Importance of Fresh Water For Livestock

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Importance of Fresh Water for Livestock

Cristina I El Mahdy, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Animal Science Faculty, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Water, “the Sap of Life on Earth” and Its Distribution 1


Fresh Water and Importance for Livestock 1
Distribution of Livestock Dependent on the Rainfed Agriculture System 2
Quality of Fresh Water Sources 2
The Importance of Water for the Animal Body 2
Watering and Water Needs for Livestock in Different Regions 3
Factors That Influence Drinking Water Consumption 3
Fresh Water Requirements Depending on Physiological Stage 4
Fresh Water Requirements for Livestock Production 4
Water Consumption and Air Temperature 4
Aspects Related With Water Quality 5
Conclusion 5
References 5

Abstract

Of the fresh water (blue footprint water) from rivers, lakes and groundwater 33–88%, is directed towards agriculture in
varying proportions depending on the area. Only 0.6% is used for direct consumption by livestock or indirect activities
associated with livestock. The distribution of livestock on the globe is dependent on existing water and the ability of animals
to tolerate water deficiency and quality. In the animal body, water has multiple functions: metabolic, growth, breeding, and
production. Deprivation or deficiency of fresh water affect these functions, but species from arid and semiarid areas have
developed adaptations to these conditions. There are large differences between water requirements, for livestock in semi-arid
and arid area of extensive and pastoral system, compared to livestock in the intensive farming system.
Dependent on the farming system, the type of rainfed agriculture and the distance to water source, the watering frequency
is different. Water quality in many regions is poor in terms of salinity and contamination with toxic elements. In arid and
semi-arid areas, water usually has a large amount of chloride, which is why research is directed to choosing the most
resistant species to low quality water and to develop farms in these areas as well.

Water, “the Sap of Life on Earth” and Its Distribution

Rich in water, the “Blue Planet,” cannot satisfy the needs of fresh water even if is covered by huge surfaces of water (71%). The seas
and oceans sum up about 97% of the surface occupied by water and only 3% belong to surface fresh water and underground water.
Of this 3%, 2.5% is stored in glaciers that cannot be a viable source of fresh water, and 0.397% is polluted water. The remaining only
0.003% of all surface of water can be used as fresh water with a very uneven distribution (Balon and Dehnad, 2006; Naqvi
et al., 2015).
The most disadvantaged regions are arid and semi-arid which occupy 30% of the total area in the world and extends into
80 countries, where, the degree of evaporation is greater than the amount of rainfall (200–250 mm rainfall/year, 250–600 mm/year
evaporation). North Africa, South Asia, the Middle East and Mediterranean countries located in the arid and semiarid areas of
Southern Europe are the most affected regions (Kammoun et al., 2018).

Fresh Water and Importance for Livestock

The water crisis enters into category of top 10, global risks. Worldwide, 70% of blue water from rivers, lakes and groundwater is
directed to agriculture with quite remarkable differences between Europe, where the percentage is the lowest at 33% and Africa with
the highest percentage at 88% (Appuhamy et al., 2016).
Providing fresh water for livestock has overwhelming importance for maintenance of their vital functions and production that
depends on a number of factors, such as: species, body weight, physiological state, diet, temperature, frequency of water provision,
type of housing and environmental stress (http://www.fao.org/, 2018). Water is also used in indirect activities that include: cleaning
of animals, shelters, facilities, washing and preparation of fodder, slaughtering, processing of animal products and skin tanning.
However, water requirements to satisfy the need for drinking water but also for the other services is only 0.6% of the fresh water used
in agriculture (Ran, 2010).
The management of water resources for livestock production must take into account several aspects such as: the production
system applied (grain—fed or mixed crop-livestock), the intensive or extensive breeding system of various animal species, taking

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2 Importance of Fresh Water for Livestock

into account also the social and cultural aspects of animal husbandry in different countries. Water requirements are higher in the
extensive system than in the intensive (industrial) system (Schlink et al., 2011).

