Open Channel - CH 3-6 PDF
Open Channel - CH 3-6 PDF
Open Channel - CH 3-6 PDF
dEs dEs Q 2 . Bs
0 1 0
dy dy qA3
dEs v 2 Bs v 2
1 1 0
dy g. A g.D
Q 2 Bs v2
1
g . A3 gD
4. The velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth in a channel of small
slope 2
v D
2g 2
Q2 D Q2
A2 D
Q
A D
2 gA2 2 g g
Is very useful for the computation and analysis of critical flow in an open channel.
• When Q is given, the equation gives the critical section factor Zc and, hence the
critical depth yc.
• On the other hand when the depth and, hence the section factor are given, the
critical discharge can be computed by:
Q Z. g
Computation of critical flow
• Computation of critical flow involves the determination of critical depth and
velocity (yc & vc) when the discharge and the channel section are known.
• On the other hand, if critical depth and channel section are known, the critical
discharge can be determined from the relation
Q Z g
1. Algebraic method
For a simple geometric channel section, the critical flow can be determined by an
algebraic computation using the basic equations.
Example 5
• For a trapezoidal channel with base width b = 6.0 m and side slope m = 2,
calculate the critical depth of flow if Q = 17 m3/s.
Solution
• The criterion for critical state of flow is the basis for the computation of critical
flow: v2 D A
, where D
2g 2 Bs
• The hydraulic depth (D) area of the trapezoidal section are expressed in terms of
the depth y as
A = (b+ my) y = (6 +2 y)y
BS = B + 2my = 6 + 4y
A (3 y ) y
D
Bs 3 2y
Q 17 17
and V
A (6 2 y ) y 2(3 y ) y
in the criterion for critical state of flow, and yields after simplification v2 D
2g 2
Q A3
Z
g / Bs
• The left hand side of the equation is by definition the section factor for critical
flow Z, and the right hand side of the equation is a function of only the channel
shape and the depth of flow.
• A design chart for critical depth problem is given below.
Design curves for critical depth
Example
• A circular channel 0.91 m in diameter conveys a flow of 0.71
m3/s; estimate the critical depth of flow.
For 1
Solution
Q 0.71
Z 0.227
g 9.81
Z 0.227
and 2 .5
0.287
d0 0.912.5
yc
0.54
d0
yc 0.54 * 0.91 0.49 m
3. Graphical method
• For complex designed sections which can not be treated by either the analytical
method or the design curves method, a graphical method may be used.
• This method is also applicable to natural channels. In this procedure, a curve of
yc versus Z is constructed
• Then for a specific value of Z = the value of yc may be estimated.
Example
• A trapezoidal channel with b = 6.0 m and m = 1.5 carries a flow of 17 m3/s ;
estimate the critical depth of flow, yc.
Solution
• The first step in solving this problem is to construct a y versus Z curve (figure).
The value of the section factor is then computed from given data.
Q A3
Z 5.4277 m 2..5
g Bs
Where :
• Qfree is the flow rate through the Parshall flume for free flow conditions (m3/s)
• Ha is the head measured at the at the converging part of the Parshall flume (m)
• C and n are constants for specific Parshall flume throat width, W
Parshall flumes…
Example
• Derive an equation showing critical discharge through a rectangular channel
section (broad crested weir) in terms of the channel width and the total head.
• For the rectangular section
A
Z A D A by y by1.5
B
Q Z g
Q byc
3/ 2
g
• But yc = 2/3 H Q
2
g *
3/ 2
* BH 3 / 2
3
3/ 2
2
9.81 * * BH 3/ 2
3
• The popular two equations are the Chezy equation, developed in 1769, and the
Manning equation, developed in 1889.
• The Chezy equation can be derived from the definition of uniform flow with an
assumption regarding the form of the flow resistance coefficient, with reference
to the figure below, the definition of uniform flow requires that the forces
resisting flow exactly equal the forces causing motion.
F = AL So = gAL S0
• For a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter p, the force of
resistance is:
Ff = * P * L
• Equating F = Ff
A
g S o g R S 0
P
• is shear stress along the perimeter, and if we let shear velocity V*
gRS 0
• Then = * V*2
V* is known as shear velocity.
