological consequences is present even when
low-quality food types alone are purged from the diet. From a
purely physiological perspective, there is no reason not to
completely do away with refined grains, sweets, processed meats,
and fried foods. There are no health or performance benefits to be
gained from eating these food types. Yet I recommend that
endurance athletes include them in their diet nonetheless. There
are three good reasons to do so.
First, eating refined grains, sweets, processed meats, and fried
foods in small amounts does no harm. Proof of this claim is to be
found in the fact that most elite endurance athletes enjoy them as
occasional treats. (The riders on the LottoNL-Jumbo team, I was
told, have a tradition of eating French fries on the final day of the
Tour de France.) You can be sure that if eating small amounts of
low-quality foods reduced performance by even one half of 1
percent, they would be wholly absent from the diets of all
successful elite endurance athletes.
Second, many low-quality foods taste really good. That’s the
whole reason we created them in the first place! One may argue (I
wouldn’t) that it was a mistake to create them, but they exist now
and are normal parts of diets all over the world. I strongly believe
that foods that bring pleasure but not physical health have a place,
albeit as small one, in the diets of all health-seeking persons,
including competitive endurance athletes. Indeed, because
pleasure itself is healthy, a diet that includes a modicum of
pleasurable but unhealthy foods is better for overall mind-body
health than a diet that excludes these delicious low-quality items.
Finally, total eradication of all low-quality foods from the diet
fosters the same unwholesome relationship with food that diets
like NSNG do and produces the same consequences. Remember
Brandon, the Olympic Trials aspirant? After he cleaned up his diet,
Brandon hired a sports nutritionist to help him continue the
process. Unfortunately, he hired a sports nutritionist who forced
rigid restrictions upon him, forbidding the consumption of any
sweets, fried foods, or alcohol. And that was just the beginning.
She prescribed precise calorie counts and (highly restrictive)
carbohydrate amounts for every meal he ate and even told him
exactly when he was required to eat. After a few weeks on this
stifling regimen, Brandon felt that he was no longer eating food but
math.
Overall, he was on board with the program. The new Brandon
was more than willing to load up on the vegetables that he used to
push away. But he developed a persistent fear of eating the wrong
thing and was wracked with guilt whenever he broke a rule. These
feelings intensified after Brandon ate sweet potato fries at a
restaurant dinner with his wife and some friends and posted a
photo of the meal on Facebook, which his nutritionist saw and later
rebuked him for.
Brandon’s next big race was the USA Half Marathon
Championship. Although he had avoided injuries and his diet was
immaculate, he felt terrible from the very start and dropped out
before he reached the finish line. Upon returning home, he went on
an extended junk food bender and gained 10 pounds.
This is an all-too-common scenario. Ironically, the person who
is most likely to eat an entire box of cookies is not the one who
eats a cookie every day but rather the one who tries to avoid ever
eating a single cookie. In 2015, researchers at the University of
Canterbury in New Zealand invited subjects to fill out a
questionnaire that collected information about their psychological
orientation toward food. The subjects were first asked to state
whether they associated chocolate cake with “celebration” or
“guilt.” The researchers found that those who chose guilt
“reported unhealthier eating habits and lower levels of perceived
behavioural control over healthy eating when under stress . . . and
did not have more positive attitudes towards healthy eating.”
When I started to work with Brandon, I told him that developing
a positive, healthy relationship with food was every bit as
important as eating healthily. The most successful endurance
athletes have what I call a “yes-saying” attitude toward their diet.
They don’t just eat healthily—they’re also contented in their diet.
Athletes whose relationship with food is based on fear and guilt
always end up sabotaging their fitness and performance in one
way or another, even though their diets look good “on paper” most
of the time. I explained to Brandon that one of the most important
steps toward developing a healthy relationship with food is to eat
everything, a habit that is also best for endurance fitness on a
purely physiological level.
It took some time, but Brandon eventually stopped worrying
about his diet even as his nutritional standards remained high. “It’s
not only simplified my approach to eating,” he told me by e-mail,
“but it’s reduced a ton of stress around wondering if I’ve made the
right food options in the right amounts.”

How to Eat Everything

Putting the first habit of the Endurance Diet into practice couldn’t
be simpler. Step one is to reintroduce to your diet any food types
you currently avoid, unless you cannot eat them because of a food
allergy or intolerance. Step two is to make sure you eat all six high-
quality food types regularly. Vegetables and fruits should be
included in almost every meal and snack. With the others—nuts,
seeds, and healthy oils; unprocessed meat and seafood; whole
grains; and dairy—there is more flexibility. Each of these food
types should be consumed at least a few times every week and
may be eaten as often as a few times a day. The Diet Quality
Score, a tool that I will introduce in the next chapter, will guide you
toward eating each of the high-quality food types with sufficient
frequency and consuming low-quality foods in amounts that don’t
impede progress toward your goals.
 4 Habit 2: Eat Quality

THE LEGENDARY BRAZILIAN TRIATHLETE FERNANDA

KELLER FINISHED THIRD at the Ironman World Championship a
record six times between 1994 and 2000. I met Keller at Ironman
Brazil in 1998, when I was working as a staff editor for Triathlete.
The job didn’t pay very well but the travel perks more than made
up for the small salary. My trip to the beautiful coastal city of Porto
Seguro to report on the first Ironman ever staged in South
America was just one of many memorable junkets I enjoyed during
my time with the magazine.
Arriving two days before the race, I checked into a resort hotel
where most of the foreign triathletes, including a number of
Americans, were staying. I spent the next day exploring the area.
As I wandered through Porto Seguro’s bustling streets, I was
struck by the predominance of restaurants serving familiar foods
—especially pizza, sushi, and hamburgers. My assumption at the
time was that these establishments catered to tourists, but I
learned later that these foods are quite popular in Brazil. I was
more interested, however, in sampling Bahian regional specialties
such as moqueca (a stew of fish and coconut milk) and acarajé (a
fried dough made with mashed peas), which were also widely
obtainable.
On race morning, I got out of bed well before sunrise and made
my way to the beach, where I found a surprisingly large crowd of
spectators, about half of whom looked as though they had come
straight from the dance clubs. As a national hero, Fernanda Keller
drew enthusiastic cheers from these onlookers when she splashed
out of the Atlantic Ocean in third place after completing the 2.4-
mile swim. I hitched a ride on the back of a photographer’s
motorcycle to watch the 112-mile cycling leg. We left the city
outskirts and soon entered a different world, a soupy jungle dotted
here and there with squalid shacks. We were trailing American
Ken Glah, the leader of the men’s race, when he emptied the last
sip of Gatorade from a plastic squeeze bottle into his mouth and
dropped it to the road. A pack of scrawny, shirtless boys chased
after the three-dollar trifle as it skittered away from Glah’s $2,000
time-trial machine.
In the women’s race, Keller passed Jan Wanklyn and Claudia
di Silva during the cycling leg to move into the lead, but she was in
turn passed by American Heather Fuhr, the defending Ironman
world champion, halfway through the marathon and crossed the
finish line as the runner-up. I found Keller a short time later in a
VIP tent, where she lay prone on a massage table as her battered
and depleted muscles were gently kneaded. I introduced myself
and asked a few questions about the race, scribbling shorthand
versions of her answers down on a moist notepad. Keller was
exhausted and her English imperfect, but she managed to
communicate her radiant positivity flawlessly, and her overflowing
joie de vivre required no translation. It did not surprise me at all
that when I contacted Keller seventeen years later in connection
with this book, she was still competing in Ironman triathlons at age
fifty-one.
Passion has been a major factor in Keller’s longevity. (“I will
never retire because I have an athlete’s soul,” she said in one
interview.) But so has her diet. A physical education major at the
University of Rio de Janeiro when she discovered triathlon in the
early 1980s, Keller has always taken great care with her diet and
has publicly advocated her approach to healthy eating with great
gusto. At the time I met her, Keller was finalizing plans to launch
the Fernanda Keller Institute. Based in her home city of Niterói
(located just outside of Rio de Janeiro), the institute, which still
exists, provides health services to underprivileged children who
suffer from either malnutrition or obesity, as a majority of
impoverished Brazilian boys and girls do. The kids participate in
exercise classes (swimming, cycling, and running, of course),
receive individual attention from a nutritionist, are fed healthy
snacks, and even take field trips to a supermarket with their
parents to learn how to make good food choices on a budget.
There is nothing complicated or surprising about the dietary
philosophy that Keller advocates and practices at home. She
focuses not on calories or on specific nutrients but rather on food
types, filling up on what she calls alimentos saudáveis (healthy
foods) and minimizing her intake of alimentos não saudáveis
(unhealthy foods). These concepts of healthy and unhealthy line
up almost exactly with the Endurance Diet concepts of high and
low quality. Keller’s healthy staples include vegetables, fruits and
fruit juices, whole grains, olive oil, fish and poultry, and yogurt and
cheese. The unhealthy foods she tries to eat least often are
sweets and soft drinks, red meat, fried foods, and alcohol. But she
does not martyr herself to these standards.
“I eat pasta, ice cream, chocolate,” she said in a 2003
interview. They’re not part of my athlete’s diet, but I can eat
everything . . . Just avoid exaggerations. I’m not that boring radical
who does not put anything in her mouth.”
At the height of her racing career, Keller’s typical day started
with a five o’clock wake-up. She ate a hearty breakfast of whole-
grain toast with cheese, mashed banana with oats and honey, a
homemade orange juice/strawberry/blueberry smoothie, and
coffee with milk. After finishing her meal, she rode her bike. When
that was done, she snacked on dried apricots and a granola bar.
Lunch was another large meal, consisting of rice and beans,
baked fish, grilled mixed vegetables (often potato, eggplant, and
squash), and also a salad of lettuce, carrots, tomatoes, and chia
seeds dressed with olive oil and sea salt. Following her afternoon
workouts (a run, a swim, and perhaps also a weightlifting or yoga
session), Keller ate another snack—this time a slice of carrot cake
with goji berries and a cup of jasmine tea. Dinner was usually more
fish alongside a salad of quinoa and vegetables and a cup of grape
juice. She drank water, coconut water, and fresh-squeezed fruit
juice throughout the day.
This diet was quite normal for elite Brazilian endurance
athletes at the time of my 1998 visit to Porto Seguro, and it
remains so today. I am assured of this by my friend Marina
Bonilha, who works as a nutritionist at the Pinheiros Sports Club in
São Paolo. Founded in 1899, Pinheiros is the training home to
many of Brazil’s top runners and swimmers, including Cesar Ciélo,
winner of nineteen Olympic and world championships medals. A
cafeteria inside the facility serves member athletes three meals a
day. Bonilha generously translated my Elite Athlete Diet
Questionnaire into Portuguese and distributed it to several of the
competitors she worked with. Among them were Adriana
Aparecida da Silva, a 2:32 marathoner; Guilherme Guido, a
swimmer who has represented Brazil in several world
championships; Valdilene dos Santos, who has a personal best
time of 16:21 for 5000 meters; and Joanna Maranhão, a three-
time Olympian in swimming.
When I analyzed the completed questionnaires, I was not
surprised to find that they contained many of Fernanda Keller’s
alimentos saudáveis and not a lot of the Endurance Diet’s four
low-quality food types. Maranhão stated that her preferred
breakfast was tapioca with one egg and one egg white, cottage
cheese, and turkey breast; a small plate of fruits (papaya,
avocado, and strawberry) with chia seeds, flaxseed, and a bit of
honey; and black coffee. Brown rice and beans were present on
the lunch plates of most of the athletes, including that of dos
Santos, who ate this modified Brazilian staple (white rice being the
norm among nonathletes) with chicken or beef, a green salad, and
either fruit or gelatin for dessert. The athletes’ snacks were
equally high quality. Da Silva’s favorite consisted of yogurt with
fruit, a rice cake, and coffee with milk. For most of them, dinner
added further variety to the day’s menu. A typical dinner for Guido
was baked fish, sweet potato, and salad.
Brazilian elite endurance athletes are not alone in maintaining
very high quality standards in their diet. Nearly all of the
professional racers whose diets I have examined eat a lot of high-
quality foods and few low-quality foods.

What Is Diet Quality?

Simply put, a high-quality diet is a healthy diet. When nutrition
scientists talk about “high-quality” and “low-quality” foods, they
mean the same thing that nonscientists like Fernanda Keller mean
when they talk about “healthy” and “unhealthy” foods.
Scientists rate the quality of foods in a straightforward way: by
studying their effects on human health. This is done principally
through epidemiological studies, where information about the diets
of hundreds or thousands of people is matched against disease
rates within the same population. In particular, scientists look for
associations between the frequency with which certain foods are
eaten and the risk for obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular
disease, the three most pervasive diet-related health problems.
Other diseases and conditions that have dietary links and can be
used in the scientific assessment of diet quality are high blood
pressure, Alzheimer’s disease, unfavorable cholesterol levels,
certain types of cancer, and systemic inflammation.
The limitation of this type of research is that it is not able to
definitively prove causation. The fact that heavy coffee drinkers
have a lower-than-normal risk for depression, for example, does
not prove that coffee prevents depression. It’s possible (though
highly improbable) that some genetic factor that attracts people to
coffee also protects against this disease. However, when an
association between a certain type of food and a particular
disease keeps appearing again and again in epidemiological
studies, there is good reason to suspect a causal link. As the
expression goes, “Where there’s smoke, there’s fire.” Most of the
evidence that smoking causes lung cancer comes from
epidemiological research, after all.
In order to strengthen causal links suggested by nutritional
epidemiology, scientists often follow up this type of research with
interventional studies. In these studies, the food type in question is
either added to or subtracted from the diets of volunteers for a
period of time while their health is tracked. The limitation of this
type of research is that, for ethical reasons, scientists cannot
change people’s diets in ways that are expected to harm their
health; they can only test changes that are expected to be
beneficial.
There is an important distinction to be made between a high-
quality food and a high-quality diet. Like food quality, diet quality is
judged by health outcomes. But diets are more complex and
trickier to define than are individual foods. Common sense
suggests that the healthiest (i.e., highest quality) diets will include
a balance of most or all of the individual food types that are known
to positively affect health and only small amounts of the foods that
increase disease risk. But what is the optimal balance and how do
we identify it?
In tackling this question it can be helpful to flip the usual
approach to epidemiological research on its head. Instead of
learning what people eat and then finding out how their food
choices impact their health, researchers can seek out a group of
exceptionally healthy people and learn what they eat. This is the
approach that scientists have taken to studying so-called blue
zones—areas where people tend to be unusually long lived. Diet is
not the only factor that contributes to exceptional longevity in
these places, but there is a consistent diet pattern in all of them.
Specifically, people living in blue zones typically eat a balance of all
six high-quality food types, with emphasis on plant foods, and only
small amounts of the low-quality food types.
An example is Sardinia, an island off the coast of Italy where
people are up to twenty times more likely to live beyond their 100th
birthday than are people in the United States. The foods that
Sardinians eat most often include beans and artichokes
(vegetables), figs and grapes (fruit), almonds and olive oil (nuts,
seeds, and healthy oils), barley (whole grain), and sheep’s milk
cheese (dairy). Meats and seafood—mainly lamb and shellfish—
are typically eaten only once or twice a week but are a regular
feature of the diet. White bread is the most commonly eaten low-
quality food type. Sweets, processed meats, and fried foods have
little place in the traditional Sardinian diet.
A high-quality diet benefits endurance athletes and exercisers
in three ways. For starters, it increases overall health, and as I’ve
mentioned already, general health is the foundation of endurance
fitness. But each high-quality food type also contributes to
endurance fitness in direct ways. I will specify these contributions
later in the chapter. Finally, a high-quality diet helps endurance
athletes and exercisers by being nutritionally efficient. People who
engage in vigorous cardio exercise need to get as much overall
nutrition as possible from each calorie in their diet. Doing so allows
them to meet their general nutritional needs, which are elevated by
training, without gaining or retaining excess body fat. Raising the
overall quality of the diet enables endurance fitness seekers to
meet their body’s total nutritional needs without compromising
body composition and achieve a leaner body composition without
failing to meet the body’s total nutritional needs.

The Diet Quality Score

The Diet Quality Score (DQS) is a tool that I developed a number
of years ago to make it easy for athletes to monitor and improve
their diet quality. The DQS assigns to each food type a point value
that reflects its quality in relation to other food types. These point
values serve to encourage users to sustain high diet quality in the
same way elite endurance athletes and long-lived blue zone
inhabitants do: by eating a balance of all six high-quality food types
frequently and the four low-quality food types less frequently.
But here’s the twist: These point values are not necessarily
fixed. There is a tendency for the value of each food type to
decrease based on how many times it has already been eaten in a
given day. For example, the first and second servings of whole
grains eaten in a day earn 2 points each, the third serving earns 1
point, the fourth and fifth earn 0 points, and the sixth subtracts a
point from the day’s DQS. This pattern reflects the fact that even
the healthiest food types offer diminishing returns when eaten in
abundance, and incentivizes users of the tool to eat a variety of
food types.
To generate a Diet Quality Score, all you have to do is track
how often you eat each type of food over the course of a day and
assign the appropriate point value to each eating occasion. At the
end of the day, after you’ve eaten your last food and added its
point value to your tally, you will have your DQS for that day. I can
assure you that this process is far less onerous than counting
calories, and my DQS smart phone app (available in iPhone and
Droid versions) makes it even easier.
The trickiest part of using the DQS is deciding what constitutes
a scorable occasion of eating a given food type. These decisions
start with knowing your food types. For example, is orange juice a
fruit or something else? Complete definitions of each food type are
given below. In addition to the six types of high-quality foods and
the four types of low-quality foods, there are four “catch-all”
categories for foods that don’t fit within the basic types. These are
“high-quality processed foods” (yes, they do exist), “high-quality
beverages,” “low-quality beverages,” and “other.”
Many foods are composites of two or more types. An example
is my wife’s homemade gumbo, which contains a roux (a heavy
broth); tomatoes, peppers, and onions; crab and shrimp; Andouille
sausage; and chicken wings. I encourage DQS users to exercise
common sense in scoring such foods. In this example, I score the
roux as “other” (the category for all heavy sauces, condiments,
and gravies), the tomatoes, peppers, and onions as a half serving
of vegetables (because they are included in relatively small
amounts), the crab and shrimp as unprocessed meat and
seafood, the sausage as a processed meat, and the chicken
wings as a fried food.
I receive lots of e-mails from athletes who want to know how
they should score a certain food that defies easy categorization.
(It’s telling that there are so many of them in the modern diet.) I am
always happy to share what I think, but I also invite them to
disagree with my judgment and come to their own decision.
Although I did create the Diet Quality Score, I have no wish to be
the final judge of how every food on Earth is classified for scoring
purposes. This tool will work best for you if you can take some
ownership of it and confidently make your own judgments when
they are called for. It will become second-nature and more intuitive
as you use the DQS.
Of course, it’s not only what you’ve eaten but also how much
that you must consider when defining occasions of eating
particular food types. Returning to an earlier example, orange
juice may be scored either as a half serving of fruit or as a high-
quality beverage—either way it’s valued at 1 point. But how much
orange juice do you have to drink to earn that point? And how
much more do you have to drink before it should be counted as
two servings? In place of official serving sizes, which often fail to
reflect the amounts of food that people actually eat, I counsel DQS
users to define their own serving sizes based on what is normal for
them. In other words, a serving is, for DQS purposes, the amount
of a given food you normally eat. A larger man with a heavy
training load and a hearty appetite might not be satisfied with less
than a cup of (precooked) oats in his morning porridge and should
therefore count that amount as one serving of whole grains,
whereas a smaller woman with a lighter exercise regimen and a
smaller appetite might only need a half cup (the “official” serving
size) to achieve satiety and should count that amount as one
serving for her.
Serving sizes can also be somewhat flexible even for each
individual. For example, if I eat a slice of toasted whole-wheat
bread with fruit spread at breakfast, I count it as one serving of
whole grain. And if I eat two slices of the same bread in a
sandwich, I also count it as one serving of whole grain. This
allowance may seem wildly permissive, but the Diet Quality Score
is not a tool that aims for scientific precision; it aims to be helpful to
fitness-seeking individuals, and I have found that the use of
flexible serving sizes renders the tool easier to use than it would
be with official serving sizes and does not result in any significant
loss of accuracy as a measure of diet quality.
This does not mean that any amount of a given food you
consume should be counted as one serving, however. If you eat a
single jelly bean, don’t count it as a serving—or even a half
serving—of sweets. Nor should you credit one grape as a serving
(or half serving) of fruit. If you put two or more kinds of fruit in a
smoothie, go ahead and count that as two servings. A few grilled
peppers and onions stuffed inside an omelet should probably be
counted as a half serving of vegetables. I think you get the idea.
These guidelines were not found inscribed on stone tablets
and brought down from a mountaintop. I developed them on the
basis of my judgment and experience. For judging portion sizes,
most DQS users develop their own systems, which differ—not
significantly, but slightly—from other peoples’ systems. As long as
the standards you apply are consistent, the tool will serve its
purpose of accurately assessing your diet quality and allowing for
methodical improvement. If you prefer a little more hand-holding
initially, look to the “typical serving sizes” given in the next section
and to the DQS counts given with Georgie Fear’s recipes in
Chapter 11.
If you are already familiar with the DQS, you may notice in
reading the next section that the point values of some food types
have changed slightly. These minor adjustments reflect knowledge
I’ve gained from epidemiological research that has been done
since the previous iteration of the DQS was released and from my
ongoing study of elite athlete diets.
Below you will find tables with scoring rules for all of the DQS
food types, as well as additional scoring guidelines and information
about which specific foods are included within each category. The
food types are presented in descending order of quality, an order
that is based on how often elite endurance athletes eat them and
is influenced by research on the effects of the various food types
on the risk for, and treatment of, overweight, type 2 diabetes,
cardiovascular disease, and, to a lesser extent, other diseases
and conditions related to diet quality. The highest-ranked food
types have the strongest positive health effects and are most
beneficial when eaten frequently. These same foods also make
the greatest positive contributions to endurance fitness. The
lowest-ranked foods have the strongest negative health effects
and must be eaten infrequently (though not eschewed completely)
if these effects are to be avoided.

High-Quality Food Types

Vegetables; fruits; nuts, seeds, and healthy oils; whole grains;
dairy foods; and unprocessed meat and seafood add points to
your daily DQS.

Vegetables
Vegetables are, alongside fruits, the highest-quality foods. They
support general health and endurance fitness more effectively
than any other single food type. Dozens of studies have
demonstrated that the people who eat the most vegetables have
the lowest risk for developing common chronic diseases, are the
least likely to become overweight, and are the healthiest in old
age. For example, a 2011 study involving more than 134,000
Chinese adults found that men and women who ate the most
vegetables were 16 percent less likely to die over a ten-year
period than those who ate the least vegetables.
The healthful effects of vegetables are attributed to their high
concentration of fiber, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Recent
research has revealed that certain toxins in vegetables that give
them a bitter flavor are also responsible for their health benefits. In
living plants, these toxins protect against pests. But, in the human
body, they provoke a mild stress response that leads to health-
increasing physiological adaptations—just as exercise itself does.
In addition to helping the cells of the body resist aging, the
antioxidants in vegetables protect them from oxidative stress
during exercise, a cause of muscle damage and fatigue. In a 2005
study, researchers at the University of Newcastle investigated the
effects of reduced vegetable and fruit intake in endurance
athletes. Two weeks on this diet increased markers of oxidative
stress after an exhaustive workout by 45 percent. A vegetable-
and fruit-restricted diet also increased perceived effort during the
workout—in other words, it made exercise feel harder.
Other research has shown that the health benefits of vegetable
and fruit consumption plateau at five combined servings per day.
This is why the DQS point value of both food types drops from +2
to +1 at four servings and from +1 to 0 at five servings.

Scoring Guidelines for Vegetables

The vegetable category includes whole fresh vegetables eaten
raw or cooked as well as canned and frozen vegetables and
 pureed or liquefied vegetables used in soups, sauces, and so
forth. Legumes (peas, lentils, etc.) are also counted as
vegetables in the DQS. Typical serving sizes of vegetables
include a fist-size portion of solid vegetables, one-half cup of
tomato sauce, and a medium-size bowl of vegetable soup or
salad.
One hundred percent vegetable juices may be counted either as
one-half vegetable serving or as high-quality beverages.
Fruits that are generally regarded as vegetables for culinary
purposes—including tomatoes and avocados—may be
counted as vegetables.
A composite food containing more than one type of vegetable may
be counted as one-and-a-half or two servings of vegetables.
But don’t automatically count such foods as multiple servings.
Consider the overall size of the food portion. For example,
don’t count a side salad of greens, cucumbers, and carrots as
three vegetable servings just because it contains three
different vegetables. Count it as one serving.
A little iceberg lettuce and a thin pink tomato slice on a hamburger
should not be counted as even one-half portion of vegetables.
Generous amounts of vegetables on a sandwich may be
counted as one-half portion of vegetables.

Vegetable-based Foods
Nonfried vegetable snack chips such as kale chips should be
counted as high-quality processed foods unless they contain
added oils, in which case they should be counted as fried food
even if they are not fried.
Plant-based powder supplements such as Greens Plus should be
counted as high-quality processed foods, not as vegetables.
Soy products such as soy burgers and other processed foods
made entirely or almost entirely from vegetables should be
counted as high-quality processed foods.
Spinach pasta and spinach tortillas should not be scored as
vegetables. They should be counted as refined grains unless
made with whole grain.

When in doubt about whether to count a particular processed

or composite food as a vegetable, don’t. Instead count it as a high-
quality processed food.

Fruit

Fruit carries the same health and fitness benefits as vegetables,

for the simple reason that fruits are nutritionally very similar to
vegetables. Like vegetables, fruits are rich in fiber, vitamins,
minerals, and antioxidants. One significant difference between fruit
and vegetables is that the carbs in fruit are mostly sugar, whereas
those in vegetables are mostly starch. Lately, concerns about the
health effects of sugar have motivated many health-conscious
people to limit their fruit intake, but these fears are completely
unfounded. Whereas processed foods and beverages containing
added sugars have been linked to weight gain and other
undesirable outcomes, fruit has not.
In fact, fruit prevents weight gain and facilitates weight loss
more effectively than almost any other food type. In a scientific
review published in 2009, Danish researchers looked at past
research on the relationship between fruit intake and body weight.
Of sixteen studies analyzed, eleven showed that elevated fruit
intake either prevented weight gain or induced weight loss.

Scoring Guidelines for Fruit

The fruit category includes whole fresh fruits, canned and frozen
fruits, cooked whole fruits, blended fruits, dried fruits, and
 foods made with whole fruits such as apple sauce. Typical
serving sizes of fruit include one medium-size piece of whole
fruit (e.g., one banana), a handful of berries, and one-half cup
of apple sauce.
Foods that include multiple fruits, such as smoothies, may be
counted as one-and-a-half to two servings of fruit.

Fruit-based Foods
Small amounts of fruit included in baked goods, packaged yogurt,
etc., should not be counted.
One hundred percent fruit juice may be counted either as a half
serving of fruit or as a high-quality beverage. Juice products
that are less than 100 percent fruit juice and contain added
sugars should be counted as sweets.
Fruit-based desserts such as peach cobbler may be double-
scored as fruits and sweets.
Fruit-based products such as dried cranberries and applesauce
that contain added sugar should be double-scored as fruits
and sweets.
All processed fruit snacks such as Fruit Roll-Ups should be
counted as sweets.
Fruits such as tomatoes and avocados that are treated as
vegetables in culinary tradition may be counted as vegetables.

Nuts, Seeds, and Healthy Oils

Nuts, seeds, and natural oils extracted from these foods and from
other whole plant foods such as olives are rich in unsaturated fats
and plant sterols that promote favorable blood cholesterol profiles
and healthy arteries.
 The health effects of nut consumption in particular have been
widely studied. Frequent nut eaters are less likely to die of type 2
diabetes, respiratory disease, heart disease, and certain types of
cancer. They also have lower levels of body fat than do people
who eat nuts less often. According to a 2014 review by scientists
at Purdue University, nuts promote a lean body composition
because they are highly satiating, they displace lower-quality
foods from the diet, the calories in them are not absorbed
efficiently by the body, and perhaps also because they increase
metabolism and fat burning.
The health benefits of seeds and oils (other than olive oil,
which I’ll discuss in greater detail in Chapter 10) have not been
studied as thoroughly as those of nuts, but what research has
been done so far indicates these benefits are equivalent to those
of nuts. Animal studies have demonstrated, for example, that olive
oil boosts the body’s ability to defend itself against free radical
damage to muscle fibers during endurance exercise.
Because nuts are so filling, it’s best not to eat them quite as
often as you eat vegetables and fruits, lest they start to displace
other high-quality foods from your diet. For this reason, their DQS
point value drops earlier and more steeply than do those of
vegetables and fruits.

Scoring Guidelines for Nuts, Seeds, and Healthy Oils

The nuts, seeds, and healthy oils category includes cashews,
almonds, walnuts, sunflower seeds, hempseeds, flaxseeds,
chia seeds, and other such foods. Peanuts should be counted
as nuts although they are technically legumes. Typical serving
sizes in this category include a palmful of nuts or seeds,
enough peanut butter to cover a slice of bread, and two
tablespoons of salad dressing.
This category also includes non-chemically extracted plant oils
consumed raw or cooked in small amounts. For example, an
olive oil–or flaxseed oil–based dressing on a salad is to be
 counted as a serving of healthy oil, as is grape seed oil or
avocado oil used to sauté vegetables.
Nut and seed butters made without sugar or other additives
besides salt should be counted as nuts, seeds, and healthy
oils. Those made with added sugar should be counted as
sweets.
Baking flours made from whole nuts or seeds, such as Bob’s Red
Mill Super-Fine Almond Flour, count as nuts, seeds, and
healthy oils.
Heavily coated or candied nut- or seed-based foods such as
glazed peanuts, peanut brittle, and chocolate-covered almonds
should be counted as sweets.

Whole Grains

According to the theories that support low-carb diets, whole grains

ought to have negative effects on body weight, type 2 diabetes,
and cardiovascular disease because of their high carbohydrate
content. But a veritable avalanche of research indicates that men
and women who eat whole grains frequently are leaner, are less
likely to develop type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease, and
even live longer than those who eat them infrequently.
In addition to preventing weight gain and the chronic diseases
associated with it, whole grains help reverse such conditions in
those who already have them.
The beneficial effects of whole grains on the risk for chronic
diseases appears to be mediated in part by the food’s tendency to
reduce systemic inflammation, which is an underlying factor in
many such conditions.
Like vegetables and fruits, whole grains owe their beneficial
health effects to their combination of fiber, vitamins, minerals, and
antioxidants. The greatest difference between whole grains and
vegetables and fruits is that whole grains are more energy dense.
For example, one-half cup of brown rice supplies 108 calories, 90
of them from carbohydrates. One-half cup of peas supplies only
62 calories, 46 of them from carbs. The high carbohydrate density
of whole grains makes them terrific fuel for endurance training. It
also makes them easier to overeat than vegetables and fruits are.
This is why the maximum number of DQS points achievable in one
day from whole-grain intake is 5, or 2 points fewer than vegetables
and fruits offer.

Scoring Guidelines for Whole Grains

The whole-grain category includes whole wheat, buckwheat,
barley, brown rice, corn, oats, amaranth, quinoa, spelt, bulgur,
millet, rye, sorghum, and teff. It also includes breads and other
baked goods, pastas, breakfast cereals, and other grain-based
foods made with 100 percent whole grains and no refined
grains.
Whole-bean flours such as garbanzo bean flour should be counted
as whole grains even though, technically, they are processed
legumes.
Homemade popcorn counts as a whole grain. (Movie theater
popcorn, microwave popcorn, and bagged, ready-to-eat
popcorn do not.)
Typical serving sizes of whole grains include two slices of bread, a
medium-size bowl of breakfast cereal, and a fist-size portion of
brown rice, quinoa, etc.

Dairy

Not that long ago, dairy was widely considered to be a low-quality

food except in low-fat versions. But recent science has shown that
the fats in dairy products are a key source of their health benefits.
In a 2015 study, Swedish researchers found that the risk for type
2 diabetes was lower among men and women who frequently
consumed full-fat dairy products and slightly higher in those who
often consumed low-fat dairy products. Whole milk and foods
made from it also promote healthy cholesterol profiles and improve
vascular function.
All forms of full-fat dairy have positive health effects except for
butter (and clarified butter or ghee). Although butter is harmless
when included in the diet in small amounts, people who use a lot of
butter exhibit less favorable cholesterol profiles. New research
suggests that the reason has to do with butter’s lack of a
membrane enclosing fat molecules that is present in other forms of
dairy.
Fermented dairy products, yogurt especially, confer additional
health benefits through their impact on gut bacteria. There is
evidence that these foods lower blood pressure, offer relief for
certain digestive disorders, reduce systemic inflammation, reduce
breast cancer risk, prevent weight gain, and facilitate the loss of
excess body fat.
A little dairy goes a long way, though. Its benefits are
maximized at just one or two servings per day. And because dairy
is energy dense, consuming it in large amounts may present
challenges for weight management. In the DQS, the point value of
dairy turns negative after the fourth serving of the day to
discourage overconsumption.
Of note to endurance athletes and exercisers, the two main
proteins in milk—whey and casein—have been shown in studies to
prevent muscle damage during exercise and accelerate muscle
recovery after workouts.

Scoring Guidelines for Dairy

The dairy category includes whole cow’s milk, goat’s milk, sheep’s
milk, all cheeses, yogurt, sour cream, kefir, cream cheese, and
 cottage cheese.
Eaten in small amounts (e.g., a thin pat spread on toast), butter,
clarified butter, and ghee should not be scored. Eaten in larger
amounts (e.g., lobster dipped in melted butter), they should be
counted as a heavy sauce and scored in the “Other” category.
Low-fat milk, skim milk, and all other reduced-fat dairy foods are
counted as half servings of dairy because they are not as
beneficial as their whole counterparts.

Dairy-based Foods
All sweetened dairy products, including ice cream, frozen yogurt,
sweet cream, chocolate milk, and yogurts containing some
form of sugar as their second ingredient should be counted as
sweets.
Nondairy milk and cheese products made with high-quality foods
(soy milk, rice milk, tofu cheese, etc.) should be counted as
high-quality processed foods.
Typical serving sizes of dairy include the amount of milk you would
normally use in a bowl of breakfast cereal, two slices of deli
cheese, and a single-serving tub of yogurt.

Unprocessed Meat and Seafood

Research on the health effects of eating seafood has consistently

shown that it reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease by
enhancing vascular function, lowering blood pressure, and
reducing systemic inflammation. Seafood is also good for the brain
and nervous system. Some studies have reported that regular fish
eaters exhibit better brain function in old age and are less likely to
become depressed or to develop Alzheimer’s disease. All of these
benefits are attributed primarily to the omega-3 fats in seafood.
 Seafood and the omega-3 fats in it offers endurance-specific
benefits as well. In 2014, Polish researchers reported that three
weeks of supplementation with omega-3 fats increased production
of nitric oxide (which causes blood vessels to dilate, increasing
blood flow during exercise) and elevated VO2max in elite cyclists.
Research on the health effects of meat is more mixed. Studies
have generally found that white meat neither improves nor impairs
health. Some investigators have reported that high red meat
intake increases the risk for cardiovascular disease and reduces
life span. And there is a definite association between red meat and
elevated risk for colorectal cancer. But a large epidemiological
study performed recently by Swiss researchers found that only
processed red meat was linked to negative health outcomes and
that people who ate small amounts of unprocessed meat lived
longer than vegetarians.
All in all, it seems most prudent to consume unprocessed meat
and seafood in modest amounts. The DQS point value of this
category is set to encourage such moderation. Within the
category, I recommend eating seafood more often than white
meat and white meat more often than red meat.

Scoring Guidelines for Unprocessed Meat and Seafood

The unprocessed meat and seafood category includes
unprocessed skeletal and organ meats from all commonly
eaten land animals as well as the flesh of all commonly eaten
sea animals. See the subsection on processed meat for a
definition of “processed.”
Eggs of all types (chicken, duck, etc.) should be counted as
unprocessed meat and seafood.
Canned, jarred, and frozen meat and seafood products count as
unprocessed only if they do not contain significant amounts of
low-quality food ingredients. For example, pickled herring,
which typically contains vinegar, a bit of sugar, and spices, can
be scored as unprocessed meat and seafood.
Typical serving sizes in this category include one chicken breast, a
hand-size filet of fish, and two eggs.

Low-Quality Food Types

Refined grains; sweets; processed meat; and fried foods subtract
points from your daily DQS.

Refined Grains

Refined grains are whole grains that have been stripped of some
of their best parts. Through this process, they also lose health
benefits, including their favorable effect on body composition. In
2010, scientists at Tufts University reported that, within a
population of 2,843 men and women, higher intake of whole grains
was associated with lower body fat levels, but just the opposite
was true of high refined-grain intakes.
Although less healthy than whole grains, refined grains remain
a good source of carbohydrate fuel for training and recovery. It is
perhaps for this reason that refined grains are the most commonly
consumed low-quality food type among elite endurance athletes.
Many elite Japanese athletes, for example, prefer white rice to
brown rice. This would not be the case if refined grains were as
detrimental to health and fitness as the other three low-quality
food types. Indeed, although the USDA cautions Americans to
consume sweets “sparingly,” the agency’s MyPlate guidelines
permit up to half of the grains in the diet to come from refined
sources.
I encourage endurance athletes to aim higher, however, as
elite racers in most parts of the world now do. By assigning a
negative point value to even the first serving of refined grain
consumed on a given day, the DQS incentivizes you to choose
whole grains whenever possible, except for occasions when you
want a special treat.

Scoring Guidelines for Refined Grains

The refined grains category includes white rice, processed flours,
and all breakfast cereals, pastas, breads, and other baked
goods made with less than 100 percent whole grains.
Note that, in wheat-containing products, any description other
than “whole wheat,” “whole wheat flour,” or “whole grain wheat
flour” indicates that the wheat is refined and the product should
be counted as a refined grain.
Breakfast cereals containing more than 10 grams of sugar per
serving should be counted as sweets, unless they contain
dried fruit.
Whole-grain baked goods should be counted as sweets if they
contain enough sugar to taste sweet.
Typical serving sizes of refined grains include a fist-size portion of
white rice, a medium-size bowl of pasta or breakfast cereal,
and two slices of bread.

Sweets

There’s no denying the fact that foods and beverages containing

refined sugar are unhealthy. A 2014 study reported that men and
women who got more than 25 percent of their calories from added
sugar were more than twice as likely to die of cardiovascular
disease over an eighteen-year period compared to those who got
less than 10 percent of their calories from added sugar. (The diet
of the average American is 13 percent added sugar.)
Added sugar is everywhere in our food supply these days. It
takes a consistent effort to avoid it, in part because it is disguised
under so many names (look out for barley malt, brown rice syrup,
cane syrup, corn syrup, dextrose, high-fructose corn syrup, and
sucrose). The DQS incentivizes the avoidance effort by assigning
a point value of -2 to each serving of sweets.

Scoring Guidelines for Sweets

The sweets category includes all foods and beverages containing
substantial amounts of refined sugars, including candy,
pastries, and other desserts.
Sugary drinks may be scored either as low-quality beverages or as
sweets (the point values are the same).
All foods sweetened artificially should be counted as sweets.
Artificially sweetened beverages should be counted as low-
quality beverages.
Energy bars and snack bars not made with whole grains, fruit,
and/or nuts should be counted as sweets unless consumed
during exercise, in which case they should not be scored.
Breakfast cereals with more than 10 grams of sugar per serving
are to be considered sweets unless they contain dried fruit.
All fruit juices containing added sugar and all processed fruit
snacks such as Fruit Roll-Ups should be counted as sweets.
Yogurt products containing some form of sugar as their second
ingredient should be counted as sweets.
Agave nectar is marketed as a natural food but is in fact highly
processed. It should be counted as a sweet.

Sweets Counted as Other Foods

Honey and maple syrup are not counted as sweets unless used in
large amounts. Although high in sugar, they are natural whole
foods that have been a part of the human diet for eons.
Dark chocolate does not count as a sweet (don’t score it at all) if
it’s at least 70 percent cacao and consumed in small amounts
(100 calories or fewer).
Typical serving sizes of sweets include a slice of pie, a small candy
bar, and a 12-ounce can of soda.

Processed Meat

Processed meats such as bacon are among the unhealthiest

foods you can eat. In small amounts they’re harmless, but a large
body of research has shown that the heaviest eaters of processed
meats face increased risk for obesity, cardiovascular disease,
type 2 diabetes, some cancers, and early death. Scientists are still
trying to pin down the mechanisms involved. In the meantime, we
know enough about processed meat to assign it a fixed Diet
Quality Score of -2 points.

Scoring Guidelines for Processed Meat

The processed meat category includes most forms of meat that
have been processed beyond basic cutting, grinding, and
seasoning. It encompasses sausages and other encased
meats, most cold cuts, jerky, bacon, other smoked meats,
cured meats, corned beef, meat loaf, hot dogs, chicken
nuggets, and all fast-food meats except high-quality
exceptions such as whole chicken pieces and the Carl’s Jr. All-
Natural Burger.
Charred and blackened meats should be counted as processed
because the charring and blackening processes create
carcinogens.
Animal fats used for cooking, including bacon grease and lard,
should be counted as low-quality meats.
Typical serving sizes of processed meat include one hamburger
patty, three deli slices, and a two slices of bacon.
Fried Foods

The frying process transforms even the healthiest foods into

unhealthy foods by drastically increasing their energy density and
introducing toxic compounds such as aldehydes. Take potatoes,
for example. Boiled and baked potatoes are very healthful. A study
published in the Journal of the American College of Nutrition
reported that people lost weight after adding five to seven servings
per week of nonfried potatoes to their diet. But according to a
study by researchers at the Harvard School of Public Health,
potato chips are responsible for more long-term weight gain in the
United States than any other single food. It’s best to reserve such
foods for special treats.

Scoring Guidelines for Fried Foods

The fried foods category includes all deep-fried foods such as
potato chips, fried chicken, fritters, and donuts.
All snack chips containing added oils should be counted as fried
foods even if they are not actually fried (e.g., baked kale chips)
because they are just as energy dense and addictive as their
fried cousins.

Nonfried “Fried” Foods

Pan-fried, stir-fried, and sautéed foods do not count as fried
foods.
Typical serving sizes of fried foods include a small bag of potato
chips and one whole donut.

Additional Categories
Not all foods and beverages fit neatly into the ten categories I’ve
just described. These additional categories are intended to fill the
gaps.

Other

This category includes the following:

• All condiments, sauces, dressings, and gravies except

those that are made from high-quality whole foods, such as
guacamole, hummus, mustard, pesto, and salsa (full
servings of which may be scored as a half serving of the
food type they belong to; obviously, typical serving sizes
vary widely by the specific food—I suggest cueing off label
or recipe guidelines)
• All calorie-containing nutritional supplements including
protein powders and meal replacements except those made
entirely from high-quality foods, such as vegetable powders
• Any food or beverage you come across that does not easily
fit into any of the main food types

High-Quality Processed Foods

This category includes all processed foods made entirely or almost

entirely from high-quality food sources. Examples are:

• Nondairy milk and cheese products (soy milk, rice milk, tofu
cheese, etc.)
 • Vegetarian alternatives to meat products made from high-
quality food sources, such as all-vegetable veggie burgers
• Energy bars and snack bars made only from high-quality
foods such as whole grains, nuts, seeds, and dried fruit
• Supplements made from high-quality food sources such as
unsweetened whey protein powder
• “Diet” foods made from high-quality foods such as Quaker
Weight Control Instant Oatmeal

High-Quality Beverages

This category includes the following:

• The first alcoholic beverage consumed on a given day

• 100 percent fruit juice (which may also be scored as a half
serving of fruit)
• 100 percent vegetable juice (which may also be scored as a
half serving of vegetables)
• Blends of 100 percent fruit and vegetable juices
• Unsweetened and lightly sweetened coffee and tea

Milk should be counted as dairy. Nondairy milks (e.g., soy milk)

should be counted as high-quality processed foods.
Typical serving sizes of high-quality beverages include an 8- to 12-
ounce glass of fruit juice and a 6-ounce glass of wine.