Distribution of Livestock Dependent on the Rainfed Agriculture System

Of the total cultivated area in the world about 80% is integrated into the rainfed agriculture system divided into: highlands, dry
tropics, humid tropics, subtropics and temperate. Accordingly, the distribution of livestock is different.
In dry tropics, which includes the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Africa, and India, small ruminants, goats and sheep are predominant.
The cattle are common in southern Africa and in Latin America. Latin America and Asia are part of the humid tropics type, the
predominant livestock are sheep or cows depending on the financial status of farmers.
Poorer farmers have as their main concern raising sheep and goats, while wealthier farmers raise cows. In the subtropics, cows are
often the dominant species, with goats in the southern Mediterranean, sheep in Australia and pigs in China. Developed countries in
Western Europe, the United States and Canada, are part of the temperate type of rainfed agriculture, where the predominant
livestock is represented by pigs, poultry and cows reared in the industrial system (http://www.fao.org/, 2011).
The arid and semi-arid areas of China, Australia, and India experience scarcity in water, but these regions are raising one third of
the total number of cattle on the globe and 30% of the sheep and goat population in the world (Avendaño-Reyes, 2012; Todaro
et al., 2016; Araújo et al., 2010). In Sub-Saharan Africa, cattle, sheep, and goats account for about 1.2 billion tropical livestock units
(1 TLU ¼ 250 kg body weight), after Descheemaeker et al. (2010).

Quality of Fresh Water Sources

The main source of water for humans and livestock in the arid and semi-arid coastal areas of Southern Europe, the Middle East and
the North African region is underground water, with a chemical composition rich in chlorides as a result of natural processes
(Kammoun et al., 2018). The various sources of surface water pollution in the Sub-Saharan Africa results in water in an unsafe water
category (https://thelastwell.org/, 2019).
A quote from Mandakini (2015) “Water, water, everywhere, nor any drop to drink,” best describes the water situation in Asia,
where water is contaminated with human fecal microorganisms and, in addition, contains large amounts of arsenic especially in
shallow groundwater (Luby, 2008). In Kenya, large amounts of copper and nitrate are found in fresh water (Wayua, 2017). Water
rich in sulphates can be found in the semi-arid rangelands of the western region USA, Minnesota’s groundwater, river waters in
western Canada, and in SW China (Kun et al., 2017; Cammack et al., 2012).

The Importance of Water for the Animal Body

Water in the body participates in all metabolic processes, growth and breeding, (e.g., it provides a fluid environment for the foetus).
The placenta has a significant percentage of water that plays a role in preventing abortions and avoiding other problems in the
reproductive sphere (Van Emon, 2015; Salah, 2018). It plays a role in lubricating joints and organs, maintaining blood volume,
osmotic balance, regulating osmotic pressure and thermoregulation. Water assists in excretion of waste products such as urea from
the cells for removal via the kidneys, but also from the lungs and gut. It also induces resistance against diseases. However, it may also
be a favorable environment for the transport of unwanted elements, such as providing a growth medium for microorganisms.
Limiting the intake of water results in reducing the amount of ingested feed with negative effects on productive and reproductive,
because of retardation of ovarian follicular growth. Irregular water consumption affects production, reduces lactation and affect the
animal’s general health. For example, lack of water can affect vision and hearing (Patience, 2012; Grönvall, 2015; Chedid et al.,
2014). Deprivation of fodder for a long period of time has as a consequence the loss of fat resources and almost all glycogen, half
body protein and 40% of body weight. Compared to deprivation with feed, deprivation of water entails more serious repercussions.
Loss of only 10% of body water can cause serious disorders, affect the production of milk, meat and eggs (Kubkomawa et al., 2015).
However, sheep (Merino) in semi-arid or arid regions are adapted to losing about 5–7%/day of body weight daily and cows
(Shorthon) about 7–10% without being affected in any way at 40  C, air temperature (Naqvi et al., 2015).
Livestock in semi-arid and arid areas have developed the ability to adapt to these harsh conditions through, the ability to carry
water reserves in the rumen and extracellular fluid space; to adjust the amount of electrolytes in several fluid locations. Kidneys have
the ability to conserve water and circulation does not have to suffer by reducing plasma volume; also, panting and sweating are
lower (Constable et al., 2016).
Animal survival time with a lack of water is a few days dependent on climate and breed. Desert bighorn sheep can withstand
water deprivation for 15 days, Australian Merino sheep survived for 10 days without water, while the Barki sheep in Egypt cannot
survive water deprivation over a 3-day period (Naqvi et al., 2015).
Importance of Fresh Water for Livestock 3

