Single Line-to-Ground Fault

Generally, a single line-to-ground fault on a transmission line occurs when one

conductor drops to the ground or comes in contact with the neutral conductor. Such
types of failures may occur in power system due to many reasons like high-speed wind,
falling off a tree, lightning, etc.

Circuit diagram of single line-to-ground fault

Suppose the phase a is connected to ground at the fault point F as shown in a figure
below. Ia, Ib and Ic are the current and V a, Vb and Vc are the voltage across the three
phase line a, b and c respectively. The fault impedance of the line is Z f.
Since only phase a is connected to ground at the fault, phase b and c are open circuited
and carries no current; i.e fault current is I a and Ib = 0, Ic = 0. The voltage at the fault
point F is Va = Zf Ia.

The symmetrical component of the fault current in phase “a” at the fault point can be
written as

This relation can also be found by matrix method as follows:-

In the case of a single line-to-ground fault, the sequence currents are equal. The
sequence voltage at the fault point is determined by the equations:-

Where, Ea0, Ea1, and Ea2 are the sequence voltages of phase a, and Z a0, Za1 and Za2 are
the sequence impedances to the flow of currents I a0, Ia1, and Ia2 respectively. For a
balanced system

We know that

On substituting the Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia in above equation we get,

The sequence current is given by equation,

Line-to-Line Fault
A line to line fault or unsymmetrical fault occurs when two conductors are short
circuited. In the figure shown below shows a three phase system with a line-to-line fault
phases b and c. The fault impedance is assumed to be Z f. The LL fault is placed
between lines b and c so that the fault be symmetrical with respect to the reference
phase a which is un-faulted.
The symmetrical components of a fault current in phase ‘a’ at the fault point can be
divided into three component. The zero sequence component of current at phase a is

In the equation(1) Ib = -Ic. Positive sequence component of phase a is expressed as

and the negative sequence component of phase a is given by the equation,

The sequence current can also be found by matrix method

Therefore, we get

Expressing Va, Vb and Vc regarding voltages at the fault point are found by the relations
given by

Combinati
on of equation (1), (4) and (5) gives
The sequence current of voltage at the fault point are determined by the relations shown
below

From equation (8) and (9) we get

Combination of equation (4), (10) and (9) gives

The fault current is given by the equation

From equation (1) it is clear that the line-to-line fault the zero sequence component of
current Ia0 is equal to zero. Equation (4) shows that the positive-sequence component of
current is opposite in phase to the negative-sequence component of current
Single Line to Ground Fault
MODERN POWER SYSTEM, UNSYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS

Single Line to Ground Fault:

Figure 11.4 shows a Single Line to Ground Fault at F in a power system through a fault
impedance Zf. The phases are so labelled that the fault occurs on phase a.

At the fault point F, the currents out of the power system and the Single Line to Ground
Fault are constrained as follows:

The symmetrical components of the fault currents are

from which it is easy to see that

Expressing Eq.(11.4) in terms of symmetrical components, we have

As per Eqs. (11.5) and (11.6) all sequence currents are equal and the sum of sequence
voltages equals 3Zf Ia1. Therefore, these equations suggest a series connection of
sequence networks through an impedance 3Z f as shown in Figs. 11.5a and b.

In terms of the Thevenin equivalent of sequence networks, we can write from Fig.
11.5b.

Fault current Ia is then

given by

The above results can also be obtained directly from Eqs. (11.5) and (11.6) by using
Va1,Va2, and Va0 from Eq. (11.1). Thus
The voltage of line b to ground under fault condition is

Substituting for Ia from Eq. (11.8) and reorganizing, we get

The expression for Vc can be similarly obtained.

Fault Occurring Under Loaded Conditions:

When a fault occurs under balanced load conditions, positive sequence currents alone
flow in power system before the occurrence of the fault. Therefore, negative and zero
sequence networks are the same as without load. The positive sequence network must
of course carry the load current. To account for load current, the synchronous machines
in the positive sequence network are replaced by sub-transient, transient or
synchronous reactance’s (depending upon the time after the occurrence of fault, when
currents are to be determined) and voltages behind appropriate reactance’s. This
change does not disturb the flow of pre-fault positive sequence currents. This positive
sequence network would then be used in the sequence network connection of Fig.
11.5a for computing sequence currents under fault.

In case the positive sequence network is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent as in Fig.
11.5b, the Thevenin voltage equals the prefault voltage V° f at the fault point F (under
loaded conditions). The Thevenin impedance is the impedance between F and the
reference bus of the passive positive sequence network (with voltage generators short
circuited).