• From experiments it is shown that the force per unit area of the channel
perimeter resisting motion. Ff, is proportional to the square of the average
velocity or
Ff V2
• Therefore, for a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter P, the force of
resistance can also be written as
Ff = KLPV2
1/ 2 A k
V S0
K P
• The resistance coefficient, C defined as is
commonly known as the Chezy C and in
1/ 2
V = 1/n R2/3. S
Where n = Manning resistance coefficient. n is not dimensionless but has
dimensions of TL-1/3
• Since the Chezy and Manning equations describe the same
phenomena, the coefficients C and n must be related. Vchezy =
VManning yields.
C = 1/n R1/6
Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity
• Uniform flow rate:
Manning : Q = 1/n AR2/3S1/2
Chezy: Q = C AR1/2 S1/2
• In Manning equation the parameter 1/n AR 2/3 and in the Chezy equation the
parameters CAR1/2 are called the conveyance of a channel section.
• It is measure of the carrying capacity of a channel section; since it is directly
proportional to Q.
Q
Manning: K = 1/n AR2/3 = S 1/ 2
Q
Chezy: K = CAR1/2 = S 1/ 2
• The above two equations are used to compute the conveyance when the
geometry of the water area and the resistance factor or roughness coefficient
are given.
• Since Manning formula is used extensively, most of the following discussions
and computations will be based on Manning’s equation.
• Conveyance of a channel section increases with increase in hydraulic Radius R
or with decrease in the wetted perimeter P.
K R 1/P
• From a hydraulic viewpoint, therefore, the channel section having the least
wetted perimeter for a given area has a maximum conveyance; such a section is
known as the best hydraulic section.
• In Manning’s equation the parameter AR2/3 is termed as the section factor for
uniform flow computation; it is an important element in the computation of
uniform flow.
nQ
AR 2 / 3
S
• The right side of the equation contains the values of n, Q, and S; but the left side
depends only on the geometry of the water area.
• Therefore, it shows that, for a given condition of n, Q, and S, there is only one
possible depth for maintaining uniform flow. This depth is the normal depth.
• When n and S are known at a channel section, from the equation there can be
only one discharge for maintaining a uniform flow through the section. This
discharge is the normal discharge.
• When the discharge, slope, and roughness are known, this equation
gives the section factor AR2/3 and hence, the normal depth yn.
• On the other land, when n, s and yn, hence the section factor are
given, the normal discharge Q can be computed from
• In general, the most difficult and tedious normal flow calculation occurs when Q,
the shape of the channel, bottom slope and n are known and yn must be
estimated.
• In such cases, an explicit solution is not possible and problem must be solved by:
– Trial and error (Algebric method)
– Numerical method (using computer)
– Design chart (using graph)
R
3 1.5 y y
3 3 .6 y
• Assume trial y values and compute the corresponding values of AR2/3 until the
correct yn is obtained.
Trial y, m A, m2 Pm R, m AR2/3
2.50 16.88 12.01 1.40 21.16
2.55 17.4 12.19 1.43 22.06
2.6 17.94 12.37 1.45 22.98
2.61 18.0 12.39 1.45 23.08
2.70 19.04 12.73 1.49 24.08
Class Exercise:
Class exercise (Normal depth with design chart)
• Circular channel (power canal):
– Diameter of the section: 1.5 m
– Design discharge: 3.5 m3/s
– Long. Slope: 0.001
– Manning's n=0.15
• Determine the normal depth, yn.
Resistance Coefficients, n and C
• The primary difficulty in using either the Manning or Chezy
equation in practice is accurately estimating the value of the
resistance coefficient n and C.
• Ranges of the values are available in literature for various channel
surfaces
• n or C are major parameters for calibration/validation of
hydrodynamic simulation models.
• n and C are related to Reynolds number (R) of the flow (Reynolds
number reflect the effect of viscosity in relation to inertia), the
boundary roughness, and the shape of the channel cross-section.
4. GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (GVF)
• In uniform flow the cross section through which water flows
remains constant.
• Also the velocity remains the same, in magnitude and direction.
• On the contrary, in varied flow the cross section changes in the
flow direction, the water depth changes along the length of the
channel.
• Varied flow may be either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady
uniform flow is rare, the term "unsteady flow” is used for unsteady
varied flow.
• Varied flow may be further classified as either gradually or rapidly
varied.
• The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a
comparatively short distance; otherwise, it is gradually varied.
• A rapidly varied flow is also known as local phenomenon examples
are the hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop.
• Gradually varied flow is here generally a steady flow, whose depth
varies gradually along the channel.
• This means that 3 conditions are met.
– The hydraulic flow characteristics remain constant in time;
– The streamlines are practically parallel meaning the hydrostatic pressure
prevails,
– Bed friction is assumed to be equal to the friction in uniform flow (Manning,
Chezy). Also, the uniform- flow formula may be used to evaluate the energy
slope of GVF at a given channel section.
– Such situations are found both upstream and downstream of control
sections.
General Equation for Gradually varied flow
• The main forces in open channel flow
– inertia,
– gravity,
– hydrostatic force due to change in depth
– friction.
• The first three forces represent the kinetic and potential energy, while the
forth dissipates useful energy into the useless kinetic energy of turbulence and
eventually into heat due to action of viscosity.
• The total energy of an elementary volume of water is given as:
E = Z + Y + V2/2g
Where:
Z + Y is the potential energy head above a datum, m
V2/2g is the kinetic energy head (V = mean velocity in the section).
• The gradually varied flow equation is derived by assuming that the change in
energy with distance is equal to the friction loss.
• Differentiating the energy equation with respect to distance:
V2 v2
d Z Y d
dy dz
dE 2 g 2 g
dx dx dx dx dx
dE
• The term is the change of energy with longitudinal distance or the friction
slope. dx
dE dZ
Sf So
dx dX
v2
d
• For a given flow rate Q, the term 2 g becomes
v2 dx
d dy
Fr 2
2
2 g Q 2 dA dy Q T dy
dx gA3 dy dx gA3 dx dx
v2
d S f Fr
dy
2 dy
So
dy dz yields
So Sf
dE 2 g dx dx
dy
dx dx dx dx
So Sf
dy
1 Fr
2
1 Fr
2
dx dx
This equation is called the general equation of gradually varied flow (also known as dynamic
equation of GVF).
Classification of Flow Profiles
dy So Sr
dx 1 Fr 2
• The term dy/dx represents the slope of the water surface relative to
the channel bottom.
• If dy/dx is positive, the depth is increasing in downstream direction
(x).
• When the channel bottom is going down in the direction of flow, So
is positive.
• Similarly Sf in downstream direction is always positive; the energy is
decreasing in downstream direction.
• For uniform flow Sf = So, which means dy/dx is zero and the water
surface parallel to the bottom.
• For a given discharge Q, Sf and Fr2 are functions of depth
(y) only, e.g. Sf
n Q P 2 2 4/3
A10 / 3
Q 2 Bs
Fr 2
gA3
• These inequalities are used to find the sign of dy/dx for any condition.
• For GVF the surface profile may occupy 3 regions and the sign of dy/dx is found
for each region.
a. Bed slope
Horizontal slope So = 0 Type H
Mild slope 0 < So < Sc Type M
Critical slope So = Sc Type C
Steep slope So > Sc Type S
Adverse slope (negative) So < 0 Type A or N
b. Depth range
Region 1 y > yn and y > yc
Region 2 yn < y < yc
Region3 y < yn and y < yc
• Sf is calculated for the depths y1 and y2 and the average is taken, which is
denoted by Sfm.
• An approximate analysis can be achieved by dividing the channel in a number of
successive, short reaches. For each of the reaches the water depth at the
beginning can be estimated.
• Next the length of reaches can be calculated (step by step) from
one end of the reach to the other end.
• The Chezy or Manning formula is applied to average conditions in
each reach to provide an estimate of Sfm and So
• With the depth and velocity at one end of the reach given, the
length can be computed.
