LUND UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT

Millennials and Healthy Food

Consumption:
Factors Influencing Intentions and the Intention-Behavior Gap

by
Anna Fedusiv & Caifeng Bai
May 2016

Master’s Program in
International Marketing & Brand Management,
Globalization, Brands and Consumption

Supervisor: Magnus Nilsson Course: BUSN39

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all the people who provided help and support to this master thesis
project. First and foremost, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our supervisor
Magnus Nilsson, for providing us with valuable insights and recommendations for the
improvement of the thesis. Secondly, we are grateful to Ulf Johansson, who enlightened us
in forming paradox of this thesis. A special thank you to all participants of our interviews,
who dedicated their time and provided us with valuable empirical material for the research.
Furthermore, we owe a debt of gratitude to Julienne Stewart-Sandgren for supporting us
with the methodological improvement. In addition, we want to thank our seminar opponents,
Daniel Berglund and Andreas Byberg for the constructive feedback, useful comments that
helped to shape this thesis. Finally, we would like to express genuine gratitude to Lund
University for granting us scholarship within the Lund University Global Scholarship
program.

2
Abstract
Title: Millennials and Healthy Food Consumption: Factors Influencing Intentions and the
Intention-Behavior Gap
Date of the Seminar: 30th May, 2016
Course: BUSN39: Degree Project in Global Marketing
Authors: Anna Fedusiv and Caifeng Bai
Supervisor: Magnus Nilsson
Language: English
Keywords: Decision Making, Healthy Food, Millennials, Theory of Planned Behavior,
Intention, Behavior.
Thesis Purpose: The current thesis aimed to explore the knowledge in the field of Healthy
Eating Behavior with a particular emphasis on the consumers of Millennial generation. The
main focus laid on the Millennial consumer healthy eating decision-making process and
intention-behavior gap. Moreover, the authors of this thesis strove to understand factors
influencing healthy eating intention, as well as the gap between intention and behavior.
Methodology: The qualitative research design followed an ontological paradigm described as
social constructionist and an epistemological position described as interpretivist. An
abductive approach was adopted to relate the theory to empirical materials, allowing
predefined categories to guide the data collection. Moreover, the semi-structured interviews
based on convenience sampling helped reveal the underlying reasons for the consumer
decision-making process. The empirical data was iteratively analyzed with the use of
grounded theory.
Theoretical perspective: To answer the two research questions, this thesis adopted well-
established Theory of Planned Behavior as well as additional theories such as internal and
external influencers on food consumption to analyze Millennial consumer’s healthy food
intention formulation and their intention-behavior gap.
Empirical data: 15 semi-structured interviews with Millennial participants from one of the
Scandinavian countries (Norway, Sweden, Denmark).
Conclusion: The result of the research confirm the Theory of Planned Behavior can be
applied in Scandinavian Millennial food consumption phenomenon, with a note of need for
further research on the efficacy between Subjective Norms and behavioral intention. Besides
TPB factors, a few internal factors were also identified to form the healthy eating intention.
Furthermore, derived from the empirical materials, three sources, namely PBC, Planning and
Goal Setting, as well as Conflicting Intentions are considered factors that trigger the
intention-behavior gap.