Low-Quality Beverages

This category includes the following:

 • Sugary drinks (if not counted as sweets)
• Coffee drinks such as lattes containing more than 50
calories
• Artificially sweetened beverages
• Alcoholic beverages after the first of the day
• Sports drinks if consumed outside of exercise

Typical serving sizes of low-quality beverages include a 12-ounce

can of diet soda and a 16-ounce latte.

The DQS in Action

We’ve established the DQS basics and guidelines; here’s a
snapshot of the DQS tool in practice. Reviewing it will help you use
the same tool with greater confidence to assess the quality of your
own diet.
Raiza Goulão is a Brazilian professional mountain biker with a
very high-quality diet. But it’s also a somewhat complex diet, which
is why I chose it for this illustration.
Table 4.1 presents a typical day’s eating for her and shows how to generate a DQS from
the information.
How to Increase Your Diet Quality
The maximum DQS score for a day is 35 points. It is seldom if ever
necessary to hit this mark to achieve health and fitness goals. Elite
endurance athletes typically attain scores in the low to mid-20s.
This level of diet quality seems to be “good enough” for them.
Further increases in diet quality bring no additional benefits.
There is no single target Diet Quality Score that is right for
everyone, however. The DQS score that is optimal for one person
may not be optimal for another. Larger individuals and people who
exercise a lot need to eat more than smaller and less active
persons. This gives them more opportunities to add points to their
DQS. So the optimal DQS for larger and more active men and
women is typically higher.
Instead of aiming for a perfect or one-size-fits-all Diet Quality
Score, I recommend that you make incremental improvements to
your diet quality until you reach a point where you are happy with
the health, fitness, and performance results you’re getting but
you’re still enjoying what you eat (and still allowing yourself to eat
small amounts of the low-quality foods you like). If you’re the kind
of person who absolutely must have some kind of target to aim for
when using such a tool, start with a target of 20 points. But be
open to adjusting this number based on what you learn from using
the tool.
Tracking your DQS can be beneficial even without a target.
The simple act of monitoring the quality of your diet will encourage
you to make healthier choices. Most people think their diet is
healthier than it actually is. In a survey by Consumer Reports,
more than 90 percent of respondents rated their current diet as
“healthy.” Yet only 11 percent of Americans eat the government
recommended five combined servings of fruits and vegetables per
day. Clearly, there’s a disconnect between subjective perceptions
of diet quality and objective reality. When you track your DQS, you
will no longer be able to kid yourself about how often you really eat
high-quality and low-quality foods.
There are three ways to improve your diet quality. You can
remove low-quality foods from your diet, you can add high-quality
foods to your diet, and you can substitute low-quality foods with
high-quality foods. Generally, I don’t recommend removing low-
quality foods from the diet without replacing them with high-quality
alternatives because it is psychologically difficult to do. Low-quality
beverages such as soda are an exception. The only acceptable
alternative to these is water.
Substituting low-quality foods with high-quality foods works
especially well because it can make a big difference in diet quality
without feeling especially disruptive. The typical fast-food
hamburger, for example, comes in at -4 to -6 points (depending on
what the person eating it has already consumed that day). But if
you prepare your own burger at home, you can replace the
restaurant’s low-quality beef (-2) with high-quality beef (+2),
replace the white-flour bun (-1) with a whole wheat bun (+2), and
replace the mayonnaise (-1) with guacamole and suddenly you’ve
got yourself +4 points. You can gain an additional point by loading
up your burger with enough veggies in addition to the guacamole
(which should not be scored on its own if used in a small amount)
to count as a half serving of vegetables—an example of adding
high-quality foods to the diet.
If you are calorie conscious, you may fear that adding any
foods—even high-quality foods—to your diet is a recipe for weight
gain. But high-quality foods are highly satiating, so, when you add
them to meals and snacks, you will tend to eat less later. In a
sense, then, adding high-quality foods to your diet is really another
form of substitution because it displaces other (lower-quality)
foods, even if you’re not aware of it.
Table 4.2 presents a few examples of the almost infinite variety
of ways to improve Diet Quality Scores, especially via the methods
of adding high-quality foods and substituting low-quality foods with
high-quality foods. Other ways of improving diet quality are
suggested in Chapter 10, where I present twenty-two “endurance
superfoods” that are popular among elite athletes and are among
the first high-quality foods you should add to your diet if you’re not
already eating them. Replacing some of your current meal choices
with the recipes shared in Chapter 11 will also help you raise your
Diet Quality Score.
Once you have raised your diet quality to a level that brings
you the results you seek, the hard work is over, and it is no longer
necessary to track your Diet Quality Score daily. If you eat more or
less the same types of meals and snacks each day, and if you’ve
already scored them in the past, there is no need to score them
again. The DQS tool is intended for use in changing your diet.
When your new habits are locked in, use it only periodically to
audit your diet for the sake of ensuring you’re not unwittingly
backsliding, to identify the potential cause of unexpected weight
gain, and to maintain your standards when you travel and in other
circumstances where your normal routine is disrupted.
Table 4.2 Some Ways to Improve Your Diet Quality
The Other Quality
As I mentioned earlier, when scientists talk about quality in relation
to diet, they’re talking about the healthfulness of the diet. But
when everyday people talk about quality in relation to diet, they
are usually talking about the grade or caliber of a given food. For
example, a filet mignon from a grass-fed cow might be called a
high-quality cut of meat, while a hunk of ground chuck from an
industrially raised cow might be labeled low quality.
There is overlap between “quality” in the scientific sense of
healthy and “quality” in the colloquial sense of high grade. Spinach
grown in healthy, nutrient-rich soil is likely to have a 20 to 30
percent greater vitamin and mineral content than regular
supermarket spinach. Einkorn wheat, an ancient variety of the
grain, is richer in unsaturated fat, zinc, iron, and several
antioxidants than modern, industrial wheat varieties. Grass-fed
beef has more conjugated linoleic acid and omega-3 fat and less
saturated fat and total fat than grain-fed beef. Wild Alaskan
salmon contains more omega-3s and less mercury than
nonorganic farmed Atlantic salmon.
A diet that is high quality in both senses of the term is best for
health and fitness. To maximize the quality of your diet in the
scientific sense, you need only base your diet on the six high-
quality food types. To maximize the quality of your diet in the
popular sense, you need to select your high-quality foods
carefully, buying locally grown, sustainably farmed fruits and
vegetables sprouted from native or heritage seeds (and/or
growing your own); wild seafood bearing the Marine Stewardship
Council’s Certified Sustainable Seafood Label; meat from free-
range, grass-fed, and hormone- and antibiotic-free animals;
organic dairy products and free-range eggs; and locally grown
everything whenever possible.
The downside of pursuing this type of quality is that it can be
expensive and less convenient than buying whatever the nearest
supermarket carries. If the cost or hassle is too great for you,
don’t lose sleep over it. Raising your Diet Quality Score will do
more for your health and fitness than switching to higher-grade
foods of the same types you’re already eating. Bear in mind that
none of the research I’ve cited on the health benefits of
vegetables; fruits; nuts, seeds, and healthy oils; whole grains;
dairy; and unprocessed meat and seafood discriminated between
high-grade and low-grade forms of these foods. Some apples may
be better than other apples, but there are no bad apples.
 5 Habit 3: Eat Carb-Centered

VINCENT ONYWERA IS A PROFESSOR OF EXERCISE

PHYSIOLOGY AT KENYATTA University, located just outside the
Kenyan capital of Nairobi. His office on the fourth floor of the main
administrative building is large and well appointed, befitting his
stature as one of the school’s most prominent faculty members. I
met him there on a Monday afternoon in June of 2015. We settled
into a couple of padded leather chairs facing each other across a
low table and Onywera served tea, which he, like most Kenyans,
drinks with plenty of milk and sugar.
Eleven years before this meeting, Onywera, then an exercise
science graduate student at Kenyatta, made a name for himself by
leading the first rigorous study of the diet of elite Kenyan runners.
He and three colleagues spent a full week recording and
measuring everything that went into the mouths of ten male
athletes, including several world champions, at a high-altitude
training camp in Eldoret, a hub of Kenya’s elite running community.
Onywera and his collaborators reported their findings in the
International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism.
“The staple foods were bread, boiled rice, boiled potatoes,
porridge, cabbage, kidney beans and ugali (a thick maize meal
paste),” they noted. “Meat (mainly beef) was served at the training
camp 4 times per week and consumed in modest amounts
(approximately 100 g per day) although athletes were able to
access more meat and other foods when visiting their rural homes.
A significant amount of tea (with milk) was also consumed during
the day.”
Nearly all of the foods on this list of staples—which are
common in the diet of Kenyan nonrunners as well—are high in
carbohydrates. So it came as no surprise to Onywera’s team to
discover that the runners got more than 76 percent of their daily
calories from carbs. (The average American’s diet, by contrast, is
about 48 percent carbohydrates.) Interestingly, all ten athletes lost
body fat during the study period.
Kenya’s runners are, as you probably know, the best in the
world. Kenyan men account for a staggering seventeen of the
twenty fastest male marathon times in history, while Kenyan
women own fifteen of the twenty best female half-marathon
performances of all time. I asked Onywera if he believed that the
high carbohydrate content of the elite Kenyan runner’s diet
constituted an advantage with respect to runners from other
nations. Onywera said it probably was an advantage. After all,
their average daily carb intake of 10.4 grams per kilogram of body
weight was consistent with the amounts that had been shown to
maximize endurance performance in controlled studies and was
somewhat greater than the amounts in the diets of athletes from
most other countries.
Having jotted down this answer in my notebook, I then inquired
whether Onywera was aware that a number of endurance sports
nutrition gurus in the United States and elsewhere argued that
low-carb diets were best for fitness and performance. He told me
he was.
“So, what would happen,” I asked, “if one of these gurus went
to a training camp for elite Kenyan runners and told them their diet
was all wrong—that they needed to go low-carb?”
“They would laugh,” Onywera said, laughing himself. “They
wouldn’t take him seriously.”
One week after my meeting with Vincent Onywera, I rented a
room at the High Altitude Training Centre (HATC) in Iten, a village
located just up the road from the Eldoret-based training camp
whose athletes Onywera had studied. Created by retired runner
and former half-marathon world record holder Lornah Kiplagat,
HATC provides accommodations and facilities to a clientele made
up primarily of foreign athletes who wish to spend a month or two
training at high altitude with the world’s best runners. I was there
not to train, however, but to see for myself how top Kenyan
runners eat.
Attached to the HATC is a club that serves somewhat more
upscale food than the simple but high-quality fare provided in the
Centre’s dining room. On my second night in Iten, I shared a meal
there with Timothy Limo, an elite 800-meter runner who provided
coaching services for the HATC. He ordered fish stew with chapati
(a kind of tortilla) and sukuma wiki (stewed collard greens). I asked
for the same. While we ate, Limo described a typical day’s eating
for him and the runners he trained with.
“Our first run is very early, so we don’t eat anything before it
except maybe honey with water,” he said.
(Interestingly, recent science has demonstrated a special
benefit of doing some workouts in a fasted state—particularly a
carb-fasted state—showing it causes a type of metabolic stress
that enhances certain fitness adaptations. I will discuss carb-
fasted workouts—which Kenyan runners do for pragmatic rather
than scientific reasons—in Chapter 9.)
“After the run,” Limo continued, “we drink chai [another name
for Kenyan-style tea] and eat chapati or bread and bananas.”
The runners give the food a little time to digest and then run
again. “After the second run we eat uji,” Limo said. “You know
uji?” I did. It’s a porridge made from fermented millet and often
flavored with lemon juice. I’d eaten some earlier in my visit to
Kenya and found it to be quite delicious.
Lunch, Limo continued, consists of rice or potatoes and githeri,
a mixture of boiled maize and beans. At midafternoon, following
the third run of the day or perhaps a core workout or massage, the
runners eat another helping of uji. Dinner is most often ugali with
meat or fish, sukumi wiki, and mursik (fermented milk).
I asked Limo if he and his training partners did much snacking.
“Yes,” he said. “We eat fruit—pineapple, mango, oranges,
beetroot—anytime; whenever we’re hungry.”
Like the list of foods given in Vincent Onywera’s landmark
study, the foods Limo named in his review of his (and the typical
Kenyan runner’s) daily menu are almost all high in carbohydrates,
starting with the honey taken early in the morning and culminating
in the ugali that supplies a plurality of dinner calories. The only
exceptions are the bit of meat or fish eaten at dinner (but not every
night) and the beans and greens consumed frequently at lunch
and dinner, which, although not high in carbohydrates, still contain
more carbs than protein or fat.
Having confirmed that, more than a decade after Onywera
completed his study, Kenyan runners still eat a lot of
carbohydrates, I paid a visit on the following day to a nearby hotel
owned by Wilson Kipsang, who until the previous year had held
the world record in the marathon, to find out if the country’s
wealthiest and most widely traveled runners continue to eat
traditional Kenyan cuisine or abandon it for “Western” alternatives.
Kipsang received me in his office—decorated with such
noteworthy items of memorabilia as a mounted right shoe (the one
in which he ran 2:03:23 at the 2013 Berlin Marathon) and a
photograph taken of him with Prince Harry after winning the 2012
London Marathon—and promptly set about serving us tea. I asked
him directly whether money (he took home more than $700,000
from his 2014 New York City Marathon victory alone) had
changed the way he ate.
“I still eat the same foods,” he said with a sly smile. “They’re
just more . . . accessible.”
“What about when you travel to England or Germany or
America to race?” I asked. “Do you eat their food or do you take
ugali with you?” (I had heard of other Kenyan runners carrying
bags of ugali on airplanes.)
“I eat their food,” he said. “It’s not a problem. I’m only there for
a few days and I find other ways to get carbohydrates. Instead of
ugali, I eat spaghetti.”
Remembering my conversation with Vincent Onywera, I asked
Kipsang if he was aware that many people in America and other
wealthy nations say that carbohydrates are bad and should be
avoided by runners and nonrunners alike. Just as the professor
had predicted, he laughed.
“Why do they say that?” asked Kipsang, genuinely perplexed.
“Carbohydrate is not bad!”

Carbohydrates, Fitness, and Performance

Although Kenya’s elite runners are an extreme case, they are not
the only elite endurance athletes who maintain a carbohydrate-
centered diet. A 2011 study at the University of Potsdam found
that elite junior triathletes from Germany consumed 9 grams of
carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight daily during a period of
intense training, only 13 percent less than the amount consumed
by the Kenyan runners studied by Onywera.
In my research, I have found that virtually all elite endurance
athletes on every continent put high-carbohydrate foods at the
center of each meal and most snacks. If you select a world-class
endurance athlete at random and analyze his or her diet, you are
almost certain to find that he or she maintains a high level of
carbohydrate intake.
A typical case is Radka Vodickova, a professional triathlete
from the Czech Republic. Vodickova starts most days with a bowl
of oatmeal with dried fruit and yogurt and a mug of green tea. She
snacks on bananas, dried fruit, yogurt, and nuts. One of her go-to
lunch menus is risotto with vegetables. Dinner is carbohydrate-
centered as well, often consisting of chicken with rice or beef and
potatoes accompanied by a nice big salad.
As much carbohydrate as most elite runners eat, however,
Kenyan runners eat more. The many foreign athletes who stay at
Lornah Kiplagat’s High Altitude Training Centre, therefore, must
adapt to an even higher level of carb intake than they are used to.
The results are consistently positive. Among the runners whose
stay at the HATC overlapped with mine were Yannick Michiels, a
Belgian runner and orienteer who had run 13:47 for 5000 meters;
Emmett Dunleavy, a 3:47 1500-meter runner who has represented
Ireland at the world cross country championships; Anuradha
Cooray, who holds Sri Lanka’s national record in the marathon
(2:13:47); and Elvan Abeleygesse, who holds Turkish national
records at six distances. All of these athletes assured me that they
responded quite well to the high-carb Kenyan diet. Both Dunleavy
and Michiels had lost weight since arriving at the Centre. Cooray
told me that he’d lowered his marathon time by two minutes after
each of his three prior visits to Iten.
My own experience was similar. I ate traditional Kenyan foods
almost exclusively during the two weeks I spent in Kenya. Midway
through the trip, I ran the Safaricom Lewa Marathon, known as
one of the toughest marathons in the world because it takes place
in hot weather on a hilly off-road course at high elevation. I felt
strong the whole way and finished the race in seventeenth place
overall, third among runners over forty, and first among non-
Kenyans. My body recovered from the race with surprising speed.
After two days off I was back to running and feeling great.
A carbohydrate-centered diet offers several benefits to
endurance athletes and exercisers. For starters, it enables the
body to better handle the stress of training. Any given training
program will cause less physiological stress—in the forms of
muscle damage, inflammation, immune system disruption,
hormonal disturbances, and nervous system perturbations—on a
diet that supplies adequate carbohydrates. A 2015 study by
researchers at the University of Western Australia, for example,
revealed that consecutive days of high-intensity training caused
significantly more inflammation in well-trained endurance athletes
on a low-carb diet than on a high-carb diet.
Limiting the physiological stress of training is not just beneficial
for its own sake. It also enables athletes to gain fitness faster and
perform better. This was shown in a 2004 study by Asker
Jeukendrup and colleagues at the University of Birmingham.
Seven well-trained runners spent eleven days on each of two
diets: a high-carb diet (8.5 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of
body weight per day, or 65 percent of total calories) and a low-
carb diet (5.4 grams of carbs per kilogram per day, or 41 percent
of total calories). Their training load was increased substantially
for the last week of each eleven-day period. Before and after this
intensified training period, the runners completed a 16-kilometer
time trial. Performance in the time trial decreased significantly after
intensified training on the low-carb diet, but on the high-carb diet
performance held steady, indicating that the extra carbs enabled
the runners’ bodies to better absorb the hard work.
Because a carb-centered diet limits the physiological stress of
training, switching to a low-carb diet is one of the riskiest things an
elite endurance athlete can do nutritionally. It doesn’t happen
often, and, when it does, the results can be disastrous. The
American mountain biker Georgia Gould offers one such
cautionary tale. In 2010, Gould won her third national
championship in the cross country discipline. The following year,
she read a book whose author argued that carbohydrates are the
primary cause of weight gain and type 2 diabetes. Gould found the
argument persuasive and decided to adopt the high-fat, low-carb
diet the book recommend. She greatly increased her meat
consumption and virtually eliminated all grains from her meals.
Gould missed her next period. And the one after that. And the
one after that. Ignoring the warning sign, she persisted with the
new diet even though she hated it from the start. An avid cook,
Gould no longer enjoyed being in the kitchen, feeling restricted by
the inflexible rules of her low-carb eating plan. When she traveled,
which was often, she worried about food constantly. Initially, she
felt just a little off emotionally—not quite herself—but after several
weeks she was teetering on the brink of a full-blown depression.
Midway through the 2011 racing season, the bottom fell out
from under Gould’s training and racing. She felt terrible on every
training ride and produced the worst competitive results of her
entire career. Only then did she see a doctor, who ran blood tests
and discovered several abnormal hormone values and ordered her
to change her diet. Gould went back on a high-carb diet,
immediately recovered, and won the 2011 USA National Cross
Country Mountain Bike Championship.
Going low-carb isn’t quite as risky for recreational endurance
athletes who train less than the pros, but the results of doing so
are often decidedly negative for them, too. A typical case is
Matthew Laye, an ultrarunner and university professor from Boise,
Idaho. In 2014, Laye adopted a ketogenic diet, one of the most
extreme low-carb diets, which requires its adherents to get at least
70 percent of their daily calories from fat and no more than 10
percent from carbohydrates. He expected to feel lousy initially as
his body adapted to the new regimen, and he did. The problem
was that he never stopped feeling lousy.
Even though a hamstring injury limited him to half of his normal
training volume at this time, every workout was an ordeal. “I was
running a minute per mile slower at the same level of effort in my
easy runs,” he told me, “and my ability to do any high-intensity
work was severely compromised.”
Other recreational endurance athletes who switch to a low-
carb diet—and even the extreme ketogenic diet—report good
results. However, I have not yet encountered any athlete who,
when pressed, was able to point to a quantifiable breakthrough in
performance after making such a change. At best, low-carb
athletes get back to the same level they were at on their previous
diet, and only after going through a long and often unpleasant
period of adaptation. The “good results” they report have nothing
to do with performance but instead consist of things like modest
weight loss, improved digestion, and reduced reliance on sports
drinks during longer races.
In a certain respect, low-carb diets are like veganism and other
extreme diets that recreational endurance athletes choose.
Although it is not impossible, at least for some people, to achieve a
high level of fitness on such diets, it is certainly harder, and as I’ve
asked before: Why make things harder for yourself?
And there are other negatives to consider beyond the
possibility of feeling awful and performing poorly in training. Low-
carb diets, and, in particular, high-fat, low-carb diets, are highly
restrictive and culturally abnormal. The list of foods that are 70
percent fat or more is quite short. Athletes who try to get 70
percent of their total calories from fat often end up eating the
same few foods—many of them low quality—over and over. When
Matthew Laye went ketogenic he quickly discovered that in order
to hit the 70 percent fat target he had to limit himself to a very
small variety of foods. Fruits and grains were out of the question
because it was impossible to compensate for their high
carbohydrate and low fat content. He had to choose fatty
processed meats such as bacon and salami over lean
unprocessed meats such as chicken and turkey. His salads were
drenched in oil and devoid of higher-carb ingredients such as
carrots. “It was incredibly monotonous,” he told me. “Even if the
diet had worked for me, it would have been unsustainable for that
reason alone.”
Very low-carb diets are also nutritionally unbalanced. For
example, the best food sources of magnesium—whole grains and
beans—are often eliminated on such diets, resulting in magnesium
deficiency and its consequences, which include muscle cramps.
Another common health consequence of extreme carbohydrate
restriction is unfavorable changes in blood lipids. Six weeks into
his high-fat, low-carb diet, Laye got a cholesterol test and learned
that his LDL (“bad”) cholesterol level had jumped to 200 milligrams
per deciliter, an increase of 39 milligrams per deciliter from before
he went ketogenic. Soon afterward, he reverted to his old way of
eating.
Additional, sometimes strange, health problems have been
reported by low-carb eaters after they’ve been on the diet for a
long time. Among these are vertigo, skin problems, panic attacks,
and caffeine intolerance. Some of these issues may be related to
stress placed on the liver by prolonged carbohydrate deprivation.
Finally, like other extreme diets, low-carb diets all-too-
frequently function as a gateway to eating disorders. Studies
indicate that a majority of cases of eating disorders are preceded
by some form of dieting. Not all people who try a low-carb diet
develop an eating disorder and not all people who develop an
eating disorder use a low-carb or other extreme diet as a gateway,
but the risk is one more reason to avoid them.
Yet another benefit of a carbohydrate-centered diet, beyond
increased training capacity, greater fitness gains, and improved
training performance, is better performance in competition. In
2009, Trent Stellingwerff of the Canadian Sports Centre in Victoria
tracked the diets of 257 runners during the final five weeks before
the London Marathon. Of these runners, thirty-one consumed 7
grams of carbs per kilogram of body weight or more before the
race. The others ate less, and in many cases a lot less. The thirty-
one runners who ate the most carbs completed the marathon 13.4
percent faster than a group of runners matched for gender, age,
body weight, training volume, and marathon experience who ate
less carbohydrate before the race. Most of this difference came in
the final 4.5 miles, where the runners who had eaten fewer carbs
hit the wall and slowed down precipitously.
Inadequate carbohydrate consumption not only reduces
performance in longer races but also reduces aerobic capacity, or
VO2max, which is the most important element of endurance
fitness. This was shown in a 2014 study published in the journal
Nutrients. Polish researchers placed eight mountain bikers on
each of two diets for four weeks in random order. One diet was
high in fat and low in carbohydrates (HFLC), consisting of 15
percent carbohydrates, 70 percent fat, and 15 percent protein.
The other diet was more balanced, consisting of 50 percent
carbohydrates, 30 percent fat, and 20 percent protein. At the end
of each dietary intervention, the participants were subjected to
three days of physiological testing that culminated in a 90-minute
stationary bike ride at 85 percent of lactate threshold power
followed by a 15-minute time trial.
On average, the athletes’ VO2max was 2 percent higher after
four weeks on the normal diet than it was after an equal amount of
time on the high-fat, low-carb diet. This might not sound like much,
but small differences in aerobic capacity translate to crucial
differences in endurance performance. Indeed, the subjects were
able to sustain an additional 12 watts in a 15-minute trial and 4
watts at lactate threshold intensity on a normal diet compared to a
HFLC diet.
The rationale for going low-carb as an endurance athlete is
that it trains the muscles to burn more fat and less carbohydrate
during workouts and races. And it works. The mountain bikers
included in the study just described burned fat at much higher
rates during exercise after a month of high-fat, low-carb eating.
But as the same study showed, better fat burning does not
translate to better performance. In fact, the fittest and fastest
endurance athletes are more often those who are able to burn
carbohydrates, not fat, at the highest rate. A 2014 experiment led
by Giuseppe Lippi and colleagues at the University of Verona
found that levels of alpha-amylase—an enzyme that serves as a
marker for carbohydrate-burning capacity—strongly predicted
half-marathon performance in a group of forty-three recreational
runners.
 In light of this science, it’s not at all surprising that almost all of
the world’s best endurance athletes practice Habit 3 of the
Endurance Diet. But do they really? Advocates of low-carb diets
often point out that some of the top ultrarunners in the world are
on low-carb diets. The problem with these counterexamples is
that, although ultrarunning is growing quickly in popularity and
performance standards are on the rise, the sport has not yet
reached the point where it is attracting the most talented athletes.
For this reason, it is still possible for athletes with superior talent to
win in the sport despite using inferior methods of preparation in
diet and training, just as was the case in other endurance
disciplines in past decades. I am confident that when ultrarunning
does reach the point where it is as competitive as those other
disciplines are today, the most successful athletes will be on
carbohydrate-centered diets. Indeed, they will probably be
Kenyan.

Carbophobia
According to a 2014 Gallup survey, 29 percent of Americans try to
avoid eating carbohydrates. This statistic reflects a negative public
attitude toward carbs that has been trending steadily upward since
Gallup initiated its annual Consumption Habits Survey in 2003. In
2005, physician and author Michael Greger gave the phenomenon
a name: carbophobia.
The main source of carbophobia is a seemingly endless series
of popular low-carbohydrate diets developed outside the
mainstream of nutrition science. These include the Atkins Diet, the
South Beach Diet, and the Paleo Diet. Although such diets differ in
their particulars, their creators share a common belief that
carbohydrates cause weight gain and type 2 diabetes.
Most recreational endurance athletes who try low-carb diets do
so for the same reasons that nonathletes do. Their main concern
is not better performance but weight loss and better health. The
problem is that carbohydrates per se do not, in fact, cause weight
gain or type 2 diabetes. Athletes who go low-carb often do lose
weight, but not for the reason they think, and in the process they
lose fitness and performance capacity.
Advocates of low-carb diets for weight management and
general health argue that carbohydrates cause weight gain by
increasing insulin levels in the body. Insulin “traps” fat in fat cells,
and, as a result, a high-carb diet causes more weight gain than a
low-carb diet with the same number of total calories.
Except it doesn’t. Science has never supported the insulin
theory of weight gain, and the best and latest science emphatically
contradicts it. For example, a 2015 study published in Cell
Metabolism reported that a carefully controlled low-fat diet
resulted in 68 percent more body fat loss than a low-carb diet of
equal calories, even though the low-carb diet sharply reduced
insulin levels.
So why do people tend to lose weight on low-carb diets? There
are two main reasons. First, low-carb diets tend to be high-protein
diets, and high-protein diets promote weight loss by increasing
satiety and metabolism. But as I mentioned in Chapter 2, high-
protein diets are not a good choice for endurance athletes and
exercisers (at least not over the long term) because they impede
the development of endurance fitness. The second reason people
tend to lose weight on low-carb diets is that they usually eat fewer
low-quality foods on such diets, and low-quality foods do cause
weight gain.
Of the four low-quality food types, two—refined grains and
sweets—are high in carbohydrates. These foods are fattening,
and, unfortunately, they have given carbohydrates in general a
bad reputation that extends unfairly to high-quality high-carb foods
such as fruits and whole grains. The science is clear: fruits and
whole grains promote a leaner body composition. Endurance
athletes and exercisers who want to lose weight should continue
to eat these foods, and perhaps even eat more of them, and
reduce their consumption not only of the two high-carb low-quality
food types but also of the other two low-quality food types:
processed meat and seafood and fried foods. By doing so they will
get leaner and fitter.
In 2015, researchers at the University of South Carolina
reported that volunteers placed on a vegan diet for six months lost
an average of 7.5 percent of their initial body weight without
making any attempt to eat less. Carbohydrate intake actually
increased on this diet. But, more importantly, diet quality increased
alongside carb intake as the subjects replaced foods like
pepperoni and ice cream with foods like brown rice and apples.
The lesson of this study is not that a vegan diet is best for weight
management but that the amount of carbohydrate in the diet is
irrelevant to weight management. What matters is the quality of
the food sources of carbohydrates and of the diet as a whole.
This principle is true with respect to type 2 diabetes as well.
Although there is a proven link between the consumption of sugar-
sweetened beverages and type 2 diabetes, there is no such link
between carbohydrate consumption in general and the disease.
Again, what matters is the quality of the foods that the carbs come
from, not the quantity.
A carbohydrate-centered diet in itself is neither healthy nor
unhealthy. What determines whether such a diet is healthy or
unhealthy is whether the carbs come primarily from high-quality or
low-quality sources. In the diets of elite Kenyan runners and other
elite endurance athletes, carbs come predominantly from high-
quality foods—particularly vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and
milk. By contrast, in the United States and other industrialized
countries, a sizable percentage of the total carbs in the diet comes
from foods such as ice cream, potato chips, and pizza that also
contain large amounts of fat, a combination that is rare in nature
and proven to encourage overeating.
“Our carbohydrates are better because they are simple,”
Wilson Kipsang told me. “Yours come with a lot of extras.”
 During my time in Kenya, I discovered in a concrete and
personal way how beneficial a high-quality, carb-centered diet can
be for body composition. At home, my average daily Diet Quality
Score is about 20 and I consume approximately 1,800
carbohydrate calories per day. In Kenya, my DQS jumped to 25
and my carbohydrate intake increased to 2,200 calories per day.
These changes were almost unavoidable because low-quality
foods just weren’t available and all of the meals prepared for me
were carb-centered.
The most memorable meal I ate in Kenya was served to me by
a family of subsistence farmers living deep in the bush near the
Kakamega rainforest. Every single item on my plate—ugali (high-
carb), sukuma wiki, chapati (high-carb), mung beans, corn on the
cob (high-carb), and chicken—was grown or raised on my hosts’
property. Indeed, most of the plants and animals they came from
had been living just hours before I ate them.
Not only did my diet change in Kenya, but my activity level did,
too. At home, I normally spend about fourteen hours per week
working out. In Kenya, I trained a lot less because the marathon I
ran there fell in the middle of the trip, and it was necessary that I
rest up beforehand and recover afterward. Despite my reduced
activity level, and thanks to the high-quality carb-centered Kenyan
diet, I lost 2.5 pounds and returned home lighter than I had been
since high school.

Not All High-Carbohydrate Foods Are the

Same
Table 5.1 shows just how different two diets supplying equal
quantities of carbohydrates can be in terms of diet quality.

Practicing Habit 3
Emulating the elite athletes’ habit of maintaining a carbohydrate-
centered diet is a simple matter of including carbohydrate-rich
foods in all meals and most snacks. This is not at all difficult to do
for most people. Many foods that are normally eaten in each meal
of the day are high in carbs. High-carb breakfast foods include
oatmeal, bagels, and cold cereal. Some of the high-carb foods that
are popular in the midday meal are bread, tortillas, and vegetable
soups. At the dinner table, potatoes and grains such as rice and
quinoa fit the bill. Fruit and yogurt are among the high-carb foods
that work well as snacks.
Table 5.1 Two Diets with Same Quantity of Carbs Differ in Quality

In practicing Habit 3, be sure to integrate it with the other four

habits of the Endurance Diet. Combining Habit 3 with Habit 1,
eating everything, means eating a wide variety of carbohydrate-
rich foods. The typical American gets the vast majority of his or
her carbohydrate calories from just three sources: corn, soy, and
wheat. If you’re thinking, “Wait: I don’t eat much corn and soy,” in
fact, you probably do—you just eat them as highly processed
ingredients of other foods. In any case, it’s smart to branch out
and get more of your carbs from other grains (amaranth,
buckwheat, bulgur, millet, oats, quinoa, rice, sorghum, teff) and
also from other carbohydrate-rich foods such as starchy
vegetables and fruits.
We have already touched on the importance of combining the
habit of maintaining a carbohydrate-centered diet with Habit 2 of
the Endurance Diet: eating quality. Try to consistently get most of
your carbs from high-quality foods and few of them from low-
quality refined grains (e.g., white rice), sweets (e.g., pastries), and
fried foods (e.g., French fries).
Combining Habit 3 with Habit 4—eating enough—is all you
need to do to ensure you get the right amount of carbohydrates.
As I mentioned above, the more you exercise, the more
carbohydrates you must consume to maximize the benefits you
get from your training. Eating enough is all about basing the
amount of food you eat on your true energy needs as expressed
through hunger and satiety. If you do this, you will naturally eat
more as you train more and your energy needs increase. And if
you’re already on a carbohydrate-centered diet, your carb intake
will automatically increase as your overall eating does, ensuring
that you get enough.
Counting carbohydrate grams or calories is not particularly
useful because there are no clear targets to aim for. Scientists
have been unable to identify precise quantitative daily
carbohydrate requirements for individual athletes based on
training volume or overall energy expenditure. What they have
found is that, in general, athletes with moderate training loads (up
to two hours of exercise per day, depending on the type and
intensity of training) who consume 5 to 7 grams of carbs per
kilogram of body weight per day perform worse when they eat less
carbohydrate but no better when they eat more, and that athletes
with heavy training loads (over two hours per day, give or take)
who consume 7 to 10 g/kg daily perform worse when they eat less
but no better when they eat more.
Athletes who eat carb-centered diets and who consistently
consume enough total calories in a day usually achieve these carb
intake levels without tallying grams or calories, and indeed elite
endurance athletes rarely do keep count. Nevertheless, it can be a
worthwhile exercise to calculate your carbohydrate intake for one
or two days immediately after you’ve shifted to carb-centered
eating to see if it falls within the appropriate range. Food labels,
online resources, and various smartphone apps can help with this.
If your carb intake is low, and if you find yourself struggling to
handle training loads you feel you ought to be able to handle, try
adding more high-quality carbohydrate-rich foods to your diet.
Finally, it is important to practice Habit 3 of the Endurance Diet
in combination with Habit 5: eating individually. To eat individually
is to tailor your diet to meet your individual needs and preferences.
One aspect of this process of customization is paying attention to
how particular foods and eating patterns affect you and modifying
those patterns accordingly. Although a carbohydrate-centered diet
is generally best for endurance athletes and exercisers, not all
high-carb foods agree with all of them. You may need to
experiment a little to find a combination of foods that works
optimally for you.
Even some of the world’s best endurance athletes encounter
personal restrictions of this sort. An extreme case is that of the
American triathlete Amanda Stevens. Throughout her life, Stevens
suffered from a “mystery illness” with a variety of symptoms,
including intestinal bleeding, that were mostly gastrointestinal in
nature. These symptoms became worse and worse until Stevens
was forced to stop training and racing and seek help from
specialists. She learned that she had celiac disease and was
allergic to more than one hundred foods, a list that encompassed
many of the carbohydrate sources that celiacs, who cannot eat
wheat, often turn to, such as quinoa.
There are many recreational endurance athletes who, had they
been in Stevens’s place, would have gone on a low-carb diet. But
Stevens knew she could not afford to do that, as it would have left
her unable to perform at an elite level even if it did resolve her
symptoms. So Stevens set about identifying the few carbohydrate-
rich foods she could tolerate. There weren’t many: red potatoes,
yellow potatoes, russet potatoes, rice, and bananas. In order to
meet the carbohydrate requirements imposed by the heavy
training load demanded by Stevens’s goal of winning major
triathlons, she began to eat these foods with great frequency while
avoiding all of her problem foods. In the next big race she did after
making these changes, Stevens joined the exclusive sub-nine-
hour Ironman club, winning the 2014 Ironman Arizona in 8:52:31.
If you ever find yourself thinking that a carbohydrate-centered
diet can’t work for you, imagine you’re a professional endurance
athlete and you have to make a carb-centered diet work for you in
order to sustain your livelihood. If you do, you will almost certainly
find that you can make it work, one way or another.
I see this happen often in the carbophobic athletes and
exercisers I am able to persuade to take a chance on Habit 3. One
example is Arwen, an ultrarunner from Utah. Like Amanda
Stevens, Arwen suffered from digestive problems. After
undergoing intestinal surgery in 2011, she found that a low-carb
diet seemed to agree with her. Two years later, Arwen discovered
she had a wheat allergy and responded by not only eliminating
wheat from her diet but also by reducing her grain intake generally.
Although these challenges were particular to her, the
carbophobic ethos of the culture she lived in contributed to a
general conclusion that carbs are bad, so when Arwen got more
serious about her training and racing, she remained on a low-carb
diet. The surprising results were weight gain and premature
fatigue in longer workouts. When Arwen came to me for help, I
encouraged her to increase her carbohydrate intake, not by going
back to eating foods that disagreed with her digestive system but
rather by identifying carb-rich foods that she tolerated well. Over
time, she compiled a list that included quinoa, beets, parsnips,
brown rice, and sweet and white potatoes. Within weeks of
increasing her carbohydrate intake, Arwen lost 5 pounds and
experienced a significant energy increase in her workouts.
Happy endings like these are available to all carbophobic
athletes who are willing to take a chance on carbs in an individual
way in their pursuit of a solution to whatever is standing as an
obstacle to the health and fitness results they seek.
 6 Habit 4: Eat Enough