Watering and Water Needs for Livestock in Different Regions

In intensive farming systems, ensuring access to water ad libidum is compulsory, as is providing the necessary water for cleaning.
In low water areas, farmers administer water to cows, if not ad libitum, at least three times a day in semi-arid areas and two times a
day in arid (Dhami et al., 2018).
In dry climate or drought seasons in south-central New Mexico, beef cattle on the pasture consume about 57 L/day1 fresh water.
Through a single watering, they can provide 94% of their daily water consumption (Rouda et al., 1994). Black Bedouin goats,
adapted to the conditions of the arid desert of Sinai, can consume the equivalent water of 45% of their body weight without
haemolysis of the red blood cells (McGregor, 2004).
The amount of drinking water for livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa is estimated at 20–50 L1/day/tropical livestock unit TLU
(1 TLU ¼ 250 kg body weight (Descheemaeker et al., 2010). Cows kept in intensive systems benefit from access to water <15 m
from food sources, while in arid and semi-arid areas, species of Sahelian livestock move long distances for watering without being
affected the state of animal health: 6–10 km for cattle and 3–5 km for goats (Niyonzima et al., 2013). During the dry season in
Kenya, livestock travel long distances even as much as 40 km, water sources (Kivunzya et al., 2018). Watering for cows in pastures in
this area occurs every 3–4 days and 5–6 days for goats, which are more tolerant (Tolera and Abebe, 2007). Water consumption for a
few days (4) does not negatively influence feed consumption or milk production (Naqvi et al., 2015). In contrast, high-productivity
breeds will have the same requirements of the amount of water, similar to breeds grown in the intensive system, as can be seen from
Table 1.

Factors That Influence Drinking Water Consumption

Factors that influence drinking water include: species, age, body condition, growing, pregnancy, lactation, fattening, individual
behavior, injury and illness; or the environment: dry matter content, environmental conditions, water system and watering
(discretionary or fractional), water quality, stress (Williams et al., 2016; Van Der Klis and De Lange, 2013).
Animals within the same genus may require different amounts of water. For example, Bos indicus cattle in northern Australia
consume less water than Bos taurus breeds (Davis and Watts, 2016).
Feed content in dry matter affects the ingested water requirement. Animals that consume grass will drink less water because
the grass has 80–85% water. Instead, grains and hay raise requirements for water consumption due to their low water content
(i.e., 10–12%) (Spencer et al., 2017).

Table 1 Water intake and cleaning water requirement L day1.

Species Water intake Cleaning water Species Water intake L day1 Wash water (L day1)
Cattle L day1 requirement (L day1) Pigs

Dairy cow 40–50 13–45 Dry sow 5–9 0.09


Bull 45–55 Lactating sow 18–23 Farrowing sows 5.63
Dairy cow 5/L milk Boar 9 0.09
Yearling 25–40 Baconer 5–9 Growers (50 kg)—0.371
Calf 15–25 Piglet 4–5 Weaners (20 kg)—0.286
(4–5 weeks)
Sheep Water intake L day1 Poultry Water requirement Wash water (L m2 floor (Birds m2)
(L day1) area)
Dry ewe 8 Laying hen cage 0.20 6 22
Ewe with 11 Laying hen non 0.22 6 11.50
lamb cage
Ram 11 Broilers 0.19 5 6
Lamb 2–4 Pullets 0.09 5.00 12

Species, physiological stage, production Water intake, depending on air temperature 15–35  C (L day1)

African pastoral system-lactating 2 L milk/day 21–28.7


Large beerd, dry cow 279 day pregnancy 44–102
Large beerd, lactating 35 L/day 102.8–126.8
Goat—lactating 0.2 L/day 7.6–11.9
Sheep lactating 0.4 L/day 8.7–20.1
Chicken, adult broilers/100 birds 17.7–62
Laying eggs/100 birds 13.2–50.5
Swine, lactating daily weight gain of pigs, 200 g 17.2–46.7

From Brown, L. (2006). Livestock watering requirements, quantity and quality. Order No. 590.301.1, https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/, Naqvi, S.M.K, Kumar, D., Kalyan, D.,
Veerasamy, S. (2015). Climate change and water availability for livestock: Impact on both quality and quantity in: climate change impact on livestock: Adaptation and mitigation,
pp. 81–94, Springer India, New Delhi, India, and http://randd.defra.gov.uk/.
4 Importance of Fresh Water for Livestock