3
Table of Contents
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.2 Understanding the Differences Between Generations ............................................... 7
1.1.3 Distinctive Traits of Millennials ................................................................................ 8
1.1.4 Healthy Food Phenomenon ....................................................................................... 9
1.2 Problem Formulation...................................................................................................... 10
1.3 Research Question and Purpose ..................................................................................... 11
1.4 Intended Contributions ................................................................................................... 11
1.5 Outline of the Thesis ...................................................................................................... 12
2 Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................................... 13
2.1 Understanding the Decision Making .............................................................................. 13
2.1.1 Rational Decision Making ....................................................................................... 13
2.1.2 Prospects Theory of Decision Making .................................................................... 13
2.2 Understanding Healthy Eating Phenomenon - Consumer Perspective .......................... 14
2.3 Factors that Influence the Eating Behavior .................................................................... 15
2.3.1 Internal Factors ........................................................................................................ 15
2.3.2 External Factors ....................................................................................................... 17
2.4 Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) ............................................................................... 18
2.4.1 Attitude (towards the Behavior) .............................................................................. 19
2.4.2 Subjective Norms .................................................................................................... 19
2.4.3 Perceive Behavioral Control (of the Behavior) ....................................................... 19
2.4.4 Qualitative Application of TPB ............................................................................... 20
2.5 An Integrated Conceptual Framework ........................................................................... 21
3. Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 22
3.1 Research Philosophy ...................................................................................................... 22
3.2 Role of the Theory.......................................................................................................... 23
3.3 Research Strategy and Research Design ........................................................................ 24
3.4 Data Collection and Process ........................................................................................... 25
3.4.1 Semi-structured interview........................................................................................ 25
3.5 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................. 28
3.6 Methodological Limitations ........................................................................................... 29
3.7 Ethical Considerations.................................................................................................... 30
4. Analysis and Discussion ..................................................................................................... 32

4
 4.1 Understanding the Healthy Eating Intention Motivators in the Millennial Context ...... 32
4.1.1 Attitudes as a Motivator of Healthy Eating Intention.............................................. 32
4.1.2 Subjective Norms as a Motivator of Healthy Eating Intention ............................... 33
4.1.3 Perceived Behavioral Control as a Motivator of Healthy Eating Intention ............. 35
4.1.4 Other Motivators of Healthy Eating Intention Formation ....................................... 36
4.2 Exploring the Barriers between Intention and Behavior ................................................ 40
4.2.1 Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) ...................................................................... 40
4.2.2 Planning and Goal Setting ....................................................................................... 42
4.2.3 Conflicting Intentions............................................................................................... 43
4.3 Chapter Summary........................................................................................................... 44
5.Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 46
5.1 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 46
5.2 Theoretical Contributions............................................................................................... 48
5.3 Managerial Implications ................................................................................................. 49
5.4 Limitations and Future Research.................................................................................... 50
References ............................................................................................................................... 51
Appendices .............................................................................................................................. 61
Appendix A: The research Onion......................................................................................... 61
Appendix B: The Interview Guide for the Representatives of Millennial Generation ........ 62

5
1. Introduction
The first chapter provides an overview of the selected research area by highlighting its
relevance and applicability. After the topic introduction, authors of this thesis provide the
background information which serves as the point of departure for the problem formulation.
Afterwards, two research questions and purpose of the study are introduced. Finally, intended
contribution – theoretical as well as managerial is provided. The chapter concludes with the
thesis outline.

1.1 Background
The growing research interest of the generation cohort that is called Millennials, Generation
Y (the terms that will be used in the paper interchangeably to avoid duplication) from the
scholars and practitioners is hard to neglect (Lancaster & Stillman, 2003). Studies of
generation segmentation suggest that representatives of different generations have set of
unique values, beliefs, and attitudes that result in differing behaviors (Inglehart, &
Carballo,1997). Therefore, it is important to understand the behavior of the future consumer
base, especially such a significant one.

Globally, by 2020 Millennials will represent the half of the consumer population (PwC, 2016;
Catalyst, 2012). In the United States, Millennials represent 25% -27% of the population and
own around one trillion dollars in direct purchasing power. Also, this generation cohort has
the substantial impact on the older generations (Millennial Marketing, 2016). Furthermore,
Millennials are the biggest generation cohort in the US history – overcoming Baby Boomers
(Stokes, 2015). In Europe, Millennials represent 23% of the population (Stokes, 2015) with
some differences across the countries. Even though Millennials do not account for the biggest
amount of society in Europe, they obtain a significant purchasing power that is expected to
grow. Not only this generation has the massive amount of resources at their disposal, but they
also have a strong influence on the family purchasing decisions (Morton, 2002). Moreover, in
the years to come this generational cohort will become increasingly significant as food
consumers (Millennial Marketing, 2016). Indeed, they seem to spend more money on food
than previous generations (Peskett, 2006). Furthermore, Millennials show the high level of
involvement in everything that is related to food. For this generation, a meal is not merely
the mean of saturation, but also an opportunity for self - expression and the ability to obtain
new experiences (Food Navigator, 2016; The Caterer, 2016). Furthermore, food is the reason
to bring people together in a physical space that is especially vital in the high digitalized era
(Pinsker, 2015).