IN SEPTEMBER 1972, FRANK SHORTER WON THE OLYMPIC

MARATHON IN Munich, inspiring thousands of his fellow
Americans to become runners. Three months later, Shorter won
the Fukuoka Marathon in Japan, inspiring (among others,
presumably) a thirteen-year-old boy named Nobuya “Nobby”
Hashizume from the city of Tsu, near Nagoya, to become a
runner. In the ensuing years, Hashizume developed into a pretty
decent track athlete, posting a time of 15:12 for 5000 meters in
college. His true destiny, however, was to coach other runners.
In Japan, professional running is dominated by corporate
teams. Many of the country’s major corporations employ rosters of
elite runners. The athletes work a couple of hours a day in low-
level office jobs, live together in a dormitory, are fed and coached
by full-time company employees, and represent the company at
team relay road races, called Ekiden, that are hugely popular in
Japan, as well as in other events.
In 1989, Nobby Hashizume was offered his dream job. A major
manufacturer of consumer electronics had just created a women’s
professional running team and Hashizume, now in his late
twenties, was offered the position of assistant coach. Like most
Japanese corporate teams, this one was very well funded.
Hashizume and the head coach he worked under were paid
executive salaries. The company built a dormitory with a fully
equipped kitchen for the athletes and hired two chefs and a
nutritionist to feed them. The new team brought on a pair of
runners in its first year of existence and expanded to eight runners
the following year.
Hashizume became disillusioned very quickly, however. The
problem was his boss, who micromanaged the diet of the runners
in a way that deeply troubled his young assistant. Ignoring the
nutritionist’s input, the head coach told the team chef exactly how
many calories of food to prepare for each runner. It was never
enough, yet the coach exacerbated the shortfall by standing
sentinel in the refectory at mealtimes and telling the runners when
to put down their chopsticks.
The best runner on the team was a naturally stocky young
woman nicknamed Bebe. She loved to eat and, according
Hashizume, the more she ate, the better she ran. But the head
coach pressured her so relentlessly to reduce her food intake that
Bebe eventually quit the team in protest. Hashizume himself quit
after three years. He told me his greatest professional regret is
that he didn’t do more to protect the runners before he left.
In Hashizume’s defense, the systematic undernourishment of
distance runners was pervasive in Japan at the time. Indeed,
runners everywhere have been susceptible to eating too little.
Because the sport of running favors a low body weight and a lean
body composition, runners who live and eat together often feel
pressured to lose weight and to eat less as a means of losing
weight. This pressure tends to be especially strong among female
runners, who, quite apart from recognizing the performance
advantages of being lean, are steeped in popular expectations to
look skinny for the sake of being considered attractive. And the
pressure is often intensified when female runners train under a
male coach.
Within the Japanese corporate running teams of the 1980s,
the pressure to undereat may have been magnified further by an
especially pronounced emphasis on leanness, a relative dearth of
reliable information about sports nutrition, and a tradition of
respect for authority that made it difficult for athletes to speak up
for their own interests when those interests clashed with a coach’s
will. This perfect storm of factors led to episodes that were even
more unfortunate than the premature end of Bebe’s professional
running career.
Among the more infamous cases was that of Yumi Kokamo,
who joined a corporate team in 1991, when she was just eighteen
years old. One year later, Kokamo won the Osaka Ladies
Marathon in 2:26:26, setting a new Japanese national record and
a women’s debut marathon world record. But her immense
promise was never fulfilled. Her coach at the time was notorious
for limiting athletes’ food intake, and under his influence Kokamo
“came very close to becoming anorexic,” according to Hashizume.
She struggled to a twenty-ninth-place finish in the 1992 Olympic
Marathon, quit the team soon thereafter, and never regained her
past form, retiring at age twenty-six.
The silver lining to tragedies like this one is that they taught
runners and coaches that strictly limiting food intake sabotages
endurance fitness. But this discovery alone was not enough to
precipitate change. A positive counterexample was also needed.
Fortunately, international travel exposed Japanese athletes and
coaches to foreign athletes who did not artificially restrict the
amount of food they ate but instead allowed internal signals of
hunger and satiety to govern their intake. This practice, which
defines the Endurance Diet habit of eating enough, is the only
reliable way for people who engage in vigorous daily cardio
exercise to avoid eating either too little (more common among
highly competitive athletes) or too much (more common among
less competitive athletes and noncompetitive exercisers).
Encountering and interacting with athletes who ate enough and
who performed better because they ate enough led Japanese
athletes to do the same, and today nearly all elite Japanese
endurance athletes, like elite athletes everywhere, practice this
habit.
 A good example of how this cross-pollination of best practices
unfolded is the story of Misato Takagi, a triathlete who came to the
United States from Japan in 2009 to train with an international
group of elite triathletes coached by former world champion Siri
Lindley in Boulder, Colorado. In her new environment, Takagi
noticed two things. One was that the other athletes ate a lot more
than she did. The other was that she couldn’t keep up with those
same athletes on long bike rides. It didn’t take long for Takagi to
put two and two together and realize that she couldn’t keep up
with her new training partners because she didn’t eat as much.
A veteran of the Japanese corporate team system, Takagi was
accustomed to worrying about and trying to avoid eating too much.
In Boulder, without coaches looking over her shoulder at meals,
she started to listen to her body and allow its appetite signals to
determine how much food she ate. Takagi’s newly acquired habit
of eating enough carried her to a number of successes, including a
victory at the 2010 Mazatlan ITU Pan American Cup and a runner-
up finish in the following year’s Roatlan ITU Pan American Cup.
Takagi now coaches other triathletes back home in Japan, and
she encourages all of them to trust their own appetite to ensure
that their bodies are properly fueled for maximum performance.
Through many cross-cultural interactions like this one, Japan’s
elite endurance athletes have largely caught up to their
competitors from other nations in practicing the fourth habit of the
Endurance Diet. I saw this for myself in August 2015, when I spent
five days as an observer at a training camp for five members of the
Mitsui-Sumitomo women’s running team (including 2:19:41
marathoner Yoko Shibui) in Boulder. The camp was hosted by
none other than Nobby Hashizume, who after leaving his “dream
job” in 1991 married an American woman and emigrated to the
United States, and cohosted by Lorraine Moller, a New Zealand
expatriate who won five marathons in Japan in the 1980s and
1990s and has maintained her Japan connection ever since.
 On my first evening with the team, Hashizume and Moller, who
are partners in a coaching certification business called the Lydiard
Foundation, held a potluck dinner at Moller’s home. It was
attended by all five Japanese runners, their head coach Shigeharu
Watanabe, and their assistant coach Takashi Hayashi, and
several luminaries from the Boulder running community, including
Mike Sandrock, who covers the sport for the Boulder Daily
Camera, and John Elliott, founder of marathonguide.com and
owner of a house located three doors down from Moller’s, where
the Mitsui-Sumitomo runners stayed.
The Japanese contingent contributed a curry dish and rice to
the occasion. Other guests brought chicken breasts, corn on the
cob, quinoa salad, a mixed-greens salad, and watermelon. The
Mitsui-Sumitomo runners sampled all of it. Although this might not
seem like a big deal, Hashizume assured me the occasion
represented a major change from the bad old days, when
Japanese running teams that came to America for altitude training
would go out of their way to avoid interacting with the natives and
eating their food.
The next morning, Hashizume cooked French toast for the
runners. He did so at the special request of Shibui, who had eaten
Hashizume’s French toast previously at a training camp in
Flagstaff in 2009. Shibui has beefy legs for an elite runner and
gains weight easily. One of her goals for the three-week training
stint in Boulder was to lose a bit of fat and get down to her
competition weight of 104 pounds (Shibui is five feet three). Yet
her breakfast on that morning consisted of four slices of French
toast plus a salad and an iced coffee. I did the math and concluded
that the whole meal came to roughly 1,000 calories.
Why did Yoko Shibui eat 1,000 calories at breakfast when she
was trying to lose weight? Because she wasn’t trying to lose
weight for the sake of dropping a dress size; she was trying to lose
weight to run faster, and she understood that she would only run
faster if she lost weight the right way—not by restricting her food
intake but by training for peak fitness and giving her body the fuel
it needed to get the most benefit out of her training. Coach
Watanabe watched approvingly as Shibui took a second helping of
Hashizume’s famous French toast.
“I personally don’t think it’s a very good idea to lose too much
weight,” Watanabe told me, with Hashizume acting as translator.
Later, I quizzed the runners directly about their attitudes and
practices relating to the quantity of food they ate.
“How do you know if you’re eating the right amount of food
from day to day?” I asked Yuki Hidaka, a 10,000-meter specialist
with a personal-best time of 32:10.
“I eat until I’m satisfied,” she answered through Hashizume.
I pressed this point with Yuri Nozoe, the youngest member of
the team at age nineteen, who was also trying to lose weight.
“Do you really trust your appetite to tell you when you’ve had
enough to eat but not too much?” I asked.
“I trust it more than I trust my eyes!” she answered with a
laugh, meaning (Hashizume explained) that she trusted her body’s
appetite signals more than she did any preconceived idea about
how much she should eat.
Most of the meals that the Mitsui-Sumitomo runners ate in
Boulder consisted of simple, traditional Japanese foods prepared
in a secondary kitchen in Moller’s house by coach Watanabe or by
a local Japanese physical therapist hired for the camp. Breakfast
was usually miso soup, rice, eggs, and salad. For lunch and dinner
the runners ate rice and sautéed vegetables with chicken, pork, or
ground beef, or else more Japanese curry (a team favorite). But
on the team’s last night in Boulder, their hosts took them out to eat
at an Italian restaurant on Pearl Street along with several
American guests.
No sooner had our party of sixteen been seated than Coach
Watanabe and assistant coach Hayashi ordered beers. This was a
signal to their runners that they should feel free to eat whatever
they wanted, and they did. Hidaka and Kana Orino (a marathon
specialist with a personal best of 2:33:51) each ordered a plate of
pasta and also split a small pizza and a salad. Having dispatched
these items, they finished off another pizza that had been ordered
by the two children in our group.
At this point in the feast, a two-foot extendable fork was
produced from somewhere. The runners and some of the others
began using it to steal bits of food from plates on the opposite side
of the table. Before long they were using the same implement to
feed others at long range. Such silliness did much to overcome the
barrier of language (only Hashizume was fluent in both English and
Japanese). Indeed, the group became so rowdy and made such a
mess that I feared we would be kicked out of the restaurant. In the
end, though, we left of our own volition and walked two doors
down to a gelato shop for dessert.
Hashizume told me afterward that he sent photos of the
gathering to two of his former corporate team runners who had
been on the brink of developing eating disorders under the head
coach’s strict rule. Both expressed shock at how much things had
changed and envy for the healthy, carefree relationship with food
that now existed in at least some Japanese running teams.
These teams were among the last dominoes to fall in the global
spread of the habit of eating enough among elite endurance
athletes. Today, virtually all of the world’s top racers trust their
internal appetite signals to govern how much they eat. This was
demonstrated by the answers I received from elite athletes to a
handful of questions included in my research questionnaire that
were intended to ascertain whether elite athlete respondents
practiced the habit of eating enough. For example, in response to
the question, “Are you more concerned about making sure you eat
enough or about avoiding eating too much?” Icelandic cross-
country skier Sævar Birgisson wrote, “When I am training a lot I
just eat as much as I can, to have enough energy to get through
the training. But when I’m training less I eat less.”
 Responses like this one indicate that elite endurance athletes
neither restrain their eating nor overeat but simply allow their
activity level to affect their appetite and their appetite to govern
how much food they eat.

Eating Enough versus Restrained Eating

You may be wondering how this applies to nonelite athletes and
exercisers. The amount of food that any endurance athlete or
exerciser eats from day to day has as much effect on fitness and
performance as the types of food he or she eats. The goal is
balance: to eat enough food to fuel maximum performance in
training but not so much that excess body fat accumulates or is
retained. Elite endurance athletes maintain this balance by paying
mindful attention to their appetite—that is, by practicing the habit
of eating enough.
Recreational endurance athletes and exercisers often eat less
than enough or more than enough rather than precisely enough as
the elites do. Overeating is more common than undereating
among nonelite endurance athletes and exercisers, just as it is
generally in affluent populations. But undereating is by no means
rare among people who engage in daily cardio exercise. It
happens in part because endurance training increases energy
needs and in part because some athletes and exercisers, like the
elite female Japanese runners of the recent past, mistakenly view
eating less as the best way to get leaner. Seriously competitive
athletes are the most prone to undereat, and the consequences of
undereating are severest for those who train hardest.
The reason recreational endurance athletes and exercisers so
often eat too little or too much is that they don’t emulate the elites’
habit of regulating their food intake through mindful attention to
appetite signals representing their true energy needs. Undereating
typically results from dietary restraint, or intentionally defying the
body’s hunger signals. But undereating itself often leads to
reactive overeating. The more common cause of overeating,
however, is mindless eating, or allowing food temptations to
override satiety signals telling a person that he or she has already
had enough to eat. In this section and in the next one I will explain
the nature and consequences of dietary restraint and mindless
eating, respectively. Later in the chapter I will explain how to avoid
and overcome both eating restraint and mindless eating by
learning (or, more accurately, relearning) how to practice the
Endurance Diet habit of eating mindfully to eat enough.
Esther Waugh of Stanford University has defined restrained
eating as “the conscious attempt to limit and monitor food intake to
achieve or maintain a desired weight.” There are two basic styles
of restrained eating. Some restrained eaters make a conscious
choice to eat a certain amount of food each day (often measured
in calories) and limit themselves to that amount of food regardless
of how hungry they are. Others practice a feel-based version of
restrained eating in which they pay attention to their hunger but
intentionally eat less than necessary to satisfy it.
Some experts believe that restrained eating is a natural
adaptive response to an environment in which overeating is all too
easy and common. But not everyone who lives in a fattening
environment has this response, and in fact the healthiest and
fittest people in such environments, including elite endurance
athletes, tend not to be highly restrained eaters. These
observations have led other experts, including Jaime Silva of
Frontera University in Chile, to conclude that restrained eating is
the product of a “dysfunctional emotional regulatory system” in
certain individuals. This does not mean that people who try to
regulate their food intake through dietary restraint are head cases.
It just means they tend to share a particular coping style that leads
them to “solve” the problem of overeating or being too heavy by
adopting a general intent to eat less than they want to.
The personality trait that is most closely associated with
restrained eating is low self-esteem. It doesn’t take a PhD in
psychology to understand why. As a weight-control method,
restrained eating entails repeated self-denial, a systematic tuning-
out and thwarting of the body’s wants that is based on an implicit
belief that the body’s wants cannot be trusted. Day after day, meal
after meal, the restrained eater says “no” to the types and/or
amounts of food he or she would like to eat. It is not inaccurate to
describe this pattern as essentially masochistic.
Regardless of where it comes from, restrained eating doesn’t
work very well. Although you might assume that restrained eating
causes people to undereat, it is actually more often linked with
overeating. One reason is that dietary restraint is in many cases a
response to a preexisting tendency to overeat. In other words,
people who are prone to overeat develop a generalized intent to
resist this predisposition. But this response fails to result in less
overeating in the long term because eating less than one wants is
psychologically taxing. In essence, it drains willpower, leaving the
restrained eater more vulnerable to the very temptations he or she
is trying to resist. Studies have demonstrated that individuals who
exhibit high levels of eating restraint have a lower ability to resist
certain food treats. They are also more prone to food binges. A
person who intentionally undereats today is therefore more likely
to overeat tomorrow.
When dietary restraint does work, it tends to work all too well.
Research has shown that men and women who exhibit the very
highest levels of eating restraint are likely to become anorexic or
bulimic. Endurance athletes and exercisers who develop eating
disorders face consequences that go beyond those experienced
by less active people, among them frequent injury. But even in the
absence of an eating disorder, eating even slightly too little
generates negative outcomes for endurance fitness seekers.
Studies indicate that a typical inactive person can reduce his or
her normal daily calorie intake by as much as 30 percent and
suffer no negative health effects—and perhaps even experience
health improvements—as long as diet quality remains consistently
high. In a 2013 review of past research on medically supervised
calorie restriction, for example, scientists at Washington University
School of Medicine concluded that “moderate calorie restriction
with adequate nutrition has a powerful protective effect against
obesity, type 2 diabetes, inflammation, hypertension, [and]
cardiovascular disease and reduces metabolic risk factors
associated with cancer” and “improves markers of cardiovascular
aging.”
The story is very different for endurance athletes and
exercisers, however. Vigorous daily cardio exercise itself offers
powerful protection against obesity, type 2 diabetes, inflammation,
hypertension, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and aging. Calorie
restriction offers no additional protection to people with a high level
of endurance fitness. Instead it creates other problems by failing to
supply the body with the raw materials it needs to absorb and
adapt to the stress of training. The most common consequences
of undereating in endurance athletes and exercisers are lethargy,
poor workout performance, slow postworkout recovery, increased
cold and flu risk, and loss of muscle mass. Restrained eaters also
suffer more overuse injuries. A 2008 study by researchers at San
Diego State University reported a strong correlation between
restrained eating and low bone mineral density—a risk factor for
stress fractures—in adolescent female runners.
The most surprising outcome of restrained eating in endurance
athletes and exercisers is weight gain. I see this happen most
often in athletes who restrain their eating through calorie targets.
An example is Wendy, a runner from Spokane, Washington, who
began counting calories (or “points”) in 2011 as a member of
Weight Watchers. Three years later, she was 18 pounds lighter
and happy with the program. But then Wendy decided to train for
her first marathon. Believing that additional weight loss would
enable her to run better, she continued to eat 1,300 calories per
day and was stunned when the needle on her bathroom scale
began to move in the wrong direction.
 Wendy’s surprise is understandable. Weight gain resulting
from eating too little seems to defy the laws of mathematics. Yet it
is quite common in people who exercise a lot. The reason is that
the combination of low energy supply and high activity levels
creates a type of stress that causes the body to protectively slow
its metabolism. In a 2014 study published in the Scandinavian
Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, researchers at the
University of Copenhagen found that high-level female endurance
athletes with low energy availability (the scientific term for
inadequate calorie intake, which in this case was defined as fewer
than 45 calories per kilogram of fat-free body mass per day) had a
resting metabolic rate that was 6.8 percent lower than that of their
peers with adequate energy intake. The same metabolic slowing
phenomenon is partly responsible for weight regain in dieters who
initially lose weight, including, as one study found, former
contestants on the reality television program The Biggest Loser.
Setting a higher calorie target is not the best solution to the
problem of weight gain resulting from calorie targets that are too
low. There is no formula that athletes and exercisers can use to
precisely determine how many calories they need to fuel their
training optimally without impeding progress toward (or
maintenance of) their optimal body composition. The underlying
physiology is too complex. Plus, it’s a moving target, because
energy needs change daily with fluctuations in training. The true
solution to weight gain and other consequences of low calorie
targets is to abandon calorie targets altogether and replace them
with the feel-based approach to regulating food intake that elite
athletes use. Only the body’s own appetite control system is
sensitive enough to guide athletes and exercisers to precisely the
right amount of eating.
When I work with athletes whose restrained eating has caused
them to gain weight and/or lose energy, I teach them to replace
calorie targets with appetite-based eating, and it works. One such
athlete is Amanda, a runner and triathlete from San Diego. Before
she started to train for her first half marathon, Amanda restricted
herself to 2,000 calories per day. After she started to train for her
first marathon, she continued to eat 2,000 calories per day. Six
weeks into her training, Amanda stepped on a scale and was
horrified to see that she had put on 6 pounds in that short span of
time.
I advised Amanda to stop counting calories and start trusting
her appetite. She did so and three weeks later she was back down
to her original weight. What’s more, the fatigue that had begun to
accumulate over the first six weeks of her training and that she
had thought was normal dissipated, and her workouts improved.
The scientific term for the skill that elite endurance athletes and
others rely on to eat the right amount of food by feel is appetite
awareness. Everyone possesses this skill, but in restrained eaters
it has become somewhat rusty from disuse. Fortunately, clinical
research backs my observation that even the most restrained
eaters can learn to reconnect with their body’s signals and enjoy
the benefits of eating enough. In a 2010 study, for example,
psychologists at Emory University tested the effects of appetite
awareness training on individuals with disordered eating. They
found that those who showed the most improvement in appetite
awareness also exhibited the greatest improvement in disordered
eating symptoms.
Interestingly, the same solution works for people who
habitually ignore their body’s appetite signals in the opposite
direction, overeating by eating mindlessly.

Eating Enough versus Mindless Eating

For every endurance athlete or exerciser like Amanda or Wendy
whose weight gain is caused by eating too little, there are many
more whose weight gain is caused by eating too much. A majority
of people in affluent societies today, including most endurance
fitness seekers, overeat. Seventy percent of American adults
currently meet the medical standard for being considered
overweight, and nobody becomes overweight without overeating.
Ours is a society of overeaters.
Endurance athletes and exercisers are somewhat less likely
than sedentary persons to overeat because they burn more
calories through activity and therefore must eat more in order to
eat too much. But overeating is still very common among
recreational endurance fitness seekers. According to a 2009
scientific survey that I helped administer, 54 percent of competitive
endurance athletes are dissatisfied with their current weight.
The typical endurance athlete or exerciser who weighs more
than he or she would like to does not count calories or measure
portion sizes but instead eats by feel. This has given rise to a
widespread belief that appetite cannot be trusted to properly
regulate food intake—that a person who allows feelings of hunger
and satiety to govern how much food he or she eats is certain to
eat too much. The flaw in this assumption is that it conflates two
distinct types of hunger: physical and hedonic.
Physical hunger is the set of cues the body uses to
communicate a real and present need for food. The major cues
are a hollow feeling in the stomach and a strong desire to eat.
Hedonic hunger is a desire to eat that occurs in the absence of
physical hunger and is often brought about by the presence of
tempting foods. Brian Wansink of Cornell University has coined the
term mindless eating to refer to eating hedonically, without paying
attention to, or without properly interpreting, the body’s hunger
and satiety signals. The Endurance Diet habit of eating enough
entails eating only when one is physically hungry and only enough
to satisfy physical hunger. In other words, it entails eating
mindfully versus mindlessly. Most people who regulate their food
intake by feel eat to satisfy hedonic hunger on top of physical
hunger. This habit of mindless eating is why they overeat and why
they mistakenly believe they cannot rely on their appetite to
properly regulate the amount of food they eat.
 In fact, the body’s built-in appetite regulatory system works
perfectly well in most people. The problem is the modern food
environment in which this system is forced to operate. In this
environment, people are continuously bombarded with temptations
to eat more than they need to—and particularly to eat highly
palatable and fattening low-quality foods. These temptations are
hard to resist and most people do not resist them successfully,
even when they think they do. For example, if you see a television
advertisement for a fast-food restaurant at which you never eat,
you may assume that the commercial has not influenced you. But
studies have shown that people who see such ads are more likely
to eat low-quality foods they already have at home, regardless of
whether they ever eat the specific foods advertised.
Evidence that environment rather than appetite is to blame for
our overeating comes from studies of nonindustrialized cultures
where fast food and fast-food advertising are lacking. In 1982,
Jonathan Friedlaender and John Rhoads of Harvard University
looked at patterns of change in weight and body composition
among adults in six different populations in the Solomon Islands
and Papua New Guinea with different degrees of exposure to
modern industrialized societies. The researchers found that men
and women with the least such exposure tended to gain no weight
and very little body fat throughout adulthood, whereas those with
the most exposure gained significant amounts of weight and body
fat. Obviously, all of these people possessed the same built-in
appetite control system. What differed was their environment.
Additional proof that the body’s built-in appetite control system
is able to properly regulate food intake is found in research on the
effects of exercise on appetite. Physical activity is the primary
variable affecting energy needs. If appetite is an accurate indicator
of energy needs, it should be highly sensitive to changes in activity
level, and indeed it is. Dozens of studies have demonstrated that
working out has both immediate and long-term effects on
hormones involved in appetite control and on appetite itself and
eating behavior.
A final bit of proof that appetite can be trusted to properly
control the amount of food we eat comes from studies of children.
Very young children do not overeat. Research has shown that
when infants are fed less often, they consume larger portions, and
when they are fed more often, they consume smaller portions. But
toddlers tend to consume the same portion sizes regardless of
how often they eat. By this stage they have already been trained
to regulate their food intake by external cues instead of internal
ones.
Fortunately, other research has demonstrated that the
capacity to eat mindfully can be restored at any age. Infants ask to
be fed when they experience cues of physical hunger, particularly
a hollow feeling in the stomach. They stop feeding when they feel
a comfortable fullness in the belly. Older children and adults often
begin to eat in the absence of physical hunger cues and continue
eating until they feel stuffed or the food is gone or both. But adults
who reconnect with their body’s signals are able to restore their
ability to eat the right amount of food and lose excess body fat
accumulated through habitual overeating.
In 2010, Mario Ciampolini and colleagues at Firenze University
trained a mixed group of fifty-one overweight subjects and
seventy-nine normal-weight subjects to recognize physical hunger
and to distinguish it from hedonic hunger. An additional twenty-
three overweight subjects and twenty-eight normal-weight
subjects were used as controls and received no training (although
they were given the same diet and physical activity
recommendations as the trained subjects). After the training, the
researchers found that the trained subjects’ ratings of physical
hunger were closely correlated with blood insulin levels, an
objective marker of physical hunger.
In the next part of the experiment, the trained subjects were
instructed to go home and eat only when they felt physical hunger.
If a normal mealtime came around and they were not hungry, they
had to wait until they were. The subjects were instructed also to
adjust the composition and size of their meals so that physical
hunger occurred predictably at normal mealtimes, thus minimizing
the disruptiveness of appetite-based eating to their daily routine.
After an initial adjustment period, the trained subjects consistently
experienced physical hunger just before normal mealtimes.
At the end of the five-month study period, the trained
overweight subjects had lost an average of 14.75 pounds. The
reason was simply that they were no longer mindlessly eating
when they did not need to or eating more than they needed to in
order to satisfy their physical hunger. Trained normal-weight
subjects lost an average of 5.5 pounds, indicating that they, too,
had previously engaged in a certain amount of mindless eating.
Normal-weight controls actually gained weight during the five-
month study period, while overweight controls lost a small amount
of weight (perhaps an effect of the diet and physical activity
recommendations they had received).
Becoming conscious of the distinction between physical and
hedonic hunger and developing a habit of eating to satisfy physical
hunger works just as well to help endurance athletes and
exercisers overcome overeating as it does with nonathletes. I see
it happen all the time. A typical case is that of Maryse and her
husband Marc, triathletes who began to practice the habit of
eating enough after they heard me speak about the Endurance
Diet at a triathlon conference in Canada. A few months later,
Maryse contacted me to report that she had lost 10 pounds, and
Marc, 30 pounds, and that both of them were fitter and racing
better than ever.

How to Eat Enough

Practicing Habit 4 of the Endurance Diet requires only self-
awareness and consistency. It does not require willpower,
because eating enough means just that—eating enough to keep
your physical hunger satisfied. It is only hedonic hunger that you
must say “no” to.
If you’ve fallen out of the habit of paying mindful attention to
your appetite—either through restrained eating or through
mindless eating—you can relearn it fairly quickly by re-creating the
experiment I described in the previous section. I recommend that
you start on a weekend, when you have more freedom to eat at
irregular times. If you wake up hungry on Saturday morning, go
ahead and eat. If you don’t, wait until you experience physical
hunger. When you do eat, stop when you feel comfortably satisfied
but not stuffed. After you’ve eaten your first meal of the day, wait
until you are physically hungry again before you have your next
meal.
On the second day, do the same thing, but adjust the size of
your meals in an attempt to ensure that you are physically hungry
at normal mealtimes. For example, if you were not physically
hungry at your normal dinnertime on the first day, eat a lighter
lunch on the second day. Adjusting the timing of your meals and
adding or removing snacks from your normal routine are options
as well. Use common sense in making these adjustments. For
example, adding a midafternoon snack to your schedule makes
more sense as a solution to getting hungry before dinnertime than
does eating until you are stuffed at lunch.
You may also manipulate the composition of your meals, as the
subjects in Ciampolini’s experiment did, to influence the time
course of your appetite. As a general rule, foods with high protein,
water, and/or fiber content are more satiating, but it’s not always
easy to predict a food’s effect on satiety. I recommend that you
consult the “Fullness Factor” ratings for individual foods on
nutritiondata.com when planning these types of substitutions.
Don’t allow these ratings to become the primary determinant of
what you eat, however. The composition of your meals should be
determined mainly by Endurance Diet Habits 2 (eating quality) and
3 (eating carb-centered). You should never lower your diet quality
or risk failing to consume enough carbohydrate for the sake of
micromanaging your appetite.
When you return to your normal weekday routine, continue the
process of adjusting the size, and perhaps also the timing,
frequency, and composition of your meals and snacks so that
physical hunger symptoms return shortly before normal mealtimes
with greater and greater predictability. Don’t drive yourself crazy
trying to achieve perfection in this effort. The main purpose of the
exercise is to make you a more mindful eater generally. Once you
are attuned to the signals of your body’s real energy needs, it is
quite easy to eat the right amount of food day in and day out.
If you’re currently a restrained eater, you may need to repeat
the mindful eating experiment a few times before eating enough
becomes habitual. In a 2007 study involving college women at risk
for eating disorders, Arnica Buckner of the University of Colorado
found that appetite awareness training yielded immediate
improvements in restrained eating, but that these improvements
were greatly diminished after one month. As I stated above,
practicing Habit 4 successfully requires not just awareness but
also consistency.
If you’re currently prone to mindless eating, beware of
temptation situations in which overeating is most likely to occur.
Following are five specific situations where being mindful of the
distinction between physical and hedonic hunger will be most
helpful to you.

Portion Distortion
The phrase “portion distortion” refers to the mismatch between
the meal sizes that are sufficient to satisfy our true energy needs
and those we habitually choose. Self-selected portions are
strongly influenced by our environment. What we consider a
normal portion size is affected by the portion sizes we were served
at home as children, by how much the people around us eat, and
by restaurant and packaged food portion sizes. Research has
demonstrated that portion sizes of restaurant menu items,
packaged foods, and home-prepared meals began to increase in
the early 1970s in the United States and continued to grow
through the late 1990s.
Were Americans not eating enough to satisfy their physical
hunger before the 1970s? Obviously, they were. The difference is
that we are eating far beyond our physical needs today. A key part
of overcoming mindless overeating is learning to choose portions
that are just big enough to keep physical hunger at bay until
shortly before the next mealtime.

Plate Cleaning
It is almost impossible to completely avoid excessive portion sizes.
If you eat out with any regularity, it’s only a matter of time before a
server gives you a plate containing more food than you need. This
wouldn’t be a problem if people did not have a learned tendency to
“clean their plate,” but they do. A survey by the American Institute
of Cancer Research reported that 69 percent of Americans finish
their restaurant entrees most of the time or always. Of this 69
percent, three-fifths rated restaurant portions as “just right in
size,” but these subjective ratings can’t be trusted because other
research has shown that when people are served smaller portions
they eat less without feeling any less satisfied.
If you habitually clean your plate, it’s important that you eat
especially mindfully whenever you eat out or are served a meal
that may be bigger than you need. Eat at a measured pace, listen
to your body, and put the fork down when you are comfortably full,
no matter how much food is left. If you don’t want to waste food,
box it up and save it for later.

Spontaneous Eating
As the name suggests, spontaneous eating is eating without prior
planning, when a temptation or opportunity arises. An example is
walking into a business meeting in a conference room where a
selection of fresh pastries is available and partaking of them even
though you ate breakfast 90 minutes earlier.
You can reduce the likelihood of giving in to temptation in such
situations by keeping them from catching you off guard. Of course,
you can’t predict exactly when a Girl Scout will ring your doorbell
and offer cookies, but you can adopt a general expectation that
spontaneous eating opportunities will arise and recognize them for
what they are. It also helps to know ahead of time what you will do
when they arise. Psychologists call this type of plan an
implementation intention.
The strictest plan you might have for spontaneous eating is to
say “no” in all cases except when you are physically hungry and
when eating the specific food you’re tempted with won’t spoil your
Diet Quality Score for the day. But who wants to say “no” to a Girl
Scout? A less strict option is to turn spontaneous eating
opportunities into planned eating occasions by saving the food
temptation for later. Another compromise is to allow yourself to
sample food temptations—for example, cut a bite-size piece off
one of those delicious honey buns on the conference table.

Distracted Eating
It’s a fact: people eat more when their attention is on something
other than food, whether it’s a television show, a website, or even
a dinner table conversation. I would never recommend eating
alone when you could eat with others as a way to avoid mindless
overeating, but I do recommend eliminating technological
distractions. If you just have to eat your dinner in front of the TV,
mitigate the distraction effect by preparing an appropriate portion
size and putting any leftovers away before you sit down to eat.
Emotional Eating
Some of us eat more, or make less healthy food choices, when
we’re anxious, stressed, or unhappy. Mindfulness can help here to
some degree. When strong emotions cause you to crave ice
cream, pause to listen to your body. If it’s not giving you physical
hunger signals, try to find a healthier outlet for your emotion,
whether it’s exercise, social contact, creative expression, or
something else. If you are hungry, try to find something healthier
to eat. It helps when low-quality food temptations aren’t in your
home in the first place.
Such advice is easier to accept than to apply for people with
strong emotional eating tendencies, who know perfectly well
they’re not hungry when anxiety, stress, or sadness causes them
to reach for the ice cream container. Counseling is often the best
answer in these cases. Working with a trained mental health
professional to address the underlying issues that predispose you
toward emotional eating may not only give you better skills for
dealing with negative emotions but may also make you a less
anxious, less stressed, and happier person.

Advice for Those Seeking to Lose Weight

Habit 4 of the Endurance Diet applies to everyone whose current
primary goal is maximizing endurance fitness. It does not apply to
people whose current primary goal is losing excess body fat.
That’s because these two goals are incompatible. Although people
who follow the Endurance Diet in pursuit of maximum endurance
fitness do tend to get leaner, the fastest way to lose excess body
fat is to maintain a substantial daily energy deficit by restricting
food intake, a measure that tends to compromise the benefits of
intensive training.
If losing weight is currently more important to you than
attaining peak fitness, you should complete a weight-loss focus
phase, something that even some elite endurance athletes do to
reverse off-season weight gain, before fully adopting the
Endurance Diet. Two of the five habits of the Endurance Diet—
eating carb-centered meals and allowing appetite to govern the
amount of food you eat—are excluded from the diet I recommend
for weight-loss focus phases. In Chapter 9, I will fully explain how
to execute a weight-loss focus phase.
 7 Habit 5: Eat Individually

A WELCOME MAT POSITIONED OUTSIDE THE FRONT

ENTRANCE OF THE PAINTBOX Lodge in Canmore, Alberta,
Canada, identifies the establishment as “Olympian-Owned.” The
Olympians it refers to are Sara Renner and Thomas Grandi, who
opened the lodge in 2010 after retiring from their respective
sports. Renner, a cross-country skier, won a world championships
bronze medal for Canada in the individual sprint in 2005 and an
Olympic silver medal in the team sprint in 2006. Grandi, who is
Renner’s husband, represented his native Italy in the giant slalom
and slalom ski events at the Salt Lake City Games in 2002 and the
Turin Games in 2006.
I checked into the Paintbox Lodge on a mild May afternoon in
2015. Renner has described the lodge’s interior design aesthetic
as “rustic meets modern,” and I found this description to be
accurate enough, except that the rustic and modern elements do
not actually meet. The lobby and guest rooms are entirely rustic:
wool carpets underfoot, exposed beams above, and pinewood
walls decorated with local artwork all around. Only the kitchen is
modern: clean white cabinetry, bright red splash tiles, and
stainless steel Miele appliances. Although the Paintbox Lodge has
just five guestrooms, the kitchen is outfitted for industrial use
because it serves not only to feed guests but also as a venue for
cooking classes.
Sara Renner and Thomas Grandi—Renner especially—are
really into food and healthy eating. Over coffee, Renner explained
to me that when she was a child her parents owned a backcountry
guest lodge in western Alberta where all of the meals were made
fresh from local ingredients. Renner herself was cooking by age
seven. After leaving home as a teenager to ski professionally, she
had no difficulty in feeding herself according to the same high
standards of quality and taste she had become accustomed to.
Renner believes that the same diet that fueled her to success in
international racing is good for everyone. In fact, one of the
cooking classes taught at Paintbox is called “Eat Like an
Olympian.” The instructor is Marcel Holzherr, who also serves as
the chef for the Canadian national cross-country and alpine ski
teams.
The class has been a hit among Canmore locals and visitors,
and it has been a transformative experience for some. One of
Holzherr’s early students was Andrew Nickerson, head of
Canmore’s tourism board. In the four months after he took the
class, Nickerson lost 35 pounds. He did so without conscious
intent and without thinking of himself as “going on a diet.” He just
started cooking like Holzherr. A nonexerciser at the time he took
the class, Nickerson felt so much more energetic after he changed
his diet that he started walking to work every day.
In a phone conversation, I asked Holzherr what it means to eat
like an Olympian. I knew the answer already, but I was gratified
nevertheless when he described what I call the Endurance Diet.
Holzherr believes in a well-rounded diet that includes all of the
natural food types. Among his favorites in each category are kale,
apples, olive oil, spelt, Coho salmon, and plain yogurt. He is also a
big believer in food quality in the secondary sense of “high grade,”
recommending, for example, that in-season, organic, and locally
sourced vegetables be chosen in preference to the alternatives
whenever possible. Holzherr has no fear of carbohydrates,
advising both athletes and everyday active people to enjoy carb-
packed foods such as buckwheat pancakes with berries and
bananas, mashed potatoes with carrot and cumin, and spelt pasta.
And, on the topic of calories, Holzherr has little to say, believing
that when people eat quality, the quantity of the food they eat
tends to take care of itself.
That covers four of the five habits of the Endurance Diet. But
what about the fifth: eating individually? Holzherr is a strong
advocate of customizing the diet to fit personal needs and
preferences. At events such as the 2014 Winter Olympics in
Vancouver and the 2016 cross-country skiing World Cup in
Canmore, he prepares meals for the entire Canadian cross-
country and alpine ski teams. (At the latter event, he used the
Paintbox Lodge’s kitchen.) Understanding that each athlete has
unique needs and preferences, he serves buffet-style, with
enough options for everybody.
“When I look around the room, no two plates are exactly the
same,” he told me proudly.
Holzherr not only accommodates the individual needs and
preferences of the men and women he works with but encourages
athletes to actively discover what works best for them. He invites
athletes to monitor their performance, their sleep, and even their
stool in order to identify problems that could have a dietary
solution. To get younger athletes started on this process, he
sometimes takes them out to a local family restaurant for a
relatively low-quality meal after they have adjusted to eating like
Olympians. According the Holzherr, the athletes always feel
terrible afterward, and that’s the point. He wants them to be
attuned to the differences that eating the right things and the
wrong things makes in terms of how they feel and function.
“All of us need to be conscious eaters,” he says.

Eating Like an Olympian

The morning after my arrival in Canmore, I made a short drive to
the home of Devon Kershaw, a three-time Olympian and a
fourteen-year member of the Canadian National Cross-Country
Ski Team. When I arrived at 7:30 a.m. sharp, the thirty-two-year-
old Ontario native was just preparing his first meal of the day.
It was not exactly a typical North American breakfast. Kershaw
filled a plate with raw spinach, sliced red and yellow peppers, a few
raspberries, strips of mango, and several slices of Bündnerfleisch,
a Swiss cured meat. He wrapped the veggies in the meat and ate
them like spring rolls. He also ate two slices of rye bread spread
with butter and sugar-free strawberry jam and topped with a
delicious Norwegian brown cheese. (I know it was delicious
because he shared some with me.) He drank two cups of espresso
and a glass of water.
Hunger satisfied, Kershaw changed into workout clothes and
ran a half-mile straight uphill to the Canmore Nordic Centre. A
uniquely Canadian phenomenon, the Nordic Centre is a collection
of outdoor and indoor facilities—including cross-country ski trails,
a biathlon shooting range, and a weight room—where elite winter
sports athletes and members of the community at large train side
by side. On this morning, Kershaw made his way directly to the
weight room, where he performed two hours of mobility
movements, core exercises, balance drills, and Olympic lifts with
several teammates as coach Justin Wadsworth looked on.
I met up with Kershaw again at his home for lunch. Since I had
last seen him, he had run back down the hill, eaten four spoonfuls
of cottage cheese as a recovery snack, and immersed himself in a
shelf-building project. His midday repast was a salad of mixed
greens, kale, beetroot, red and yellow peppers, apple slices,
avocado, olive oil, balsamic vinegar, Thai spice tuna, and cottage
cheese. This eclectic mixture was supplemented with a couple
more pieces of rye bread with butter and Gruyère cheese. He
drank sparkling water.
At 3:15, Kershaw was eating again. His preafternoon workout
snack consisted of more rye bread (with cheese and jam), a bit of
plain yogurt with mango and raspberries, Bündnerfleisch, and a
cortado (espresso with milk). By 4:30, he was back at the Nordic
Centre. There he strapped on a pair of roller skis and spent an
hour and a half cruising around a paved course designed
especially for such use. His teammates, meanwhile, did a higher-
intensity workout centered on a set of four, 10-minute efforts at
lactate threshold intensity. Kershaw’s 2014–2015 racing season
had been wiped out by illness—a double-whammy of pneumonia
and whooping cough—and he still wasn’t quite ready for hard
training. As soon as he finished skiing, he guzzled a bottle of
carbohydrate–protein recovery drink.
After returning home, Kershaw set about preparing dinner. He
had a friend coming over to dine with him, so he aimed to impress,
serving thick-cut pork chops with caramelized onions and apples;
roasted white potatoes and sweet potatoes with olive oil, garlic,
and rosemary; homemade sourdough bread with pumpkin and
flaxseeds topped with Gruyère cheese; and red wine.
After his friend left and before he went to bed, Kershaw ate
one last time. He enjoyed one of his favorite evening snacks:
muesli with yogurt, almonds, and fruit (specifically raspberries and
mangoes, because that’s what he had in the fridge).
The day I spent with Devon Kershaw was a very typical one for
him, diet-wise. But he hadn’t always eaten what I saw him eat. If I
had spent a day with Kershaw when he was a young athlete still
living in his parents’ home, I would have observed some
differences. For example, in those days he ate dessert (often
homemade pie with ice cream) almost every night, but he does so
much less frequently now.
If I had spent a day with Kershaw near the beginning of his
professional career, I would have found that his diet looked more
like his current one, but not exactly like it. For example, he used to
take a lot of supplements during that period, whereas today his
supplement use is minimal.
Kershaw’s diet continues to evolve. If I had spent a day with
the skier even two months earlier than I did, I would have seen
some differences in his diet. At that time, he was still eating eggs
for breakfast every morning, but he cut them out of his diet six
weeks before I came to Canmore. (I’ll share the reasons for this
change and for the change in Kershaw’s supplementation
practices in the next section.)
The meals and snacks that Devon Kershaw ate under my
watchful eye on a Tuesday in May were the outcomes of a long
personal dietary evolution that will probably continue throughout
his life. Like most elite endurance athletes, Kershaw eats
consciously, to use Marcel Holzherr’s term. Conscious eating
encompasses but extends beyond mindful eating, as discussed in
Chapter 6. Eating mindfully entails listening to the body’s hunger
and satiety cues and relying on them to regulate the amount of
food that is eaten. Conscious eating encompasses this as well as
other conscious choices a person makes in order to create a diet
that meets his or her individual needs and preferences.
As a conscious eater, Devon Kershaw does not simply eat
what he always has or what the people around him do. Instead, he
manipulates his diet in a variety of ways to make it work better for
him as an athlete, a health seeker, and a person. In short, he is a
role model for Habit 5 of the Endurance Diet—eating individually—
and for its benefits: excellent health, maximum fitness, optimal
performance, and great dietary satisfaction.

How to Eat Individually

Imagine you’re standing on a vast grid that stretches almost
infinitely in every direction. This grid represents all of the ways you
could possibly eat—every collection of eating habits you might
have. But you can’t access the whole grid. You are surrounded on
all four sides by barriers that keep you confined to one area.
These barriers represent the first four habits of the Endurance
Diet. Their function is to keep you from venturing into dietary
territory that prevents athletes and exercisers from attaining
maximum endurance fitness. Specifically, these barriers confine
you to the part of the dietary grid that is defined by including all
types of foods in the diet, eating mostly high-quality foods, placing
carbohydrate-rich foods at the center of most meals and snacks,
and relying on mindful attention to internal signals of hunger and
satiety to control the amount of food you eat.
There is plenty of room to move around within this area of the
dietary grid. The first four habits of the Endurance Diet do not
force all athletes and exercisers to eat precisely the same types
and amounts of food on exactly the same schedule. They allow a
great degree of freedom to make individual choices. This is
important, because the optimal diet for endurance fitness is unique
to each individual athlete and exerciser. Somewhere inside the
section of the dietary grid that is defined by the first four habits of
the Endurance Diet is a specific point representing a version of this
way of eating that is best for you and for no one else. The purpose
of the fifth and final Endurance Diet habit—eating individually—is
to help you find this point.
To be clear, the point on the dietary grid that represents your
optimal diet is not a rigid set of extra rules that forces you to eat in
precisely the same way every day. Your optimal diet still allows
freedom to mix things up. Finding this point on the dietary grid is
not about locking yourself into an inflexible daily eating routine for
all of eternity but is rather about discovering and respecting
individual needs and personal and cultural preferences that make
you healthier, fitter, and happier as an eater than you would be if
you passively allowed your circumstances to place you elsewhere
within the space defined by the first four rules of the Endurance
Diet.
In order to eat individually with success and discover your ideal
version of the Endurance Diet, you need to eat consciously. Eating
consciously comes naturally to elite endurance athletes like Devon
Kershaw, but it’s something that anyone can do. All it requires is
that you make the choice to eat consciously today, make it again
tomorrow, and so on.
 Eating consciously means paying attention to yourself as an
eater and acting upon what you learn. The final outcome of this
process will be a customized version of the Endurance Diet that
fits your needs and preferences. There are six basic aspects of
diet in which individuality is manifest. To eat individually is to
identify and accommodate your (1) needs and no-no’s, (2)
allergies and intolerances, (3) likes and dislikes, (4) cravings and
crutches, (5) schedule and lifestyle, and (6) morals and values.
Let’s take a closer look at each of these aspects of eating
individually.