This is illustrated by a two machine system in Fig. 11.6. It is seen from this figure that
while the prefault currents flow in the actual positive sequence network of Fig. 11.6a,
the same do not exist in its Thevenin equivalent network of Fig. 11.6b. Therefore, when
the Thevenin equivalent of positive sequence network is used for calculating fault
currents, the positive sequence currents within the network are those due to fault alone
and we must superimpose on these the prefault currents. Of course, the positive
sequence current into the fault is directly the correct answer, the prefault current into the
fault being zero.

The above remarks are valid for the positive sequence network, independent of the type
of fault.

Single Line Diagram of Power System

Definition: Single line diagram is the representation of a power system using the simple
symbol for each component. The single line diagram of a power system is the network
which shows the main connections and arrangement of the system components along
with their data (such as output rating, voltage, resistance and reactance, etc.).

It is not necessary to show all the components of the system on a single line diagram,
e.g., circuit breaker need not be shown in the load flow study but are the must for a
protection study. In the single line diagram, the system component is usually drawn in
the form of their symbols. Generator and transformer connections, star, delta and
neutral earthing are indicated by symbols drawn by the side of the representation of
these elements.
Circuit breakers are represented by rectangular blocks. The figure shown below
represents the single line diagram of a typical block system. It is difficult to draw the line
diagram of the few components. So for simplification, the impedance diagram is used
for representing the power system components.

Impedance Diagram for the Power System

In impedance diagram, each component is represented by its equivalent circuit, e.g., the
synchronous generator at the generating station by a voltage source in series with the
resistance and reactance, the transformer by a nominal ∏-equivalent circuit. The load is
assumed to be passive and are represented by a resistive and inductive reactance in
the series. Neutral earthing impedance does not appear in the diagram as the balanced
condition is assumed.

The diagram shown below is the balanced 3-phase diagram. It is also called positive
sequence diagram. Three separate diagrams are also used for representing the
positive, negative and zero sequence networks. The three separate impedance
diagrams are used in the short circuit for the studies of unsymmetrical fault.

The impedance diagram can further be simplified by making certain assumptions and
reduced to simplified reactance. Reactance diagram is drawn by neglecting the effective
resistance of generator armature, transformer winding resistance, transmission line
resistance line charging and the magnetising circuit of transformers. Reactance diagram
of the power system is shown below.

Reactance Diagram for the Power System

The reactance diagram gives an accurate result for many power system studies, such
as short-circuit  studies, etc. The winding resistance, including the line resistance, are
quite small in comparison with leakage reactance and shunt path which includes line
charging and transformer magnetising circuit provide a very high parallel impedance
with fault.

It is considered that if the resistance is less than one-third of the reactance, and
resistance is ignored, then the error introduced will be not more than 5 %.  If the
resistance and reactance ignored errors up to 12% may be introduced. The errors mean
their calculation gives a higher value than the actual value.

Electrical Fault
Definition: Fault in electrical equipment or apparatus is defined as an imperfection in
the electrical circuit due to which current is deflected from the intended path. In other
words, the fault is the abnormal condition of the electrical system which damages the
electrical equipment and disturbs the normal flow of the electric current.

The fault reduces the insulation strength between phase conductors and earth or any
earthed screen surrounding the conductors. It also reduces the impedance (property of
circuit to oppose the flow of current) between the conductors and earth due to which the
heavy short circuit current flows through the system and damage the power system
equipment.
The probability of the failure or occurrence of abnormal faults is more on the
transmission lines. About one-half of the fault occurs on the power system is the
transmission line fault. Because transmission lines are broadly branched, have a
greater length, operate under variable weather conditions and are subjected to the
action of atmospheric disturbances of an electrical nature.

According to the causes of incidence, the causes of failures may be classified, as

mentioned below;

 Breakdown due to insulation may occur at normal voltage due to the decline or
ageing of the insulation, and the damages are caused by the unpredictable
happening such as blowing of heavy winds, tree falling across the line, vehicles
colliding with the towers or poles, bird shorting out lines, aircraft colliding with the
line, line breaks etc.,
 The breakdown may occur due to abnormal voltages caused by switching surges
or lightning strokes which may be either direct or induced.

The line and insulation apparatus may also be damaged due to the transient
overvoltage which is generated in the switching operation. During the switching
operation, the voltage rises at a rapid rate and may achieve a peak value approaching
three-time phase to neutral voltage. Hence the higher insulation level is provided for
protecting the equipment from damage.

The fault can be minimised by improving the system design, better quality of the
equipment and maintenance. But the fault cannot be eliminated completely.