A high level of protein or salt in food rations increases the consumption of water in order to eliminate more urine required for
the excretion of urea and salt. In poultry, higher water consumption is also observed in the case of rations with high content of fat or
potassium (McKernan, 2012; Greg Lardy et al., 2008).
Water quality affects water consumption. For livestock, water with 1000–3000 mg TSD/L is considered satisfactory but, it can
affect the faecal quality of poultry. Livestock can exhibit digestive disorders manifested by diarrhea if they are not accustomed with
this kind of water (Ward, 2019).
High levels of sulphates affect the taste of water and high levels in cattle, sheep, and goats can lead to polio (Van Emon, 2015; El
Mahdy et al., 2016). High amounts of magnesium sulphate can cause a drop infaecal quality in birds (Putnat, 2016). For nursery
pigs, 2000–3000 ppm can cause a decrease in growth performance and increase fecal score (Flohr et al., 2014).
The most tolerant livestock to acid or alkaline water are laying hens and chickens. The maximum productive performances in
broilers was recorded at pH 7.5, while, alkaline water had the most negative impact on performance (Khan et al., 2013). Treatments
for pigs through the watering system may be ineffective at pH <5; 15 drugs precipitate below these values (Nyachoti and
Kiarie, 2010). Large and small ruminants need to have water with a pH between 6.5 and 8.5 (Curran, 2014).

Fresh Water Requirements Depending on Physiological Stage

The state of gestation influences water consumption by increasing the amount of ingested water. In the last 4 months of gestation,
dairy cows have 30–50% higher requirements for water consumption. Goats, during the advanced gestation period, have similar
high requirements relative to the amount of ingested water (Brown, 2006; Ehrlenbruch et al., 2010). Water intake in sheep,
progressively increases from the first to the 5th month of gestation, which means a 126% higher consumption.
A lamb’s weight at birth for Magra and Marwari breeds which are adapted to desert conditions, does not suffer even if mothers
are watered twice a week for long periods of time (Araújo et al., 2010; Naqvi et al., 2015). The water requirements of sows in
lactation are 17–25 L1 of water per day (King, 2016).

Fresh Water Requirements for Livestock Production

A cow should normally drink about 7–10% of her weight a day. Water intake is influenced by many factors, including the type of
production (e.g., milk, meat). A lactating beef cow will drink on average 95.92–56/L1/day (Lewandowski, 2015). The water
requirements of most (80–90%) dairy cows are satisfied in by direct water intake. There is a linear relationship between the quantity
of milk produced and the water requirements. In addition to the necessary water consumption to maintain vital functions, it is
necessary to provide water to support milk production. Compared to non-lactating cows, those in lactation require a 25% higher
water consumption and since the milk is 87% water it is necessary that, for each liter of milk produced, an intake of 2.5 L1 of water
is required (Schroeder, 2015; Spencer et al., 2017). In dry tropics, the amount of water required for dairy cows is calculated taking
into account that 1 L1 of water/10 kg of live weight, is added to the water requirement for milk production (i.e., 1.5 L1/L of milk
produced) (Ibrahim, 2015).
Depending on the production system and the efficiency of red meat production, the amount of water required to produce 1 kg
red meat is 180–540 L1/kg or 80 L1/kg—320 L1in Southern Australia (Scholtz et al., 2013; Nason, 2018).