On one hand, it seems that Millennials may become the drivers of a healthy eating trend that
is developing lately (Peskett, 2006). On the other hand, these days not all the representatives
of mentioned generation are ready to follow a healthy diet (Food Navigator, 2016).
Therefore, the study of Millennials' decision making process regarding healthy food emerges
as a relevant and practical research object, especially understanding the fact of limited
research in this area (Corvi & Bigi, 2007; Schewe & Meredith, 2004).

6
1.1.2 Understanding the Differences Between Generations
Generational theory was introduced by Strauss and Howe (1991) and since then it has
become a useful tool for understanding the differences of people that were born in the
particular time (Lancaster & Stillman, 2003). To be formed into the generation, a group of
individuals has to be born in the given period (usually 20 – 25 years), grow through the same
experiences and becomes of a legal age at the same time (Strauss & Howe,1991). Moreover,
generation gets formed when people live through the same events (assassination, war,
economic change, big new technological advancement) in the same time interval (Ryder,
1965). Such life experience and the same age allow forming a distinct set of values, beliefs,
and attitudes that differ from one generation to another and are relatively stable over the
cohort’s lifetime (Mannheim, 1923; Eastman, Iyer & Thomas, 2013; Straus & Howe, 1991).
Nevertheless, some scholars convey that generation theory depicts cohorts stereotypically.
For instance, scholars argue that even within one generation, it is possible to distinguish
consumers with a set of different values, beliefs, and attitudes (Reeves & Oh, 2008). On the
other hand, there is still a sufficient amount of evidence showing that the cohort theory serves
as solid background when it comes to comparison of people were born during different time
spans and experienced similar life events (Straus & Howe, 1991). Consequently, cohort
theory scholars argue that there can be differences in values, beliefs and attitudes of
generations that live in different regions due to the impact of cultural factors (Scott & Zak,
1993; Schewe, Debevec, Madden, Diamond, Parment & Murphy, 2013). However, there are
also evidences that common traits prevail (Corvi & Bigi, 2007).

In recent years, various researchers distinguish five existing generation cohorts and their
general traits: Silent Generation (1927-1945) – people who lived during Great Depression
and Second World War – conservative, sensitive in relation to food issues as experienced
food shortage (Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project, 2010). They
are currently between 71 and 89 years old, value ethics, morals, savings and are rational in
their choices (Kaylene & Robert, 2011). Baby Boomers (1946- 1964) - those who grew in the
period of economic prosperity and development of middle-class. They age between 52 and
70, value optimism, self-expression and individualization. This generation tends to be
workaholics and measure their success by the career achievements (Dietz, Kalof & Stern,
2003). Generation X (1965- 1980) whose evolvement was during the energy crisis. People
from that generation, are currently between 36 and 51 years old. Representatives of
Generation X are notable for being skeptical, cynical and do not trust big companies and
institutions (Trends Active – International Trend Interpretation Agency, 2016). Since most
people from this generation cohort are well educated, they tend to be pessimistic and
disillusioned. For example, they incline to question almost every statement they face
(Carpenter & Moore, 2009). Generation X, in general, is conservative and is not ready for
new experiences. Lastly, Generation Y, or Millennials (1981-2000), aged between 16 and 35,
are the cohort who grew in the era of immense and dynamic changes in the society. During
their coming-to-age period they were able to observe the dual-income household’s
development and the increasing level of equality between genders, virtual employment
opportunities (Reeves & Oh, 2008; Valentine & Powers, 2013). Moreover, Howe and Strauss
(2000) describe Millennials with seven distinguishing features: confident, achieving, special,
sheltered, involved, pressured, enthusiastic. This cohort was brought in the families who

7
claimed the uniqueness and specialness of their kids. Therefore, Millennials are not afraid of
failure, value individuality, and opened for new experiences (Rugimbana, 2007). Finally,
Generation Z, or post-Millennials (2000 till now) - the generation is still going through the
formation stage and aged 16 years old or less. They are social natives as were born in the era
of Internet technology. Along with that, they are concerned about their image and appearance
(Howe & Strauss, 2008).