Needs and No-No’s

Scientists use the terms “metabolic profile” and “metabolic
fingerprint” to refer to the totality of an individual’s responses to
diet. No two people have exactly the same metabolic profile.
Genetic differences account for much of this diversity, but not all of
it. Epigenetics (i.e., which genes are “turned on” and “turned off” in
a person at any particular time), the microbiome, diet history,
overall lifestyle, and psychology feed into the metabolic profile well.
Researchers working in the rapidly evolving fields of
nutrigenomics and metabolomics are hopeful that their knowledge
will eventually enable them to offer highly individualized dietary
guidance based on each person’s metabolic profile. Significant
progress has already been made toward this goal. In 2013, for
example, Harvard researchers discovered that a high-fat, low-
calorie diet was more effective than a low-fat, low-calorie diet in
the management of metabolic syndrome in obese men and women
with a particular gene variant near the IRS-1 gene. Science is still
a long way from being able to prescribe complete personalized
diets for everyone, however, and many experts believe that it will
never get there—that the metabolic fingerprint is just too complex.
In the meantime, eating consciously is very effective in
determining which foods and eating patterns work especially well
for an individual (needs) and which ones should be avoided (no-
no’s). A need is a particular eating pattern that produces positive
results that are more difficult or even impossible to duplicate if that
pattern is removed from the diet. A no-no is an eating pattern that
clearly does not work for a person, even if it works just fine for
others.
Devon Kershaw has discovered a number of personal dietary
needs in his years as an elite cross-country skier. One of them
came to his attention early in his career, when the Canadian ski
team hired a young nutritionist with new ideas, one of which was to
perform some workouts in a carbohydrate-fasted state (an
advanced practice that I will discuss in detail in Chapter 9).
Kershaw found that these sessions left him feeling run down and
disrupted the flow of his training, so he gave them up. Ever since
then, he has considered high-carb preworkout meals an inviolable
need. But others, including Sara Renner, got good results from the
carb-fasted workouts and kept doing them.
I define a dietary no-no as any food or eating pattern other
than an allergy or intolerance that produces a negative effect in an
individual. One of Kershaw’s no-no’s is heavy reliance on
nutritional supplements. He discovered this limitation after he was
persuaded to place himself on a sports nutrition company’s full
supplement regimen, which was extensive. It seemed as if he were
consuming more capsules, tinctures, and powders than actual
food. Soon Kershaw developed persistent stomach discomfort. At
first he suspected that he had picked up some kind of virus in his
extensive travels, but because there were no other symptoms, his
suspicions were quickly redirected toward the supplements.
Kershaw took himself off the regimen and the stomach discomfort
went away. Later, he put himself back on vitamin D and fish oil with
no ill effects.
As these examples show, applying dietary consciousness to
the problem of identifying needs and no-no’s is relatively simple. It
does not require that you keep a log of everything you eat and
drink or create spreadsheets correlating various foods and eating
patterns with sleep quality, energy level, body weight, and other
outcomes. It requires only self-awareness and perhaps a bit of
experimentation.
When your health, fitness, or performance changes in either a
good way (e.g., a really strong period of training) or a bad way
(e.g., unexpected weight gain), look for possible dietary causes. If
the change is negative, use common sense and the nutritional
knowledge you’ve acquired to identify the eating pattern that
seems most likely to be responsible. The first place to look is at
recent changes in your diet. For example, maybe you acquired a
habit of snacking on energy bars shortly before a period of
unexpected weight gain began. Next, eliminate the pattern you’ve
identified or substitute it with a sensible alternative. If your hunch
proves wrong, try something else. (I’ll say more about so-called
elimination diets a little later.)
When a positive change occurs in your health, fitness, or
performance, finding a possible dietary cause is not as urgent, but
it is still worthwhile because knowing what works will help ensure
that you keep doing it. In some cases, it won’t hurt to try a small
test to confirm your hunch about what’s working. For example, if
you notice that you perform best in your Saturday morning long
bike rides after having a couple of glasses of wine on Friday night,
there’s no harm in not drinking wine the night before your next
long ride to see what effect it has.
Alternatively, you may simply choose to believe that drinking an
extra glass of wine on Friday night helps you ride better on
Saturday morning. Such beliefs tend to be self-fulfilling. This is the
well-known placebo effect. Psychology research has
demonstrated that expecting positive outcomes tends to produce
positive outcomes. Diet-based expectations for health, fitness, and
performance are no exception. This was shown in a 2006 study in
which recreational runners completed a 5K race 83 seconds faster
on average after drinking superoxygenated water than they did
after drinking ordinary tap water—except in both cases they drank
ordinary tap water.
Marcel Holzherr has observed that many of the individual
“needs” he accommodates when cooking for members of the
Canadian ski team members are mere superstitions, yet he makes
no attempt to break them. “It doesn’t matter what it is,” he told me.
“It may just be something that’s in their head. If they believe they
will have an advantage, they will have an advantage.”
Most needs and no-no’s have a basis in physical reality and
cannot be overcome through magical thinking. But it can be
beneficial to identify certain “lucky foods” and other dietary needs
that are psychological in nature. Many elite endurance athletes do.

Allergies and Intolerances

Allergies and intolerances are similar to no-no’s. All three involve
negative reactions to food. But allergies and intolerances are more
specifically defined. A food allergy is an immune response to
consuming a particular food that involves symptoms such as
breathing difficulty and rash. A food intolerance is diagnosed when
you have unusual difficulty digesting a particular food. It may
involve an immune response but it does not result in the
production of antibodies to the food as in food allergies.
If you have a severe food allergy, you probably know it already.
That first trip to the emergency room after eating peanuts or
shellfish (two of the most common food allergies) usually leads to a
definitive diagnosis. Mild food allergies can be easy to miss,
however.
Devon Kershaw learned that he was allergic to eggs six weeks
before I met him in Canmore. He went in for allergy testing as part
of a comprehensive effort to figure out why he’d had such a hard
time shaking the illnesses that destroyed his 2014–2015 racing
season and to ensure that nothing like it ever happened again.
The likelihood that a food allergy contributed to his bouts of
pneumonia and whooping cough was slim, but Kershaw was intent
on leaving no stone unturned.
There is only one treatment for food allergies: the elimination
diet. If the diagnosis is accurate, removal of the offending food
from the diet will resolve the symptoms. The remarkable
turnaround that American triathlete Amanda Stevens experienced
after her numerous allergies were diagnosed (as described in
Chapter 5) shows what a difference this simple treatment can
make.
Note, however, that food allergy testing produces many false
positives and false negatives, so you should have it done only if
you strongly suspect you have an allergy and you should always
let your body get the final say. Prior to his diagnosis, Kershaw had
eaten eggs with vegetables every morning and never experienced
noticeable allergy symptoms. Nevertheless, after his diagnosis,
Kershaw eliminated eggs from his diet. He looked for changes in
how he felt and functioned but observed none. Indeed, when I was
with Kershaw he told me that he might eventually go back to eating
eggs, which he sorely missed.
By far the most common food intolerance is lactose, which is
not an actual food but rather a type of sugar in milk. Lactose
intolerance occurs when the body stops producing enough of the
lactase enzyme that is needed to digest lactose. Individuals with
lactose intolerance often are able to consume fermented dairy
products such as yogurt and kefir as well as hard cheeses without
suffering the gastrointestinal discomfort that results from
consuming other types of dairy. Because dairy is a high-quality
food type with a unique nutritional profile, many lactose-intolerant
elite athletes choose to continue to consume dairy foods that don’t
give them trouble.
The next most prevalent food intolerance is gluten, which, like
lactose, is not a food but a nutrient; specifically, a protein that
modern strains of wheat contain in large amounts and that some
other grains contain in trace amounts. The majority of cases of
gluten intolerance are self-diagnosed, but physicians do not
recommend self-diagnosis of gluten intolerance because it is often
inaccurate. In fact, researchers at Australia’s Monash University
found that only 8 percent of subjects with self-diagnosed gluten
intolerance were in fact sensitive to gluten.
If you think you may have a food intolerance, make an
appointment with a gastroenterologist and get a definitive
diagnosis. Trying to do it yourself is likely to result in the
unnecessary elimination of foods that are actually good for you.
Also, although self-diagnosis of food intolerances tends to be
inaccurate, the symptoms that cause people to make these
diagnoses often are real. So by misdiagnosing the cause of your
symptoms, you leave the true cause untreated. In the Monash
University study I just cited, subjects who experienced no
symptom relief when gluten was removed from the diet did feel
better when foods containing low-fermentable, poorly absorbed,
short-chain carbohydrates (or FODMAPs, a type of nutrient found
in legumes, apples, cashews, and, yes, wheat) were removed
instead.
Another problem with self-diagnosing food intolerances is that
in many cases it exacerbates an already unhealthy personal food
psychology. Studies by psychologists at the University of
Birmingham and elsewhere have shown that men and especially
women who self-diagnose food intolerances are more likely than
the average person to exhibit neurotic symptoms, psychological
distress, and severe depression. For such people, the perception
that a food intolerance is to blame may function as an attempt to
exert control over, and gain relief from, distress that is more
psychic than physical in nature.
In my experience, perceived food intolerances seldom exist in
a vacuum. Athletes who tell me they have one or more food
intolerances usually also have a history of engaging in extreme
dietary measures such as fad diets and purging. And despite—or
rather, because of—all of the effort and anxiety they pour into
“fixing” their diet, these athletes are seldom happy with any
measure they try or with the outcomes.
Unfortunately, our society’s current overhyping of food
intolerances is expanding the pool of the susceptible. Food
allergies and intolerances are real, but they’re also trendy.
Because dietary diversity is so important, I believe that athletes
and exercisers should not avoid foods they need not avoid. So
don’t be too quick to decide you can’t eat this or that. Try your
best to tune out the hype, and when you suspect that you have a
food allergy or intolerance, have it diagnosed and treated the right
way, under a doctor’s care.

Likes and Dislikes

People choose specific foods to eat for a variety of reasons.
Research has shown that taste is often the most important
consideration after price in food purchasing. In other words,
people generally don’t need to be told to eat food they like. But
research has also shown that people whose main consideration in
food purchasing is healthiness tend to care a lot less about
whether food tastes good. This finding suggests that people are
prone to assume that taste comes at the expense of healthiness in
food and vice versa. Indeed, other studies have revealed that
people give lower ratings on the taste of foods when they are
labeled as healthy.
A tacit belief that taste and healthiness are mutually exclusive
in food causes many people to subtly expect to derive less
enjoyment from the experience of eating when they make efforts
to eat healthier. This assumption may even cause people to make
less of an effort to find and prepare healthy foods they actually do
like than they would if they believed otherwise. Such resignation
often dooms the healthier new diet to failure. Few people are able
to sustain a diet they don’t enjoy.
Elite endurance athletes enjoy their healthy diet because they
allow themselves the freedom to choose foods they like and to
avoid foods they don’t like within the framework defined by their
quality standards. You can see this sense of freedom in some of
the odd choices they make. Devon Kershaw’s meat-wrapped
veggies at breakfast is a good example. Kershaw came up with
this somewhat weird concoction because he was not willing to
sacrifice healthiness for taste, but he is equally unwilling to
sacrifice taste for healthiness.
When you modify your diet to raise your Diet Quality Score,
consciously do it in ways that preserve or even enhance
enjoyment. Many athletes need to eat more vegetables to raise
their DQS to the level necessary to get the results they seek. But
some athletes don’t like vegetables. Or don’t they? In fact, I’ve
never met a self-professed vegetable hater who truly hated all
vegetables. There are a million ways to add them to the diet. Don’t
force yourself to eat brussels sprouts if they make you gag.
Instead choose vegetables and find ways of preparing them that
you really like. A bowl of split pea soup counts as a vegetable
serving in the DQS, and it’s a lot tastier to some vegetable haters
than brussels sprouts. If you need to add a little (unprocessed)
meat to your pea soup or dip some (whole-grain) bread into it to
make it acceptable to your palate, go right ahead. And if you don’t
like split pea soup, try lentil soup, baked sweet potato fries, a fruit
smoothie with kale, or steamed broccoli with a bit of melted
cheese. In short, don’t give up!
My definition of “like” as it relates to food goes beyond taste to
encompass comfort and familiarity. All too often, athletes and
exercisers feel compelled to give up familiar and comforting foods
that are perfectly healthy when they are seeking to improve their
diet because of how these foods are perceived. I am often laughed
at when I admit that I eat cereal and milk for breakfast. People
think it’s unhealthy. But I don’t eat sugar-coated fruity bears or
whatever the sweet cereal of the day is. I eat 100 percent whole-
grain cereal with minimal added sugar, I pour organic whole milk
on it, and I top it with fresh berries. That’s 6 DQS points right
there. Equally important, it’s familiar (I’ve been eating it my whole
life), it’s comforting, and it tastes good to me.
You may be amazed by how much easier and more enjoyable
it is to raise your diet quality standards if you simply give yourself
permission to eat only foods you like and avoid foods you don’t
like.

Cravings and Crutches

Devon Kershaw doesn’t have a lot of dietary rules, but among the
few he does enforce is his Saturday Rule. Each week, Kershaw
tries to make it until Saturday before he allows himself to eat one
of his favorite low-quality food treats, such as pain au chocolat, a
decadent pastry that he sometimes enjoys as a treat when
traveling in Europe. He doesn’t always make it, and when he
doesn’t make it he quickly forgives himself and moves on; but he
always tries.
Most elite endurance athletes have rules—some explicit,
others implicit—that govern their consumption of favorite low-
quality food cravings and crutches. Although the specific rules vary
from person to person, their underlying spirit and practical purpose
are always the same. They serve to make athletes conscious of
their low-quality food intake and to ensure that favorite treats are
eaten often enough to keep them happy with their diet but not so
often that they reduce the overall quality of the diet to
unacceptable levels.
Another example of how elite endurance athletes use personal
rules to control their intake of cravings and crutches came to me
from Nuno Bico, a Portuguese professional cyclist. Bico told me
that, during the competitive season, he drinks beer only after
successful races and eats desserts only after especially hard
training sessions. But in October and November he removes these
restrictions and on Christmas and New Year’s Eve he permits
himself to get tipsy.
 What makes such rules effective is their specificity. The
frequency with which, or occasions on which, unhealthy food
treats are allowed to be consumed is precisely defined. Too many
recreational athletes and exercisers try to practice personal food
rules that lack such specificity. Instead of allowing themselves to
eat (or drink) cravings and crutches on specific occasions or with a
specific frequency, they just try to generally avoid eating them—
except when they feel like making a special exception.
The trouble with handling cravings and crutches as special
exceptions is that most people have a remarkable ability to fool
themselves about how often they actually give in to temptations.
When people have specific rules for treats, they keep count. When
treats are exceptions, people don’t keep count and it becomes
easy for them to convince themselves that they don’t eat their
favorite cravings and crutches as often as they actually do. A
specific intention to eat potato chips (or whatever) once a week
almost always yields better results than a vague intention not to
eat potato chips very often.
This doesn’t mean you need to keep a ledger in which you
track your consumption of potato chips or bonbons or whatever
your favorite low-quality food (or drink) happens to be. But what
you should do is take a cue from elite endurance athletes and
apply dietary consciousness to the regulation of treats in your diet.
Decide on a frequency of treat consumption that is acceptable for
you and be aware of how often you do in fact indulge in potato
chips, bonbons, or fill-in-the-blank.
The best rules for cravings and crutches come from within—
they are not copied from others. A rule that you generate for
yourself is more likely to strike the right balance between
strictness and permissiveness for you. Love ice cream? Have a
small serving once a day, but make it the only sweet you allow
yourself. Got a thing for beer? Choose one night each week on
which to suspend your normal one-drink limit. Have a weakness
for a certain fast-food burger? Reserve it for occasions when
you’ve got something to celebrate.
The Diet Quality Score will help you keep such indulgences in
check. If you’re ever concerned about “indulgence creep” in your
diet, calculate your DQS. Scores falling short of your target
indicate that it’s time to hold a firmer line on the low-quality foods
you can’t live without (and need not live without, provided you eat
them consciously).

Schedule and Lifestyle

Some people love to cook and have time to cook often. Others
don’t. Some people have plenty of money to spend on food.
Others have tight budgets. Some people travel frequently for work.
Others wake up in the same bed every day. In short, different
people have different schedules and lifestyles, and these
differences affect their diet. Practicing the Endurance Diet habit of
eating individually includes customizing your diet in ways that work
with your schedule and lifestyle.
Elite endurance athletes tend to do this very well because, as
with other components of dietary customization, they do it
consciously. Devon Kershaw travels extensively for training and
racing. Over the years he has acquired a variety of tricks that
enable him to maintain high standards for diet quality despite the
challenges that come with being in transit and in unfamiliar
settings. For example, on flying days he packs his own fruit and
vegetables and sometimes even a full meal instead of (as he puts
it) “eating the junk you can buy at the airport or what they give you
on planes.”
Kershaw’s lifestyle changed somewhat shortly before I met
him, when he got engaged to Kristin Størmer Steira, a Norwegian
elite cross-country skier who is now retired. Marriage and
cohabitation almost always require dietary compromises, but
oftentimes they create dietary opportunities as well. Like most
Norwegians, Steira likes to eat fish. Kershaw embraced this
preference and now eats fish three or four times a week. He has
also added a few classically Norwegian foods to his diet, including
the delectable brown cheese he shared with me.
Each person’s schedule and lifestyle impose certain
constraints on diet, cutting off some options and steering the
person toward others. Nobody’s schedule or lifestyle makes
healthy eating impossible. With a conscious approach and a little
common sense, it’s not difficult to figure out how to make the
Endurance Diet work in the specific context of any daily routine.
Most of the challenges encountered in this process need to be
solved only once and then they’re solved for good—Devon
Kershaw’s trick for avoiding unhealthy airport and airplane food
being one example.
Among the most common schedule and lifestyle constraints
that make healthy eating a challenge are not liking to or having
little time to cook, being on a tight budget, having a family, eating
out often, traveling frequently, and having a hectic and/or erratic
work schedule. Table 7.1 offers quick tips for working through
each of these constraints.
Table 7.1 Tips for Working through Common Schedule/Lifestyle-Related Dietary
Constraints
Morals and Values
Would you eat your neighbor’s cat? Probably not. Why not?
Because it would go against your morals and values. Everyone’s
eating decisions are influenced by morals and values, whether this
influence is recognized or not. Some people apply their sense of
right and wrong very consciously in their food choices. It is not my
place to tell you what your food-related morals and values should
be, but I do encourage you to think about them when deciding
which foods to buy and eat. It’s one more way of making your diet
truly yours.
Devon Kershaw purchases only seafood that bears Canada’s
Ocean Wise label, which indicates that the food is sustainably
sourced. He told me, “Since fish is one of my favorite protein
sources (and I love fishing!), I want us (humanity) to enjoy the
seas’, rivers’, and lakes’ bounty for generations. I think the best
way a consumer can help is try when you can to purchase ethically
caught seafood. Of course, sometimes you can’t, but you can
always try and I am cognizant of it.”
Table 7.2 presents some of the most common value-based
food choices and the advantages and disadvantages of each. Use
it to organize your thoughts about how you wish to apply your
morals and values to your food choices.
Table 7.2 Advantages and Disadvantage of Moral/Value-Based Dietary Choices
More Than Just a Solution
Every elite endurance athlete practices a unique version of the
Endurance Diet. That’s because no single set of specific eating
habits is optimal for all athletes and exercisers. The four general
habits of eating everything, eating quality, eating carb-centered,
and eating enough are musts for every seeker of endurance
fitness. But to attain maximum endurance fitness, each athlete and
exerciser must practice the additional habit of eating individually—
becoming a conscious eater for the sake of identifying and
addressing personal needs and no-no’s, allergies and
intolerances, cravings and crutches, schedule and lifestyle
constraints, likes and dislikes, and morals and values.
This won’t happen overnight. It takes time to notice patterns of
dietary cause and effect and to arrive at ideas about how to
change eating patterns to better fit individual needs and
preferences. Focus on the process of eating consciously rather
than on the end point of the “perfect” diet for you. If you keep
eating consciously, you will keep learning about yourself, and if
you keep learning about yourself, you will keep moving closer to
perfection.
You will never arrive there, however, because life doesn’t
stand still. The body is always changing, so what works for you at
one point in life might not work at a later point. When he was
younger, Devon Kershaw did not drink coffee, except before
races, because caffeine is a proven performance enhancer. But he
now drinks coffee every day. When I asked him why, he said, “I
don’t know. Maybe it’s just because I’m getting older. I need a
crutch.” This might be true. Then again, it might not. Perhaps
there’s some scientific explanation. But the reason Kershaw needs
coffee now doesn’t matter. What matters is that he recognizes the
need and knows he feels and functions better today as a coffee
drinker.
Popular diets are typically presented as solutions—static and
eternal. But the Endurance Diet, because it includes the habit of
eating individually, is a solution that is also a journey.
 8 Building Elite Eating Habits

WITHIN THE PAST TWENTY YEARS, PSYCHOLOGISTS AND

NEUROSCIENTISTS have learned a lot about how habits and
habit change work. Recent discoveries help clarify why some
people succeed in changing habits—including diet habits—and
others fail. Scientists now recognize that three special factors
contribute to successful habit change. I like to call them the power
of reward, the conformity factor, and the principle of minimal
disruption. Although elite endurance athletes are no more likely
than others are to be well versed in the latest science of habits,
they nevertheless exploit all three of these factors to make the
habits of the Endurance Diet stick—and so can you.
The Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary defines a habit as “an
acquired mode of behavior that has become nearly or completely
involuntary.” Habits can be as subtle and meaningless as picking
at one’s eyebrows while thinking (something I do) and as complex
and important as performing heart bypass surgery with exactly the
same procedure each time. We all know that habits are a big part
of life, but we seldom appreciate just how big. It has been
estimated that 40 percent of the actions the average person
performs each day are habitual rather than products of a
conscious decision.
The human brain is designed to form habits. It tries to turn
everything we do more than once into a habit. The reason it does
so is that habits foster both efficiency and proficiency. The first
time you perform any novel action or behavior, you have to
concentrate very hard on what you’re doing. But the more you
repeat it (the more habitual it becomes), the less active your brain
is required to be in its performance. This process frees up your
conscious mind to attend to other things. Without the ability to
form habits, we would be extremely limited in terms of the number
and variety of skills we could acquire.
A habit has three components: a trigger, a routine, and a
reward. The routine is the behavior that constitutes the habit.
Workouts, for example, are habits for endurance athletes. A
trigger is a cue that causes a person to repeat a habitual behavior.
An alarm clock sounding at 5:00 a.m. is the trigger that causes
many swimmers and triathletes to drive to the local pool for a
masters swim class. A reward is just that: some benefit that the
habit confers, such as the feeling of accomplishment that comes
with completing a workout.
The reason habits are hard to change is that they rewire the
brain. Once a certain behavior has become habitual, its trigger
compels us to repeat it, often unconsciously. At the same time,
anticipation of the habit’s reward creates a craving for it that is
difficult to resist. A kind of psychological inertia develops,
reinforcing the habit.
The neural imprint of each habit, eating habits not excepted, is
essentially permanent. Once a behavior has been bundled
together in the brain with a trigger and a reward, these three
components of habit remain linked. This does not mean that habits
cannot be broken, however. It just means that even after a habit
has been broken, it remains latent inside the brain. This has been
demonstrated in studies in which rats are taught one habit and
then a second, contradictory habit in an effort to erase the first
one. When these rats are reintroduced to the situation in which the
original habit was learned, they don’t have to learn it again from
scratch but are able to revert to it right away. Other studies have
shown that humans who have broken a certain habit are likely to
revert to it under stress, again because its neural imprint is still
present in the brain.
Eating is a special habit because it is an absolute necessity for
life. Infants come into the world with built-in eating triggers (mainly
the symptoms of physical hunger) and the act is intrinsically
rewarding, offering the pleasures of taste and satiety. These
biological exigencies ensure that everyone is in the habit of eating.
Of course, individual persons have distinct eating habits. There is
tremendous variety in what, when, where, and how people eat. But
each person’s eating patterns tend to be consistent. In other
words, everyone’s eating patterns are equally habitual. Like other
habits, therefore, they exert an inertial force, resisting efforts to
change them. Even so, people succeed every day in improving
their eating habits. Understanding how they do will help you make
a successful and lasting transition to the Endurance Diet.

The Power of Reward

We persist in our habits largely because we expect to be rewarded
by them. Both parts of this formulation—expectation and reward—
are important. What makes it so difficult for many of us to change
our dietary habits is that, to a certain extent, this type of change
entails shifting from a reward that is intrinsic to eating—the
pleasure of low-quality foods—to a reward that is extrinsic to
eating—better health, fitness, appearance, quality of life, and/or
self-esteem.
The advantage that elite endurance athletes have in this
regard is that they are more richly rewarded for improving their
health and fitness than just about anyone else. Most elite athletes
enjoy training more than they enjoy eating healthy. In other words,
they are more intrinsically rewarded by working out than they are
by maintaining their dietary standards. Nevertheless, they are just
as disciplined in their eating as they are in their training because
they know that healthy eating is as critical as training is to attaining
the extrinsic rewards of money, fame, and the thrill of winning.
Such rewards are out of reach for the vast majority of us, and that
may be part of the reason our attempts to improve our diets more
often fail.
This doesn’t mean that, as a recreational endurance athlete,
you cannot exploit the power of reward to find success with the
Endurance Diet. The rewards of getting fitter and achieving goals
are equally available to all endurance athletes. As the optimal diet
for endurance fitness, the Endurance Diet yields these rewards in
greater measure than other ways of eating do. What’s more, the
Endurance Diet can become habitual even before these rewards
are experienced if you truly believe it is the optimal diet for
endurance fitness and expect these rewards to come.
We touched on the power of expectations in Chapter 7. The
importance of expectation as it relates to habit change cannot be
overstated. Psychology research has proven that if you expect to
succeed in building new habits, including diet habits, you are more
likely to succeed. One example is a 2005 study done by doctors at
the University of Minnesota. More than three hundred adults who
had enrolled in a weight-loss program based on habit change were
asked to rate their own chances of achieving their weight-loss
goal. When the program ended eighteen months later, participants
who expected to lose more weight were found to have shed the
greatest number of pounds.
Expectations of success can come from a variety of sources.
One is self-efficacy, or belief in your own ability to achieve a
particular reward through habit change. Another is confidence in
the method or program of habit change that you are using to
pursue a reward. The more faith you have in the method or
program you’ve chosen, the more likely you are to reap its
rewards. But faith in a diet cannot be manufactured out of thin air.
We all need substantive reasons to believe it will work.
Elite athletes commit to the Endurance Diet because they
believe in it—they have a high degree of confidence that it will yield
the extrinsic rewards they seek to gain from it. And they believe in
the Endurance Diet because they see what it has already done for
other elite athletes. When a rising young elite endurance athlete
looks around and sees that all of the top performers around him
eat everything, eat quality, eat carb-centered, eat enough, and eat
individually, it’s natural for him to expect that he will benefit
similarly from the same habits. A major objective of this book is to
give you a vicarious version of this experience and thereby instill in
you a similar expectation of success.
Obviously, believing in the Endurance Diet won’t carry you very
far if it doesn’t work. But it really is the optimal diet for endurance
fitness—and as such, it inevitably produces the expected rewards.
These rewards complete the habit loop, creating a “craving” that
impels you to persist in the five habits. When you get to this point,
you’re home free, because practicing the habits no longer requires
effort. It is automatic, something you want to do.
What’s more, there is evidence that healthy eating habits
become more intrinsically rewarding after they have been
sustained for a while. This means the longer you stay on the
Endurance Diet, the less you will crave low-quality foods and the
more you will enjoy and crave high-quality foods. A 2014 study led
by Susan Roberts of Tufts University found that after six months
on a healthy diet program, initially overweight individuals exhibited
reduced activity in brain areas associated with craving when
shown images of low-quality “calorie bombs” and heightened
activity in the same areas when shown images of healthy foods of
the kinds they were eating regularly on the diet (on which the
subjects had lost 14.1 pounds on average). They were now as
tempted by strawberries as they were by potato chips!

The Conformity Factor

Habits of all kinds, including food-related habits, are contagious.
People tend to adopt the eating behaviors that are most pervasive
in their social environment. Proof of this comes from a 2013 study
conducted at Utrecht University in The Netherlands. Each
participant was invited to choose a healthy snack or an unhealthy
snack from a pair of displays. Empty wrappers were left near each
display as evidence of choices made by previous participants.
Sometimes the researchers left more empty wrappers near the
healthy snack display; other times they left more near the
unhealthy snack display. Subjects were found to be much more
likely to choose the type of snack that appeared to have been
chosen more often by those who came before.
These findings were reinforced by the results of a similar study
done in the same year by scientists at the University of
Birmingham. In this study, each subject ate a cafeteria meal with a
partner who, unbeknownst to him or her, was working for the
researchers. Sometimes the dining partner chose healthy foods,
other times unhealthy foods. Again, the subjects exhibited a
pattern of conformity in their food selections.
The good news we glean from these studies is that healthy
eating habits are as contagious as unhealthy ones. The
infectiousness of healthy eating habits works to the advantage of
elite endurance athletes, who inhabit an environment where the
five habits of the Endurance Diet are practiced almost universally.
Being surrounded by men and women who eat everything, eat
quality, eat carb-centered, eat enough, and eat individually makes
it easy for each athlete to do the same. On the flipside, it makes it
hard to do otherwise.
When I was in Spain with the LottoNL-Jumbo cycling team, I
asked Marcel Hesseling, the team’s nutritionist, what he would say
to a team member who came back to the athletes’ table at the
Sala Oriente from the hotel buffet carrying a plate laden with
French fries and pastries.
“I wouldn’t say anything,” he said. “I wouldn’t have to.”
What Hesseling meant was that the rider would feel so much
tacit peer pressure from seeing the healthy plates of his
surrounding teammates that he would never repeat his mistake.
Indeed, the human propensity to conform to the dominant eating
patterns in any given environment is so strong that no member of
the LottoNL-Jumbo team or any other World Tour cycling team
would dare to eat a plate of fried potatoes and cake in front of his
teammates in the first place.
Most recreational endurance athletes and exercisers do not
have the good fortune to eat routinely in the company of people
who eat in the best possible way for endurance fitness. This
disadvantage makes it somewhat harder for recreational athletes
and exercisers to exploit the conformity factor. But there are
things you can do to make dietary conformity work for you. One is
to rally your family around the healthy habits you wish to sustain.
Another is to share meals, recipes, and tips with training partners
and other friends whom you regard as positive dietary influences.
You can also use social media to your advantage, for example, by
joining a Facebook group of like-minded eaters.

The Principle of Minimal Disruption

The principle of minimal disruption is the idea that, when changing
a habit, you should change it as little as necessary in order to
achieve the desired result. The reason is that it is easier to make
small habit changes than it is to make drastic ones. This doesn’t
mean smokers are better off reducing their habit from one pack a
day to half a pack instead of quitting completely. If a smoker’s goal
is to break the addiction, he or she cannot achieve it by merely
smoking less. However, the person can still take advantage of the
principle of minimal disruption by inserting a new behavior between
an existing trigger and an existing reward.
In The Power of Habit, Charles Duhigg tells the story of a
smoker who kicked the habit in precisely this way. He recognized
that a feeling of restlessness was his trigger for lighting up and
that a feeling of relaxation was one of its rewards. After trying a
few different things, he settled on meditation as an alternative to
smoking. Like smoking, meditation relaxed him, so it did not take
him long to develop a craving to meditate rather than to smoke
when he felt restless.
Changing eating habits is definitely different from giving up
smoking, but not so drastically different. As I mentioned earlier,
what makes it so hard for many people to change their dietary
habits is that it entails shifting from a reward that is intrinsic to
eating (pleasure) to a reward that is extrinsic to it (fitness). Many
low-quality foods are more pleasurable to eat compared to most
high-quality foods. Studies have even shown that processed
calorie bombs alter brain chemistry in ways that enhance cravings
for them, making them even harder to give up.
There is disagreement among scientists as to whether
particular foods, or whether eating in general, is ever truly
addictive in the same sense that drugs like nicotine are, but in any
case the solution is the same. As with smoking, people are more
likely to succeed in changing their eating habits if instead of simply
saying “no” to their existing habits they say “yes” to alternative
habits that address the same trigger (a craving for pleasurable
food) and offer the same intrinsic reward (pleasure) but do so in a
way that yields the extrinsic reward of fitness.
In addition to yielding better fitness than other diets, the
Endurance Diet offers more intrinsic satisfaction than most popular
diets because it is not drastically different from the way people
naturally like to eat. In other words, it is less disruptive to normal
ways of eating.
Most people—especially people with unhealthy diets—are
comfortable with their current eating habits; they just don’t like the
results they’re getting from them. Dietary change should aim to
improve the results without sacrificing the comfort. The way to do
this is to continue to eat as familiarly as possible while making
changes that are sufficient to produce the desired results. The
Endurance Diet allows and even encourages this.
 If you look at what’s on the breakfast, lunch, or dinner plate of
an elite endurance athlete, as we have done throughout this book,
you won’t see anything that stands out as unusual or extreme
except the overall quality of the food combinations. Switching from
a merely average diet to the Endurance Diet is less disruptive,
requiring less change, than shifting to the various popular diets
that recreational endurance athletes often go for.
There is an inverse relationship between how abnormal a diet
is and how long its average follower is able to stay on it. One of the
most extreme diets is the raw food diet. A prominent apostate of
this way of eating has estimated that 99 percent of people who try
an all-raw diet eventually give it up. By contrast, elite athletes who
adopt the Endurance Diet almost never quit.
Each of the five key habits contributes to the sustainability of
the Endurance Diet as a whole. Eating everything is a natural
human predilection. Eating quality creates a craving for quality, as
was shown in the study by Susan Roberts described earlier.
Eating carb-centered feels comfortable because most traditional
cultural cuisines are carb-centered. Eating enough requires no
more willpower than mindless overeating because it is not a denial
of hunger (as in eating restraint) but an embrace of true physical
hunger as the basis for decisions about when and how much to
eat.
Eating individually contributes to the sustainability of the
Endurance Diet in a different way. Although the first four habits
make the diet generally comfortable for all athletes, the fifth habit
makes the transition to it smooth and easy for each athlete
separately. Eating individually is all about creating a personalized
version of the diet that is based on a single athlete’s needs and
preferences.
When elite athletes transition to the diet, they do not toss out
all of their existing dietary practices and replace them with a
completely new set of practices borrowed from someone else.
Instead they change as little as necessary to bring their diet up to
Endurance Diet standards, retaining all of the familiar practices
that are consistent with its requirements. In so doing, they exploit
the principle of minimal disruption to activate the power of reward
and the conformity factor. An improved diet is more rewarding
when it retains features of a prior diet that, though needing
improvement, was at least enjoyable. An improved diet is also
easier to stick with when it does not unnecessarily abandon some
of the cultural and familial traditions that the previous diet
conformed to.
The American pro cyclist Larry Warbasse offers an interesting
example of how elite endurance athletes use the principle of
minimal disruption to ingrain the five key habits. A Michigan native
with a Lebanese mother who loves to cook, Warbasse was raised
on a healthy diet consisting largely of traditional Middle Eastern
foods (lamb, pita bread, etc.). He did not live in a dietetic bubble,
however. The family went out for fast food occasionally and
Warbasse ate as much ice cream as the next American kid.
When he began to compete in Europe in his late teens,
Warbasse learned about the importance of diet for fitness and
performance and embarked on a period of experimentation that
eventually brought him to the same place it leads every other elite
endurance athlete. “I have found that a simple, healthy,
nonrestrictive diet (eat junk occasionally if you want it, don’t worry
about whether something has gluten in it, don’t worry about
lactose, etc.), works the best for me,” he told me via e-mail from
his home in Nice, France.
Warbasse’s preferred breakfast is oatmeal with coconut milk,
honey, a fried egg and two egg whites, and a mug of coffee. His
favorite lunch is basmati rice and an omelet with two eggs and two
egg whites. He snacks on Greek yogurt, apples, and berries. A
typical dinner comprises a salad of spinach and arugula, cherry
tomatoes, green peppers, and an olive oil–based dressing; fish,
chicken, turkey or (once or twice a week) beef; and one of the
following starches: sweet potato, spelt pasta, buckwheat, or rice.
 Warbasse practices all five Endurance Diet habits. The typical
day’s menu just described covers all six high-quality food types.
Warbasse eats few low-quality foods except during the short off-
season, but, he told me, “If I really want something, I will have it.”
His breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snacks are carbohydrate-
centered. He also eats mindfully, eschewing eating restraint,
because, as he put it, “I would rather eat too much and gain a bit
of weight than be depleted and cracked.” And he eats in ways that
satisfy his individual needs, for example, by liberally salting his
food to make up for the exceptionally large amounts of sodium he
loses in sweat.
What is somewhat unusual about Warbasse is that, unlike
most elite athletes, he did experiment with more extreme dietary
measures before settling on the same five habits that work best for
everyone. “I have tried avoiding all sorts of food in the past: gluten,
milk, added sugar, high fructose corn syrup, etc.,” he explained. “I
really found that the more you avoid something, the more you
want it. So now there isn’t really much of anything I avoid; I just try
to eat a simple, healthy diet.” A diet that, importantly, is not so
different from the one he enjoyed while growing up.
Warbasse discovered in a roundabout way that adhering to the
principle of minimal disruption was the best way to develop habits
that he could sustain consistently and indefinitely.

The Perfect Day

The five habits of the Endurance Diet are daily habits. To practice
the habit of eating everything is to eat all six high-quality food
types each day. To practice the habit of eating quality is to attain a
high Diet Quality Score each day. To practice the habit of eating
carb-centered is to eat carb-centered meals and snacks not once
in a while but every day. To practice the habit of eating enough is
to eat meals that are sized and timed in such a way that one is
physically hungry when each meal starts and comfortably satisfied
when the meal ends. To eat individually is to practice the first four
daily habits in ways that meet individual needs and preferences.
If you can practice the Endurance Diet for just one day, you
can practice it every day. Adopting the habits may seem daunting
if you think of it as a matter of obeying a set of general rules for
the rest of your life. But it won’t seem daunting at all if you think of
it as a matter of coming up with a workable daily eating routine that
you simply repeat each day. Of course, this does not mean that
you should eat exactly the same way every single day. But
mapping out a single, optimal day’s eating for yourself is a great
way to get started. I call this exercise “the Perfect Day.”
To begin the exercise, create a table with four columns, as in
Table 8.1 (or use the blank table in Appendix A). The first column
will be used to document your current routine. (Remember,
adopting the Endurance Diet is not about replacing your current
diet but evolving it.) Use this space to write down when and what
you ate yesterday or, alternatively, when and what you eat in a
typical day. Be fully honest and inclusive. If you spontaneously ate
a handful of crackers yesterday afternoon when you opened up
the pantry to look for something else, record it. We like to think of
such behaviors as exceptions to our routine, but in almost every
instance they are part of it. Include in this food journal some
information about amounts, but don’t be too fussy. For example, if
you drank a glass of mango juice, write down “glass of mango
juice” rather than “8.5 oz. mango juice.”
When you’ve got everything written down, move to the next
column and make a list of the ways in which your current routine
falls short of Endurance Diet standards. This list should be fairly
easy to compile, though it may require some review of the
previous chapters. For example, if your current diet includes no
nuts, seeds, and healthy oils (failure to eat everything), note this.
If your current diet includes more refined grains than whole grains
(an opportunity to increase diet quality), write it down.
 Now move to the third column and make a separate list of
features of your diet that do not defy the five habits and that you’d
like to (or must) retain as you move forward. This list may require a
little more thought. If there are any specific high-quality foods that
you want to continue to eat regularly—such as eggs for breakfast
—add this feature to your list. Even if there are one or two low-
quality foods—perhaps a second glass of wine after dinner—that
you strongly prefer to afford a small place in your Perfect Day, add
these as well.
Beyond specific foods, the list of current features of your diet
that you wish to retain may also include such things as a
preference to buy lunch on workdays at a great little deli located
near your office, the need to stay within a very limited weekly food
shopping budget, and a preference to cook dinners from scratch
only on weekends. The Endurance Diet can be molded to work
with most constraints, and you can always revisit them later if they
become roadblocks to further progress in your health and fitness.
The fourth and last column is your Perfect Day. Here you will
write out a specific one-day eating plan that evolves your current
routine, as detailed in column one, by modifying it according to the
information in column two and retaining the features in column
three. This plan should include an approximate time for each meal
and snack. Note that these times, as well as the number of snacks
you eat and the amount of food you eat in each meal and snack,
may need to be adjusted based on the results of the physical
hunger experiment described in Chapter 6. For this reason, you
may wish to complete that experiment before you create your
Perfect Day.
There will necessarily be some arbitrariness in your food
selections. For example, of the ten or twelve things you regularly
eat for dinner that fit the design of your Perfect Day, you must
choose one. But bear in mind that doing so does not fate you to
eat this one meal every night for as long as you live. The Perfect
Day is just an exercise to get you started on the Endurance Diet.
Nor do you have to get it just right the first time. If, for example,
you sketch out a provisional Perfect Day and then realize you
accidentally left out the dairy category, go back and add it
(removing one or more other items to “make room,” if necessary).
As in column one, include basic information about food
amounts but don’t try to be too precise. If you need to eat a large
bowl of oatmeal in the morning to stave off the return of physical
hunger until lunch (or until your midmorning snack), write down
“large bowl of oatmeal” rather than locking yourself into, say, “1
1/4 cups oatmeal.” This information, alongside the schedule of
meals, will set you up to successfully implement the habit of eating
enough, but actually eating enough comes from listening to your
body, not from executing a plan.
Use Table 8.1 to get a feel for the process, not as a blueprint
for the actual content of your own Perfect Day. It does not come
from an actual person but instead is based on a particular type of
athlete I encounter often. Let’s call her Brenda. She is a serious
age-group triathlete who works out twice a day most days—early
in the morning before work and again after work. She is concerned
about maintaining a very lean body composition, and she does this
currently by eating lots of fruits and vegetables, avoiding fat and
starches, and limiting her portion sizes. If asked to name the
biggest flaw in her diet, Brenda would point to her sweet tooth,
which in a typical day she indulges with two diet sodas and a
serving of low-fat frozen yogurt.
Measuring Brenda’s diet against the standards of the
Endurance Diet, however, reveals other flaws. The meals are too
small for an athlete who trains as heavily as she does. The reason
she snacks so frequently is that she becomes physically hungry
well before lunchtime and dinnertime. To overcome this problem
and find more energy for workouts, Brenda needs to let go of her
eating restraint and start eating mindfully in order to eat enough.
The specific energy source she is most lacking is nonsugar
carbohydrate, so it makes sense for her to increase her meal sizes
by adding whole-grain foods. Doing so will also raise her Diet
Quality Score.
Brenda’s current DQS is +5, which would probably strike her
as surprisingly low if she were a real person. Although the large
number of fruits and vegetables in her day give her a lot of points,
most of them are taken away by the addition of sugar to her coffee
(which makes it a sweet or low-quality beverage); her fruit-and-nut
bar, which also counts as a sweet because it contains added
sugar; the two diet sodas (low-quality beverages); the rice
crackers (refined grain); and the frozen yogurt. Many athletes of
Brenda’s general type eat foods that aren’t as healthy as they
seem.
Table 8.1 An Example of a Perfect Day
 Brenda’s Perfect Day scores 25 DQS points. The big jump in
quality is achieved by starting the day with a banana to fuel her
morning workout, adding whole grains (and replacing refined
grains), eliminating one can of diet soda and replacing the other
with tart cherry juice, and upgrading her snacks. All of this can be
done without leaving Brenda’s sweet tooth unsatisfied. There’s still
plenty of fruit, the honey in her oatmeal gives her another little
sweet fix and the tart cherry juice yet another, and she still gets to
end her day with frozen yogurt, although the low-fat variety has
been replaced with the less-processed kind made with whole milk.
Brenda may even find that her sweet tooth is dulled somewhat by
the extra calories she’s getting throughout the day.
 The other items in Brenda’s “Features to Retain” column are
also respected. She prefers to eat meat or seafood just once a
day, and that’s plenty, so her Perfect Day includes no
meat/seafood other than baked salmon for dinner. Brenda might
have addressed her hunger issue partly by shifting the timing of
her breakfast and dinner, but this wasn’t an option given her
workout schedule, so the issue is addressed instead in her Perfect
Day through increases in the size of her meals and the addition of
a snack before her morning workout.