Types of Electrical Fault

The most common and dangerous fault that occurs in a power system is the short circuit
or shunt fault. On the occurrence of the short circuit fault, heavy or short-circuit current
flow through the circuit which damages the insulation of current carrying phase
conductors corresponding to earth or in the insulation between phases. The different
types of the electrical fault are explained below:

1. Single Phase to Ground Fault – It is also called a line-to-ground fault. It mainly

occurs due to insulation breakdown between one of the phase and earth. Single-
line-to-fault is most frequently occurs in the power system. Their chances of
appearance in the power system are 70%.
2. Phase-to-Phase Fault – Such type of fault rarely occurred on the power system.
It is also called Line-to-line fault. It occurs when two conductors are short
circuited. Their chance of appearance is hardly 15 % in the power system.
3. Two Phases to Ground Fault – In this type of fault breakdowns of insulation
between two phases and earth occur. It is the most severe type of fault but rarely
occurs in the power system. It is also called Line-to-line-to-ground fault (L-L-G).
Their chance of occurrence is hardly 10 %.
 4. Phase to phase and Third Phase to Ground Fault – It is the combination of
phase to phase and phase to phase to ground fault. Such types of fault occur
due to the breakdown of insulation between two phases and simultaneous
breakdown of insulation between the third phase and earth. The chance of such
type of fault is hardly 2 % to 3 %.
5. All the Three Phases to Ground Fault – It is the most severe type of the fault
and very rarely occurs in the power system. It occurs due to a breakdown of
insulation between all the phases as well as to the earth. It is 2% to 3% in the
power system.
6. All the three Phases Short Circuited – This type of fault mainly occurs due to a
breakdown of insulation between all the three phases. Their appearance is rarely
2 % to 3% in the power system.

The first four faults are of an unsymmetrical nature and give rise to unsymmetrical
current,  i.e., different currents in the three phases. The latter two faults are of
symmetrical nature and give rise to symmetrical current, i.e., equal fault current in all the
three phases with 120º displacement.

Harmful Effect of Faults on Power System

On the occurrence of the fault, heavy short circuit current is flowing in the circuit. This
current have the following disadvantages. Their consequences are explained below in
details.

1. The heavy current due to fault causes excessive heating which may result in fire
or explosion.
2. Sometimes the short circuit current takes the form of an arc that may cause
considerable damage to the element of the power system.
3. The stability of the power system may be adversely affected, and even the
complete shutdown of the power system may occur.
4. Damage to other apparatus in the system may be caused due to overheating and
due to abnormal mechanical forces set up.

A large number of unsymmetrical faults is temporary in nature and may vanish within a
few cycles as would be the cause when a twig (stem) falls across a line and burn itself
out or just fall. The symmetrical three-phase faults, generally occur due to the
carelessness of operating personnel.

Balanced Earth Fault Protection

The balanced earth fault protection scheme is mainly used for protection of small
generator where differential and self-balanced protection systems are not applicable. In
a small generator, the neutral end of the three phase windings is connected internally to
a single terminal. So the neutral end is not available, and protection against earth fault  
is provided by using the balanced earth protection scheme. Such scheme does not
provide protection against phase-to-phase fault until and unless they develop into earth
faults.

Connection of Balanced Earth Fault Protection Scheme

In this scheme, the current transformers are mounted on each phase. Their secondary
is connected in parallel with that of CT mounted on a conductor joining the star point of
the generator to earth. A relay is connected across the secondaries of the CTs.

The balanced
protection schemes provide protection against earth fault in the limited region between
the neutral and line CTs (current transformers). It provides protection against the stator
winding of the earth fault in the stator and does not operate in case of an external earth
fault. This scheme is also called restricted earth fault protection scheme. Such type of
protection is provided in the large generator as an additional protection scheme.

Working of Balanced Earth Fault Protection Scheme

When the generator is in a normal operating condition the sum of the currents flow in
the secondary of the current transformers is zero and the current flow into secondary to
neutral is also zero. Thus the relay remains de-energized. When the fault occurs in the
protected zone (left of the line) the fault current flow through the primary of current
transformers and the corresponding secondary current flow through the relay which trips
the circuit breaker.
When the fault develops external of the protective zone (right of the current transformer)
the sum of the currents at the terminal of the generator is exactly equal to the current in
the neutral connection. Hence, no current flows through the relay operating coil.

Drawback of Balanced Earth Protection Scheme

If the fault occurs near the neutral terminal or when grounding of the neutral is
connected through a resistance or a distributing transformer then the magnitude of the
fault current flow through the secondary of current transformer becomes small. This
current is less than the pick-up current of the relay. Thus, the relay remains inoperative,
and the fault current continues to persist in the generator winding which is highly
undesirable.

Differential Protection of a Transformer

The transformer is one of the major equipment in power system. It is a static device,
totally enclosed and usually oil immersed, and therefore the fault occurs on them are
usually rare. But the effect of even a rare fault may be very serious for a power
transformer. Hence the protection of power transformer against possible fault is very
important.

The fault occurs on the transformer is mainly divided into two type external faults and
internal fault. External fault is cleared by the relay system outside the transformer within
the shortest possible time in order to avoid any danger to the transformer due to these
faults. The protection for internal fault in such type of transformer is to be provided by
using differential protection system.