1.1.3 Distinctive Traits of Millennials

The Millennial cohort grew in the period of technological revolution when the Internet and
electronic devices became common and easily accessible (Gurau, 2012). Unlike the previous
Generation X, who view technology as isolating, Generation Y representatives make a full
advantage of the Internet as a means of communication with the surrounding world.
Therefore, Millennials cannot imagine their everyday lives without modern technologies, and
consider them as important as clothes they wear or food they eat (Huntley, 2006). Moreover,
representatives of Generation Y are highly connected, desiring to build strong relations with
the online and offline groups which they belong to. It is worth to note that they have the
much higher sense of relationship than the previous generations (Nimon, 2007). Scholars
define Millennials as highly technologically savvy, well educated, mature and structured, in
comparison to the previous generations (Syrett & Lammiman, 2003; Strauss & Howe, 1991).

Millennials pay high attention to the opinions of their reference groups and social media. In
particular, they rely heavily on them when making decisions (Morton, 2002). Most
importantly, this generation wants to comply with the normative beliefs and values of their
reference group (Abraham & Harrington, 2015). For example, 84% of Generation Y
representatives tell that social opinions influence their decisions (Ad Age, 2016). Previous
studies have conveyed that Millennials’ decisions are profoundly influenced by the desire to
receive social approval and to fit the stands of the reference group (Greenberg,
2009). Conversely, representatives of the Generation X and Baby Boomers tend to care less
about what other people think about them (Twenge, 2010).

Tapscott (2009) together with Twenge, Charles, Hoffman & Campbell (2010), in their studies
of Generation Y, discovered that this generation tends to be self-centered, hedonistic, self–
confident and less concerned about others, compared to the Generation X and previous
generations. Moreover, this statement is also acknowledged by Pew Research Center, in their
Social & Demographic Trends Project, (2010). Millennials put self–expression as a critical
priority (Twenge et al., 2010). 75% of representatives obtain profiles in social networks,
whereas in the case of Generation X and Baby Boomers, these figures are only 50% and 30%
respectively (Huntley, 2006). 20% of Millennials post videos of themselves as the starring
role. Furthermore, Twenge et al. (2010) convey that Millennials consider personal branding
as an essential element of self-promotion. Additionally, Lancaster and Stillman, (2002)
noticed that Millennials express the need to make a positive impact on people.

Moreover, Generation Y tends to show a high level of involvement in different aspects of

lives (Pinto, Parente & Palmer, 2000; Schewe & Meredith, 2004; Vijay & Arsha, 2013). As
Novak (2012) suggests in his study, Millennials strive to obtain more than average from
every action they do - more from an employer, a food provider, and their lives. Therefore, if

8
Millennials are looking for a job – they strive to find the place, where they will not only be
able to earn money but also seek fulfillment and meaning (Twenge et al., 2010; One Europe,
2013). To the contrary, their parents, representatives of Generation X, primarily focus on the
work and life balance and aim to fulfill their duties, rather than to contribute to the shared
goals (Twenge, 2010; Twenge et al., 2010).

When making purchases, Generation Y gives priority to the product rather than the place
where it can be bought (Parment, 2013). Thus, they show a low level of loyalty for the
retailers. In their purchasing decisions, Millennials are likely to pay attention to convenience,
price and the value that retailers create (Hewlett, Sherbin & Sumberg, 2009). At the same
time, Baby Boomers and Generation X pay precise attention to the place, trust local dealers
and express loyalty to the retailers (Parment, 2013). For instance, Baby Boomers perceive
physical stores as the source of information about products and services, and hence they will
eagerly ask for assistance in the store, while the Millennials tend to shop around and look for
the best offers (Parment, 2013).