• Depths of flow are specified and the distances between successive
depths are calculated.
1 Fr 2
Δx * Δy
So Sr
Graphical Integration
• This method integrates the equation of gradually varied flow by a
numerical procedure.
dy S Sf
o
dx 1 Fr 2
dx 1 Fr 2
dy S o Sf
1 Fr 2
x y2
dx
o
y1
S o Sf
dy
1 Fr 2
y2 y2
dx
L x 2 x1
y1
S o Sf
dy y dy dy
1
• Consider two channel sections at distance x1 and x2
and with corresponding depths of flow y1 and y2.
• The distance along the channel is X. If a graph of y
against f(y) is plotted, then the area under the curve
is equivalent to X.
• The value of the function f(y) may be found by
substitution of A, P, So and Sf for various values of y
and for a given Q.
• Hence, the distance X between the given depths (y1
and y2) may be calculated (numerical integration) or
measured (graphical integration).
• This numerical/graphical method gives the distance
from depth.
Standard step method
• The standard step method is carried out step by step
from station to station.
• The distance between the stations is given, and the
procedure is to determine the depth of flow at the
stations.
• The computation procedure is usually carried out by trial
and error.
For the computation are needed:
• Discharge Q
• Length of the reach
• Area A as function of y
• Hydraulic radius R as function of y
• Roughness coefficient ( n or C)
α v12 α v 22
E1 Z1 E 2 1 Z2 E 2 2 E1 Sf * Δx
2g 2g
ΔE s So Sf * Δx
Standard step method
Steps in standard step method
1. The location of the stations is fixed.
2. Water-surface elevation Z at the station. A trial value is first entered in this column; this
will be verified or rejected on the basis of ht computations made in the remaining
columns of the table. For the first step, this elevation must be given or assumed. In
most cases the first entry is known. After this value in the second step has been
verified, it becomes the basis for the verification the trial value in the next step, and so
on
3. Depth of flow y corresponding to the water-surface elevation in col. 2. For instance, the
depth of flow y at the second station is equal to water-surface elevation minus bottom
elevation (distance form the first site times bed slope)
4. Water area A corresponding to y in col.3
5. Mean velocity v equal to the given discharge divided by the water area in col. 4
6. Velocity head in m, corresponding to the velocity col. 5
7. Total head E computed, equal to the sum of Z in col. 2 and the velocity head in col. 6
8. Hydraulic radius R corresponding to y in col. 3
9. Friction slope Sf with n or C, V from col. 5 and R from col. 8
10. Average friction Sfm slope through the reach between the sections in each step,
approximately equal to the arithmetic mean of the friction slope just computed in col. 9
and that of the previous step.
11. Length of the reach between the sections.
12. Friction loss in the reach, equal to the product of the values in cols. 10 and11.
13. Elevation of the total head E. this is computed by adding the values of hf (and hc if
calculated in a previous column) in col. 12 to the elevation at the lower end of the
reach, which is found in col. 13 of the previous reach. Compare this with Col 7.
5. RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW (RVF)
Characteristics of RVF
• Pronounced curvature of streamlines.
Abrupt change of flow profile (virtually broken)
RVF vs GVF
In view of contrast with UF & GVF the following characteristics should be noted.
y1 2
Types of Jump
• Hydraulic jumps can be classified according to Froude Number Fr1 of the
incoming flow as follows.
• Fr1 =1: Critical flow no jump can form
• 1< Fr1 < 1.7: Water surface shows undulation (undular jump)
• 1.7 < Fr1 < 2.5: A series of small rollers develop on the surface of the
jump, but the d/s water surface remains smooth. The velocity throughout
is fairly uniform, and the energy loss low. The jump is called weak jump.
• 2.5 < Fr1 < 4.5: There is an oscillating jet entering the jump bottom to
surface and back again with no periodicity. Each oscillation produces a
large wave of irregular period which is very common in canals, can travel
for miles doing unlimited damage to earth banks and ripraps. This jump is
called Oscillating Jump.