Differential protection schemes are mainly used for protection against phase-to-phase
fault and phase to earth faults.The differential protection used for power transformers is
based on Merz-Prize circulating current principle. Such types of protection are generally
used for transformers of rating exceeding 2 MVA.

Connection for Differential Protection for Transformer

The power transformer is star connected on one side and delta connected on the other
side. The CTs on the star connected side are delta-connected and those on delta-
connected side are star-connected. The neutral of the current transformer star
connection and power transformer star connections are grounded.

The restraining coil is connected between the secondary winding of the current
transformers. Restraining coils controls the sensitive activity occurs on the system. The
operating coil is placed between the tapping point of the restraining coil and the star
point of the current transformer secondary windings.
Working of Differential Protection System

Normally, the operating coil carries no current as the current are balanced on both the
side of the power transformers. When the internal fault occurs in the power transformer
windings the balanced is disturbed and the operating coils of the differential relay carry
current corresponding to the difference of the current among the two sides of the
transformers.Thus, the relay trip the main circuit breakers on both sides of the power
transformers.

Problem Associated with Differenctial Protection System

When the transformer is energizing the transient inrush of magnetizing current is flows
in the transformer. This current is as large as 10 times full load current and its decay
respectively.This magnetizing current is flows in the primary winding of the power
transformers due to which it causes a difference in current transformer output and it
makes the differential protection of the transformer to operate falsely.

To overcome this problem the kick fuse is placed across the relay coil. These fuses are
of the time-limit type with an inverse characteristic and do not operate in short duration
of the switch in the surge. When the fault occurs the fuses blow out and the fault current
flows through the relay coils and operate the protection system. This problem can also
be overcome by using a relay with an inverse and definite minimum type characteristic
instead of an instantaneous type.
Differential Protection of a Generator
Differential protection for a generator is mainly employed for the protection of stator
windings of generator against earth faults and phase-to-phase faults. The stator winding
faults are very dangerous, and it causes considerable damage to the generator. For the
protection of stator winding of the generator, the differential protection system is used
for clearing the fault in the shortest possible time for minimizing the extent of a damage.

Merz-Prize Circulating Current System

In this scheme of protection, currents at the ends of the protected sections compare.
When the system is in normal operating condition, the magnitude of currents is equal on
the secondary windings of the current transformers. On the occurrence of the faults, the
short-circuit current flows through the system and the magnitude of current become
differ. This difference of current under fault conditions is made to flow through the relay
operating coil.

The relay then closes its contacts and makes the circuit breaker to trip and thus isolated
the protection from the system. Such a system is called a Merz-Prize circulating current
system. It is very effective for earth faults and faults between phases.

Connection for Differential Protection System

The protection system requires two identical transformers which are mounted on both
sides of the protection zone. The secondary terminals of the current transformers are
connected in stars, and their end terminals are connected through the pilot wire. The
relay coils are connected in delta. The neutral of the current transformer and the relay
are connected to the common terminal.
 The relay is
connected across equipotential points of the three pilot wires so that the burden on each
current transformer is same. The equipotential point of the pilot wire is its centre, so the
relay is located at the midpoint of pilot wires.

For proper working of the differential protection system, it is essential to locate the relay
coils adjacent to the current transformer near the main circuit. This can be done by
inserting the balancing resistance in series with the pilot wires to make equipotential
points located near the main circuit breaker.

Working on Differential Protection System

Consider the fault occurs on the R phase of the network because of the insulation
breakdown. Because of the fault, the current in the secondary of the transformer
becomes unequal. The differential currents flow through the relay coil. Thus, the relay
becomes operative and gives the command to the circuit breaker for operation.
 If the fault occurs
between any two phases, say Y and B then short-circuit current flows through these
phases. The fault unbalanced the current flows through CTs. The differential current
flows through the relay operating coil and thus relay trips their contacts.

Problem Associated with Differential Protection System

A neutral resistance wire is used in the differential protection system for avoiding the
adverse effect of earth fault currents. When an earth fault occurs near the neutral, it will
cause a small, short circuit current to flow through the neutral point because of small
emf. This current is further reduced by the resistance of the neutral grounding. Thus, the
small current will flow through the relay. This small current will not operate the relay coil,
and hence the generator gets damage.

Modified Scheme of Differential Protection System.

To overcome the above problem, the modified scheme has been developed. In this
scheme two elements are arranged, one for the protection of the phase fault and other
for the earth fault protection.

The phase elements are connected in stars along with the resistor. The earth fault relay
is kept between the star and neutral. The two-phase elements together with a balancing
resistor are connected in star, and the earth fault relay is connected between the star
and neutral pilot wire.
 The star-
connected circuit is symmetrical, and any balanced overflow current from the current
circulating point will not flow through the earth fault relay. So in this system, the
sensitive earth fault relay will operate at a high degree of stability.