One Day at a Time

Once you have a Perfect Day you’re satisfied with, consider
creating a second one. Some athletes need an alternative
template for their personal Endurance Diet because there are two
different types of days in their week. For example, a swimmer who
travels frequently for business may need one Perfect Day for
when she’s at home and another for when she’s on the road. A
runner who is divorced may need one Perfect Day for when he has
the kids (who are fussy eaters) and another for when his ex-wife
has them. Many athletes need a different Perfect Day for the
weekend than they do for weekdays.
Whether you create one Perfect Day or two, here are some
simple ideas to keep in mind:

• Practice makes habit. Recognize that the purpose of the

Perfect Day is not for it to be framed, hung on a wall, and
admired. Its purpose is to be practiced. On the first day of
your life on the Endurance Diet, try to apply your Perfect
Day exactly as it is written. Pay special attention to your
body’s hunger and satiety signals and make any
adjustments needed to ensure that you begin to feel
physically hungry shortly before mealtimes and finish meals
feeling comfortably satisfied.
• Prioritize. Don’t feel ashamed of repeating your Perfect
Day more or less exactly, day after day, in the beginning.
Your top priority at this stage is to embed new habits, and
the less day-to-day variation there is in your eating routine,
the more quickly this process will move forward. In fact,
there’s nothing wrong with continuing to eat pretty much the
same things indefinitely if doing so helps you stay on track.
The diets of many elite endurance athletes are quite
repetitious, and are no less healthy for it. A majority of the
athletes who shared information about their diets with me
for this book eat the same breakfast every day, and elite
athletes in less developed countries eat pretty much the
same breakfast, lunch, and dinner every day.
• Mix it up. A varied diet is optimal, though. You can add
variety to your diet with little effort by making modular
substitutions to your Perfect Day, replacing one type of
vegetable, fruit, nut, seed, healthy oil, whole grain, dairy
food, meat, or seafood with another. Further variety can
come from cycling through the endurance superfoods
presented in Chapter 10 and the Endurance Diet recipes in
Chapter 11, and also from healthy recipes found in other
sources. You can approach this expansionary process in a
systematic way by trying one new recipe per week and by
choosing one superfood per week that you do not normally
eat and adding it to your routine.
• Keep an eye on the big picture. Never allow yourself to
be tied down to your Perfect Day. None of its details are
important. What is important on the Endurance Diet is that
you consistently eat everything, eat quality, eat carb-
centered, eat enough, and eat individually. The Perfect Day
is nothing more than a tool that will help you gain momentum
with these habits so that practicing them becomes
automatic, something you do naturally without much
thought.
Finally, always remember, too, that the habit of eating individually
entails allowing your diet to evolve as your needs and preferences
change, as they are sure to do to some degree. Adopting the
Endurance Diet is about replacing bad habits with good ones.
Living the Endurance Diet is about growing in good habits.
 9 Fine-Tuning Your Endurance Diet

ELITE ENDURANCE ATHLETES TEND NOT TO FUSS OVER

THE DETAILS OF THEIR diet. They focus on big-picture habits
such as eating quality and spend little time and energy niggling
over minutiae such as the number of grams of fiber they eat each
day. The reason is that the details of diet don’t matter very much.
Or rather, the details do matter, but they are taken care of
automatically through adherence to the Endurance Diet.
Consider the twenty-three essential nutrients (vitamins,
minerals, amino acids, and essential fats) that we all must
consume in adequate amounts in order to maintain our health.
Getting enough of these nutrients is literally a matter of life and
death. Yet with few exceptions (which I will address at the end of
this chapter) there is no need to track their consumption, and the
fittest and healthiest people rarely do. Simply maintaining a
balanced, inclusive, high-quality diet will usually ensure that all
essential nutrition requirements are met.
The opposite of the elites’ big-picture approach to meeting
their nutritional needs is what I call dietary micromanagement,
which comprises an infinite variety of eating tips and tricks (or
“hacks”) that are propagated through popular media. Eat turmeric
to elevate your mood. Eat lemon peels to improve digestion. Eat
dandelion greens for better sleep. Although some of these
measures may actually work, regulating your diet in this
persnickety way makes eating unnecessarily complicated and is
unlikely to result in better health. Dietary micromanagement
techniques are clearly effective in drawing eyeballs to television
and computer screens, but in the real world, the healthiest and
fittest people, including elite endurance athletes, follow a few basic
rules of eating and let the details take care of themselves.
There are, however, some exceptions to the elites’ big-picture
perspective on diet. Certain ways of manipulating diet that go
beyond the five key habits of the Endurance Diet are proven to aid
performance and are therefore widely practiced at the highest
level of the various endurance disciplines. In this chapter I will
discuss four such practices: nutrition periodization, fueling
workouts, carb-fasted workouts, and supplementation.

Nutrition Periodization
The term “periodization” typically refers to the practice of dividing
the training process into distinct phases, each phase responsible
for adding another piece to the endurance fitness puzzle (a
method we’ll explore in Chapter 12). But an athlete’s or exerciser’s
diet may also be periodized, and many elite endurance racers do
eat somewhat differently at different times of the year.
As a general rule, it is best to eat consistently. The most erratic
eaters are those who place unsustainably severe restrictions on
their eating, resulting in a pattern of yo-yoing between superstrict
and anything-goes eating. Elite athletes vary their diet in a different
way, making minor adjustments based on where they are in the
training process.
Typically, professional racers divide the year into two to three
phases. Their baseline diet coincides with their major annual
training cycle—the period that stretches between the start of
formal preparation for the next big race or set of races and the last
race of the competitive season. A shorter, secondary dietary
phase immediately follows. In this “off-season” period, athletes
may cut themselves some slack with their diet, indulging in a few
more treats than normal. Between the end of this short phase and
the start of the next training cycle, some elite athletes complete
another brief dietary phase, a weight-loss focus phase, in which
they set aside a few weeks to shed any excess body fat they may
have accumulated during the off-season so they can then turn
their focus back to eating for fitness and performance.

The Baseline Diet Phase

The goal of eating within a training cycle that culminates in a major
race or a series of races is to maximize the fitness-boosting
benefits of training. This is done through adherence to the five key
habits of the Endurance Diet. The more careful you are in
practicing these habits within this period, the better the results of
your progressive training buildup will be.
Many nonathletes view exercise as a means to “get away with”
showing less care with their diet. The more they work out, the
more low-quality foods they can eat without consequences. But
although this approach may work to some extent if your goal is to
look good naked, it doesn’t work if you’re aiming at the higher
standard of maximizing endurance fitness. When the goal is to get
the greatest possible benefit from working out, then the period in
which you are most serious about your training must coincide with
the period in which you exhibit the greatest care with your diet.
Strict adherence to the five habits requires a certain level of
motivation, but such motivation tends to come easily to athletes
who are already highly motivated to perform well in races because
they consider obedience to their dietary standards to be intrinsic to
their sporting interests rather than separate from them. It is almost
always easier to muster motivation for one thing than for two
things.
This was shown in a study conducted by researchers at
Stanford University School of Medicine and published in the
Annals of Behavioral Medicine in 2013. The subjects were two
hundred middle-age men and women with unhealthy diets who
also did not exercise. They were divided into four groups. One
group was coached to improve their diet and then, a few months
later, guided through the process of starting a regular exercise
program. A second group made the same changes but in the
reverse order. A third group improved their diet and started
exercising simultaneously. The remaining subjects comprised a
control group that made no lifestyle changes.
At the end of the study period, the researchers assessed how
well each subject was doing in meeting national guidelines for both
diet and exercise. They discovered that those who improved their
diet and started working out at the same time were most
successful in meeting these guidelines. Subjects who started with
exercise and then added dietary improvements later did not do
quite as well in either category, but they did better than those who
improved their diet first and started exercising later. And, not
surprisingly, the controls had the worst results of all.
The researchers speculated that simultaneous diet and
exercise changes produced the best results because subjects
viewed them as a single project that drew upon a single pool of
motivational resources. They hypothesized as well that taking up
exercise first and improving the diet later yielded better results
than the reverse because exercise makes people feel good about
themselves in a way that makes them want to eat healthier. Elite
Swedish marathon runner David Nilsson made this point in an
answer to one of my survey questions. “The better your body
functions,” he wrote, “the better food you’re craving to have.”
There are both physiological and psychological reasons to
maintain your highest dietary standards within race-focused
training cycles. Doing so will give you the best possible results
from your training and you will be most highly motivated to eat
carefully at these times. If you’re a noncompetitive exerciser who
does not engage in race-focused training cycles, you’ll want to
follow the Endurance Diet as your baseline diet whenever building
or maintaining endurance fitness is your top priority.
The Off-Season Diet Phase
“I eat less restricted in the winter,” wrote Danish mountain biking
champion Benjamin Justesen in response to my survey question,
“Do you eat differently at different times of year?” Many other elite
endurance athletes supplied essentially the same answer.
Like every other pattern that is common to the diets of elite
endurance athletes, the pattern of allowing diet quality to drop
slightly during the off-season period that follows the last race of
the year is not arbitrary. It is practiced because it offers a benefit.
In this case, the benefit is purely psychological. There is certainly
no physiological rationale for indulging in eating more low-quality
foods during the off-season, but it serves the purpose of rewarding
athletes for training hard and eating carefully throughout the
training cycle and replenishing their motivation to return to their
baseline dietary standards when it’s time to start the next training
cycle.
There are some elite athletes who feel no temptation to eat
more treats in the off-season, but those athletes who are so
tempted find it easier to maintain their normal standards
throughout the rest of the year when they allow themselves to
lower them briefly after the big annual cycle concludes. It’s like
opening a valve to release built-up steam pressure.
Obviously, it’s important not to go too far with this pressure
release. If you lower your diet quality too much for too long you are
likely to put on a significant amount of excess body fat and develop
habit inertia around these “temporary” eating patterns that will
make them difficult to break. I recommend that you limit your off-
season diet phase to a maximum length of eight weeks. While
allowing yourself to eat more low-quality foods during this phase,
try to maintain the highest diet quality standards that still allow you
to feel rewarded for “being good” during the recently completed
training cycle and to replenish your motivation to start the next
one. Continuing to monitor your DQS within this period will help
you strike this balance.
 If you feel a strong urge to eat a lot of junk during the off-
season and/or you find it hard to return to your baseline diet at the
start of the next training cycle, your baseline diet may be too
restrictive. When practiced correctly, the Endurance Diet should
be easy and enjoyable to stick to. A strong need to junk out for an
extended period of time after the last race of the year indicates
that you need to adjust the way you are implementing the diet so
that it requires less willpower.
Nonathlete exercisers have no competitive off-season per se,
but in most endurance sports the off-season coincides with the
winter holidays. Many exercisers like to cut themselves a little
slack with their diet between Thanksgiving and New Year’s Day,
right when athletes are enjoying a little break from hard training
and racing. This practice offers the same psychological benefits for
exercisers as it does for athletes, and the same guidelines and
cautions apply.

The Weight-Loss Focus Phase

Many elite endurance athletes gain weight during the off-season.
Putting on a few pounds of body fat is an almost unavoidable
outcome of training less and eating less carefully. It’s also not a
problem. In fact, it’s a sign that the off-season has served its
purpose of allowing the body and the mind to regenerate.
Some elite racers do not gain weight easily and therefore do
not put on much fat during the off-season. Many of these same
men and women also lose weight easily through training. Athletes
in this category typically transition straight from the off-season diet
phase to the next training cycle and have no problem returning to
their optimal racing weight in time for their first competition of the
new season.
Other elite racers gain weight more easily and can’t always rely
on increased training to burn off body fat accumulated in the off-
season. These athletes often insert a short weight-loss focus
phase between the off-season phase and the training cycle. The
purpose of this two- to eight-week period is to shed excess body
fat faster than it is possible to do when training hard to attain
maximum fitness.
As I first suggested in Chapter 6, the goal of maximizing fitness
and the goal of maximizing fat loss are incompatible. The main
reason is that the best way to maximize fat loss is to temporarily
suspend Habit 4 of the Endurance Diet and eat less than enough
to maximize the fitness benefits that result from training. This was
demonstrated in a 2009 study led by William Lunn of Southern
Connecticut State University. Competitive cyclists were asked to
either reduce their calorie intake, add high-intensity intervals to
their training, or do both of these things for several weeks. The
cyclists who ate less lost body fat, regardless of whether they
added intervals to their training. Those who added intervals to
their training but did not eat less increased their power output. But
the cyclists who reduced their calorie intake and added intervals to
their training failed to increase their power output because their
bodies lacked the fuel they needed to benefit from the high-
intensity work they were doing. The take-home lesson is clear:
keep your pursuit of maximum fat loss separate from your pursuit
of maximum fitness and use the methods that are appropriate to
each goal at the proper time.
If you are a competitive athlete, the best time to make weight
loss your top priority is during the four- to eight-week period that
immediately precedes the start of a race-focused training cycle.
Consider engaging in a weight-loss focus phase if you are 10 or
more pounds over your optimal racing weight at this point on the
calendar. (Visit www.racingweight.com/rwe/index.html#/ to obtain
an estimate of your optimal racing weight.) If you are a
noncompetitive exerciser, you have more freedom to engage in a
weight-loss focus phase whenever shedding body fat is your
highest priority.
Eating enough is not the only Endurance Diet habit that should
be temporarily suspended during a weight-loss focus phase. In
addition to reducing your calorie intake, you should also increase
your protein intake at such times, a practice that is, of course, at
variance with Habit 3, eating carb-centered. You should also train
differently during a weight-loss focus phase. Although a high-
volume, mostly low-intensity training program and a minimalist
approach to strength training work best for building endurance
fitness, temporarily increasing the intensity of your cardio training
and at the same time increasing the amount of strength training
you do will help you shed more body fat when that’s your main
goal.

Reduced Calorie Intake

Aim for a daily energy deficit of 300 to 500 calories during your
weight-loss focus phase. Research has shown that larger energy
deficits produce less fat loss and more muscle loss. A moderate
calorie reduction will enable you to preserve muscle while losing
fat only. To create a daily energy deficit of 300 to 500 calories, you
will need to estimate how many calories your body burns every 24
hours and count how many calories you’re eating. There are a
variety of smartphone apps that can be used to perform these
calculations fairly easily.

Increased Protein Intake

In addition to eating less, reduce your carbohydrate consumption
and increase your protein intake during this period. Aim to get as
much as 30 percent of your total daily calories from protein.
Although a high-protein diet inhibits the development of endurance
fitness, developing endurance fitness is not your goal at this time.
Your goal is maximizing fat loss, and increased protein intake aids
the pursuit of this goal in two ways.
First, a high-protein diet reduces appetite, so that lowering
your energy intake won’t make you feel hungry all day. In a study
performed at the University of Washington, overweight women
whose protein intake was increased to 30 percent of total calories
ate 441 fewer calories per day despite making no conscious effort
to eat less, simply because the additional protein made them feel
fuller. Increasing your protein intake to 30 percent of total calories
therefore should make it easy for you to maintain a calorie deficit
of 300 to 500 calories per day.
The second benefit of a higher protein intake during weight-
loss focus phases is increased metabolism. This benefit was
shown in a 2015 study published in the American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition. For fifty-six days, male and female volunteers
lived in a metabolic chamber that allowed researchers to measure
their metabolic rate with extreme accuracy while the subjects ate
different amounts of protein ranging from 5 to 25 percent of total
calories. They found that the more protein the subjects ate, the
more calories their bodies burned at rest.

Increased Training Intensity

Research has shown that the type of cardio exercise program that
is most effective in shedding body fat is different from the one that
is most effective in building endurance fitness. A high-volume
program featuring relatively small amounts of work at high
intensity works best to build fitness. I will describe this “80/20”
approach more fully in Chapter 12. By contrast, a low-volume
program with more work at high intensity is best for shedding body
fat. So the training you do in a weight-loss focus phase should
include fewer long-duration low-intensity workouts and more short,
fast interval workouts than your normal training program does.

Increased Strength Training

It’s advisable as well to place a heavier emphasis on strength
training during weight-loss focus phases. Research has shown
that men and women who combine a calorie deficit with strength
training lose more fat and less muscle than do people who eat less
without lifting weights. It’s a good idea to strength train year-
round, of course, but whereas two short gym sessions per week
may be enough to keep you strong and injury-resistant at other
times, three longer sessions will do more to help you get lean in a
weight-loss focus phase.
The types of exercises you do should differ as well. Within the
training cycle, you’ll want to concentrate on doing functional
exercises that help you perform sport-specific movements more
effectively. I’ll say more on this topic in Chapter 12. Within a
weight-loss focus period, however, the emphasis should shift to
exercises that build muscle mass, because muscle tissue burns a
lot of calories.

Fueling Workouts
The purpose of eating (or more often drinking) while exercising is
different from the purpose of eating regular meals. Breakfast,
lunch, and dinner are intended to support overall health and
fitness. Nutrition taken in during a workout or race is intended to
enhance performance in that workout or race.
This distinction is important, because the healthiest foods to
eat for breakfast, lunch, and dinner are not the most performance-
enhancing things you can consume during exercise. Chicken and
broccoli are healthy, but if you tried to eat them during exercise
you might get sick to your stomach and you certainly wouldn’t
perform better. On the flipside, the most performance-enhancing
thing you can consume during exercise is a sports drink, but if you
routinely drank sports drinks for breakfast, lunch, and dinner, your
health would take a hit.
The first nutritional product designed especially for
consumption during exercise was Gatorade, the original sports
drink, which hit the market in 1964. It had a clear purpose: to
enhance endurance performance. Studies showed that it worked.
The main ingredients in the original Gatorade were water,
carbohydrates (specifically sugar), and electrolyte minerals. Each
of these ingredients contributed to better endurance performance
in a different way. Water did so by combating dehydration and by
quenching thirst. Carbohydrates did so by providing an extra fuel
source for muscle and nervous system activity. And electrolyte
minerals did so by stimulating a higher drinking rate, hence further
reducing dehydration.
More than fifty years after Gatorade’s invention, its formula is
largely unchanged. That’s because no other nutrient besides
water, carbohydrates, and electrolytes has been shown
conclusively to enhance endurance performance when consumed
during exercise, with the lone exception of caffeine. Nevertheless,
many recreational endurance athletes and exercisers today avoid
using sports drinks because they are perceived as unhealthy. But
remember, they’re not supposed to be healthy; they’re supposed
to enhance performance. If you consume such products during
exercise and only during exercise, you will perform better and your
health will not be compromised.
Following are some basic guidelines for nutrition during
exercise.

Save It for When You Need It

It is not necessary to drink a sports drink during every workout.
This practice can be reserved for challenging workouts in which
you are pushing for a high level of performance. There is no need
to consume a sports drink during, say, a 30-minute easy run or
another low-intensity workout of moderate duration because
maximum performance is not sought in these sessions. If thirst is
an issue, you can just drink water.

Use Real Food When Practical

In workouts that last long enough for hunger to occur, it’s best to
rely on real foods such as bananas, trail mix, and biscuits, or on a
mixture of real food and a sports drink, for needed energy. The
reason is that you’re actually missing meals in these multihour
sessions, so the rule of eating for health applies even though
you’re on the move.

Drink by Thirst
Science has shown that the best way to regulate the amount of
fluid you drink during exercise is, well, not scientific. Simply put:
Your own sense of thirst should determine how much you drink. If
you drink frequently enough and in sufficient quantities during
exercise to keep your thirst at bay, you will perform better than if
you drink less. Forcing yourself to drink more than you are thirsty
for will not aid your performance but will increase the risk for
gastrointestinal upset.

Follow the 60-Gram Rule

As for carbohydrates, the latest research indicates that optimal
performance is attained at an intake rate of 60 to 80 grams per
hour. It’s less important to hit this mark in workouts than it is in
races. Taking in even 30 grams per hour suffices to make a
significant difference.
Simple sugars such as sucrose are better performance-
enhancers than complex carbohydrates such as certain starches
that are used in some sports drinks. The reason is that simple
sugars reach the muscles and supply energy much faster. The
idea that consuming simple sugars during exercise will lead to a
“blood-sugar crash” and fatigue is a myth.

Keep It Simple
It’s most convenient to get the water and the sugar you need to
maximize your performance from a single source—namely, a
sports drink. As mentioned above, these products also contain
electrolytes, which stimulate a higher drinking rate and thereby
further attenuate dehydration. Energy gels such as GU also
contain sugar and electrolytes and are more portable than sports
drinks, but if you rely on these products for your carbohydrate and
electrolyte needs you’ll need another source of water.
As with workouts, nutrition intake is not necessary during all
races. Studies suggest that consuming fluid and carbohydrates
enhances performance only in races lasting longer than about an
hour. So don’t be that guy or gal wearing a fluid belt in a 5K run!

Carb-Fasted Workouts
Within the past ten years, a growing number of elite endurance
athletes have taken up the practice of withholding carbs both
during and before select training sessions that are long enough or
intense enough for carbs to positively affect performance. These
so-called carb-fasted workouts are based on recent science
showing that depriving the body of carbohydrates enhances
certain fitness-boosting adaptations to training.

How Carb-Fasted Workouts Work

Consuming carbs before and during workouts enhances
performance partly by allowing the muscles to conserve glycogen,
their most precious and limited fuel source. If you’ve ever hit the
wall in a workout or race, it was probably because the glycogen
stores in your working muscles fell too low.
But something else happens when your glycogen stores
become depleted: Your muscles respond by making new
mitochondria, those little “aerobic factories” that use oxygen to
release energy from metabolic fuels. And these new mitochondria
enable you to go faster and farther before hitting the wall. So
although consuming carbs before and during exercise enhances
performance within workouts, it inhibits some of the fitness-
boosting physiological adaptations that result from workouts.
This was shown in a 2013 study by scientists at the Swedish
School of Sport and Health Sciences. Ten well-trained cyclists
completed a 60-minute workout. Before the ride, half of the
cyclists were fed low-carb meals and the other half ate normally.
Measurements taken after the workout revealed that the gene
responsible for creating new mitochondria had become more
active in the carbohydrate-deprived subjects, whereas in the
others it had not.
In theory, then, doing carb-fasted workouts with some
regularity should improve fitness and performance relative to doing
every workout in a high-glycogen state. Proof that it really does
comes from a 2016 study conducted by researchers at the French
National Institute of Sport (FNIS) and published in the respected
journal Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. Twenty-one well-
trained triathletes were separated into two groups. Both groups
were placed on carb-centered diets that supplied 6 grams of
carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight daily. But on four days
each week, the members of one group got all of their carbs from
their first two meals of the day and ate no carbs at dinner. These
carb-free dinners followed an intense interval workout that
members of the other group also performed.
The morning after the interval workout, all of the subjects
completed an easy one-hour workout before breakfast. This
workout was done in a mildly carbohydrate-deprived state by the
triathletes who had followed the previous day’s interval session
with a normal dinner, but it was done in a severely carbohydrate-
deprived state by those who had followed the same workout with a
zero-carb dinner.
These dietary and training patterns were kept up for three
weeks. All of the subjects completed performance tests before
and after this twenty-one-day period. Members of the group that
practiced carb-fasted training saw significant improvements in
cycling efficiency, high-intensity cycling performance, and running
performance within a triathlon time trial. There were no such
improvements among members of the other group.
 The purpose of this study was to determine whether carb-
fasted workouts are effective, not to identify the most effective way
to practice them. In the real world, no successful endurance
athlete does high-intensity interval workouts on four consecutive
days for three straight weeks, as the subjects of the FNIS study
did. The most effective way to incorporate carb-fasted workouts
into training is not yet known. In the meantime, it is sensible to
emulate what seems to work best for elite athletes.

Practicing Carb-Fasted Workouts

One of the most sophisticated uses of carb-fasted workouts at the
elite level is the system practiced by Trent Stellingwerff, a
Canadian exercise physiologist and coach, who administers carb-
fasted training with elite runners, including 2:10 marathoner Reed
Coolsaet. Stellingwerff prescribes two to three such sessions per
week during base training and one to two per week in peak training
before a marathon. Some of these sessions consist of a long
morning run at low intensity after an overnight fast. Others consist
of a moderate-duration afternoon run following a high-intensity
morning run and a low-carb lunch.
Other elite-level coaches and athletes do only low-intensity or
high-intensity carb-fasted workouts, or do them with greater or
lesser frequency, or do them only at certain times. In short, there
is a degree of variety in how carb-fasted workouts are practiced at
the highest level of endurance sports. Nevertheless, there are
three general guidelines that we can draw from them collectively.

Make Sure You’re Ready

Carb-fasted workouts are more stressful than normal workouts.
Therefore, they should be viewed as an advanced training method
and reserved for athletes and exercisers who already have a solid
base of endurance fitness. You need not be a competitive athlete
to benefit from them, however. There is evidence that adding carb-
fasted workouts into a training program promotes fat loss, a major
goal of many noncompetitive exercisers. Whether you race or not,
though, allow yourself to get good and fit before you try carb-
fasted training.

Ease into Them

Your first carb-fasted workout should not be a 100-mile bike ride
begun on an empty stomach and fueled with water only. When
incorporating this method into your routine, it’s best to dip your
toes in the water instead of diving in head first.
In the latter part of his professional triathlon career, former
Ironman World Championship bike course record holder Torbjørn
Sindballe of Denmark did what he called “zero-calorie rides.”
These bike rides were fueled with water alone but were preceded
by a normal breakfast, so they weren’t as challenging or stressful
as true carb-fasted workouts. Sindballe’s first zero-calorie ride was
relatively short—1.5 hours—but as he adapted to them he was
eventually able to go as long as five hours without hitting the wall.
Begin your foray into this territory in a similar way. Begin with a
zero-calorie workout of low intensity and manageable duration or
with an easier-than-normal high-intensity interval workout that is
preceded by a low-carbohydrate meal or an overnight fast. If all
goes well, do a slightly more challenging session next time. In the
case of long, low-intensity workouts, incrementally increase their
duration before switching over to true carb-fasted long workouts
that are preceded by a low-carb meal or an overnight fast. In the
case of high-intensity workouts, add extra intervals to them
incrementally until they match the format of your normal, non-
carbohydrate-deprived interval sessions.

Find Your System

Like other types of training, carb-fasted workouts will be most
beneficial to you if they are incorporated into your training in a
systematic way. But because the most effective way to practice
this type of training is not yet known, you may have to experiment
a little to find what works best for you.
There are three basic decisions to be made: (1) whether to do
long, low-intensity carb-fasted workouts only, carb-fasted high-
intensity interval workouts only, or both; (2) how often to do them;
and (3) whether to do them early in the training cycle, late in the
training cycle, or throughout the training cycle.
If you compete in long-distance events (e.g., marathons), you’ll
definitely want to do long, low-intensity carb-fasted workouts. If
you compete in shorter events (e.g., 2,000-meter rowing races),
you’ll definitely want to do carb-fasted high-intensity interval
workouts. And if your primary goal is fat loss, carb-fasted interval
workouts are also the way to go. It is possible but not proven that
the benefits of these two types of workouts are additive, and if
they are you will get the most benefit from carb-fasted training if
you do both.
Regarding frequency, although the FNIS study cited above
showed benefits associated with four carb-fasted workouts per
week, I recommend limiting their use to once or twice per week, for
a couple of reasons. First, as mentioned, carb-fasted workouts are
stressful. Work by David Nieman at Appalachian State University
has shown that these sessions result in more inflammation than
normal workouts. Also, performance is reduced in carb-fasted
workouts relative to normal workouts, and it’s important to do
some—if not most—of your tougher training sessions in conditions
that support maximum performance. For these reasons, carb-
fasted workouts should not be overrelied upon. My own
experimentation with carb-fasted workouts has shown clear
benefits resulting from just one session per week. Two per week
might be the sweet spot, balancing risks and benefits.
As for when to place them within the training cycle, I believe in
sprinkling them throughout it. To use them early in the training
cycle and phase them out is to risk undoing the benefits accrued
from doing them previously. But to add them abruptly in the latter
part of the training cycle may be risky in a different way, heaping a
new stressor on the athlete just when he or she is training hardest.
Gently introducing carb-fasted workouts early in the training cycle
(provided the athlete has a solid base of fitness) and ratcheting
them up from there minimizes both risks.

Supplementation
Elite endurance athletes are in a tricky position with respect to the
use of nutritional supplements. On the one hand, they have a
strong incentive to use any supplement that will aid their
performance either directly or indirectly. On the other hand, they
have to be very careful about what they put in their bodies. Many
elite athletes who have never had any intention of violating
antidoping rules have failed drug tests after taking supplements
that they did not know were banned or that were tainted with
banned substances unbeknownst to them.
Some elite athletes play it safe and take no supplements.
Others choose their products carefully but never miss an
opportunity to benefit from a safe and legal supplement that could
improve their chances of winning. Most, however, opt for a middle
ground, avoiding supplements that are purported to enhance
endurance performance directly and instead limiting themselves to
those that support basic health, confident that what’s good for
health is good for fitness and performance. A typical example is
Ben Allen, an Australian off-road triathlete who placed sixth in the
2014 XTERRA World Championship. He takes iron, magnesium, a
digestive enzyme, and vitamin C.
Even though most recreational endurance athletes and
exercisers don’t have to worry about failing tests for performance-
enhancing drug use, I recommend that they take the same
approach to supplementation that the majority of the pros do. The
fact that very few elite athletes take supplements intended to
directly enhance performance validates scientific evidence that
there is no “must-have” supplement for endurance performance.
Beta-alanine, sodium phosphate, and a couple of other
supplements have been shown to boost performance in races
lasting two or three minutes, but unless your event is the 800-
meter run or the 200-meter butterfly, they won’t help you. There is
also some evidence that dietary nitrate and one or two other
supplements may enhance performance in races lasting 20 to 60
minutes, but the benefit is minuscule at most and athletes can get
it from natural foods such as beet juice (see Chapter 10).
Supplementation for health is another matter. There is solid
evidence that some endurance athletes and exercisers may need
to take a supplement in certain circumstances to avoid health
issues that are pervasive within this population. Specifically,
omega-3 fats, iron, and vitamin D are nutrients that endurance
athletes and exercisers cannot always reliably obtain in adequate
amounts by adhering to the Endurance Diet, not due to any failing
of the diet itself but because omega-3 fats are rare even in high-
quality foods, endurance training reduces iron absorption, and
vitamin D is obtained mainly through sunlight, not food.

Omega-3 Essential Fatty Acids

According to the results of a 2014 study published in Nutrition
Journal, the average American adult takes in 41 and 72 milligrams
per day, respectively, of the omega-3 essential fatty acids EPA
and DHA. That’s bad news, because experts recommend that
healthy adults take in at least 500 milligrams per day of EPA and
DHA combined.
Omega-3 fats serve vital functions in the nervous system and
cardiovascular system. Insufficient intake of these nutrients has
been linked to depression, heart disease, cognitive decline, and
other problems. In endurance athletes and exercisers, omega-3
deficiency harms performance in a variety of ways, including
increased postexercise tissue inflammation.
 Getting enough EPA and DHA in the diet is easy in principle. All
it requires is that you eat oily fish such as mackerel, herring,
sardines, lake trout, salmon, and albacore tuna two or more times
per week. Even fish lovers don’t always do so, however, and there
is evidence that athletes may benefit from consuming higher
amounts of EPA and DHA than they get from two or three servings
of fish per week. For this reason, taking a daily fish oil supplement
is advisable.
The benefits of doing so were demonstrated in a 2015 study by
scientists at the University of Toronto. A mixed group of thirty male
endurance athletes (rowers, runners, and triathletes) was given a
fish oil supplement containing 375 milligrams of EPA and 510
milligrams of DHA or a placebo daily for three weeks. All of the
subjects engaged in performance tests both before and after
supplementation. Members of the fish oil group improved their
performance in a standard test of anaerobic capacity by 5 percent
compared to the placebo group and in a cycling time trial by 2
percent compared to this group.
If you decide to take a fish oil supplement, choose one that
supplies the same combined amount of EPA and DHA—about
1,000 milligrams—as the one used in the study just described.
Flaxseed oil and other plant sources of omega-3 fats are better
than nothing, but their omega-3s come in the form of ALA, which is
poorly converted to EPA and DHA in the body.

Iron
Iron deficiency is the most common nutrient deficiency in the world.
The problem is especially common in poor populations, where red
meat—the best source of dietary iron—is too expensive to be
eaten often. But iron deficiency is even more common among
highly trained endurance athletes, and in female runners most of
all. Within this group, it is not diet but aerobic exercise itself that
appears to be the main culprit.
 Prolonged and intense aerobic exercise causes muscle
damage followed by an inflammatory response that initiates the
repair of damaged muscle tissues. Among the many biochemical
changes that occur in the inflammatory state is an increased
production of a protein called hepcidin, a regulator of iron
metabolism. When hepcidin levels are high, dietary iron absorption
in the intestine is impaired. Although research has shown that
hepcidin levels are not chronically elevated in endurance athletes,
the transient spikes in this protein that follow each workout appear
to be sufficient to lower total iron absorption and cause clinical iron
deficiency in many athletes.
When you think of iron deficiency in endurance athletes, you
probably think of anemia, a condition in which the blood lacks
enough red blood cells to support normal functioning. Iron-
deficiency anemia severely degrades aerobic capacity and
endurance performance because red blood cells carry oxygen to
the working muscles. But iron deficiency may have similar
consequences even in the absence of anemia. That’s because
iron is not only a critical constituent of red blood cells, but it also
plays a more direct role in aerobic metabolism within the
mitochondria.
In a 2011 study, researchers at Cornell University investigated
the link between iron deficiency and performance in rowers. One
hundred and sixty-five female collegiate rowers were screened for
their iron status. Of these athletes, sixteen were identified as
anemic and another thirty as iron deficient without anemia. All of
the rowers were asked to report their best 2-kilometer rowing time
in the past three months. On average, the times of the nonanemic
iron-deficient rowers were more than 20 seconds slower than
those of their nondeficient peers. Although these results do not
establish a causal link between iron deficiency and reduced
endurance performance, they do establish a strong correlation
that very likely indicates a causal connection.
 The other headline from this study of female collegiate rowers
is that nearly 28 percent of the subjects were iron deficient, either
with or without anemia. The rate of iron deficiency is lower among
male endurance athletes. This gender gap reflects a similar gap in
the nonathletic population. Women are generally more likely than
men to develop iron deficiency because menstrual blood loss
increases their iron needs, yet women typically consume less iron
than men do.
Female endurance athletes also eat less red meat than their
sedentary counterparts. A scientific survey conducted by
researchers at Ball State University found that 40 percent of
nationally competitive female runners avoided red meat “for health
reasons.” Another study by the same group showed that female
endurance athletes who don’t eat red meat had lower iron levels.
You can minimize your risk of developing iron deficiency by
including a small amount of red meat in your diet and by regularly
eating other iron-rich foods such as fortified whole-grain low-sugar
breakfast cereals and teff (read more about teff in Chapter 10).
Some athletes, however, become iron deficient despite being
conscientious in their efforts to get enough iron through their diet.
If you’ve been feeling a little sluggish lately in your training, the
cause may be an iron deficiency with or without anemia and
supplementation might be necessary.
Because iron is needed in small amounts (the recommended
intake is 10 milligrams per day for adult males and 15 milligrams
per day for premenopausal females) and is toxic in large amounts,
I advise against taking iron supplements preventively. A 2010
study by Swiss scientists found that one in six male recreational
runners exhibited signs of iron overload as a consequence of
taking an iron supplement unnecessarily. It’s best to have your
iron level checked regularly (or whenever you experience
unexplained, persistent fatigue and poor performance) by your
physician and take an iron supplement under his or her
supervision if your result is below normal.
 Note that the best indicator of iron status in endurance athletes
is ferritin, an iron storage protein. A standard blood panel does not
include the ferritin level. You’ll have to request it specially.

Vitamin D
Several years ago, my friend Reyana began to suspect she had
iron-deficiency anemia. A serious runner, she felt lethargic during
and between workouts and her times were slipping. But it turned
out she was vitamin D deficient. Normal blood levels of vitamin D,
or, more specifically, 25–hydroxy-vitamin D (25[OH]D), are
between 40 and 70 nanograms per milliliter. Reyana’s came back
at 18 nanograms per milliliter—dangerously low. She was placed
on a vitamin D supplement and after several weeks she felt like
her normal self. A few weeks after that, she set a new personal
best for the half marathon.
Vitamin D deficiency is easy to confuse with iron deficiency
because both conditions cause fatigue and reduce aerobic
capacity and endurance performance. The only difference is that
iron deficiency causes fatigue by reducing the oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood, whereas vitamin D deficiency does so by
reducing the capacity of mitochondria to use oxygen to release
energy inside muscle cells. Below-normal levels of vitamin D in the
body also hurt athletes by compromising bone health and the
ability to manage inflammation. Additionally, there’s a long list of
health consequences associated with vitamin D deficiency,
including increased risk for diabetes, heart disease, depression,
and several types of cancer.
Unlike other vitamins, vitamin D is produced inside the body
through exposure to sunlight. You might expect that endurance
athletes who train outdoors get more than enough sun exposure
to prevent deficiency, but this appears not to be the case. In 2012,
researchers at the University of Wyoming reported that eight out
of nineteen runners tested had “insufficient vitamin D status” and
that two of these eight were outright deficient. Individuals with
darker skin color and those who live at higher latitudes are most
susceptible, the former because they produce less vitamin D and
the latter because they get less sun exposure during the winter.
With very few exceptions, vitamin D does not occur naturally in
food except in tiny amounts. Some foods, particularly milk, are
fortified with vitamin D. Even so, it is difficult to obtain the
recommended intake of 600 IU (international units) per day from
the diet. Intakes as high as 1,400 IU have been shown to be
perfectly safe. Regular vitamin D supplementation is therefore a
good idea. Annual testing of vitamin D status by your physician is
also recommended.
The most effective form of supplemental vitamin D is
cholecalciferol. A daily dosage of 600 IU is plenty if you have fair
skin, get lots of sun exposure, consume milk or other vitamin D
fortified foods regularly, and/or have had your vitamin D level
checked recently and are not deficient. Taking 1,000 IU daily may
be preferable if you have darker skin and during the winter when
the days are shorter and you’re indoors more.
 10 Endurance “Superfoods”

AS A NUTRITIONIST, I’VE ALWAYS BEEN RATHER

UNCOMFORTABLE WITH THE label “superfood” because it
implies that the foods fortunate enough to carry it are somehow
better than other natural foods, and that’s just not true. All natural
foods are super in one way or another. Indeed, a diet that was
made up only of the medicinal foods like spirulina, green tea, and
chia seeds that most often get the superfood label and excluded
humdrum healthy staples such as oats and chicken would be
incomplete and inadequate, especially for a hard-training
endurance athlete.
Another way to define superfoods is to create a special
category of specific foods that people with particular goals should
try to include in their diet. By this definition, there are indeed such
things as superfoods for endurance athletes and exercisers—or
endurance superfoods.
In studying the diets of elite endurance athletes, I have noticed
that the same foods keep appearing over and over, even in
disconnected parts of the world. Like the five key habits of the
Endurance Diet, this pattern is no coincidence. Certain specific
foods fit especially well into the diets of men and women seeking
maximum endurance fitness. These foods are characterized by a
combination of tastiness, accessibility, familiarity, healthfulness,
and, of course, favorable effects on endurance performance. Over
time, elite athletes all over the world have identified the foods
possessing this combination of qualities and incorporated them
into their lifestyle. Whatever your fitness goals are, you will be well
served to learn about these foods and consider eating any of them
that you’re not eating already.
Separate from the real-world process of trial and error through
which elite athletes discovered these staple foods, scientists have
studied the effects of certain foods on endurance performance. In
some cases they have found clear benefits. As you might expect,
there is a degree of overlap between these scientifically proven
performance boosters and the foods commonly eaten by elite
endurance athletes in far-flung parts of the world. These two
overlapping groups of foods constitute what I call endurance
superfoods. They are not foods that you absolutely must eat in
order to achieve your goals, but they are foods that you are likely
to find beneficial in the same ways the pros do.
Of the twenty-two endurance superfoods you’ll discover in this
chapter, only one of them—my wild card, teff—can be regarded as
exotic. That’s no accident. The virtue of the Endurance Diet is that
it is practical, not radical or revolutionary. Part of what makes it
practical, besides its beneficial effects on health and fitness, is
that, in most cases, it is made up largely of everyday natural foods
one can easily find, afford, prepare, and enjoy eating.
Don’t forget, however, that the last of the five key habits of the
Endurance Diet is eating individually. You shouldn’t feel compelled
to eat any endurance superfood you don’t like or react well to. Few
elites eat all of them. But there’s no better foundation for your
unique version of the Endurance Diet than the twenty-two foods
highlighted in the following pages.

Almonds
Almonds have the same merits as other nuts and seeds. They are
rich in unsaturated fats and plant sterols that promote favorable
blood cholesterol profiles and healthy arteries and combat
oxidative stress and inflammation.
 Researchers at the Chinese National Institute of Sports
Medicine have shown that these effects may enhance endurance
performance alongside general health. In 2014, they recruited
eight cyclists and two triathletes as subjects and fed half of them
75 grams of almonds per day for four weeks while the other half
ate cookies containing an equal number of calories. After a two-
week “washout” period, the treatments were reversed, with the
former almond eaters getting cookies and the cookie eaters
getting almonds.
All of the subjects performed 20-minute time trials on
stationary bikes on three occasions: before the study began, after
four weeks of eating almonds, and after four weeks of eating
cookies. On average, the subjects covered 5.4 percent more
distance in 20 minutes after the almond period than they did after
the cookie period and covered 8.4 percent more distance than
they did before the study began.

Try this: In addition to eating whole almonds and almond butter,

use almond flour occasionally in breads, muffins, and pancakes.

Bananas
Bananas are among the most favored preexercise foods of elite
endurance athletes because they are high in carbohydrates and
easy to eat and digest. Even those who work out shortly after
waking up usually find that they can nosh a banana before heading
out the door without experiencing stomach discomfort during the
workout. Serbian middle-distance runner Nemanja Cerovac, for
example, noted in the questionnaire he completed for me that he
always eats a banana with a little honey right before his morning
run.
Because bananas come with their own natural wrapper, they
are also one of the few natural foods that can be carried and
consumed during extremely long workouts in which hunger is likely
to occur. Daniela Ryf of the Czech Republic, the 2015 Ironman
70.3 world champion, has taken on-the-bike banana eating to the
next level by scarfing chocolate-covered, salt-dipped frozen
bananas during races. A 2014 study by researchers at
Appalachian State University found that cyclists who consumed
plain bananas during a 75-kilometer time trial performed no worse
than they did when they used a sports drink.

Try this: Instead of tossing out those overripe bananas, use them
in smoothies.

Beets
Beets contain large amount of betalains, a class of antioxidants
with uniquely powerful anti-inflammatory properties, making beets
a great food for postworkout recovery. Beet juice is even more
beneficial for athletes. It has a high concentration of nitrates,
which help the blood vessels dilate during exercise, increasing
blood flow and oxygen supply to the muscles. In addition, they
cause the mitochondria within muscle cells to generate energy
more efficiently.
A number of studies have demonstrated that acute and chronic
consumption of beet juice enhances endurance performance. In
2014, for example, researchers at the University of Cagliari found
that swimmers were able to swim faster at a given level of oxygen
consumption and consumed less oxygen at a given swim speed
after consuming 500 milliliters of beet juice per day for six days.
Australian professional cyclist Rachel Neylan is among the elite
athletes included in my research who reported drinking beet juice
before races.

Try this: When you buy fresh beets, don’t throw out the greens.
Although lacking the root’s high concentration of nitrates, beet
greens are rich in other nutrients, including iron, vitamin K, and
beta-carotene. You can sauté them with garlic and olive oil as you
would other greens, or pack them into a smoothie.

Black Beans
The many great endurance athletes produced by the nation of
Brazil—including those whose diets were shared in Chapter 4—
have been nourished and fueled largely by black beans, which are
so important to the Brazilian diet that they have a category of their
own in the government’s official food pyramid. Research has
shown that people who eat black beans frequently have an
exceptionally healthy digestive tract. This effect is attributed to the
food’s “indigestible fraction,” or its fiber and nonfiber constituents
that pass through the body without being acted upon by digestive
enzymes.