Water Consumption and Air Temperature

There is a direct proportional relationship between water consumption and air temperature. Increases in air temperature, result in
increases in water consumption. In this regard, in cattle, for each additional degree higher than 40 F, water intake increases by
0.65 L1/day in dairy cows, 0.21 L1 in growing dairy bulls and 0.22 L1/day in feedlot cattle (Spencer et al., 2017).
The lactation period plays an important role in water consumption, cows at the middle and end of lactation being more
susceptible to heat stress (Könyve et al., 2017). In warmer environments, the amount of water required is multiplied by 1.5 for
gestating cows, and for those with calves the water intake increases by 0.87 L1 water/L milk (http://www.fao.org/).
After Brown (2006), the water requirement for a cow dependent on air temperature, below 15  C or above 25  C, varies between
4 L1 and 8 L1/45 kg animal weight.
Sows and finishing pigs are extremely sensitive to rising temperatures, which have, as a consequence, higher water consumption
(Guthrie, 2011). In hot weather, rising temperatures change the patterns of drinking water of pigs, but also, the amount of water
consumed, which will be 2–2.5 and even 4 times higher (King, 2016). For each additional degree of temperature compared to the
comfort temperature, the water requirement rises by 0.1 L1/head/day (Schiavon and Emmans, 2000). In semi-arid and arid
regions, drinking water required for the needs of animal is 4 L1/kg dry feed intake and increases by 50% in hot weather (Scholtz
et al., 2013).
Bird water consumption expressed as: L1/bird/day can be an indicator of welfare and stress conditions to which birds are
subjected. In addition, changes in daily water consumption may indicate health problems like enteritis and coccidiosis. It can also
be a potential tool which indicates increased cases of foot pad dermatitis and deterioration of air quality due to wet litter (Manning
Importance of Fresh Water for Livestock 5

et al., 2007). The water consumption of broiler increases proportionally with raising the temperature. For each degree, above
20–32  C, consumption is 6% higher. Parallel to the increase in water consumption, feed consumption decreases by 1.23% for each
additional degree above the value of 20  C (Williams et al., 2013).

Aspects Related With Water Quality

Due to either scarcity of water or poor water quality, especially in terms of the amount of total dissolved solids (TDS) or sodium
chloride in different regions of the world, such as: Brazilian semi-arid region, Southern Tunisia and other regions, researches was
undertaken to identify the most resistant species to these conditions, to the development of farms in these regions.
In a comparative study, Holstein cows in the semi-arid area of northern Mexico demonstrated that productive performances in
cows were higher with lower feed consumption when they received water desalinated, by reverse osmosis compared with cows who
received drinking water with >1809 mg L1 TDS. In addition, the number of somatic cells and the percentage of cows with fat
depression was lower with desalinization of water (García-Muñiz et al., 2015).
Crossbred goats from the Brazilian semi-arid region who received drinking water from the 30th day of lactation with TDS of
8326 mg L1 did not show an affect in nutrient intake, digestibility or milk yield. Only water intake increases with increasing values
for this parameter (Paiva et al., 2017).
In sheep, drinking water containing 1% NaCl does not affect feed consumption or growth performance of animals. In contrast,
water with 1.5–2% NaCl negatively influences both; feed intake and weight gain. At concentrations above 2% NaCl, occasionally
diarrhea occurred and sheep appeared is emaciated (Araújo et al., 2010). Barbarine sheep (Tunisia) who consumed drinking water
with 11–15 g NaCl did show impeded growth, but, higher values (15 g NaCl), increased the creatinine and urea levels in the blood
plasma, which suggested altered kidney function (Yousfi and Salem, 2017).
The milk yield of sheep who received drinking water with 10 g of NaCl over a period of 120 days was not significantly affected,
but, there was a significant increase in salinity, conductivity and pH (ElGharbi et al., 2015).
Nguni goats grown in Southern Africa tolerated saline water with 5.477 g NaCl (Mdletshe et al., 2017). Adaptation of Boer Goats
from the same area to water consumption with gradual increases in NaCl concentration to 1.5% NaCl led to conclusion that this
method was effective to accustom the animals to the salinity of water (Runa et al., 2019).
Experimentally, it has been demonstrated that water intake with a progressive increase in the amount of NaCl up to 10%,
positively influenced the amount of ingested water in four castrated adult male goats from 2.0 to 3.2 L1/day, but decreased at the
concentration of 20% NaCl. Increasing the salinity of water affects the concentration of sodium, glucose, urea, protein, osmolarity
and creatinine in the blood plasma. However, potassium and body weight remained unaffected. So goats can survive with saline
water for at least 2 weeks without negative repercussions (Zoidis and Hadjigeorgiou, 2017).
In desert areas, water containing 10 g sodium chloride, 20 g sulphates are considered safe for Marwari sheep and Parbatsar goats
(Patil et al., 2012).

Conclusion

Water, with its multiple functions, maintains the body’s homeostasis, and livestock, regardless of region, rich or poor in water, need
fresh water for survival, production, breeding, even if the quantity, frequency of watering or water quality is not always the best.

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