Food is a particular phenomenon for Generation Y. They differ from Generation X, who are
primarily looking for traditional food, and the Baby Boomers, who seek enjoyment in simple
meals rather than variety (Belasco, 1989). Food for Millennials is a complicated matter, since
they grew in the era of technological revolution, with a broad range of choices and accesses
to foreign cuisines. Consequently, they seek to have new experiences in food (Food
Navigator, 2016; The Caterer, 2016). Moreover, the Millennials have a potential to influence
the eating habits of previous generations (Millennial Marketing, 2016). Millennial generation
is called “the generation that lives to eat” and “the tastemakers in food” (The Caterer, 2016).
Furthermore, Turow (2015) suggest that high level of involvement with food of Millennial
generation grounds from the opportunity to activate their senses and have new experiences.

Since food consumption is a very particular phenomenon, where culture has a significant
impact on the attitudes, norms, beliefs, likes and dislikes of food (Warde, 1997; Asp,1999)
hence it is necessary to take country of origin into consideration when analyzing one
generational cohort. Moreover, scholars define 12 distinctive food cultures even within
Europe alone (Warde, 1997; Askegaard & Madsen, 1998). For example, in the French, Italian
and Swiss clusters sensory pleasure from food is vital (Solomon, Bamossy, Askegaar &
Hogg, 2006), whereas particular health consciousness characterizes the Germanic cluster.
Scandinavian food cluster is considered as homogeneous and comprises of such countries as
Denmark, Norway and Sweden (Askegaard & Madsen, 1998). Therefore, authors of this
thesis decided to conduct the research work in Copenhagen and Lund, where the authors
reside, by interviewing participants originally born in one of the Scandinavian countries.

1.1.4 Healthy Food Phenomenon

Generally speaking, healthy food can be defined as a balanced diet full of proteins,
carbohydrates, and fats, moderation and regularity in food consumption and control on the
nutrients of the meal (Keane & Willetts, 1996; Paquette, 2005; Krahn, Lengyel & Hawranik,
2011; Bisogni et al., 2012). Moreover, it also entails fruits and vegetables consumption,
reduction of high-fat food intake (Keane & Willetts, 1996; Paquette, 2005; Bisogni, Jastran,
Seligson & Thompson, 2012). Healthy Eating Behavior (HEB) refers to healthy cooking

9
habits that mean more stewed and baked a meal, less fried meals, and the absence of additives
in food (Povey, Conner, Sparks, James & Shepherd, 1998).

The healthy food consumption trend is evolving during last decade. According to a Global
Health and Wellness Survey (AC Nielsen, 2016), which was conducted on 30 000 adults
from 60 different countries, half (49%) of respondents believe they are overweight, and the
other half (50%) tries to lose weight. At the same time there is the desire to serve the demand
for healthy products among big FMCG companies. According to Financial Times (2016),
food M&A, within developed economies, are driven primarily by the changing tastes of
Millennial consumers, who are shunning processed food and in favor of healthier products.
Following this point of view, it can be concluded that more and more consumers are willing
to engage in healthy eating behavior and seek to eat healthily. It is seen that Millennials
become more and more engaged in fresh, healthy and simple food consumption (Arctic
Apples, 2014). This category of consumers places a greater emphasis on the healthy offerings
even on fast food chains.

While the awareness of healthy diet is undeviating during last past decades, there are still
many adults who are overweight (BMI ≥ 25 to <30) or obese (BMI ≥ 30), as reported by the
AC Nielsen (2016). And it seems this amount is not going to decrease in the nearest future
(Simmons, Mavoa, Bell, De Courten, Schaaf, Schultz & Swinburn, 2009). Consequently, it is
also important to acknowledge that despite the interest of the Germination Y towards healthy
food is growing; this generation cohort still has poor eating habits that lead to overweight and
obesity (Hewlett, Sherbin & Sumberg, 2009; Paquette, 2005).