Try this: Mix cooked, mashed black beans with ground beef or
turkey the next time you grill burgers.

Brown Rice
In most places where rice is a key staple food, elite endurance
athletes still eat white rice rather than brown rice. But in North
America and Europe, most professional racers have switched from
the refined version to the whole version of this grain. Through their
interactions with athletes and nutritionists from these places,
Asian competitors are beginning to follow suit. For example, during
one recent trip I sat down with Singaporean elite runner Ying Ren
Mok to analyze his diet. Like many of his countrymen, he ate white
rice at least once and often twice a day. However, I was able to
persuade him to switch to brown rice. I can’t take credit for the
national record Mok set at the half-marathon distance a few
months later, but the improved diet quality certainly didn’t hurt him.
Both white rice and brown rice are good sources of
carbohydrates, but brown rice has more fiber, protein, and
phytonutrients and is associated with better health outcomes. A
number of studies have shown that replacing white rice with brown
rice in the diet lowers type 2 diabetes risk factors and promotes fat
loss. Quinoa may be the trendier whole grain today in wealthy
societies, but brown rice offers comparable nutrition and benefits
at literally half the cost and is an easier switch for many rice lovers.

Try this: Order brown rice instead of white rice at Asian

restaurants.

Cherries
Tart cherries have the most powerful anti-inflammatory effects of
any food. These effects are mediated largely by anthocyanins, a
type of antioxidant that tart cherries contain in high concentration.
By controlling inflammation, cherries may accelerate postworkout
recovery, increase overall training capacity, and enhance
performance in races by reducing muscle pain.
Most of the research on these possible effects has involved
tart cherry juice instead of whole tart cherries, because the juice
contains a higher concentration of anti-inflammatory compounds.
In a 2010 study published in the Scandinavian Journal of Medicine
and Science in Sports, twenty recreational runners consumed
either tart cherry juice or a placebo for five days before running a
marathon, then again on race day, and for two days afterward as
well. The runners who got the cherry juice exhibited less muscle
damage immediately after the marathon. They also showed lower
levels of inflammation and recovered their muscle strength
significantly faster.
On a practical level, it doesn’t really matter how quickly your
muscles recover after a marathon. No matter what you eat or drink
in the days following such a grueling event, you need to rest and
then gradually ease back into training. But any factor that reduces
muscle damage incurred during a race is also likely to enhance
performance. Drinking cherry juice for several days before an
event may get you to the finish line faster and get you out of bed a
bit more comfortably the next morning.
There’s also an argument to be made for drinking tart cherry
juice during periods of intense training. In a 2014 study, sixteen
trained cyclists were separated into two groups, one that
consumed tart cherry concentrate for seven days and the other
that got a placebo. Both groups trained normally through the first
four days of the intervention and then completed a 69-minute ride
at high intensity on each of the last three days. After the last of
these hard workouts, the cyclists who’d gotten the tart cherry
concentrate exhibited significantly lower levels of muscle damage
and inflammation compared to their peers.

Try this: For dessert, heat some pitted cherries in a microwave

until warm and top with a little ricotta cheese and almond slivers.

Coffee
Elite endurance athletes love their morning coffee largely for its
caffeine content. A 2014 study revealed that 73 percent of more
than twenty thousand urine samples taken from Olympic athletes
over a five-year period contained traces of caffeine. The highest
levels of caffeine use were found in cyclists, triathletes, and
rowers. It’s no mystery why. Not only does a well-brewed mug of
high-quality coffee taste delicious and create feelings of well-being
and mental alertness, but it also enhances endurance
performance by acting on the brain to reduce perception of effort
(i.e., make exercise feel easier). Other sources of caffeine,
including caffeine pills, have the same effect, but the unique
combination of caffeine and antioxidants in coffee makes it a
multifaceted health booster as well as a performance enhancer.
Regular coffee drinkers are known to be less likely to develop
depression, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and Alzheimer’s
disease.
Research indicates that it is safe to drink as much as four cups
of coffee per day, but that’s way more than you need to boost your
workouts. I limit myself to one large mug in the morning to avoid
becoming dependent on the stuff for wakefulness and alertness.

Try this: Drink cold-brewed coffee on hot days. A growing number

of cold brew connoisseurs swear it’s the way coffee was meant to
be enjoyed.

Corn
Every culture has a favorite staple grain that serves as a major
source of carbohydrate fuel for its elite endurance athletes. Corn
(or maize) performs this function for the top racers in Central
America, Kenya (the home of ugali), and a handful of other places.
One cup of corn provides 123 grams of carbohydrate, along with
sizable amounts of fiber, magnesium, vitamin B6, iron, and
antioxidants such as lutein and ferulic acid.
Corn has acquired a negative reputation lately because in
affluent nations all too much of it is consumed in processed forms
such as corn syrup. But unprocessed forms of corn, including corn
on the cob, whole cornmeal, and even nonmicrowave popcorn are
true endurance superfoods. As with other grains, heirloom and
landrace varieties of corn are the healthiest.

Try this: Use corn-based salsas on tacos and fish and in salads.

Eggs
Eggs are among the most ubiquitous foods in the diets of elite
endurance athletes. I found them in the food journals of Brazilian
swimmers, French stand-up paddle boarders, Russian triathletes,
Japanese runners, and others. In a diet survey of ten professional
triathletes from various countries conducted for active.com by
retired pro triathlete Katya Meyers, nine said they included eggs in
their breakfast either occasionally or routinely.
And why wouldn’t they? Eggs are inexpensive, tasty, versatile,
and nutritious, supplying 1 gram of high-quality protein per 11
calories, plus choline, phosphorous, vitamin B12, and other
goodies. Once labeled unhealthy because of their high cholesterol
content, eggs have been vindicated by recent science, which has
shown that they are not linked to any unfavorable health
outcomes.

Try this: Add thinly sliced hard-boiled eggs to green salads.

Garlic
A little garlic adds a lot of flavor to a wide variety of dishes. Science
suggests it may also boost endurance fitness and performance.
In 2006, Japanese researchers subjected rats to a four-week
endurance running program. Half of the rats were fed garlic
extract before each workout and the others were not. When their
training was complete, the researchers measured various
biomarkers of fatigue in all of the rats. After analyzing the results,
they concluded that garlic “ameliorates the various impairments
associated with physical fatigue.”
That’s great news if you’re a rat. But what if you’re human? In
2015, Chris Womack and colleagues at James Madison University
subjected eighteen healthy male college students to a graded
exercise test after half of them had consumed garlic extract and
the other half a placebo. Fourteen days later, the test was
repeated, but the treatments were reversed. On average, the
subjects’ VO2max scores were 2.7 percent higher in the garlic
trial.
It should be noted that both of these studies involved garlic
extract, not the whole garlic we cook with, and that other studies
have failed to show positive effects of garlic supplementation on
human endurance performance. So you shouldn’t expect cooking
with garlic to lead to major performance breakthroughs. But this
can be said of any endurance superfood. Performance
breakthroughs happen through the cumulative effect of eating lots
of different foods like garlic that make small contributions to
endurance fitness.

Try this: Who says you can only eat garlic bread at Italian
restaurants? Make your own at home (using whole-grain bread, of
course!).

Olive Oil
Of all the foods that the Sky professional cycling team might have
lent their brand to, they chose olive oil. The decision to create
Team Sky Extra-Virgin Olive Oil was not arbitrary. The members
of Team Sky consume great quantities of olive oil and their
coaches and nutritionists believe very strongly in its benefits for
endurance athletes. And they’re hardly alone. Elite endurance
athletes all over the world consider it a vital component of their
diet.
Olive oil offers several benefits to endurance athletes and
exercisers. Antioxidant compounds in olive oil, especially
hydroxytyrosol, prevent oxidative damage to blood vessel walls
and other tissues. Other antioxidants, including oleocanthal, fight
inflammation through a mechanism of action similar to that of
ibuprofen. Olive oil also aids in converting cholesterol into
testosterone, which in turn facilitates muscular adaptations to
training. Finally, olive oil acts upon the neuromuscular system in
ways that support endurance fitness. An intriguing 2012 study by
scientists at the University of Florence found that supplementation
with extra-virgin olive oil reduced age-related declines in motor
coordination in rats.
 All in all, the benefits of olive oil for endurance athletes and
exercisers are as diverse as its uses in cooking.

Try this: Use an olive oil mister instead of olive oil cooking sprays
(which are not pure olive oil).

Peanut Butter
When I visited with the LottoNL-Jumbo cycling team in Spain, I
was struck by the vast quantities of peanut butter that Laurens ten
Dam ate. But I wasn’t shocked. Many elite endurance athletes rely
on old-fashioned peanut butter (just peanuts and salt, no sugar or
added oils) as a source of easy, high-quality calories during
periods of heavy training. Too often dismissed as kids’ food,
sugar-free peanut butter is as wholesome as the peanuts it’s
made from and as nutritious as more expensive alternatives such
as cashew butter. Indeed, peanut butter is actually higher than
cashew butter in protein, fiber, and unsaturated fat.
Sometimes, when you’re training hard, you need a go-to
comfort food that you can use to quickly fill the void without
sacrificing your quality standards or breaking the bank when you
eat it often. Peanut butter—spread on toasted whole-grain bread,
smeared on celery sticks, or added to smoothies—is that kind of
food for lots of athletes.

Try this: Use peanut butter in smoothies (it goes well with
bananas, spinach, milk or yogurt, and honey, among other things).

Potatoes
In his memoir Running to the Top, Australia’s Derek Clayton, who
set marathon world records in 1967 and 1969, wrote of his diet,
“Potatoes were so high as a source of carbs, as well as being
efficient as fuel, that I found myself eating enormous quantities of
them throughout my competitive career.” Clayton is not the only
elite endurance athlete who has depended on potatoes as an
efficient fuel source. Alongside grains such as rice and corn, spuds
are among the most popular high-carb staples in the diets of top
racers in many parts of the world.
Anticarb propaganda has turned many health-conscious eaters
outside the ranks of elite endurance athletes away from potatoes,
but without justification. Potatoes are as healthy as any other
natural food. In fact, they may be healthier than most. According to
Adam Drewnowski of the Center for Public Health Nutrition at the
University of Washington, potatoes provide more total nutrition per
unit cost than any other food except sweet potatoes.
Other research has revealed that nonfried potatoes are one of
the most satiating foods available. When people eat potatoes they
get full on fewer calories and eat less in their next meal than they
do when they eat any other food. So it’s not surprising that, as I
mentioned in Chapter 4, a 2014 study published in the Journal of
the American College of Nutrition reported that the addition of
nonfried potatoes to the diet facilitated weight loss.
From a culinary standpoint, the best thing about potatoes is
their versatility. There are dozens of ways to prepare them, and
they can be included in every meal. But some ways of preparing
them—particularly deep frying—turn them into a low-quality food,
so save French fries for special occasions. Sautéing potatoes in
olive oil is okay.

Try this: Have a healthy stuffed baked potato as a meal every

now and then. Topping ideas include chili with sour cream and
cottage cheese with grilled vegetables.

Red Wine
After he won his first Tour de France title in 2013, Chris Froome
surprised some people by telling a reporter for The Daily Mail,
“Actually, on quite a regular basis we do have a glass of red
[wine], even on the Tour. If we had a good day’s racing, or even a
bad day’s racing, and the guys just wanted to unwind, we’d crack
open a bottle. I don’t think a glass of red would really do any
damage and would probably do just the opposite, and help you to
relax and unwind before the next day.”
Many, if not most, elite endurance athletes consume alcohol in
moderation for the same reason. Apart from its beneficial effects
on the cardiovascular system, a nice drink does indeed help an
athlete relax, and a relaxed athlete performs better.
The preferred drink among elite endurance athletes is red
wine, and that is because of its beneficial effects on the
cardiovascular system. All alcoholic beverages are healthy in
modest amounts, but red wine appears to be the healthiest. What
makes it special is resveratrol, an antioxidant that improves
cardiovascular health by increasing the elasticity of blood vessels,
increasing HDL cholesterol, and reducing blood clotting. In
nonathletes, these effects help prevent cardiovascular disease. In
endurance athletes and exercisers, they strengthen a
physiological system that is vital to aerobic performance.

Try this: Join a wine club. This can be a great way to make wine
exploration a part of your lifestyle without investing a lot of time
and energy into it.

Salmon
In 2013, when I asked American professional triathlete Meredith
Kessler to describe her typical dinner, she said, “We eat a lot of
salmon in our household. My husband makes a mean miso
marinade and grills the salmon on cedar planks, which tastes
amazing.”
This answer was not unexpected. Salmon has appeared more
often than any other fish in the elite endurance athlete food
journals I’ve reviewed. Its worldwide popularity stems not only
from its much touted health benefits but also from its appealing
taste and texture. Even many people who claim not to like fish like
salmon.
Salmon is one of the best sources of the omega-3 fatty acids
EPA and DHA. A typical four-ounce serving contains a combined
four grams of these essential fats. Eat it twice and you’ve met your
omega-3 requirement for a week. Less appreciated is salmon’s
high content of bioactive peptides, which are protein fractions that
combat inflammation and oxidative stress. The fish is also rich in a
long list of vitamins and minerals.

Try this: Eat smoked salmon (lox) with cream cheese, red onion,
and capers on a whole grain bagel once a week or so.

Spinach
Spinach is perhaps the most versatile leafy vegetable. I’ve seen
elite endurance athletes eat it raw in salads, steamed or boiled as
a side dish to hot meals, and blended into smoothies. It is also one
of the most nutritionally complete foods on Earth. Loaded with
vitamins A, C, and K, a variety of minerals, and an array of
phytonutrients, spinach earns a Completeness Score of 91 from
Nutrition Data (a measure of how complete a food is with respect
to twenty-three nutrients). That’s six points higher than the green-
of-the-moment, kale.
Of particular interest to endurance athletes, spinach is one of
the best food sources of dietary nitrate next to beets. Recall that
nitrate enhances endurance performance by increasing blood flow
to the muscles and by helping mitochondria, the aerobic factories
within cells, function more efficiently.

Try this: Add spinach to meatloaves, lasagnas, pizzas, and other

comfort foods to make them more nutritious but no less
comforting.

Sweet Potatoes
More than almost any other food, sweet potatoes are gaining new
fans among elite endurance athletes. In the case of American
professional cyclist Ally Stacher, the discovery of the colorful root
vegetable’s virtues made such an impact that she developed her
own sweet potato–based energy bar (Ally’s Bar).
Sweet potatoes are becoming increasingly popular among pro
racers in large part because they are nutritionally well-rounded
compared to some other high-carb foods. One cup of cooked
sweet potato supplies 41 grams of carbs. But sweet potatoes are
also rich in vitamins A and C, fiber, and the antioxidant beta-
carotene. Their Nutrition Data Completeness Score of 65 is about
20 points higher than that of any whole grain.

Try this: Put your blender to work to make quick-and-easy sweet

potato soups. Just bake the sweet potatoes until soft, combine
them with your other ingredients in the blender, and press a
button!

Tea
In places where coffee is less popular among elite endurance
athletes—places like England and India—its cousin tea is more
popular. It carries the same benefits for health and endurance
performance as coffee. A 2013 scientific review conducted by
researchers at the University of Wisconsin reported that green
and black tea may reduce the risk of some cancers,
cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes and may also slow
some aspects of the aging process. These effects are attributed to
its caffeine content and its high concentration of antioxidants,
particularly polyphenols. There is evidence as well that green tea
improves brain function and reduces body fat slightly.
 Despite its caffeine content, tea has been shown to hydrate
about as well as plain water. Among Kenya’s elite runners, tea is
the primary source of hydration. As described in Chapter 5, they
like to take it with plenty of milk and sugar. In this form it makes an
especially good postexercise recovery beverage, providing water
for rehydration, carbohydrates for muscle refueling, protein for
muscle rebuilding, and antioxidants to combat oxidative stress.
(Do take it easy on the sugar, though!)

Try this: If you’re normally a coffee drinker, replace your morning

joe with a cup of black or green tea once a week or so for a little
nutritional and flavor diversity.

Teff
What ugali is to the cuisine of Kenya, the world’s greatest running
nation, injera is to the cuisine of Ethiopia, the world’s second-
greatest running nation. If you have ever eaten at an Ethiopian
restaurant, you’ve eaten injera, a spongy bread that is torn into
small pieces and used to wrap bite-size portions of vegetables,
beans, stewed meat, and other delights.
Injera is made from teff, a millet-like grain that contains 50
percent more iron than whole wheat. A 2014 study by the
Ethiopian Public Health Institute found that only 2 out of 101 elite
Ethiopian runners tested was iron deficient. Because Ethiopians
eat very little red meat, it is likely that teff is responsible for the low
rate of iron deficiency among the nation’s hardest-training
athletes.
You don’t have to be Ethiopian to benefit from teff. In another
2014 study, researchers at Manchester Metropolitan University
added teff to the diets of eleven recreational female runners from
England. Initial testing determined that they were not consuming
iron in adequate amounts. Their average intake was 10.7
milligrams per day, well below the recommended intake of 15
milligrams per day for premenopausal women. Four of the women
also tested as iron deficient.
The runners were then asked to replace the bread they
normally ate with bread made from teff flour. This one simple
substitution elevated the subjects’ average daily iron intake to 18.5
milligrams. This increase was associated with significantly
improved iron supply to body tissues.
If you’re concerned about iron deficiency, and you’d rather get
additional iron from a source other than red meat and
supplements, consider incorporating teff into your diet.

Try this: Start your day with a bowl of teff porridge. Toast the teff
in a heavy sauce pan on medium-low heat before adding 1.5 cups
of water for every half cup of teff and boiling until it’s thick. Add
whatever you like for flavor, texture, and extra nutrition: dried or
fresh fruit, seasonings, butter or milk, and/or chopped nuts.

Tomatoes
Members of the Torque Konya Sekerspor Club pro cycling team
from Turkey often include sliced tomatoes and cucumbers in their
breakfast—but only during the summer, when they’re in season.
The Turks are particular about their tomatoes. Indeed, they are
the world’s ultimate tomato connoisseurs, consuming more
tomatoes than people in any other country.
Turkish professional racers are not the only ones who take
advantage of the food’s special benefits, though. Elite endurance
athletes in many parts of the world consume tomatoes frequently
and in a great variety of forms—fresh, juiced, and in sauces,
salsas, and soups. One of the great virtues of tomatoes is that
they offer a lot of flavor and satisfaction without a lot of calories.
(One medium tomato contains 22 calories.) They are rich in
vitamins A and C as well as in the antioxidants beta-carotene and
lycopene.
 Among the special benefits of tomato consumption for
endurance athletes is improved muscle recovery. In 2012,
researchers at Stockholm University reported that tomato juice
significantly reduced oxidative stress after exercise in a group of
nonathletes. A year later, a team of Greek scientists recruited
fifteen endurance athletes as subjects and asked nine of them to
replace their regular sports drink with tomato juice during and after
training for a period of two months. The researchers reported that
the tomato juice drinkers exhibited significantly reduced
biomarkers of muscle damage and inflammation.
Tomatoes are also known to improve the elasticity of blood
vessels. In nonexercisers, this effect reduces the risk of
cardiovascular disease. In endurance athletes, it enhances
cardiovascular performance. This was shown in another study
conducted by Greek researchers. In this experiment, thirty
ultrarunners were given either a whey protein bar to eat or tomato
juice to drink daily for two months while they continued with their
normal training. At the end of this intervention, blood vessel
elasticity was improved only in the runners who drank tomato
juice.

Try this: Grow your own heirloom tomatoes. They won’t keep you
“in the red” year-round, but throughout the summer you’ll be
spoiled with fresher, tastier, and more nutritious tomatoes than
you can get anywhere else.

Tuna
The award for the most interesting use of tuna I witnessed in
researching this book goes to Canadian elite cross-country skier
Devon Kershaw, who placed a dollop of Thai spice tuna atop a
salad of mixed greens, kale, beetroot, red and yellow peppers,
apple slices, avocado, olive oil, balsamic vinegar, and cottage
cheese. Like many other endurance superfoods, tuna has the
quality of versatility. You can sear a tuna steak in slices or whole,
create a tuna salad for sandwiches, enjoy it in sushi, and even
spread tuna pâté on crackers.
Another benefit of tuna is its healthfulness. That’s why many of
Devon Kershaw’s elite peers also eat tuna regularly. It is an
excellent source of unsaturated fats, which support brain function
and create healthy cell membranes. Tuna is also one of the best
food sources of selenium, a mineral with antioxidant properties.
Scientists discovered recently that much of the selenium in tuna
occurs in the especially potent form of selenoneine.

Try this: Replace mayonnaise with avocado in your tuna salad for
a healthier sandwich that still tastes good.

Yogurt
Lina Augaitis, who won the 2014 stand-up paddle boarding world
championship for Canada, starts each day with one of three
breakfasts. Some days it’s a smoothie, other days eggs and
potatoes, and still others a bowl of homemade granola with fruit,
almond milk, and yogurt.
I’ve lost count of the number of regular yogurt eaters I’ve
encountered within the ranks of elite endurance athletes. Many of
them like to eat yogurt for recovery after workouts because its
balance of carbohydrates, fat, and protein is ideal for that
purpose. But perhaps the greatest benefit of yogurt for endurance
athletes is its effect on body composition. No fewer than three of
its ingredients help athletes shed excess body fat. Protein
promotes satiety, probiotics such as lactobacillus shift the balance
of gut bacteria to reduce dietary fat absorption, and calcium
reduces body fat levels through several different mechanisms.
Not all yogurts are equal, however. The healthiest ones are
those without added sugar or reduced fat content. Many people
assume that full-fat dairy products of all kinds are less healthy, but
they are more natural (i.e., less processed) than their low-fat
counterparts, so it’s not surprising that studies have linked them to
better health outcomes.

Try this: Eat yogurt with fruit and nuts after some of your
workouts. It’s a great recovery snack, not only for its nutritional
composition but because it’s easy to prepare and eat when you’re
fatigued from hard training.
 11 Endurance Diet Recipes

IF, STARTING TOMORROW, YOU WERE TO EAT NOTHING

ELSE BESIDES THE recipes presented in this chapter, you would
be on the Endurance Diet. The habits of eating everything, eating
quality, and eating carb-centered are built into the recipes. All
that’s left for you to do is eat enough of them by eating mindfully
and to tailor them to your individual needs and preferences by
avoiding those you don’t like, fitting them into your personal
schedule, and so forth. Do these things and you are eating just like
the world’s fittest people.
Of course, I am not recommending that you actually limit your
future eating to these seventeen recipes. But the more you draw
from them, the easier it may be for you to find your initial footing on
the Endurance Diet. In addition to supplying you with specific
meals that are consistent with Endurance Diet standards, the
recipes can serve as a template for other meal choices. From this
point forward, you will want to eat meals like these, if not these
meals specifically.
All of the recipes were created by my longtime collaborator
Georgie Fear in response to my request for a selection of dishes
that broadly represent what elite endurance athletes eat in various
parts of the world. Most of them contain one or more of the
endurance superfoods identified in Chapter 10; these appear in
boldface. I think you will be as impressed with the things she
came up with as I was. For more recipes like them, check out our
Racing Weight Cookbook.
 Note that, although I’ve emphasized that counting calories and
monitoring nutrients is generally unimportant in the Endurance
Diet, basic nutrition facts for all recipes are included. This
information may help you with such things as keeping your diet
carb-centered and maintaining a higher protein intake during
weight-loss focus phases.

Endurance Diet Recipes

1. Custard Oats with Fruit and Pecans
2. Zesty Green Smoothie
3. Bagel Breakfast Sandwich
4. Blini with Cherry-Blueberry-Maple Topping
5. Broiled Vegetable Panini with Edamame Hummus
6. Kickin’ Turkey Cheeseburgers
7. Fish Tacos
8. Lohikeitto (Salmon Soup)
9. Chicken Stir-Fry with Honey-Ginger Sauce
10. Beef and Soba Noodle Bowl with Almond Butter–
Chile Sauce
11. Whole Wheat Spaghetti and Bison Meatballs
12. Slow Cooker Cuban Black Beans and Rice
13. Moroccan Stew
14. Ugali with Sukuma Wiki
15. Southwest Chili with One-Bowl Cornbread
16. Ratatouille
17. Shepherd’s Pie

Custard Oats with Fruit and Pecans

(Scotland)
Full of complex carbohydrates and fiber, oatmeal is a great
nutritional kick-starter for the day, especially when it includes nuts,
seeds, and fruit. This version gets an added protein punch from
egg whites, which will help you stay full for longer and give the dish
an appealing custardy texture.

1/2 cup water

1/2 cup unsweetened almond milk (any variety or fat level will
work, including other nondairy milks)
Pinch of salt
2 teaspoons brown sugar
1 banana, sliced, divided
1/2 cup oatmeal (old-fashioned oats)
1/3 cup egg whites (pasteurized from a carton is easiest, or
use the whites of 2 eggs)
1 tablespoon chopped pecans
1/4 cup blueberries

1. Combine water, milk, salt, brown sugar, and half of the

sliced banana in a saucepan and bring to a boil over
medium heat.
2. Add oatmeal and stir. Cook for 5 minutes or until oatmeal is
thickened, stirring occasionally.
3. Add the egg whites and immediately begin stirring for one
full minute.
4. Turn off heat, transfer to a bowl, and top with remaining
banana slices, pecans, and blueberries.

Serves 1
Nutrition Facts: 411 calories, 9 g total fat, 68 g total carb, 9 g fiber,
17 g protein

Zesty Green Smoothie

(North America)
Any protein powder you have on hand will work in this smoothie, a
powerhouse blend of polyphenol-rich green tea, vitamin-packed
leafy greens, nitrate-rich celery, and fresh fruit. You’ll benefit as
well from a hefty dose of vitamin C and potassium from the kiwi
and banana, essentials for replacing minerals lost in sweat and
healing soft-tissue wear and tear. For best results, use a high-
speed blender for this recipe.

1 stick celery
1 small piece peeled fresh ginger (about half the size of a little
finger)
1 cup cold water or chilled green tea
1 handful dark leafy greens (spinach, kale, sprouts)
1/4 avocado
1 scoop Optimum Nutrition Vanilla Whey Protein Powder
1 kiwi
1 banana

Combine all ingredients in a blender pitcher and blend until

smooth.

Serves 1
Nutrition Facts: 359 calories, 8 g total fat, 49 g total carb, 10 g
fiber, 29 g protein

Bagel Breakfast Sandwich

(North America)
A typical breakfast sandwich is reliable as a source of grains,
eggs, and fat from either bacon or cheese. But it’s likely to be
missing whole grains and rarely if ever does it contain vegetables.
We’ve got those nutritional bases covered, however, with this
tasty and colorful utensil-free breakfast delight.
 1 whole-grain bagel
Olive oil or canola oil cooking spray
1 egg
Salt and pepper to taste
1 handful baby spinach
1 ounce nitrate-free deli ham
1 ounce roasted red pepper (from a jar)
1 slice cheddar or pepper jack cheese

1. Preheat oven or toaster oven to 400 degrees and lightly oil

a baking sheet (or use a nonstick mat). Slice bagel in half
and place cut side up on the baking sheet. Place in oven for
5 minutes or until lightly toasted.
2. Lightly coat a skillet with cooking spray, and place over
medium heat. Crack egg into the center of the pan, season
to taste with salt and pepper and cook uncovered for 1
minute. This will begin to cook the white part. The yolk will
not set until it’s covered and steamed. Then, add the
spinach around the outside of the pan (or wherever there is
room) and cover the pan so the egg steams and the
spinach wilts. Check the yolk every minute or two and
remove the egg and spinach from the pan when it reaches
your desired degree of doneness.
3. Place the red pepper and ham on one bagel half, and the
cheese on the other half, and return to oven for 2–3
minutes to melt cheese and heat up ham and red pepper.
One half may need a minute or two longer than the other.
4. Assemble sandwich by placing the fried egg and wilted
spinach on the pepper and ham side, and topping it with the
cheesy bagel half.

Serves 1
Nutrition Facts: 464 calories, 14 g total fat, 62 g total carb, 4 g
fiber, 25 g protein

Blini with Cherry-Blueberry-Maple Topping

(Russia)
Buckwheat flour gives these small pancakes a rich amber color
and a pleasing nutty flavor. To keep the added sugars moderate,
we use flavonoid-packed fruit for the topping, with just enough
genuine maple syrup (which does not subtract points from your
Diet Quality Score when used in moderation) to keep it from being
too tart. The flavor of genuine maple syrup is more intense than
that of the imitations sold at supermarkets, which allows you to
use less.

1/2 cup fresh or frozen pitted cherries

1/2 cup fresh or frozen blueberries
1 tablespoon real maple syrup
1/3 cup buckwheat flour
1/3 cup whole wheat flour
1 teaspoon baking powder
1/4 teaspoon salt
1/2 teaspoon sugar
1 egg
2/3 cup whole milk (nondairy milks will work as well)
1 teaspoon canola oil or melted butter
Plain yogurt or sour cream, optional, for serving.

1. In a small saucepan, combine cherries, blueberries, and

maple syrup. Place over low heat to simmer gently while
you make the blini.
2. Combine flours, baking powder, salt, and sugar in a large
bowl and whisk to blend. The batter should be fairly thin and
lump-free.
 3. Add egg, milk, and oil, and whisk or stir to blend.
4. Heat a nonstick skillet over medium heat for 1 minute. Pour
batter into 2- to 3-inch circles, leaving room between so
they don’t run into each other.
5. When bubbles appear across the surface of the pancakes,
flip them over and cook 1–2 minutes on the other side or
until they easily remove from pan.
6. Repeat to use up all the batter.
7. Serve blini with berry topping and plain yogurt or sour
cream, if desired.

Makes 15–20 blini (2 to 3 inches across).

Serves 2 as a meal
Nutrition Facts: 380 calories, 9 g total fat, 64 g total carb, 9 g fiber,
15 g protein

Broiled Vegetable Panini with Edamame Hummus

(Italy/Greece)
Hummus is traditionally made from chickpeas, but this version is
unique in its use of green soybeans, also known as edamame, for
a protein boost and a lovely green hue. Use leftover hummus for
dipping raw veggies.

1 large red pepper, cut into three to four pieces

1 Japanese eggplant (long, thin kind) cut into 1/4-inch slices
diagonally
1 medium zucchini, cut into 1/4-inch slices diagonally
Olive oil or canola oil cooking spray
Sea salt
Black pepper
4 slices whole-grain bread
 2 slices Havarti cheese
3 tablespoons edamame hummus (recipe below) or store-
bought hummus

1. Preheat broiler and place a rack in the oven 3–4 inches

from heating element. Line a baking sheet with tin foil and
coat it with cooking spray (alternatively, use a nonstick
baking mat).
2. Arrange red pepper, eggplant, and zucchini slices on the
lined baking sheet. Mist the vegetables lightly with cooking
spray and season with sea salt and black pepper.
3. Broil vegetables for 5 minutes, then remove from oven and
flip pieces with a pancake turner. Broil 5 minutes more, then
remove from oven and turn off broiler. If the skin on the
peppers is charred and black, remove it after they have
cooled enough to touch without burning your fingers.
4. Toast the bread and spread two slices each with 1 1/2
tablespoons hummus. These are the base of each
sandwich.
5. Place a slice of cheese on top of the hummus, then layer on
approximately half the broiled vegetables onto each
sandwich, topping with remaining slice of toasted bread.
6. If desired, press sandwiches in panini press or indoor
(George Foreman–style) grill.

Serves 2
Nutrition Facts: 378 calories, 14 g total fat, 56 g total carb, 13 g
fiber, 18 g protein

Edamame Hummus
1 cup shelled edamame
2 tablespoons fresh lemon juice
 2 tablespoons water
2 tablespoons extra-virgin olive oil
1/4 teaspoon salt
1/4 teaspoon garlic powder
1/8 teaspoon black pepper

Combine all ingredients in a food processor and process until

smooth. Store in refrigerator up to one week.

Makes 3/4 cup hummus (8 servings, 1 1/2 tablespoons each).

Nutrition Facts: 58 calories, 4 g total fat, 3 g total carb, 2 g fiber, 2
g protein

Kickin’ Turkey Cheeseburgers

(North America)
We flavored these turkey burgers with a fun combination of
Worcestershire sauce, mustard, and green onion, plus hot sauce
for a bit of kick. If you like a little spice on your palate, you’ll love
this creative take on an American classic. Almost any cheese is a
perfect accompaniment; bold cheddar and creamy Monterey Jack
are just two of our favorites.

1 pound ground turkey

1/2 cup finely diced green onion, green and white parts (about
five)
1/2 teaspoon salt
1/4 teaspoon black pepper
2 teaspoons Worcestershire sauce
2 teaspoons hot sauce or Sriracha
2 teaspoons prepared mustard (Dijon or yellow)
1 egg
3 slices cheddar or Monterey Jack cheese
Mix all ingredients except cheese in a medium bowl and form into
three burgers. Grill or pan fry for 6–7 minutes per side, or until
internal temperature reaches 165 degrees F. Top with cheese.

Serves 3
Nutrition Facts: 278 calories, 15 g total fat, 3 g total carb, 1 g fiber,
32 g protein

Fish Tacos
(Mexico)
Many fish tacos you get at restaurants are deep fried, but not this
version. Simple seasonings of cumin and cayenne give the fish a
savory heat, and the lime juice and coleslaw mix (shredded
cabbage and carrots) finish the dish with freshness and just a little
crunch. If you like, you can substitute jicama for the coleslaw mix.

1 pound white fish such as bass or cod

1/2 teaspoon cumin
1/4–1/2 teaspoon cayenne pepper (depending on your spice
preference)
1/4 teaspoon salt
1/4 teaspoon black pepper
1 tablespoon lime juice
6 small whole wheat tortillas
1 cup coleslaw mix, undressed
1/2 cup fresh cilantro leaves
Salsa

1. Place fish in a nonstick skillet and sprinkle evenly with

cumin, cayenne, salt, and pepper. Cover and cook over
medium heat for 6 minutes or until fish is opaque and flakes
easily. Turn off heat. Flake fish into chunks with a spatula or
wooden spoon and sprinkle with lime juice.
 2. Divide fish among tortillas and top with coleslaw mix and
cilantro. Serve with salsa.

Serves 2
Nutrition Facts: 427 calories, 9 g total fat, 46 g total carb, 8 g fiber,
40 g protein

Lohikeitto (Salmon Soup)

(Finland)
Finnish food is simple, hearty, and warming, and this soup stays
true to those themes. Instead of using all fresh salmon, which
would have been the conventional choice, we’ve included a small
amount of smoked salmon to give another layer of flavor to the
dish.

1 leek, sliced
1 onion, chopped (yellow or white)
1/2 tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil
1 pound white nugget potatoes (8 small) cut into 1-inch pieces
(peel, if desired, but I don’t)
1 carrot, diced
2 cups vegetable or fish broth, plus 2 cups water
12 ounces wild salmon, skinned and cut into 1- to 2-inch
cubes
4 ounces smoked salmon, cut into 1 inch pieces
1 cup whole milk or half and half
1 cup chopped fresh dill (about 1 ounce)
salt (I used 1/2 teaspoon)
black pepper (1/2 teaspoon)
4 slices rye bread, optional, for serving

1. In a medium pot, cook onion and leek in olive oil over

medium heat until softened, about 8 minutes.
 2. Add potatoes, carrot, broth, and water and cover. Turn
heat to high to bring to a boil, then reduce to medium for 5
minutes or until potatoes are tender.
3. Turn heat to low. Add both types of salmon and simmer for
5 minutes. From this point only stir very gently to avoid
breaking up salmon.
4. Add milk, dill, and salt and pepper to taste. Remove from
heat and serve with toasted rye bread.

Serves 4
Nutrition Facts: 291 calories, 7 g total fat, 32 g total carb, 4 g fiber,
29 g protein (served without bread, made with whole milk).

334 calories, 12 g fat, 31 g carb, 29 g protein (made with half and

half)

Chicken Stir-Fry with Honey-Ginger Sauce

(China)
Asian food is known for blending sweet, spicy, salty, and savory
flavors, but in the West it is also often associated with deep-fried
items tossed in a large amount of sugary sauce. Our version of the
chicken stir-fry contains plenty of flavor with just enough honey to
give it a sweet note. You can use this recipe with other proteins
such as tofu, beef, shrimp, or pork.

4 teaspoons soy sauce

4 teaspoons white vinegar
2 teaspoons honey
1/2 teaspoon hot red pepper flakes
1 teaspoon cornstarch
1 teaspoon canola, sesame, or coconut oil
3/4 pound boneless skinless chicken breast, cut into bite-sized
pieces
 salt and pepper
1/2 cup water
2 small or 1 large broccoli crown, cut into florets
1 inch piece of fresh ginger, peeled and minced
3 garlic cloves, minced
6 shiitake mushrooms, sliced
1 yellow bell pepper, sliced
2 cups cooked brown rice

1. In a small bowl, stir together soy sauce, vinegar, honey, red

pepper flakes, and cornstarch. Set aside.
2. Heat a large skillet or wok over medium heat for one minute
and add oil. Skillet is ready when drops of water sizzle on it.
3. Add chicken to hot pan and season lightly with salt and
pepper. Cook for 4–5 minutes, tossing every minute or so,
over medium-high heat until outside of chicken is golden
and pieces are cooked through. Transfer to a platter and
return skillet to heat.
4. Place broccoli and 1/2 cup of water into skillet and cover.
Cook 3 minutes, then remove lid and add ginger, garlic,
mushrooms, and yellow pepper.
5. Cook and stir vegetables until water has evaporated, about
1–2 minutes, then add sauce to skillet. Allow sauce to boil
for 1 minute and thicken, then return cooked chicken to
skillet and gently mix everything together to coat with
sauce.
6. Serve stir-fry atop cooked rice.

Serves 2
Nutrition Facts: 548 calories, 9 g total fat, 75 g total carb, 12 g
fiber, 49 g protein (including rice)
Beef and Soba Noodle Bowl with Almond Butter–
Chile Sauce
(Japan)
The star of this recipe is the sauce, which you may find yourself
making again and again to put on other dishes. It’s sweet, spicy,
and salty, and the almond butter (endurance superfood!) gives it a
flavor you won’t find in more traditional noodle dishes.

4 ounces soba noodles

3 cloves garlic, minced
1 inch piece of fresh ginger, peeled and minced
8 ounces extra-lean ground beef
2 1/2 tablespoons soy sauce
1 1/2 tablespoons almond butter
2 tablespoons Sriracha hot sauce (reduce to one if you are
sensitive to spice)
1 teaspoon cornstarch
1 tablespoon honey
1/3 cup water
7 ounces sugar snap peas or snow peas
5 ounces matchstick cut carrots (half a 10 ounce bag)
3 green onions, sliced (white and green parts)
hot pepper flakes, optional, for garnish

1. Bring 4 cups of water to a boil. Cook soba noodles

according to package directions, drain, and set aside.
2. Combine garlic, ginger, and beef in a large nonstick pan
and cook over medium heat, breaking up beef with a
wooden or silicone spatula, until no pink color remains,
about 8–10 minutes. Do not reduce or remove from heat
before moving to the next step.
3. In a small bowl, combine soy sauce, almond butter,
Sriracha, cornstarch, and honey. Stir to blend and pour into
 beef mixture. Add 1/3 cup water and continue to cook over
medium heat until sauce bubbles for about 1 minute and
thickens.
4. Add snap peas, carrots, and green onions to pan with beef,
and stir gently to mix. Cook, stirring occasionally, until
carrots and snap peas are tender, about 4 minutes. Add
cooked soba and gently mix.
5. Divide between two bowls and garnish with hot red pepper
flakes or a squiggle of Sriracha.

Serves 2
Nutrition Facts: 574 calories, 13 g total fat, 74 g total carb, 9 g
fiber, 41 g protein

Whole Wheat Spaghetti and Bison Meatballs

(Italy)
More than one of our athletes have set personal records after
having this satisfying dish for dinner the night before. We can’t
promise it will do the same for you, but so far no one has ever
been slowed down by it! Classic spaghetti and meatballs gets a
flavor and nutrition upgrade in this version from the substitution of
lean bison meat for beef, and the addition of a hearty serving of
vegetables to the sauce. Chase this with a good night’s sleep and
you’ll be ready to rock in the morning.

1 pound lean ground bison

1 egg
1/2 cup finely minced onion (yellow or white)
2 cloves garlic, minced
1/2 teaspoon Italian seasoning
1 teaspoon salt
1/2 teaspoon black pepper
1/4 teaspoon red pepper flakes, optional
 1 pound whole wheat spaghetti
1 large orange or yellow bell pepper, chopped
1 medium zucchini, chopped
1 cup sliced mushrooms
3 cups prepared tomato sauce

1. Combine bison, egg, onion, garlic, Italian seasoning, salt,

black pepper, and red pepper flakes in a large bowl and mix
well by hand.
2. Roll into balls, each one slightly bigger than a golf ball. It
should yield about twelve meatballs. Place formed
meatballs in a large skillet in a single layer.
3. When all the meatballs are formed, place the skillet over
medium heat. Cover to minimize splattering, and cook for
10 minutes, gently turning every few minutes to brown the
meatballs on all sides.
4. With lid slightly ajar, drain liquid from the pan. Add bell
pepper, zucchini, mushrooms, and tomato sauce. Simmer
for 15 minutes.
5. While sauce and meatballs cook, boil pasta according to
package direction.
6. Serve meatballs and sauce over cooked and drained
spaghetti.

Serves 4
Nutrition Facts: 575 calories, 17 g total fat, 68 g total carb, 11 g
fiber, 39 g protein

Slow Cooker Cuban Black Beans and Rice

(Cuba)
This Cuban classic offers an easy, delicious way to incorporate an
endurance superfood into your meals. This comfort food recipe will
give you several servings of warm, carbohydrate-rich yumminess.
A plate of black beans and rice is a perfect recovery meal to come
home to after a long workout when you don’t want to spend time
laboring in the kitchen, or as a quick warmer-upper after a cold
day outside. We added a jalapeño, which is not an ingredient in
the authentic Cuban dish, but you can omit it if you prefer.

Note: the recipe calls for dry beans; if you want to use canned,
use four 15-ounce cans of no-salt-added beans, rinsed and
drained. You’ll also want to reduce the water by one cup.

16 ounces dry black beans

1 large onion, chopped
1 large bell pepper, chopped (any color)
6 garlic cloves, minced
1 jalapeño pepper, chopped (seeds removed)
1 (28 ounce) can diced tomatoes, undrained
3 1/2 cups water
2 tablespoons olive oil
2 tablespoons red wine vinegar
1/2 teaspoon ground cumin
1/2 teaspoon dried oregano
2 dried bay leaves
1 teaspoon salt
3 cups brown rice

1. Rinse black beans and drain. Place in slow cooker with all
other ingredients except the rice. Stir and cover.
2. Cook on high heat setting for 6–8 hours or until beans are
tender and most liquid is absorbed. Remove bay leaves.
3. Cook rice according to package directions. Serve black
beans atop rice.
Serves 9
Nutrition Facts: (1 cup beans with 1 cup rice): 417 calories, 5 g
total fat, 79 g carb, 20 g dietary fiber, 15 g protein

Moroccan Stew
(Morocco)
Virtually all the work required to make this stew consists of
chopping up the ingredients; after that you just toss everything in a
pot and let it simmer. Enjoy this stew on its own, or serve with
whole wheat couscous for extra carbs.