• 4.5 < Fr1 < 9.0 : steady Jump:- The downstream extremity of the surface
roller and the point at which the high-velocity jet tends to leave the flow
occur at practically the same vertical section. The action and position of
this jump are least sensitive to variation in tail-water depth. The jump is
well balanced and the performance is at its best. The energy dissipation
ranges from 45 to 70%.
• Fr > 9.0: Strong jump:- The high-velocity jet grabs intermittent slugs of
water rolling down the front face of the jump, generating waves down-
stream and a rough surface can prevail. The jump action is rough but
effective since the energy dissipation may reach 85%.
Basic characteristics of the Jump
• Energy Loss: the difference in specific energy before and after the jump.
y 2 y1 3
E E1 E 2
4 y1 y 2
E
Re lative loss : the ratio
E1
• Efficiency:
3
8 F1 1 2 4 F1 1
2 2 E2 Depends only o the Froude
E2
1
E1 8 F1 2 F1
2
2
E1 Number Fr1 of the
approach flow
• Height of Jump: h j = y 2 – y1
• Length of Jump:
Length of stilling basin is empirically given as
L k y y1
2
4.5 < k < 5.5
Flow under Gates
• Gates in canals are mainly used as water level regulators.
• Sometimes, gates are used as discharge regulator (measuring device).
• Example sluice gates, radial gates
• The design of underflow gate focuses on head-discharge relationship (Q-
H) and to minimize head loss;
• The other concern of the design is the pressure distribution over the
gate
• For gated structures the control section is defined by the vena contract,
being the smallest cross section just down steam of the gate.
In gate flow 3 flow types can be distinguished.
Free flow: contraction of the steam-lines in vertical direction is strong.
• The down stream water level (h2) won’t affect the flow underneath the gate and
a hydraulics jump will occur down stream of the vena contra.
• The discharge depends up on the
– gate opening
– upstream water level and
– the contraction coefficient.
Submerged flow: the d/s water level influences the flow underneath
the gate.
• The hydraulic jump is drowned and the jet underneath the gate is
submerged.
• The discharge depends upon
– upstream and downstream water levels and
– the gate opening.
Q Cd Ba 2gh1
Cd = discharge coefficient
B = Width of gate opening
a = height of gate opening
h1 = upstream water depth
Cc
The discharge coefficient Cd Cd
a
1 Cc
h1
d
4.7 Cc 0.99 Rounded edged gates
a
Where d is diameter of the rounded bottom edge.
• For weir gated flow the discharge follows from the equation for a
broad-crested weir. 3
Q 1.7 * B * H 2
UNSTEADY FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS
• Unsteady flow changes with time (dy/dt 0): steady flow does not.
• The difference is not an absolute one
• Suppose for example that a land slide falls into a river and partially
blocks it, sending a surge wave upstream which brings about an
abrupt change in depth.
• Unsteady flow occurs where flow parameters vary with time at a
fixed point.
• PROBLEMS
– Oscillatory Sea Waves
– Flood waves in flood
– Dam Break Flood Waves
– Surges due to gate operation, e.g. in irrigation canal.
• A WAVE is a temporal variation in the water surface which is
propagated through a fluid medium“.
Oscillatory Wave (e.g. sea waves)
Zero net mass transport
Translatory Waves (e.g. Flood Waves)
net transport of fluid in direction of wave
Translatory
Oscillatory
• Deep water waves: Only surface layers disturbed
Depth y
0 .5
Wavelength L
y
0.05
L
Wave celerity, c
• The celerity of a wave is the speed of propagation
of the disturbance relative to the fluid
L
c 2 gL 2
• Shallow water
c gy
Development of St. Venant Equations
A.V bs
y A v y
, bs , surface width v A bS 0
x t x x t
Momentum (dynamic) equation
A z
Force on element due to pressure forces on each end - x
x
A
Weight component acting down slope A x
x
* x. s
0
2
Force due to friction
Ft . p .x
• Summation of these forces cause rate of change of momentum,
by Newton's 2nd law,
y v v 1 v
S S 0
x g x g t f 0
Solutions of the St. Venant equations