1.2 Problem Formulation

From the above this thesis suggests that Millennial generation is a cohort that expresses
particular interest in the food category. Moreover, the authors of this thesis notice that the
Millennials seem to be highly involved in healthy eating behavior. Nevertheless, we are also
aware that the gap between healthy eating intention and healthy eating behavior does exist,
owing to various factors. In order to solve the paradox, it is critical to acquire understandings
about the decision-making process of the Millennials when it comes to healthy food
consumption. In order to motivate Millennials to change their eating behavior, it is vital to
understand the factors impacting healthy eating intention and the subsequent behavior of this
generation cohort. In reality, the weak link between Millennials' healthy diet claims and their
healthy eating behavior has raised concerns for marketers and policy makers (The Caterer,
2016). By obtaining such knowledge, this thesis will be able to contribute not only from an
academic perspective but also from managerial and social prospects. While the healthy eating
phenomenon is expanding, it appears that the area of healthy eating behavior of Millennial
consumers remains relatively unstudied. For instance, many studies focused on the elderly or
adolescent when exploring healthy food-related behavior (Asp,1999; Carson, Blake &
Saunders, 2014; Conner & Armitage, 1998; Yap, Noor, Marshall & Liew, 2014). When it
comes to Generation Y, vast majority of studies was related to them as employees and as
users of modern digital technologies (Twenge et al. 2010; Barkin, Heerman, Warren &
Rennhoff, 2010; Debevec & Schewe, 2013). To the best knowledge of the authors, there are
only a few available studies related to Millennials as consumers of food and beverage

10
products. For instance, there was a study that investigated engagement of Generation Y with
champagne and sparkling wine from a cross – cultural perspective (Velikova, Ritchie,
Fountain, Thach et al. (2011). Moreover, Pomarici and Vecchio (2014), focused on the
Millennial generation’s attitudes to sustainable wine. Additionally, Teagle, Mueller and
Lockshin (2010) explored how much values and attitudes of wine and alcoholic beverages
differ between consumers. It appears that currently the area of healthy eating behavior of
Millennial consumers remains rarely studied.

Therefore, within the present study authors intend to develop knowledge about the factors
that influence healthy eating intention and moreover, to develop the insights about the
intention–behavior gap from a Scandinavian Millennial perspective. Since this topic is
highly interesting and relevant to study, with little research to decode this phenomenon, the
originality of this research project becomes even more significant.

1.3 Research Question and Purpose

The previously mentioned considerations (see section 1.2) suggest the research gap and
necessity to study the factors influencing the healthy eating intentions and the intention-
behavior gap, from the perspectives of the Scandinavian Millennial consumers. To anchor the
present thesis, the following research questions were derived to guide the literature review
and the empirical study (Bryman & Bell, 2011):

RQ1.What factors motivate the intention of Scandinavian Millennial consumers to eat

healthily?

RQ2. When Scandinavian Millennials are motivated to pursue a healthy diet, what are
the barriers prevent healthy eating behavior from happening?

Having the questions in mind, researchers aim to contribute to the current decision-making
literature with a particular focus on a particular generation cohort, namely the Millennials.
Moreover, authors will employ a conceptual framework based on Theory of Planned
Behavior to explore the factors influencing healthy eating intentions for insights generation.
More importantly, authors aim to gain an in-depth understanding of the factors that trigger
the gap between healthy eating intention and healthy eating behavior.

1.4 Intended Contributions

The research aims to provide insights for a better understanding of the factors that influence
the intention formulation to eat healthy. More importantly, it also aims to investigate the
factors that prevent healthy eating behavior from happening from the Millennial’ context. As
there is a call for more profound study of the healthy eating behavior of Millennial
generation, present thesis will contribute to the understanding of the issue. From the
managerial perspective, the research will give the insights about Millennials’ motivations of
healthy eating intention and also what barriers hinder the intention to transfer into the
behavior. Hence, practitioners who work in the industries related to food production may use
obtained insights for products development and communication creation. The knowledge

11
about factors that prevent intention to eat healthy from happening may help working
professionals to understand what has to be done or improved to gain new consumers in the
healthy products category. For the policy makes present thesis may help to gain a useful
information for further health related policies development.