1 cup chopped onions (1 medium)

1 cup diced celery (2 ribs)
1 cup chopped green bell pepper (1 medium)
2 cup chopped carrots (4-5 large)
2 cloves of garlic, minced
1 inch piece ginger root, peeled and minced
1 medium sweet potato, chopped
3 cups vegetable or chicken broth
2 teaspoons each ground cumin, curry powder, and ground
coriander
1/4 teaspoon cayenne pepper (more if desired)
1 can (19 ounces/540 milliliters) diced tomatoes, drained
1 can (19 ounces/540 milliliters) chickpeas, drained and rinsed
4 cups (packed) chopped kale (yield from one bunch, stems
removed)
1/4 cup all-natural peanut butter
1/4 cup light or dark raisins, optional
Optional couscous, for serving

Heat a large pot over medium-high heat. Add everything except

kale, peanut butter, and raisins. Bring to a boil and reduce heat to
low. Simmer for 10 minutes or until potatoes are tender. Stir in
kale, peanut butter, and raisins. Simmer for 5 minutes more. Taste
and add additional cayenne to reach desired level of spice. Serve
hot.

Serves 4
Nutrition Facts: 406 calories, 10 g total fat, 68 g total carb, 17 g
fiber, 17 g protein (without couscous)

Ugali with Sukuma Wiki

(Kenya)
Traditionally, this meal, like most traditional Kenyan food, is eaten
with the hands: you tear off a small piece of ugali and form it into a
ball with a depression in it. You then use the ugali to scoop up the
greens (sukuma wiki) or whatever stew or meat is served
alongside it. These greens can also be enjoyed with chapati, or
flatbreads. Feel free to add any leftover meat to the greens in step
two to provide additional protein, or add a side of canned beans
for a vegan protein.

Ugali
1 cup corn flour (white or yellow)
2 cups water
pinch salt

Sukuma Wiki
2 teaspoons olive oil
1 white onion
1/2 teaspoon cumin
1/2 teaspoon coriander
1/8 teaspoon cayenne pepper
2 plum tomatoes, chopped
 1 pound kale or collard greens (2 bunches), stems removed
and shredded or chopped
1 cup water
1/4 teaspoon salt (or to taste)
1/8 teaspoon black pepper (or to taste)
1 lemon

1. Sauté onion in olive oil over medium heat until soft, for 8
minutes. Add cumin, coriander, cayenne, and tomatoes and
stir.
2. One handful at a time, add shredded collards or kale,
stirring to coat with other ingredients. Add water and cover.
Cook 30 minutes or until greens reach your desired
tenderness.
3. While greens are cooking, bring 2 cups of water and a
pinch of salt to a boil in a saucepan. Turn heat to low, and
slowly add corn flour, stirring continuously to break up
lumps. Continue to cook and stir for 3 to 4 minutes or until
mixture is a stiff porridge. Turn off heat and scoop into a
serving bowl.
4. When greens are cooked, season with salt and pepper to
taste. Serve sukuma wiki alongside ugali, with a lemon
wedge to squeeze some fresh lemon juice on each portion
of greens.

Serves 4
Nutrition Facts: 159 calories, 4 g total fat, 30 g total carb, 5 g fiber,
4 g protein

Southwest Chili with One-Bowl Cornbread

(North America)
If you prefer a traditional style of chili, you are sure to enjoy this
recipe, which hews close to the classic seasoning profile for the
beloved Southwest American dish, with a deeper flavor note from
the unsweetened cocoa. Feel free to toss in corn kernels or swap
black beans for kidney beans as you prefer.

1 pound extra-lean ground beef or bison

1 1/2 cups chopped bell peppers (red, green, yellow)
1/2 large yellow onion, chopped
3 cloves garlic
1 tablespoon ground cumin
1 tablespoon unsweetened cocoa powder
2 1/2 tablespoons chili powder
1/2 teaspoon cayenne pepper, or more to taste
2 cans (14 ounces) diced tomatoes
19-ounce can kidney beans, drained and rinsed
Salt to taste
Fresh cilantro for topping

1. In a saucepan with lid, cook ground beef or bison over

medium heat while breaking up with a wooden spoon. Cook
until no pink remains, about 8-10 minutes. Drain fat, if any,
and return meat crumbles to pot.
2. Add bell peppers, onion, garlic, cumin, cocoa, chili powder,
cayenne pepper, diced tomatoes (with their liquid), and
beans to pot. Stir to blend.
3. Cover and when mixture begins to bubble, reduce heat to
low. Simmer for 30–45 minutes. Add salt to taste.
4. Serve sprinkled with fresh cilantro.

Serves 4
Nutrition Facts: 335 calories, 5 g total fat, 36 g total carb, 11 g
fiber, 38 g protein
One-Bowl Cornbread
1 1/4 cups cornmeal
1 cup whole wheat flour
1 tablespoon baking powder
1/2 teaspoon baking soda
1/3 cup sugar
1/2 teaspoon salt
1 egg
2 tablespoons melted butter or coconut oil
1 cup skim milk or unsweetened almond milk
2 tablespoons plain or vanilla Greek yogurt

1. Preheat oven to 400 degrees. Oil the inside of a 9- or 10-

inch cast iron skillet. (Use a cake pan if you don’t have a
cast iron skillet.)
2. In a large mixing bowl, combine cornmeal, flour, baking
powder, baking soda, sugar, and salt and stir to mix.
3. Add egg, butter or oil, milk, and yogurt and stir just until
uniformly mixed. Pour batter into prepared skillet and bake
15 minutes or until knife inserted in the center comes out
clean.

Serves 8
Nutrition Facts: 219 calories, 6 g total fat, 35 g total carb, 3 g fiber,
5 g protein

Ratatouille
(France)
This classic French recipe will happily simmer on your stovetop or
in your slow cooker while you’re out biking in the Alps in
preparation for the Tour (or swimming laps at the local Y, or
whatever). Don’t forget the crusty bread; it’s vital to the full
experience. Feta isn’t exactly traditional, but it is a nice twist if you
have it on hand.

1 tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil

1 sweet onion, chopped
5 garlic cloves, chopped
1 red pepper, cut into 1-inch pieces
1 yellow pepper, cut into 1-inch pieces
1 pound of zucchini, cut into 1-inch pieces
1 medium eggplant (1 pound) cut into 1-inch pieces
1 1/2 pounds tomatoes, cut into 1-inch pieces (5–6 tomatoes)
1/2 teaspoon each: salt, red pepper flakes, dried thyme
4 tablespoons no-salt-added tomato paste
1/2 cup fresh basil leaves, shredded (1/4 cup after shredding)
2 ounces grated parmesan or crumbled feta
Crusty whole-grain bread

1. Combine all ingredients except basil, cheese, and bread in

a large soup pot or Dutch oven. Cover and bring to a boil
over high heat, then reduce heat to low and simmer for 45–
60 minutes or until vegetables are soft.
2. Alternatively, this dish can be cooked in a slow cooker for
6–8 hours on low.
3. Top each serving with a pinch of shredded basil and 1/2
ounce grated parmesan or crumbled feta. Serve with crusty
whole-grain bread.

Serves 6
Nutrition Facts (without bread): 118 calories, 5 g total fat, 16 g
total carb, 5 g fiber, 5 g protein

Nutrition Facts (with bread): 258 calories, 6 g total fat, 44 g total

carb, 8 g fiber, 11 g protein
Shepherd’s Pie
(Great Britain)
Seasoned lamb and vegetables under a blanket of mashed
potatoes is classic British home cooking, but traditional shepherd’s
pies contain more fat and less carbohydrate than is ideal for
endurance athletes in training. We’ve tweaked the macronutrient
ratio of our version without sacrificing taste with modifications such
as using Greek yogurt in place of some of the butter and whole
milk.

Filling:
1 pound ground lamb
2 celery ribs, chopped
1 yellow onion, chopped
2 carrots, chopped
2 cloves garlic, minced
2 tablespoons Worcestershire sauce
1/4 cup tomato sauce
1/2 teaspoon black pepper
1/4 teaspoon salt
1/2 teaspoon dried thyme
1 cup frozen green peas

Mashed potato topping:

2 pounds russet potatoes
1/3 cup milk
1/3 cup Greek yogurt
1 tablespoon butter
salt and pepper to taste

1. Cut potatoes into 2-inch chunks and place in a pot. Cover

with water and bring to a boil. Cook until tender and easily
 pierced with a fork, about 20–25 minutes, while you prepare
the filling.
2. Preheat oven to 400 degrees F. Place an oven-proof 10-
inch skillet (cast iron is our preference) over medium heat
and add the lamb, celery, onion, carrot, and garlic.
3. Cook and break up meat until lamb is completely browned,
about 8–10 minutes. Place a lid over the pan and drain
liquid. (Alternatively, push vegetables and meat to one side
and spoon out grease.)
4. Add Worcestershire sauce, tomato sauce, pepper, salt,
thyme, and peas to pan and stir to blend. Smooth evenly in
skillet and turn off heat.
5. Drain the potatoes and mash with milk, yogurt, and butter,
and add salt and pepper to taste. Spread the mashed
potatoes over lamb–vegetable mixture and bake for 30
minutes.

Serves 4
Nutrition Facts: 477 calories, 17 g total fat, 55 g total carb, 8 g
fiber, 33 g protein
 12 Diet–Exercise Synergy

YOU ARE NOT WHAT YOU EAT. YOU ARE WHAT YOUR BODY
DOES WITH WHAT you eat. And what your body does with what
you eat is strongly influenced by what you do with your body. Any
given diet will generate very different outcomes in a person who
does not exercise than it will in a person who does. The same diet
will even generate different outcomes in two people who exercise
but in different ways.
The term diet–exercise synergy refers to the idea that diet
mediates the effects of exercise and vice versa. Our main interest
in this book has been the diet side of this equation. My goal in the
preceding chapters was to describe the diet habits that maximize
the fitness-boosting effects of endurance exercise and to supply all
of the guidance you need to practice this way of eating.
Now imagine yourself practicing the Endurance Diet flawlessly
for six months and not doing a single workout during this period of
time. How fit would you be at the end of it? Not very! Nor would
you have a very high level of endurance fitness if you practiced the
Endurance Diet flawlessly for six months and did only yoga or
bodybuilding workouts.
The point of these thought experiments is to highlight the fact
that practicing the Endurance Diet is not sufficient in itself to
maximize endurance fitness. You need to exercise as
conscientiously as you eat to become as fit as you can be. In this
sense, the Endurance Diet is not complete without proper
endurance training. Or, put another way, proper training is a part
of the Endurance Diet. For this reason, I think it’s appropriate to
conclude this book with some guidance on training.
Like the five eating habits that collectively optimize endurance
fitness, the training methods that do the same were not deduced
by scientists but instead evolved through a long-term process of
trial and error carried out by elite athletes and coaches around the
world. The difference is that there is more sport-specific
particularity in the training methods of elite endurance athletes
than there is in their diets. For example, elite swimmers typically
swim twice a day and do a lot of technique work, whereas elite
cyclists ride their bikes just once a day and spend little time
working on technique. Yet the diets of elite swimmers and cyclists
are virtually indistinguishable.
Nevertheless, the various endurance sport disciplines are
similar enough in their physical demands that a shared set of core
training methods has proved to be optimal in all of them. In the
next section, I will describe eight such methods. Like the
Endurance Diet, these optimal training methods are practiced far
less often by recreational endurance athletes and exercisers than
they are by the professionals. Incorporating any of these methods
that you do not currently practice into your training will increase
your fitness level and ensure that no portion of your optimal eating
habits is wasted.
It should be noted that some methods are more relevant to
athletes whose primary goal is peak performance in competitive
events than they are to exercisers who work out for other reasons.
Throughout this book I have addressed athletes and exercisers
collectively because both groups seek endurance fitness and the
same diet that is most effective for performance maximizes its
health benefits also. But where training is concerned, athletes and
exercisers are different.
The key difference is that athletes aim to “peak” for races—
that is, to attain the very highest possible level of fitness on just a
handful of isolated days each year. This orientation demands a
variable approach to training in which athletes push themselves
very hard at some times, prioritize rest at other times, and
carefully sequence their workouts in such a way that they are
always moving toward their next fitness target. Exercisers, on the
other hand, are more interested in consistency. Most
noncompetitive cardio buffs train progressively to the point where
they are satisfied with their results and then try to hold steady. For
this reason, training methods such as periodization (the exercise
counterpart to nutritional periodization, discussed in Chapter 9)
that are essential for athletes are not essential for exercisers.
It’s important not to confuse this distinction of types with the
spectrum of “seriousness.” There are casual athletes who take a
minimalist approach to training and don’t mind finishing races at
the back of the pack and there are very serious noncompetitive
exercisers who train harder than most athletes and look like they
could win races if they ever chose to enter any.
It bears mentioning as well that the athlete/exerciser distinction
is fungible. An athlete and an exerciser may be the same person at
different times. Most athletes start off as exercisers (indeed, I
enjoy nothing more than turning exercisers into athletes) and
athletes often take breaks from competition for a period of time
without giving up exercise.
In the following descriptions of the eight training methods that
are essential for maximum endurance fitness, I will focus mainly on
the interests of athletes but will conclude each section with a few
words about the method’s relevance to noncompetitive exercisers.
If you’re an exerciser who gets the urge to become an athlete or
an athlete who needs a break from competition, simply switch from
one set of guidelines to the other.

Eight Essential Training Methods for

Maximum Endurance Fitness
Just as eating individually is a key part of the optimal diet for
endurance fitness, so too is training individually a key part of the
optimal exercise program for endurance fitness. For example,
some athletes need more time to recover from high-intensity
intervals than others do and therefore must plan out their weekly
workout schedule accordingly. Experience will reveal what works
best for you.
Such individual differences occur at the level of details,
however. There is a core foundation of best practices in
endurance training that are the same for all athletes. Think of
these eight practices as the rules that you cannot get away with
breaking if you want to get the greatest possible benefit from the
time and energy you invest in working out.

The 80/20 Rule

The foundation of optimal training for endurance fitness is an
appropriate intensity balance. Intensity is simply how hard you are
exercising at a given moment relative to your personal limit.
Research conducted mostly within the past decade has
demonstrated that endurance athletes of all experience and ability
levels gain the most fitness when they spend approximately 80
percent of their total training time at low intensity and the
remaining 20 percent at moderate to high intensity.
Nearly all elite endurance athletes obey the 80/20 Rule of
intensity balance, but very few recreational athletes do. A 1993
study by researchers at Arizona State University found that
competitive recreational runners did only 46 percent of their
training at low intensity and another 46 percent at moderate
intensity. And, in 2012, Stuart Galloway and colleagues at the
University of Stirling in Scotland reported that a group of
recreational triathletes training for an Ironman event did less than
70 percent of their training at low intensity.
Other research has shown that this training error is not only
common but also costly. In controlled studies in which some
athletes follow the 80/20 Rule and others don’t, the former always
improve more. For example, in a 2014 experiment led by Jonathan
Esteve-Lanao, fifteen club-level Spanish runners followed the
80/20 Rule while another fifteen maintained a 50/50 split (as most
recreational runners do). After ten weeks, the runners in the 50/50
group had lowered their 10K time by an average of 3.5 percent,
which is not bad. But the runners who followed the 80/20 Rule
most faithfully improved by double that amount.
Escaping the “moderate-intensity rut” that most recreational
endurance athletes are stuck in and falling in line with the 80/20
Rule is a three-step process.

Step 1: Learn to distinguish among low, moderate, and high

intensities. Physiologically, the borderline between low and
moderate intensity falls at 96 percent of the highest heart rate
you could sustain for one hour. The borderline between
moderate and high intensity falls at 102 percent of this heart
rate.
To determine your personal low-intensity (LI), moderate-
intensity (MI), and high-intensity (HI) training zones, warm up
and then settle into the highest speed or power output you
believe you could sustain for one hour. Wait for your heart rate
to plateau and then note it. Subtract 4 percent from this
number to determine your low-intensity ceiling. Add 2 percent
to the same number to determine your moderate-intensity
ceiling.
Step 2: Plan your training so that roughly 80 percent of your total
weekly training time is spent at low intensity. This is a simple
game of math. For example, if you exercise five hours per
week, that’s 300 minutes. Eighty percent of 300 is 240, or four
hours. Here’s how a five-hour training week with one hour of
moderate- and high-intensity training might look:
Step 3: Execution. It’s one thing to plan the perfect 80/20 week,
another to actually do it. If you’re like many endurance athletes
and exercisers, you already intend to do most of your training
at low intensity, but when you get out on the road or the water,
you do something else—without even realizing it. Fixing this
problem requires what Stephen Seiler, the aforementioned
discoverer of the 80/20 Rule, calls “intensity discipline.”
Training with a heart rate monitor is helpful in this regard. Once
you’ve established the heart rates that correspond to low,
moderate, and high intensity for you, it’s easy to stay in the
right zone by keeping an eye on your monitor.

Understand that there is no magic in round numbers. It is not

necessary to do exactly 80 percent of your training at low intensity.
In fact, there is no need to follow the 80/20 Rule at all except when
you are aiming toward maximum fitness—for example in the 12 or
16 weeks before a race. During “base” training, when you are
really preparing just to prepare for maximum fitness, it may be
best to spend even less than 20 percent of your total training time
at moderate to high intensity.
Note that the 80/20 Rule says nothing about the best way to
balance moderate- and high-intensity training. Stephen Seiler
favors a “polarized” approach, in which most of the 80 percent of
training that is not done at low intensity is done at high intensity.
My own view is that, for competitive athletes, the optimal balance
depends on the distance of the races being preparing for. The
longer they are, the more the balance should tilt from high intensity
to moderate intensity.
 The 80/20 Rule is relevant to exercisers as well as athletes.
Even if you don’t compete, you will get the biggest fitness bang for
your workout buck if you spend four minutes out of every five at
low intensity. The exception is when you care more about fat loss
than any other outcome of exercising, such as during a weight-
loss focus phase. In this case, a high-intensity interval-based
program in which as much as half of total training time is spent at
high intensity and the overall volume of training is relatively low is
likely to be most effective.

Progressive Overload
The principle of progressive overload is based on the idea that
fitness improves most reliably when the body is consistently
(though not uninterruptedly) exposed to slightly greater exercise
challenges than it is accustomed to. Applying this principle to the
training process generally entails making each week of training a
little harder than the one before—either by increasing the overall
amount of exercise or by holding the total amount of exercise
steady and increasing the fraction of total workout time that is
spent at higher intensities—except in recovery weeks, which I will
discuss below.
The alternatives to progressive overload are (1) repeating the
same training every week, (2) increasing the training load
drastically from week to week, and (3) decreasing the training load
from week to week. Each alternative is inferior to progressive
overload in its own way.

Repeating the same training from week to week: This will

keep you at your current fitness level but won’t make you any
fitter, even if you work out a lot. Fitness is an adaptation to
stress, after all, and stress comes from challenging the body
more than it is accustomed to. A swimmer who has not swum
more than nine thousand yards in a week recently will get a
fitness-boosting stimulus from swimming ten thousand yards
 next week, but a swimmer who swims ten thousand yards per
week routinely will not.
Increasing the training load drastically from week to week:
This will overstress your body, resulting in chronic fatigue,
declining performance, and ultimately illness or injury. The
effect of this mistake was demonstrated in a 2002 study
conducted by researchers at the University of Birmingham and
published in the Journal of Applied Physiology. Cyclists
completed two weeks of normal training followed by two weeks
of training in which their workload was doubled. Their time-trial
performance was found to be 6.5 percent worse at the end of
this block of intensified training than it had been after normal
training.
Decreasing the training load from week to week: This causes
an initial increase in performance capacity in fit individuals
because it gives the body a chance to fully absorb the stress of
recent training and overcome fatigue. This was shown in the
final part of the Birmingham study I just described, where two
weeks of sharply reduced training caused time-trial
performance to rebound to a level that was 1.4 percent better
than in the first time trial done after normal training. But
prolonged decreases in training loads result in detraining, a
reversal of the fitness-building process. For example, in a 1993
study, Danish researchers found that four weeks of sharply
reduced training caused performance in an endurance test to
drop by 21 percent in previously well-trained endurance
athletes.

It is easy to avoid the negative consequences of all three

alternatives to progressive overload with good planning. The
following table offers an example of a sensible three-week pattern
of progressive overload in the training of a generic athlete. (Note
that the high-intensity training done on the first day of each week
would necessarily be divided into short intervals.)
 If you’re a noncompetitive exerciser rather than a competitive
athlete, you need not practice progressive overload beyond the
point where the training you’re doing is yielding the benefits you
seek. Thereafter you can choose to maintain a consistent routine,
cutting back spontaneously for brief periods when your body
needs a little extra rest and changing things up as much as you
need to in order to keep from getting bored.

Purpose-Driven Workouts
If you knew absolutely nothing about how to prepare for races in
your sport, your first intuition might be to just practice racing over
and over—in other words, to make every workout a rehearsal for
actual competition. This approach has been tried, and it hasn’t
worked very well. Generations of experimentation have revealed
that racing performance is maximized when, instead of simulating
competition in every workout, athletes work on individual
components of endurance fitness separately in purpose-driven
workouts.
In each endurance sport, there is a collection of tried-and-true
standard workout types that all of the most successful racers do
regularly. Some workouts focus on low intensity. Slow, steady
sessions of short-to-moderate duration serve the purpose of
developing and maintaining basic aerobic fitness and fat-burning
capacity, while longer sessions at low intensity are used to
increase raw endurance. Workouts focusing on moderate intensity
often consist of an extended effort at moderate intensity
sandwiched between an easy warm-up and a gentle cooldown
(often called a “tempo” or “threshold” session). High-intensity
training is almost always done in an interval format, with short, fast
efforts separated by short periods of recovery at low intensity. In
cycling and running, high-intensity intervals are often done on hills
to add a strength-building element.
There are infinite permutations of each basic workout type,
many of which are specific to individual sports. It is beyond the
scope of this chapter to catalog all of them, nor is it necessary for
you to learn and practice every single permutation that exists in
your sport in order to maximize the results you get from the time
and effort you invest in training. But it is important that you learn
and practice all of the “bread-and-butter” workouts that are most
commonly used to develop the various components of event-
specific endurance fitness. Table 12.1 presents the full repertoire
of bread-and-butter workouts in running. In my experience as a
coach, at least one or two of these tools is missing from the typical
recreational runner’s purpose-driven workout toolbox.
Exercisers should not feel compelled to do all of the workouts
that athletes do. The essential workouts for noncompetitive
seekers of endurance fitness are easy runs or their equivalent in
another activity and high-intensity intervals. These formats alone
will enable you to adhere to the 80/20 Rule and reap its benefits.
But it’s okay to mix in other workouts if the variety helps sustain a
high level of motivation for training.
Table 12.1 “Bread-and-Butter” Workouts for Runners
The Hard/Easy Rule
The Hard/Easy Rule states that the most challenging workouts an
athlete does each week should be separated by one or more less-
challenging workouts (or days of outright rest). For example, if you
do three challenging workouts and three easier workouts in a
given week, the challenging workouts should not fall on Monday,
Tuesday, and Wednesday. Scheduling them on Monday,
Wednesday, and Saturday would make more sense.
The Hard/Easy Rule exists because challenging workouts
generate a significant amount of fatigue that takes time for the
body to recover from. When challenging workouts are done too
close together, fatigue becomes magnified to the point that it
interferes with the body’s fitness-boosting adaptations to training.
In a 2014 study, Brazilian and American researchers found that
subjects who performed exhaustive interval runs on three
consecutive days exhibited signs of compromised immune
function. This type of stress as well as others make challenging
workouts less beneficial when performed consecutively than they
would be if they were spread out over a slightly longer period of
time.
Any training session that results in significant fatigue qualifies
as challenging. This includes not only high-intensity interval
workouts but also long workouts at low intensity. Generally, it is no
more advisable to do a long endurance workout the day before or
the day after an interval workout than it is to do back-to-back high-
intensity interval workouts. Note that a rest day counts as an easy
day, so it’s okay to follow one challenging workout with another
challenging workout if there’s a rest day between them.
Select exceptions to the Hard/Easy Rule are allowable. For
example, if you are preparing for a multiday stage race, you might
want to perform challenging workouts on consecutive days
occasionally to inure your body to the experience of pushing your
limits when already fatigued from prior exercise.
The Hard/Easy Rule applies to exercisers and athletes equally.
Whatever your goal is, doing back-to-back challenging workouts
will make it harder for you to achieve.

Recovery Weeks
Fitness does not improve during workouts. It improves at rest,
between workouts. Rest is therefore as important a part of the
training process as exercise itself. Your body needs rest on three
different timescales: micro, meso, and macro. The microscale is
day to day, and we’ve just addressed it in our discussion of the
Hard/Easy Rule. The macroscale encompasses the complete
training cycle from the first day of base training through race day. I
will discuss macroscale rest in the penultimate section of the
chapter. Mesoscale rest occurs in the context of multiweek
training blocks, each block concluding with a recovery week.
Recovery weeks work hand-in-hand with progressive overload.
If you practice progressive overload, making each week of training
a bit more challenging than your body is accustomed to, you will
become increasingly fatigued, eventually reaching a point where
your body is no longer benefiting from your hard work, unless you
cut back periodically to give your body a chance to catch up on
rest. Elite endurance athletes typically make every third or fourth
week a recovery week.
The amount by which the training load is reduced in recovery
weeks should depend on the context and on the individual athlete.
A 30 percent reduction in total training time is a good place to
start. In this scenario, if you exercise nine hours in the last week of
hard training in a given block, you would aim to complete about six
hours and 20 minutes of training in the recovery week that follows.
The following week would then be slightly harder than the week
that preceded the recovery week.
Exercisers who consistently maintain a training load that is
easily managed do not need to plan recovery weeks. They should,
however, cut back on training for a few days whenever unusual
levels of fatigue or soreness indicate the need for extra rest.

Periodization
The term periodization refers to the practice of dividing the training
process into distinct phases, each emphasizing a different type of
training. The classic approach to periodization begins with a base
phase in which the athlete completes gradually increasing
amounts of low-intensity training in order to gently develop the
aerobic system, increase endurance, and enhance the body’s
ability to handle higher training loads. This is followed by a
strength phase that serves to build a bridge between base training
and speed training. The strength phase emphasizes high-intensity
work against resistance: cycling or running uphill, swimming with
handle paddles or fins, and so forth. After the strength phase
comes a speed or intensity phase in which the most challenging
workouts are done at race pace and faster. The final phase is a
short taper phase, in which the training load is reduced stepwise to
ensure the athlete is well-rested for competition.
Periodization is approached in somewhat different ways in
different endurance disciplines and can even be done effectively in
more than one way within a given sport. In recent years, for
example, some elite cyclists have begun to experiment with an
approach called block periodization, which entails separating the
volume and intensity elements of training to some degree. For
example, an athlete might do three high-intensity workouts and
one low-intensity workout per week in every fourth week and do
one high-intensity workout and three low-intensity workouts in
other weeks.
Whether you choose the classic approach to periodization or
the block approach, your training should become increasingly
specific to the challenge of racing as your most important
competition approaches. The types of training that are least similar
to the race or races you’re preparing for should be emphasized
early in the training cycle and those that most closely simulate the
specific demands of racing should dominate later in the training
cycle.
 Additionally, volume and intensity should be combined in such
a way that the overall workload slowly increases as the training
process unfolds. Typically, this is done by increasing volume while
holding intensity steady in the early part of the training cycle and
increasing intensity while holding volume steady (or even slightly
decreasing volume) in the latter part.
There is no need whatsoever for exercisers to periodize their
training. Periodization requires thoughtful planning, an effort that
amounts to wasted time for those whose goal is to maintain the
results they’re already getting from their training.

Downtime
In our discussion of recovery weeks, I mentioned that seekers of
endurance fitness require rest on three separate timescales.
We’ve already discussed the first two: the microscale, where rest
is obtained through observance of the Hard/Easy Rule, and the
mesoscale, where rest is supplied by recovery weeks. The
broadest timescale for rest is the macroscale, where rest is
achieved through downtime, a multiweek period of sharply
reduced training that falls between race-focused training cycles.
Just as recovery weeks are required because applying the
Hard/Easy Rule does not provide enough rest to obviate the need
for deeper rest on a broader timescale, downtime is needed
because recovery weeks do not completely eliminate the need for
an even deeper level of rest on an even broader timescale.
This important fact has been demonstrated in an interesting
way by Stephen McGregor, an exercise physiologist at Eastern
Michigan University and also a cycling coach. McGregor monitors
the training of his athletes with the help of a software program
called the Performance Management Chart (PMC), which
quantifies fitness and fatigue levels through the input of training
data. This tool is meant to be able to predict how well an individual
athlete will perform in competition, and it does this quite well
overall. However, McGregor has observed that when an athlete
maintains a high level of fitness for an extended period time
(usually four months or longer), performance tends to decline,
even when fatigue is well managed and the PMC predicts
improvement.
McGregor is not certain why this phenomenon occurs, but he
suspects that prolonged hard training slowly fatigues the nervous
system, so that the same training that increases performance
initially causes it to decline later. Whatever the reason, highly
competitive endurance athletes have long observed that heavy
training offers diminishing returns over time until it becomes
necessary to take a break and allow both body and mind to
regenerate.
Elite athletes take downtime at least once and more often twice
a year. In the most typical case, an athlete takes an extended
break from structured training during the “off-season” period that
begins after the last event of the competitive season and takes a
shorter and/or less complete break roughly six months later. Off-
season downtime might consist of two weeks with little or no
exercise, whereas midseason downtime is more likely to consist of
a couple of weeks of very light daily training. It seems that 24
weeks is about the maximum length of time that an athlete who is
training for peak fitness can go without downtime.
Some athletes don’t like taking downtime because it amounts
to purposely giving away hard-earned fitness. But sacrificing
current fitness in this way creates the opportunity to attain a higher
level of fitness in the long term. When you begin a new training
cycle after downtime, you will be fresher than you were at the end
of your last training cycle yet fitter than you were at the start of
that cycle. As a result, you will be fitter than ever at the end of the
new cycle.
Noncompetitive exercisers who maintain consistent, moderate
training loads seldom require downtime. The challenge for many
exercisers is avoiding unplanned and unneeded downtime as a
consequence of low motivation. One way exercisers can escape
this problem is to become athletes. Preparing for races is
powerfully motivating and has a way of drawing fitness seekers
into a seasonal routine in which breaks from exercise become a
helpful part of the overall plan rather than harmful interruptions to
the plan. If you decide to go down this road, you’ll want to begin
following athlete guidelines for all eight essential training methods,
not just periodization.

Strength Training
To perform optimally in races, rowers need to do more than row,
swimmers need to do more than swim, and cross-country skiers
need to do more than ski. All of these types of endurance athlete
and others must supplement their sport-specific training with
strength training in order to attain true peak performance in
competition.
Studies prove it. In 2011, researchers at the Norwegian School
of Sport Science reported that twelve weeks of supplemental
strength training improved double-poling performance in a group
of elite junior cross-country skiers. Four years later, a study
conducted by scientists at the University of Greenwich and
published in the International Journal of Physiology and
Performance found that recreational runners who completed six
weeks of supplemental strength training experienced a 3.6 percent
improvement in 5K race times. Similar results have come out of
studies involving other types of endurance athletes.
Strength training is also believed to reduce injury risk in
endurance athletes, although there is little scientific proof of this.
Research has shown, however, that weakness in particular
muscles predisposes certain types of athlete to injury. For
example, runners with weak hip abductors and hip external
rotators are more likely to develop overuse injuries of the knee. It
stands to reason that strengthening these muscles would reduce
the risk for this type of injury.
There are many ways to strength train and not all of them are
equally beneficial to endurance athletes. An effective program will
include movements that condition the so-called prime movers, or
larger muscles that do the most work in a given activity. It is helpful
to develop not only the strength of these muscles but also their
fatigue resistance. Strength-building requires heavy loads,
whereas muscular endurance comes from lighter loads and higher
reps. Exercise selection is important as well. It is best to condition
the prime movers with functional exercises that mimic aspects of
sports movements rather than with isolation exercises like the
ones that bodybuilders favor. For example, cyclists are better off
strengthening the quadriceps muscles on the front of the thigh
with bench step-ups than with machine leg extensions.
An effective strength-training program will also include
exercises targeting smaller muscles that play important balancing
or stabilizing roles during sports movements. The small muscles of
the rotator cuff play such a role in swimmers. These muscles tend
to be relatively weak compared to the highly developed prime
movers of the chest and upper back, but giving them due attention
in the gym will reduce the risk for the shoulder injuries that are so
common in swimmers.
A little strength training goes a long way. Some studies have
shown that as few as two half-hour sessions per week yield
significant results. As an endurance athlete, you want to avoid
doing more strength training than is necessary so that fatigue
produced by these sessions doesn’t interfere with your sport-
specific training.
Strength training is advisable for exercisers as well as athletes,
but for a different reason. Although the performance benefits of
strength training are not relevant to exercisers, and although
exercisers are less prone to the overuse injuries that a good
strength-training program may help prevent, strength training
complements endurance training with respect to the goal of
developing a leaner body composition.
If getting leaner is your top priority, you’ll want to select
different exercises than you would if competitive performance was
the main objective. Traditional movements like bench presses that
do little for athletes carry the benefit of building more muscle
mass, which in turn increases resting metabolism and ultimately
burns more fat than many of the functional movements that are
most beneficial to racers.

Follow the Leaders

There isn’t enough room in this book to supply all of the guidance
needed to train effectively in every endurance discipline. But I trust
that I have made the point that you will get the best results from
your training if you emulate the methods used by elite endurance
athletes, just as you will get the greatest possible benefit from your
diet if you eat like the world’s fittest people.
In my work as a running and triathlon coach as well as a sports
nutritionist, I take great satisfaction in seeing the breakthroughs
that occur when an athlete or exerciser begins to train or eat like
the pros. As you might expect, the greatest breakthroughs occur
in those who do both. Take Holly, a physician and runner in her
forties from Kansas, who after twelve years of “winging” her
training and diet and making little progress began to follow an
“80/20” training plan I created, to cook Georgie Fear’s recipes
(Holly actually served as a tester for the recipes in this book), and
to track her Diet Quality Score. In just two months she lost 6
pounds and 2 percent body fat and bettered her 5K race time by a
full minute. What’s more, she enjoyed both her running and her
eating more than ever before.
What works for the world’s fittest people worked for Holly, and
what worked for Holly will work for you. Will the next breakthrough
be yours?
 APPENDIX A A PERFECT DAY
SAMPLE TABLE

Use this table according to the guidelines described in Chapter 8

to create your Endurance Diet Perfect Day.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I COULD NOT HAVE WRITTEN THIS BOOK WITHOUT THE

GENEROUS HELP OF the dozens of athletes who willing shared
detailed information about their diets and, in many cases, allowed
me to eat and even train with them. Although many of these
athletes are named within the book, a great many others are not
but their contributions are no less valuable. I am extremely grateful
also to the coaches, nutritionists, and others who served as
conduits to these athletes, especially Marina Bonilha, Arseny
Chernov, Louis Delajaije, Nobuya Hashizume, Anna Novick, Cory
Nyamora, Pete Pfitzinger, Marco Pinotti, and Justin Wadsworth.
Other valuable contributions were made by Brandon Bauer, Kate
Buntenbach, Jeffrey Gopsill, Lori Henderson, Tom Hood, Asker
Jeukendrup, Mike Kane, Patrick McKenna, Ruben Orduz,
Stephanie Riis, Marcella Shandor, Trent Stellingwerff, Patti
Thompson, Holly Winchell, Jordan Zwick, and Renee Sedliar and
the rest of the great team at Da Capo Lifelong Books. Thank you
all!
 REFERENCES

Chapter 1
Ciccolo JT, Bartholomew JB, Stults-Kolehmainen M, Seifert J, Portman R. 2009.
Relationship between body weight and health-related quality of life amongst a large
group of highly active individuals. Paper presented at the Society for Behavioral
Medicine, Montreal, Canada.
Seiler KS, Kjerland GØ. Quantifying training intensity distribution in elite endurance
athletes: is there evidence for an “optimal” distribution? Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2006
Feb;16(1):49-56.

Chapter 2
Bouchard C. Genomic predictors of trainability. Experimental Physiology. 97:347-352.
doi:10.1113/expphysiol.2011.058735.
Jarvis M, McNaughton L, Seddon A, Thompson D. The acute 1-week effects of the Zone
diet on body composition, blood lipid levels, and performance in recreational endurance
athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 2002 Feb;16(1):50-7.
Legaz-Arrese A, Kinfu H, Munguía-Izquierdo D, Carranza-Garcia LE, Calderón FJ. Basic
physiological measures determine fitness and are associated with running performance
in elite young male and female Ethiopian runners. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2009
Dec;49(4):358-63.
Mayfield J. The Engine of Complexity. New York, NY: Columbia University Press; 2013,
149.
Mitsuishi M, Miyashita K, Muraki A, Tamaki M, Tanaka K, Itoh H. Dietary protein
decreases exercise endurance through rapamycin-sensitive suppression of muscle
mitochondria. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2013 Oct 1;305(7):E776-84.
Muñoz I, Seiler S, Bautista J, España J, Larumbe E, Esteve-Lanao. Does polarized
training improve performance in recreational runners? J Int J Sports Physiol Perform.
2014 Mar;9(2):265-72.
Rehm CD, Peñalvo JL, Afshin A, Mozaffarian D. Dietary intake among US Adults, 1999-
2012. JAMA. 2016 Jun 21;315(23):2542-53. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.7491.
Romero P, Wagg J, Green M, Kaiser D, Krummenacker M, Karp P. Computational
prediction of human metabolic pathways from the complete human genome. Genome
 Biol. 2005;6(1):R2.
Sears B, with Lawren B. Enter the Zone New York, NY: Regan Books; 1995, ix.

Chapter 3
Addessi E, Mancini A, Crescimbene L, Ariely D and Visalberghi E. How to spend a token?
Trade-offs between food variety and food preference in tufted capuchin monkeys
(Cebus apella). Behavioural Processes. 2010;83(3):267.
Cerling TE, Manthi FK, Mbua EN, Leakey LN, Leakey MG, Leakey RE, Brown FH, Grine
FE, Hart JA, Kaleme P, Roche H, Uno KT, Wood BA. Stable isotope-based diet
reconstructions of Turkana Basin hominins. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2013 Jun
25;110(26):10501-6.
Gavaghan J. Hooked on chicken nuggets: girl, 17, who has eaten nothing else since age
TWO rushed to hospital after collapsing. DailyMail.com.
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2092071/Stacey-Irvine-17-collapses-eating-
McDonalds-chicken-nuggets-age-2.html. Accessed February 14, 2015.
Krebs-Smith SM, Smiciklas-Wright H, Guthrie HA, Krebs-Smith J. The effects of variety in
food choices on dietary quality. J Am Diet Assoc. 1987 Jul;87(7):897-903.
Kuijer RG, Boyce JA, Marshall EM. Associating a prototypical forbidden food item with
guilt or celebration: relationships with indicators of (un)healthy eating and the
moderating role of stress and depressive symptoms. Psychol Health. 2015;30(2):203-
17.
Mirmiran P, Azadbakht L, Azizi F. Dietary diversity within food groups: an indicator of
specific nutrient adequacy in Tehranian women. J Am Coll Nutr. 2006 Aug;25(4): 354-
61.
Murphy SP, Foote JA, Wilkens LR, Basiotis PP, Carlson A, White KK, Yonemori KM.
Simple measures of dietary variety are associated with improved dietary quality. J Am
Diet Assoc. 2006 Mar;106(3):425-9.
Reedy J, Krebs-Smith SM, Miller PE, Liese AD, Kahle LL, Park Y, Subar AF. Higher diet
quality is associated with decreased risk of all-cause, cardiovascular disease, and
cancer mortality among older adults. J Nutr. 2014 Jun;144(6):881-9.
doi:10.3945/jn.113.189407. Epub 2014 Feb 26.
Schwerin HS, Stanton JL, Smith JL, Riley AM Jr, Brett BE. Food, eating habits, and
health: a further examination of the relationship between food eating patterns and
nutritional health. Am J Clin Nutr. 1982 May;35(5 Suppl):1319-25.
Slattery ML. Defining dietary consumption: is the sum greater than its parts? Am J Clin
Nutr. 2008 July;88(1):14-15.
Stubbs RJ, Johnstone AM, Mazlan N, Mbaiwa SE, Ferris S. Effect of altering the variety of
sensorially distinct foods, of the same macronutrient content, on food intake and body
weight in men. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2001 Jan;55(1):19-28.
Zampollo F, Kniffin KM, Wansink B, Shimizu M. Food plating preferences of children: the
importance of presentation on desire for diversity. Acta Paediatrica. 2012;101:61-66.

Chapter 4
Alkerwi A. Diet quality concept. Nutrition. 2014 Jun;30(6):613-8.
Bennett H. Dispatch: Fernanda Keller – Style Smile and Soul. Triathlete.
http://triathlon.competitor.com/2012/12/features/dispatch-fernanda-keller-style-smiles-
and-soul_67366. Accessed April 9, 2015.
Boada LD, Henríquez-Hernández LA, Luzardo OP. The impact of red and processed meat
consumption on cancer and other health outcomes: epidemiological evidences. Food
Chem Toxicol. 2016 Jun;92:236-44. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2016.04.008. Epub 2016 Apr 20.
Review.
Ericson U, Hellstrand S, Brunkwall L, Schulz CA, Sonestedt E, Wallström P, Gullberg B,
Wirfält E, Orho-Melander M. Food sources of fat may clarify the inconsistent role of
dietary fat intake for incidence of type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015
May;101(5):1065-80.
Firlaąg M, Kamaszewski M, Adamek D, Gajewska M, Bałasinńska B. Long-term
consumption of fish oil partially protects brain tissue from age-related
neurodegeneration. Postepy Hig Med Dosw (Online). 2015 Feb 6;69:188-96.
Fung TT, Hu FB, Pereira MA, Liu S, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Whole-grain
intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study in men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002
Sep;76(3):535-40.
Giacco R, Costabile G, Della Pepa G, Anniballi G, Griffo E, Mangione A, Cipriano P,
Viscovo D, Clemente G, Landberg R, Pacini G, Rivellese AA, Riccardi G. A whole-
grain cereal-based diet lowers postprandial plasma insulin and triglyceride levels in
individuals with metabolic syndrome. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2014 Aug;24(8):
837-44.
Kanda A, Nakayama K, Sanbongi C, Nagata M, Ikegami S, Itoh H. Effects of Whey,
Caseinate, or Milk Protein Ingestion on Muscle Protein Synthesis after Exercise.
Nutrients. 2016 Jun 3;8(6). pii: E339. doi:10.3390/nu8060339.
Katcher HI, Legro RS, Kunselman AR, Gillies PJ, Demers LM, Bagshaw DM, Kris-
Etherton PM. The effects of a whole grain-enriched hypocaloric diet on cardiovascular
disease risk factors in men and women with metabolic syndrome. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008
Jan;87(1):79-90.
Kim H, Park S, Yang H, Choi YJ, Huh KB, Chang N. Association between fish and
shellfish, and omega-3 PUFAs intake and CVD risk factors in middle-aged female
patients with type 2 diabetes. Nutr Res Pract. 2015 Oct;9(5):496-502.
doi:10.4162/nrp.2015.9.5.496. Epub 2015 May 13.
McKeown NM, Troy LM, Jacques PF, Hoffmann U, O’Donnell CJ, Fox CS. Whole- and
refined-grain intakes are differentially associated with abdominal visceral and
subcutaneous adiposity in healthy adults: the Framingham Heart Study. Am J Clin Nutr.
2010 Nov;92(5):1165-71.
Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB. Changes in diet and lifestyle and
long-term weight gain in women and men. N Engl J Med. 2011 Jun 23;364(25):2392-
404.
Mozaffarian D, Kumanyika SK, Lemaitre RN, Olson JL, Burke GL, Siscovick DS. Cereal,
fruit, and vegetable fiber intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease in elderly
individuals. JAMA. 2003 Apr 2;289(13):1659-66.
Musumeci G, Maria Trovato F, Imbesi R, Castrogiovanni P. Effects of dietary extra-virgin
olive oil on oxidative stress resulting from exhaustive exercise in rat skeletal muscle: a
morphological study. Acta Histochem. 2014 Jan;116(1):61-9.
Randolph JM, Edirisinghe I, Masoni AM, Kappagoda T, Burton-Freeman B. Potatoes,
glycemic index, and weight loss in free-living individuals: practical implications. J Am
Coll Nutr. 2014;33(5):375-84.
Rohrmann S1, Overvad K, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Jakobsen MU, Egeberg R,
Tjønneland A, Nailler L, Boutron-Ruault MC, Clavel-Chapelon F, Krogh V, Palli D,
Panico S, Tumino R, Ricceri F, Bergmann MM, Boeing H, Li K, Kaaks R, Khaw KT,
Wareham NJ, Crowe FL, Key TJ, Naska A, Trichopoulou A, Trichopoulos D, Leenders
M, Peeters PH, Engeset D, Parr CL, Skeie G, Jakszyn P, Sánchez MJ, Huerta JM,
Redondo ML, Barricarte A, Amiano P, Drake I, Sonestedt E, Hallmans G, Johansson I,
Fedirko V, Romieux I, Ferrari P, Norat T, Vergnaud AC, Riboli E, Linseisen J. Meat
consumption and mortality—results from the European Prospective Investigation into
Cancer and Nutrition. BMC Med. 2013 Mar 7;11:63.
Rondini R. Frenanda Keller Triathlon. Magazine SuperAção.
https://translate.google.com/translate?
hl=en&sl=pt&u=http://www.webrun.com.br/h/noticias/fernanda-triath lon-
keller/1507&prev=search. Accessed August 9, 2016.
Rowan, Karen. Big fat disconnect: 90% of us think our diets are healthy. Live Science.
http://www.livescience.com/10389-big-fat-disconnect-90-diets-healthy.html. Accessed
May 20, 2015.
Wang X, Ouyang Y, Liu J, Zhu M, Zhao G, Bao W, Hu FB. Fruit and vegetable
consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer:
systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.
BMJ. 2014 Jul 29;349:g4490. doi:10.1136/bmj.g4490.
Watson TA, Callister R, Taylor RD, Sibbritt DW, MacDonald-Wicks LK, Garg ML.
Antioxidant restriction and oxidative stress in short-duration exhaustive exercise. Med
Sci Sports Exerc. 2005 Jan;37(1):63-71.
Yang Q, Zhang Z, Gregg EW, Flanders WD, Merritt R, Hu FB. Added sugar intake and
cardiovascular diseases mortality among US adults. JAMA Intern Med. 2014
Apr;174(4):516-24.
Żebrowska A, Mizia-Stec K, Mizia M, Gąsior Z, Poprzęcki S. Omega-3 fatty acids
supplementation improves endothelial function and maximal oxygen uptake in
endurance-trained athletes. Eur J Sport Sci. 2015;15(4):305-14.
Zhang X, Shu XO, Xiang YB, Yang G, Li H, Gao J, Cai H, Gao YT, Zheng W. Cruciferous
vegetable consumption is associated with a reduced risk of total and cardiovascular
disease mortality. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011 Jul;94(1):240-6.

Chapter 5
Achten J, Halson SL, Moseley L, Rayson MP, Casey A, Jeukendrup AE. Higher dietary
carbohydrate content during intensified running training results in better maintenance of
performance and mood state. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2004 Apr;96(4):1331-40.
AlEssa HB, Bhupathiraju SN, Malik VS, Wedick NM, Campos H, Rosner B, Willett WC,
Hu FB. Carbohydrate quality and quantity and risk of type 2 diabetes in US women. Am
J Clin Nutr. 2015 Dec;102(6):1543-53.
Badenhorst CE, Dawson B, Cox GR, Laarakkers CM, Swinkels DW, Peeling P. Acute
dietary carbohydrate manipulation and the subsequent inflammatory and hepcidin
responses to exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2015 Dec;115(12):2521-30.
Bisschop PH, de Metz J, Ackermans MT, Endert E, Pijl H, Kuipers F, Meijer AJ,
Sauerwein HP, Romijn JA. Dietary fat content alters insulin-mediated glucose
metabolism in healthy men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001 Mar;73(3):554-9.
Burke LM, Cox GR, Culmmings NK, Desbrow B. Guidelines for daily carbohydrate intake:
do athletes achieve them? Sports Med. 2001;31(4):267-99.
Carlsohn A, Nippe S, Heydenreich J, Mayer F. Carbohydrate intake and food sources of
junior triathletes during a moderate and an intensive training period. Int J Sport Nutr
Exerc Metab. 2012 Dec;22(6):438-43.
Frentsos JA, Baer JT. Increased energy and nutrient intake during training and
competition improves elite triathletes’ endurance performance. Int J Sport Nutr. 1997
Mar;7(1):61-71.
Grossman SP. The role of glucose, insulin and glucagon in the regulation of food intake
and body weight. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1986 Fall;10(3):295-315.
Hall KD, Bemis T, Brychta R, Chen KY, Courville A, Crayner EJ, Goodwin S, Guo J,
Howard L, Knuth ND, Miller BV 3rd, Prado CM, Siervo M, Skarulis MC, Walter M,
Walter PJ, Yannai L. Calorie for calorie, dietary fat restriction results in more body fat
loss than carbohydrate restriction in people with obesity. Cell Metab. 2015 Sep
1;22(3):427-36.
Hill JO, Peters JC, Reed GW, Schlundt DG, Sharp T, Greene HL. Nutrient balance in
humans: effects of diet composition. Am J Clin Nutr. 1991 Jul;54(1):10-7.
Lippi G, Salvagno GL, Danese E, Tarperi C, La Torre A, Guidi GC, Schena F. The baseline
serum value of α-amylase is a significant predictor of distance running performance.
Clin Chem Lab Med. 2015 Feb;53(3):469-76.
McCarthy J. Americans more likely to avoid drinking soda than before. Gallup.com.
http://www.gallup.com/poll/174137/americans-likely-avoid-drinking-soda.aspx.
Accessed July 14, 2015.
McEvoy CT, Cardwell CR, Woodside JV, Young IS, Hunter SJ, McKinley MC. A posteriori
dietary patterns are related to risk of type 2 diabetes: findings from a systematic review
and meta-analysis. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2014 Nov;114(11):1759-75.e4.
Neumark-Sztainer D, Wall M, Guo J, Story M, Haines J, Eisenberg M. Obesity, disordered
eating, and eating disorders in a longitudinal study of adolescents: how do dieters fare 5
years later? J Am Diet Assoc. 2006 Apr;106(4):559-68.
Nielsen SJ, Popkin BM. Patterns and trends in food portion sizes, 1977-1998. JAMA. 2003
Jan 22-29;289(4):450-3.
Onywera VO, Kiplamai FK, Boit MK, Pitsiladis YP. Food and macronutrient intake of elite
kenyan distance runners. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2004 Dec;14(6):709-19.
Romon M, Lebel P, Velly C, Marecaux N, Fruchart JC, Dallongeville J. Leptin response to
carbohydrate or fat meal and association with subsequent satiety and energy intake.
Am J Physiol. 1999 Nov;277(5 Pt 1):E855-61.
Schulte EM, Avena NM, Gearhardt AN. Which foods may be addictive? The roles of
processing, fat content, and glycemic load. PLoS One. 2015 Feb 18;10(2):e0117959.
Sichieri R, Moura AS, Genelhu V, Hu F, Willett WC. An 18-mo randomized trial of a low-
glycemic-index diet and weight change in Brazilian women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007
Sep;86(3):707-13.
Turner-McGrievy GM, Davidson CR, Wingard EE, Wilcox S, Frongillo EA. Comparative
effectiveness of plant-based diets for weight loss: a randomized controlled trial of five
different diets. Nutrition. 2015 Feb;31(2):350-8.
Zajac A, Poprzecki S, Maszczyk A, Czuba M, Michalczyk M, Zydek G. The effects of a
ketogenic diet on exercise metabolism and physical performance in off-road cyclists.
Nutrients. 2014 Jun 27;6(7):2493-508.

Chapter 6
American Institute for Cancer Research. As restaurant portions grow, vast majority of
Americans still belong to the clean plate club. Charitywire.com.
http://www.charitywire.com/charity10/00235.html. Accessed August 30, 2015.
Artins C, Morgan L, Truby H. A review of the effects of exercise on appetite regulation: an
obesity perspective. International Journal of Obesity. 2008;32:1337–1347.
doi:10.1038/ijo.2008.98.
Barrack MT, Rauh MJ, Barkai HS, Nichols JF. Dietary restraint and low bone mass in
female adolescent endurance runners. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 Jan;87(1):36-43.
Brown AJ, Smith LT, Craighead LW. Appetite awareness as a mediator in an eating
disorders prevention program. Eat Disord. 2010 Jul-Aug;18(4):286-301.
Buckner AL. Appetite awareness training in the prevention of eating disorders.
Unpublished doctoral thesis. http://search.proquest.com/docview/304888376. 2008
Jan.
Cava E, Fontana L. Will calorie restriction work in humans? Aging. 2013 Jul;5(7):507-14.
Ciampolini M, Lovell-Smith D, Sifone M. Sustained self-regulation of energy intake. Loss of
weight in overweight subjects. Maintenance of weight in normal-weight subjects. Nutr
Metab (Lond). 2010 Jan 19;7:4.
Ciccolo JT, Bartholomew JB, Stults-Kolehmainen M, Seifert J, Portman R. 2009.
Relationship between body weight and health-related quality of life amongst a large
group of highly active individuals. Paper presented at the Society for Behavioral
Medicine, Montreal, Canada.
Fothergill E, Guo J, Howard L, Kerns JC, Knuth ND, Brychta R, Chen KY, Skarulis MC,
Walter M, Walter PJ, Hall KD. Persistent metabolic adaptation 6 years after “The
Biggest Loser” competition. Obesity. 2016 Aug;24(8):1612-9. doi:10.1002/oby.21538.
Epub 2016 May 2.
Fox MK, Devaney B, Reidy K, Razafindrakoto C, Ziegler P. Relationship between portion
size and energy intake among infants and toddlers: evidence of self-regulation. J Am
Diet Assoc. 2006 Jan;106(1 Suppl 1):S77-83.
Friedlaender JS, Rhoads JG. Patterns of adult weight and fat change in six Solomon
Islands societies: a semi-longitudinal study. Soc Sci Med. 1982;16(2):205-15.
Harris JL, Bargh JA, Brownell KD. Priming effects of television food advertising on eating
behavior. Health psychol. 2009 July;28(4):404-413.
Melin A, Tornberg AB, Skouby S, Møller SS, Sundgot-Borgen J, Faber J, Sidelmann JJ,
Aziz M, Sjödin A. Energy availability and the female athlete triad in elite endurance
athletes. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2014 May 30.
Patton GC, Johnson-Sabine E, Wood K, Mann AH, Wakeling A. Abnormal eating attitudes
in London schoolgirls—a prospective epidemiological study: outcome at twelve month
follow-up. Psychol Med. 1990 May;20(2):383-94.
Silva JR. Overeating and restrained eaters: an affective neuroscience perspective. Rev
Med Chil. 2008 Oct;136(10):1336-42.
Veenstra EM, de Jong PJ. Restrained eaters show enhanced automatic approach
tendencies towards food. Appetite. 2010 Aug;55(1):30-6. Rev Med Chil. 2008
Oct;136(10): 1336-42.
Wansink B. Mindless Eating. New York, NY: Random House; 2006.
Waugh EJ, Polivy J, Ridout R, Hawker GA. A prospective investigation of the relations
among cognitive dietary restraint, subclinical ovulatory disturbances, physical activity,
and bone mass in healthy young women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Dec;86(6):1791-801.
Young LR, Nestle M. The contribution of expanding portion sizes to the US obesity
epidemic. Am J Public Health. 2002 Feb;92(2):246-249.

Chapter 7
Biesiekierski JR, Peters SL, Newnham ED, Rosella O, Muir JG, Gibson PR. No effects of
gluten in patients with self-reported non-celiac gluten sensitivity following dietary
reduction of low-fermentable, poorly-absorbed, short-chain carbohydrates.
Gastroenterology. 2013 May 3;pii: S0016-5085(13)00702-6.
Fitzgerald M, Fear G. Racing Weight Cookbook. Boulder, CO: VeloPress; 2013.
Knibb RC, Armstrong A, Booth DA, Platts RG, Booth IW, MacDonald A. Psychological
characteristics of people with perceived food intolerance in a community sample. J
Psychosom Res. 1999 Dec;47(6):545-54.
Porcari J, Foster C. Mind Over Body. ACE FitnessMatters. May/June 2006.
Qi Q, Xu M, Wu H, Liang L, Champagne CM, Bray GA, Sacks FM, Qi L. IRS1 genotype
modulates metabolic syndrome reversion in response to 2-year weight-loss diet
intervention: the POUNDS LOST trial. Diabetes Care. 2013 Nov;36(11):3442-7.
Scheibehenne B, Miesler L, Todd PM. Fast and frugal food choices: uncovering individual
decision heuristics. Appetite. 2007 Nov;49(3):578-89.
www.foodnavigator.com/Science/Health-and-nutrition-labels-may-have-negative-impact-
on-taste-expectation-Study.

Chapter 8
Barnes TD, Kubota Y, Hu D, Jin DZ, Graybiel AM. Activity of striatal neurons reflects
dynamic encoding and recoding of procedural memories. Nature. 2005 Oct 20;
437(7062):1158-61.
Deckersbach T, Das SK, Urban LE, Salinardi T, Batra P, Rodman AM, Arulpragasam AR,
Dougherty DD, Roberts SB. Pilot randomized trial demonstrating reversal of obesity-
related abnormalities in reward system responsivity to food cues with a behavioral
intervention. Nutr Diabetes. 2014 Sep 1;4:e129.
Duhigg C. The Power of Habit: Why We Do What We Do in Life and Business. New York,
NY: Random House; 2012.
Finch EA, Linde JA, Jeffery RW, Rothman AJ, King CM, Levy RL. The effects of outcome
expectations and satisfaction on weight loss and maintenance: correlational and
experimental analyses—a randomized trial. Health Psychol. 2005 Nov;24(6):608-16.
Neal DT, Wood W, Drolet A. How do people adhere to goals when willpower is low? The
profits (and pitfalls) of strong habits. J Pers and Soc Psychol. 2013 Jun;104(6):959-75.
doi:10.1037/a0032626.
Prinsen S, de Ridder DT, de Vet E. Eating by example: effects of environmental cues on
dietary decisions. Appetite. 2013 Nov;70:1-5.
Robinson E, Higgs S. Food choices in the presence of ‘healthy’ and ‘unhealthy’ eating
partners. Br J Nutr. 2013 Feb 28;109(4):765-71.
van de Giessen E, la Fleur SE, Eggels L, de Bruin K, van den Brink W, Booij J. High
fat/carbohydrate ratio but not total energy intake induces lower striatal dopamine D2/3
receptor availability in diet-induced obesity. Int J Obes (Lond). 2013 May;37(5):754-7.
doi: 10.1038/ijo.2012.128. Epub 2012 Aug 7.

Chapter 9
Ballor DL, Katch VL, Becque MD, Marcks CR. Resistance weight training during caloric
restriction enhances lean body weight maintenance. Am J Clin Nutr. 1988
Jan;47(1):19-25.
Bray GA, Redman LM, de Jonge L, Covington J, Rood J, Brock C, Mancuso S, Martin
CK, Smith SR. Effect of protein overfeeding on energy expenditure measured in a
metabolic chamber. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015 Mar;101(3):496-505.
Dellavalle DM, Haas JD. Iron status is associated with endurance performance and
training in female rowers. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012 Aug;44(8):1552-9.
Durrant ML, Garrow JS, Royston P, et al. Factors influencing the composition of the
weight lost by obese patients on a reducing diet. British Journal of Nutrition.
1980;44(3):275-285.
Jeukendrup A, Brouns F, Wagenmakers AJ, Saris WH. Carbohydrate-electrolyte feedings
improve 1 h time trial cycling performance. Int J Sports Med. 1997 Feb;18(2):125-9.
Jeukendrup AE, Hopkins S, Aragón-Vargas LF, Hulston C. No effect of carbohydrate
feeding on 16 km cycling time trial performance. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2008
Nov;104(5):831-7. doi: 10.1007/s00421-008-0838-z. Epub 2008 Sep 24.
King AC, Castro CM, Buman MP, Hekler EB, Urizar GG Jr, Ahn DK. Behavioral impacts
of sequentially versus simultaneously delivered dietary plus physical activity
interventions: the CALM trial. Ann Behav Med. 2013 Oct;46(2):157-68.
Lewis EJ, Radonic PW, Wolever TM, Wells GD. 21 days of mammalian omega-3 fatty acid
supplementation improves aspects of neuromuscular function and performance in male
 athletes compared to olive oil placebo. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015 Jun 18;12:28.
Lunn, WR, Finn JA, Axtell RS. Effects of sprint interval training and body weight reduction
on power to weight ratio in experienced cyclists. J Strength Cond Res. 2009
23(4):1217-24.
Marquet LA, Brisswalter J, Louis J, Tiollier E, Burke LM, Hawley JA, Hausswirth C.
Enhanced endurance performance by periodization of carbohydrate intake: “Sleep
Low” strategy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016 Apr;48(4):663-72.
doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000000823.
Mettler S, Zimmermann MB. Iron excess in recreational marathon runners. Eur J Clin Nutr.
2010 May;64(5):490-4.
Nehlsen-Cannarella SL, Fagoaga OR, Nieman DC, Henson DA, Butterworth DE, Schmitt
RL, Bailey EM, Warren BJ, Utter A, Davis JM. Carbohydrate and the cytokine
response to 2.5 h of running. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1997 May;82(5):1662-7.
Papanikolaou Y, Brooks J, Reider C, Fulgoni VL 3rd. US adults are not meeting
recommended levels for fish and omega-3 fatty acid intake: results of an analysis using
observational data from NHANES 2003-2008. Nutr J. 2014 Apr 2;13:31.
Psilander N, Frank P, Flockhart M, Sahlin K. Exercise with low glycogen increases PGC-
1α gene expression in human skeletal muscle. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013
Apr;113(4):951-63. doi:10.1007/s00421-012-2504-8. Epub 2012 Oct 2.
Snyder AC, Dvorak LL, Roepke JB. Influence of dietary iron source on measures of iron
status among female runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1989 Feb;21(1):7-10.
Weigle DS, Breen PA, Matthys CC, Callahan HS, Meeuws KE, Burden VR, Purnell JQ. A
high-protein diet induces sustained reductions in appetite, ad libitum caloric intake, and
body weight despite compensatory changes in diurnal plasma leptin and ghrelin
concentrations. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005 Jul;82(1):41-8.
Willis KS, Smith DT, Broughton KS, Larson-Meyer DE. Vitamin D status and biomarkers of
inflammation in runners. Open Access J Sports Med. 2012 Apr 27;3:35-42.

Chapter 10
Alaunyte I, Stojceska V, Plunkett A, Derbyshire E. Dietary iron intervention using a staple
food product for improvement of iron status in female runners. J Int Soc Sports Nutr.
2014 Oct 18;11(1):50. doi:10.1186/s12970-014-0050-y. eCollection 2014.
Bell PG, Walshe IH, Davison GW, Stevenson E, Howatson G. Montmorency cherries
reduce the oxidative stress and inflammatory responses to repeated days high-intensity
stochastic cycling. Nutrients. 2014 Feb 21;6(2):829-43.
Clayton D. Running to the Top. Mountain View, CA: Anderson World; 1980, 16.
Del Coso J, Muñoz G, Muñoz-Guerra J. Prevalence of caffeine use in elite athletes
following its removal from the World Anti-Doping Agency list of banned substances.
Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2011 Aug;36(4):555-61.
Drewnowski A. New metrics of affordable nutrition: which vegetables provide most
nutrients for least cost? J Acad Nutr Diet. 2013 Sep;113(9):1182-7.
Geliebter A, Lee MI, Abdillahi M, Jones J. Satiety following intake of potatoes and other
carbohydrate test meals. Ann Nutr Metab. 2013;62(1):37-43.
Habte K, Adish A, Zerfu D, Kebede A, Moges D, Tesfaye D, Challa F, Baye K.
Iron, folate and vitamin B12 status of Ethiopian professional runners. Nutr Metab (Lond).
2015 Dec 30;12:62. doi:10.1186/s12986-015-0056-8. eCollection 2015.
Harms-Ringdahl M, Jenssen D, Haghdoost S. Tomato juice intake suppressed serum
concentration of 8-oxodG after extensive physical activity. Nutr J. 2012 May 2;11:29.
Hart N, Sarga L, Csende Z, Koltai E, Koch LG, Britton SL, Davies KJ, Kouretas D,
Wessner B, Radak Z. Resveratrol enhances exercise training responses in rats
selectively bred for high running performance. Food Chem Toxicol. 2013 Nov;61:53-9.
Howatson G, McHugh MP, Hill JA, Brouner J, Jewell AP, van Someren KA, Shave RE,
Howatson SA. Influence of tart cherry juice on indices of recovery following marathon
running. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010 Dec;20(6):843-52.
Khan N, Mukhtar H. Tea and health: studies in humans. Curr Pharm Des. 2013;19(34):
6141-7.
Martinez-Gonzalez MA, Sayon-Orea C, Ruiz-Canela M, de la Fuente C, Gea A, Bes-
Rastrollo M. Yogurt consumption, weight change and risk of overweight/obesity: the
SUN cohort study. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2014 Nov;24(11):1189-96. Epub 2014
Jun 15.
Meyers K. What do pro triathletes eat for breakfast?
http://www.active.com/triathlon/articles/what-do-pro-triathletes-eat-for-breakfast.
Accessed September 11, 2015.
Morihara N, Ushijima M, Kashimoto N, Sumioka I, Nishihama T, Hayama M, Takeda H.
Aged garlic extract ameliorates physical fatigue. Biol Pharm Bull. 2006 May;29(5): 962-
6.
Morris DM, Beloni RK, Wheeler HE. Effects of garlic consumption on physiological
variables and performance during exercise in hypoxia. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2013
Apr;38(4):363-7.
Nieman DC, Gillitt ND, Henson DA, Sha W, Shanely RA, Knab AM, Cialdella-Kam L, Jin F.
Bananas as an energy source during exercise: a metabolomics approach. PLoS One.
2012;7(5):e37479.
Orlandi C, Tocco F, Concu A, Crisafulli A. Effect of beetroot juice supplementation on
aerobic response during swimming. Nutrients. 2014 Jan 29;6(2):605-15.
Pinna M, Roberto S, Milia R, Marongiu E, Olla S, Loi A, Migliaccio GM, Padulo J,
Shimabukuro M, Higa M, Kinjo R, Yamakawa K, Tanaka H, Kozuka C, Yabiku K,
Taira S, Sata M, Masuzaki H. Effects of the brown rice diet on visceral obesity and
endothelial function: the BRAVO study. Br J Nutr. 2014 Jan 28;111(2):310-20.
Pitozzi V, Jacomelli M, Catelan D, Servili M, Taticchi A, Biggeri A, Dolara P, Giovannelli L.
Long-term dietary extra-virgin olive oil rich in polyphenols reverses age-related
dysfunctions in motor coordination and contextual memory in mice: role of oxidative
stress. Rejuvenation Res. 2012 Dec;15(6):601-12.
Rong Y, Chen L, Zhu T, Song Y, Yu M, Shan Z, Sand A, Hu FB, Liu L. Egg consumption
and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke: dose-response meta-analysis of
prospective cohort studies. BMJ. 2013 Jan 7;346:e8539. doi:10.1136/bmj.e8539.
Samaras A, Tsarouhas K, Paschalidis E, Giamouzis G, Triposkiadis F, Tsitsimpikou C,
Becker AT, Goutzourelas N, Kouretas D. Effect of a special carbohydrate-protein bar
 and tomato juice supplementation on oxidative stress markers and vascular endothelial
dynamics in ultra-marathon runners. Food Chem Toxicol. 2014 Jul;69:231-6.
Tsitsimpikou C, Kioukia-Fougia N, Tsarouhas K, Stamatopoulos P, Rentoukas E,
Koudounakos A, Papalexis P, Liesivuori J, Jamurtas A. Administration of tomato juice
ameliorates lactate dehydrogenase and creatinine kinase responses to anaerobic
training. Food Chem Toxicol. 2013 Nov;61:9-13.
Womack CJ, Lawton DJ, Redmond L, Todd MK, Hargens TA. The effects of acute garlic
supplementation on the fibrinolytic and vasoreactive response to exercise. J Int Soc
Sports Nutr. 2015 May 14;12:23.
Yi M, Fu J, Zhou L, Gao H, Fan C, Shao J, Xu B, Wang Q, Li J, Huang G, Lapsley K,
Blumberg JB, Chen CY. The effect of almond consumption on elements of endurance
exercise performance in trained athletes. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2014 May 11;11:18.

Chapter 12
Damasceno MV, Lima-Silva AE, Pasqua LA, Tricoli V, Duarte M, Bishop DJ, Bertuzzi R.
Effects of resistance training on neuromuscular characteristics and pacing during 10-
km running time trial. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2015 Jul;115(7):1513-22.
Gilman MB, Well CL. The use of heart rates to monitor exercise intensity in relation to
metabolic variables. Int J Sports Med. 1993 Aug;14(6):339-44.
Halson SL, Bridge MW, Meeusen R, Busschaert B, Gleeson M, Jones DA, Jeukendrup
AE. Time course of performance changes and fatigue markers during intensified
training in trained cyclists. J Appl Physiol. 2002 Sep;93(3):947-56.
Losnegard T, Mikkelsen K, Rønnestad BR, Hallén J, Rud B, Raastad T. The effect of
heavy strength training on muscle mass and physical performance in elite cross
country skiers. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2011 Jun;21(3):389-401.
Luedke LE, Heiderscheit BC, Williams DS, Rauh MJ. Association of isometric strength of
hip and knee muscles with injury risk in high school cross country runners. Int J Sports
Phys Ther. 2015 Nov;10(6):868-76.
Madsen K, Pedersen PK, Djurhuus MS, Klitgaard NA. Effects of detraining on endurance
capacity and metabolic changes during prolonged exhaustive exercise. J Appl Physiol.
1993 Oct;75(4):1444-51.
Muñoz I, Seiler S, Bautista J, España J, Larumbe E, Esteve-Lanao. Does polarized
training improve performance in recreational runners? J Int J Sports Physiol Perform.
2014 Mar;9(2):265-72.
Navalta JW, Tibana RA, Fedor EA, Vieira A, Prestes J. Three consecutive days of interval
runs to exhaustion affects lymphocyte subset apoptosis and migration. Biomed Res Int.
2014;2014:694801.
Neal CM, Hunter AM, Galloway SD. A 6-month analysis of training-intensity distribution
and physiological adaptation in Ironman triathletes. J Sports Sci. 2011 Nov;29(14):
1515-23.
Rønnestad BR, Ellefsen S, Nygaard H, Zacharoff EE, Vikmoen O, Hansen J, Hallén J.
Effects of 12 weeks of block periodization on performance and performance indices in
well-trained cyclists. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2014 Apr;24(2):327-35.
Sedano S, Marín PJ, Cuadrado G, Redondo JC. Concurrent training in elite male runners:
the influence of strength versus muscular endurance training on performance
outcomes.
J Strength Cond Res. 2013 Sep;27(9):2433-43. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e318280cc26.
 INDEX

Page numbers in italics refer to tables and figures.

Abeleygesse, Elvan, 95
aging, 46, 118, 206
Alkhaldi, Jasmine, 7–9
one-day food journal, 8
allergies. See food allergies and intolerances
anorexia, 111, 117. See also eating disorders
Anquetil, Jacques, 23
antioxidant defenses, 46
appetite awareness training, 120, 126. See also mindful eating
Augaitis, Lina, 209

blood pressure, high. See hypertension

blue zones of longevity, 64–65
bone mineral density, 118
Bonilha, Marina, 61–62
Boom, Jesper, 38–41
bulimia, 117. See also eating disorders
Byers, Sanford, 29

calorie counting, 7, 8, 14, 20, 42, 56, 65, 106, 118, 120–121, 211
calorie restriction, 118–120, 177–178. See also restrained eating
cancer, 46, 63, 72, 76, 77, 81, 118, 192, 206
carbohydrates
carb-fasted workouts, 182–187
carbohydrates, fitness, and performance, 95–101
carbophobia, 101–104
low-carb diets, 2, 14, 74, 92, 96–102, 107–108, 183–185
See also eat carb-centered (Habit 3)
cardiovascular disease, 63, 68, 74, 77, 79, 81, 118, 188, 203–204, 206, 208
Cerovac, Nemanja, 195
cholesterol profiles, 63, 72, 75, 99, 194, 204
Ciampolini, Mario, 123, 125
Ciélo, Cesar, 61
Clayton, Derek, 202
conformity factor, 153, 157–158, 161
Cooray, Anuradha, 95–96
Crawford, Gina, 43

da Silva, Adriana Aparecida, 62

Daily Fresh food service, 38–39
Delahaije, Louis, 38–40
diabetes, 63, 68, 72, 74, 75, 81, 97, 101–103, 118, 192, 197, 199, 206
Diet Quality Score, 35, 58, 65–87, 89, 104, 144, 146, 166–167, 175
dairy, 75–76
example, 85–86
fried foods, 82
fruit, 71–72
high-quality beverages, 83–84
high-quality foods types, 68–78
high-quality processed foods, 83
low-quality beverages, 84
low-quality food types, 78–82
nuts, seeds, and healthy oils, 72–73
processed meat, 81
refined grains, 78–79
sweets, 79–81
unprocessed meat and seafood, 77–78
vegetables, 68–71
whole grains, 74–75
dietary micromanagement, 23, 109, 125, 171
Dietary Patterns Methods Project, 46
dietary self-sabotage, 14–16
diets
ancestral diets, 2
grazing diets, 13
high-fat diets, 31, 97–100, 138
high-protein diets, 13, 29–31, 102, 178
ketogenic diets, 97–99
liquid diets, 13
low-carb diets, 2, 14, 74, 92, 96–102, 107–108, 183–185
No Sugar No Grains (NSNG) diet, 54–56
Paleo Diet, 9, 50, 101
vegan diets, 54, 98, 103, 149, 228
vegetarian and plant-based diets, 2, 14, 21, 23, 25–26, 31, 50, 53–54, 77
 Zone Diet, 29–31
See also weight loss
distracted eating, 128. See also mindless eating
dos Santos, Valdilene, 62
Drewnowski, Adam, 203
Duhigg, Charles, 159
Dunleavy, Emmett, 95–96

80/20 Rule, 3, 17, 179, 238–240, 243, 252

eat carb-centered (Habit 3), 6–7, 12, 20, 22, 42, 91–108
carbohydrates, fitness, and performance, 95–101
carbophobia, 101–104
example of Kenyan runners, 91–96
putting Habit 3 into practice, 104–108
types of carbs, 104, 105
eat enough (Habit 4), 7, 10–11, 12, 14, 20–22, 26–27, 42, 109–129
example of Japanese runners, 109–114
mindless eating versus, 120–124
putting Habit 4 into practice, 124–128
restrained eating versus, 115–120
and weight loss, 129
eat everything (Habit 1), 5–6, 12, 19, 37–58
costs of not eating everything, 52–58
example of LottoNL-Jumbo cycling team, 37–43, 56, 158, 202
putting Habit 1 into practice, 58
reasons to eat everything, 43–52
eat individually (Habit 5), 7–8, 12, 21, 41–42, 131–151
allergies and intolerances, 140–142
cravings and crutches, 145–146
eating like an Olympian, 133–136
example of Devon Kershaw, 133–139, 141, 143–145, 147, 148, 150–151
likes and dislikes, 143–144
morals and values, 149–150
needs and no-no’s, 137–140
putting Habit 5 in practice, 136–150
schedule and lifestyle, 146–147
tips for working through common schedule/lifestyle constraints, 148–149
eat quality (Habit 2), 6, 12, 14, 20, 42, 59–90
diet quality, 62–65
Diet Quality Score (DQS), 65–86
example of Fernanda Keller, 59–63
high-quality versus low-quality foods, 62–65
putting Habit 2 into practice, 86–89
eating disorders, 15, 55, 99, 111, 114, 117–118, 126
Elite Athlete Diet Questionnaire, 62
Elliott, John, 112
emotional eating, 128. See also mindless eating
Esteve-Lanao, Jonathan, 238
exercise synergy, 235–252. See also training methods, essential

Fear, Georgie, 17, 68, 148, 211, 252

five key habits of Endurance Diet, 5–14, 19–24
eat carb-centered, 91–108
eat enough, 109–129
eat everything, 37–58
eat individually, 131–151
eat quality, 59–90
exceptions to, 23, 26
See also individual habits
food allergies, 58, 107, 108, 137, 138, 140–143, 150
foods. See high-quality foods; low-quality foods; superfoods
Friedlaender, Jonathan, 122
Friedman, Meyer, 29
Froome, Chris, 203

Gatorade, 60, 180. See also sports drinks

Glah, Ken, 60
glycemic index scores, 14
Gould, Georgia, 97
Grandi, Thomas, 131
Gregor, Michael, 101
Guido, Guilherme, 62

habit building, 153–169

conformity factor, 153, 157–158, 161
example of a Perfect Day, 166
one day at a time, 167–169
Perfect Day exercise, 162–167
power of rewards, 153–157, 159, 161, 175
principle of minimal disruption, 153, 159–162
See also five key habits
Hashizume, Nobuya “Nobby”, 109–114
Hengeveld, Marije, 38
Hesseling, Marcel, 38, 158
Hidaka, Yuki, 113, 114
High Altitude Training Centre (HATC), 92–93, 95
high-quality foods, 5–6, 8, 19–20, 22, 68–78
beverages, 83–84
 dairy, 75–76
and eat carb-centered (Habit 3), 93, 102, 103–104, 106–107
and eat everything (Habit 1), 38, 42–47, 50, 52, 55, 58
and eat individually (Habit 5), 136, 141
foods types, 5, 68–78
fruit, 71–72
nuts, seeds, and healthy oils, 72–73
processed foods, 81, 83
unprocessed meat and seafood, 77–78
vegetables, 68–71
whole grains, 74–75
See also eat quality (Habit 2); superfoods
Holzherr, Marcel, 132–133, 135, 140
Huddle, Molly, 10–12, 17
hyperglycemia, 12
hypertension, 63, 76, 77, 118

inflammation, 29–30, 47, 63, 74, 76–77, 96, 118, 186, 188–189, 192, 194, 196–198, 201,
204, 208
insulin sensitivity, 47
interval training, 25–26, 39, 176–177, 179, 183–186, 237, 240, 242, 243, 245

Jeukendrup, Asker, 96
Jorgensen, Gwen, 21–22
junk food, 26, 57, 147, 161, 175–176. See also low-quality foods
Justesen, Benjamin, 174

Keller, Fernanda, 59–63

Kemper, Hunter, 34–35
Kershaw, Devon, 133–139, 141, 143–145, 147, 148, 150–151, 208–209
Kessler, Meredith, 204
Kiplagat, Lornah, 92. See also High Altitude Training Centre (HATC)
Kipsang, Wilson, 94, 103
Kokamo, Yumi, 110–111
Kolehmainen, Hannes, 23, 25–26
Krebs-Smith, James, 44–45
Krebs-Smith, Susan, 44–45
Kruijswijk, Steven, 39

lactate threshold intensity, 40, 100, 134

Laye, Matthew, 98–99
lean body composition, 46–47, 72, 110, 165
Limo, Timothy, 93
LottoNL-Jumbo cycling team, 37–43, 56, 158, 202
low-quality foods, 6, 8, 15, 16, 19–20, 62–66, 86–88
beverages, 84, 166
and eat carb-centered (Habit 3), 102–104, 106
and eat enough (Habit 4), 122, 128
and eat everything (Habit 1), 43, 50, 53, 55–56, 58
and eat individually (Habit 5), 133, 145–146
food types, 6, 19, 50, 55–56, 78–82, 103, 106
fried foods, 82
and principle of minimal disruption, 159
processed meat, 81
refined grains, 78–79
and reward, 155, 157
sweets and sugars, 79–81
See also eat quality (Habit 2)
Lunn, William, 176

Ma Junren, 23
Mayfield, John, 28
McCormack, Chris, 27
McGregor, Stephen, 248
Mean Adequacy Ratio (MAR), 44
Meyers, Katya, 200
Michiels, Yannick, 95–96
mindful eating, 7, 15, 20–21, 42, 115–116, 121, 123–128, 135–136, 162, 165, 211
mindless eating, 7, 15, 20, 42, 116, 120–124, 126, 128, 160
minimal disruption, principle of, 153, 159–162
misinformation, 12–14
Moinard, Amaël, 19–22
Mok, Ying Ren, 197
Moller, Lorraine, 112, 114
Murphy, Suzanne, 45

Neylan, Rachel, 196

Nickerson, Andrew, 132
Nieman, David, 186
Nilsson, David, 174
Nozoe, Yuri, 113–114
Nurmi, Paavok, 25–26
nutrition periodization, 172–178

obesity, 50, 60, 63, 81, 118, 138

Ochal, Paweł, 11–12
Onywera, Vincent, 91–95
Orino, Kana, 114
overeating, 7, 15, 20, 42, 74, 103, 115–117, 120–124, 126, 128, 160. See also mindless
eating
overtraining, 14, 54

Paleo Diet, 9, 50, 101

periodization, 246–247
Pigg, Mike, 3
plate cleaning, 8, 20, 126–127
Polyanskiy, Dmitry, 11–12
portion distortion, 126
progressive overload, 240–242
protein, 19, 44–46, 76, 94, 100, 125, 134, 141, 150, 177–178, 189, 191
high-protein diets, 13, 29–31, 102, 178
protein drinks/shakes, 8, 19, 39, 40, 41, 83, 213–214
and superfoods, 197, 200, 202, 204, 206, 208, 209
purpose-driven workouts, 242–244

recipes
Bagel Breakfast Sandwich, 214–215
Beef and Soba Noodle Bowl with Almond Butter–Chile Sauce, 223–224
Blini with Cherry-Blueberry-Maple Topping, 215–217
Broiled Vegetable Panini with Edamame Hummus, 217–218
Chicken Stir-Fry with Honey-Ginger Sauce, 221–223
Custard Oats with Fruit and Pecans, 212–213
Fish Tacos, 219–220
Kickin’ Turkey Cheeseburgers, 218–219
Lohikeitto (Salmon Soup), 220–221
Moroccan Stew, 227–228
Ratatouille, 231–232
Shepherd’s Pie, 233–234
Slow Cooker Cuban Black Beans and Rice, 225–227
Southwest Chili with One Bowl Cornbread, 229–231
Ugali with Sukuma Wiki, 228–229
Whole Wheat Spaghetti and Bison Meatballs, 224–225
Zesty Green Smoothie, 213–214
recovery weeks, 246
Reid, Peter, 23, 26–27
Renner, Sara, 131–132, 138
restrained eating, 42, 115–120, 124, 126
rewards, 153–157, 159, 161, 175
Rhoads, John, 122
Rietjens, Gerard, 38, 39–40
Roberts, Susan, 157, 160
Rodgers, Bill, 26
Ryf, Daniela, 195

Sandrock, Mike, 112

Sardinia, 64, 188
Sears, Barry, 29–31
Seiler, Stephen, 3–4, 17, 239
self-efficacy, 156
self-esteem, 117, 155
Shibui, Yoko, 112–113
Shorter, Frank, 109
Silva, Jaime, 117
Sindballe, Torbjørn, 185
Smith, Naydene, 12
smoking. See tobacco
spontaneous eating, 127–128
sports drinks, 20, 40, 84, 98, 180–182, 195, 208
Stacher, Ally, 205
Standard American Diet (SAD), 9, 16, 53
Stellingwerff, Trent, 99, 184
Stevens, Amanda, 107–108, 141
strength training, 249–251
superfoods, 193–210
almonds, 194–195
bananas, 195
beets, 196
black beans, 196–197
brown rice, 197
cherries, 197–198
coffee, 198–199
corn, 199
eggs, 200
garlic, 200–201
olive oil, 201–202
peanut butter, 202
potatoes, 202–203
red wine, 203–204
salmon, 204
spinach, 205
sweet potatoes, 205
tea, 206
teff, 194, 206–207
tomatoes, 208–209
tuna, 208–209
yogurt, 209–210
supplementation, 187–192
iron, 189–191
omega-3 essential fatty acids, 188–189
vitamin D, 191–192

Takagi, Misato, 111–112

ten Dam, Laurens, 40, 42, 202
tobacco, 63, 159
training methods, essential, 237–252
80/20 Rule, 238–240
“bread-and-butter” workouts for runners, 244
downtime, 248–249
Hard/Easy Rule, 245
periodization, 246–247
progressive overload, 240–242
purpose-driven workouts, 242–244
recovery weeks, 246
strength training, 249–251
Treacy, Ray, 10
trial-and-error approach to problem solving, 27–31
Tsang, Stone, 11, 12

undereating, 15, 20, 42, 110, 115–118. See also restrained eating

Van Asbroeck, Tom, 41–42

van Eerd, Frank, 38–41, 43
Vanmarcke, Sep, 40–43
veganism and vegan foods, 54, 98, 103, 149, 228
vegetarianism and vegetarian foods, 2, 21, 23, 25–26, 50, 53–54, 77, 83, 184
Vodickova, Radka, 95

Wang Junxia, 23
Warbasse, Larry, 161–162
Watanabe, Shigeharu, 112–114
Waugh, Esther, 116
weight loss, 1, 13, 31, 71, 98, 102, 110, 113, 119, 129, 156, 172, 176–179, 203, 212, 240
Weissmuller, Johnny, 23
Womack, Chris, 200
workouts. See training methods, essential
workouts, eating for, 179–182. See also carbohydrates: carb-fasted workouts
Wynants, Maarten, 39, 42
Zone Diet, 29–31
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Matt Fitzgerald is an acclaimed endurance sports coach,

nutritionist, and author. His many books include Racing Weight,
80/20 Running, and How Bad Do You Want It? Matt’s writing also
appears regularly in magazines and on websites such as Women’s
Running and competitor.com. Since 2001, his training plans have
helped thousands of athletes of all experience and ability levels
achieve their goals and he currently serves as a coach for BSX
Athletics and Team Iron Cowboy. Certified by the International
Society of Sports Nutrition, Matt has consulted for numerous
sports nutrition companies and he is the creator of the Diet Quality
Score (DQS) smartphone app. A lifelong athlete, he speaks
frequently at events throughout the United States and
internationally.