1.5 Outline of the Thesis

The first chapter of the thesis provides general background information on the research topic
and presents the problem formulation, as well as the research purpose. It further provides
reasoning for the relevance and importance of the thesis, from a theoretical, as well as a
practical point of view. The second chapter introduces the conceptual framework and
discusses literature on the phenomenon of healthy food, decision - making process as well as
other relevant theories. To investigate the factors that influence Millennial consumers’
healthy eating intention and the intention-behavior gap, the researchers present a conceptual
framework that guides the empirical data collection. The third chapter is designed to show the
methodological reasoning of the authors. Furthermore, the third chapter describes the data
collection process and the in-depth analysis of the empirical data, thereby also considering
research limitations and research ethics. Within the fourth chapter, the findings that derived
from the empirical study are presented, interpreted and analyzed. This chapter also includes a
discussion of the empirical findings and their relationship to the applied theories and
concepts. The fifth chapter aims to extend on the developed research question and to draw
conclusions. Furthermore, the theoretical contributions, managerial and social implications of
this study are discussed. Lastly, the thesis concludes by discussing the limitations of the
thesis and, ultimately by suggesting fields and topics of interest for future research.

12
2 Theoretical Framework
As was mentioned earlier (see section 1.1.3 & 1.1.4), the trend of healthy food consumption
is gaining the momentum nowadays. However, not all the Millennials make a decision to eat
healthy food, meaning various factors drive consumers to follow the unhealthy food choices.
In this chapter, we will provide the views on the decision making that prevailed over the
course of history. Also, we will give the explanation of the healthy eating phenomenon from
the consumer point of view. Moreover, we will attempt to categorize the internal and external
factors influencing food consumption, as well as Theory of Planned Behavior. By doing so,
this thesis can explore Millennial food consumption phenomenon systematically. Finally,
authors will come up with a conceptual framework that seeks to describe how the factors
formulate an intention to eat healthily, and the barriers that prevent Millennial healthy eating
behavior from happening, under the condition of healthy eating intention is formed.

2.1 Understanding the Decision Making

In order to obtain the better understanding of what guides the people in the decision making -
process, it is inevitable to investigate the existing academic approaches on this matter. Over
the course of the history, the view on the human decision making went through several
transformations.

2.1.1 Rational Decision Making

Expected Utility Decision Theory, was the first actively used approach to explain the
individual’s decision making, which later became known as Normative Theory (Richarme,
2005). This theory is based on the assumption that all consumers are rational. Hence, the only
factor that they are influenced by is the willingness to maximize the expected utility when
making decisions (Klein, Orsanu, Calrerwood & Zsambok, 1993). Normative Theory focused
on finding the best possible method to evaluate the optimal decision, in instead of studying
the factors influence consumer decision-making process (Klein et al., 1993). In other words,
in the normative approach, researches pay attention to the decision event itself, not on the
influencers of the decision-making process. Moreover, according to the Normative Theory,
individuals have to think and act only in the way as it is suggested by the scientist and not to
differ (Klein et al., 1993). Even though the normative approach may be perceived as limited
to some extent, it provides value when there is a need to identify the factors from a general
perspective. Moreover, such approach can be in use when the optimum has to be found and
complex decision has to be made (Richarme, 2005).

2.1.2 Prospects Theory of Decision Making

Right until the late 20th century, the normative approach of consumer decision making was
dominating. However, in the second half of the 20th century, Tversky and Kahneman (1986)
posed the idea that consumers often violated the basis of the normative or rational theory and
made irrational decisions, which were influenced by other factors than just utility aspects.
Moreover, scholars also pointed out that normative theory of decision making describes the

13
behavior of the idealized decision maker, instead of the real person (Tversky &
Kahneman,1986). That is how after conducting an empirical research, scientists came up with
the Prospect Theory of Decision Making, which has no normative claims. The theory aimed
to explain the way how consumers form preferences, to understand the basic principles of
perception and judgment, and to figure out whether they can be rationalized (Tversky &
Kahneman,1986). Furthermore, Tversky and Kahneman, (1986) suggested that consumers
make their decisions by taking into consideration of their habits, norms, and expectations.
Prospect Theory of Decision Making builds upon the view that consumers seek not to
rationalize every possible decision, but rather to maximize the gains and minimize the losses
in the process of decision making (Tversky & Kahneman,1992). Meaning, consumers are
guided by the desire of satisfaction rather than optimization (Simon, 1955). For example, a
person might be satisfied with just good enough, not perfect solutions and decisions.

Apart from the already mentioned approaches, there is also a general view that individuals
use the combination of the decision-making strategies due to unique characteristics of the
personas (Hansen, 2005; Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982). For example, consumers may ignore
the products comparison (the core element of the utility approach) due to the belief that the
alternative is not worth comparison. Besides, decision makers may choose the products
because they evoke positive emotions, which affect the consumers indirectly (Kotler, 1974;
Babin & Darden, 1996). From their point of view, positive emotions may also help shorten
the amount of alternatives. This approach suggests that among others, consumer decision-
making process is influenced by consumer involvement, emotional response, attitude,
purchase intention, and the perception of price and quality (Hansen, 2005). When it comes to
the decisions regarding food, it seems that individuals use the combination of the rational and
irrational approaches, and use them depending on the occasion (Asp, 1999; Charley &
Weaver,1998).

2.2 Understanding Healthy Eating Phenomenon - Consumer

Perspective
To understand the way how representatives of Millennial generation make the decisions
regarding healthy food consumption, it is vital to know how they define this phenomenon.
These days’ consumers get overwhelmed with a number of messages regarding benefits of
healthy eating and recommendations of how to eat healthily. There are many views on the
definition of healthy eating in the contemporary academic literature. However, as this thesis
aims to understand healthy eating behavior from the consumer perspective, we will seek to
get the notion of the phenomenon from the position of individuals rather than scholars.

In the review of the literature, we see that people have set of complex insights on what
healthy eating is and what it entails. Although they may not refer to official nutrition
guidelines, still clearly stated understanding is formed. So, individuals perceive healthy
eating as the consumption of big amount of fruits and vegetable and control over high – fat
food eating (Keane & Willetts, 1996; Paquette, 2005). There is also the view that healthy
eating implies moderation in food consumption and balance of the intake (Krahn, Lengyel &
Hawranik, 2011). Whereas others understand healthy eating as three meals daily and the
variety of food consumed (Krahn, et al., 2011; Falk, Sobal, Bisogni, Connors & Devine,

14
2001). There is also anecdotal evidence that healthy diet means the absence of processes food
in daily intake, healthy cooking habits that mean more stewed and baked a meal, less fried
meals and finally, the absence of additives in food (Birch, 1999). Some studies suggest that
healthy eating is seen from the perspective of such nutrients like vitamins, fiber, minerals, fat,
carbohydrates intake (Bisogni et al., 2012). Moreover, quite often people associate healthy
diet with restrictions and control as see that the environment they live is full of unhealthy
choices (Smith-Di Julio, Windsor & Anderson, 2010). In this thesis, we will consider the
phenomenon of healthy eating, healthy diet and healthy eating behavior as similar concepts,
as in the broad range of literature (Krahn et al., 2011; Falk et al., 2001; Bisogni et al., 2012)
they are used interchangeably.

From the definitions mentioned above, we can suggest that people are able to define what
healthy eating means and comprise. However, it is also interesting that quite often the
knowledge does not transfer into healthy eating behavior (Ragaert, Verbeke, Devlieghere &
Debevere, 2004). Such paradox exists because knowledge is not sufficient to make the
decision to choose a healthy diet (Brug, 2008).

2.3 Factors that Influence the Eating Behavior

The relation towards food consumption gets settled quite early in life and is influenced by the
set of various internal and external factors (Hochbaum, 1981). This implies that even though
there may be an intention to eat healthy, there can be no action due to internal or external
influences that may have an impact on the consumer decision-making process. Even though
the full list of factors that have an effect on the consumer relations with food could account
for dozens, after conducting the literature review and analyzing over 30 academic articles
related to food and factors that have the impact on the food consumption and the behavior
(Ferguson et al., 2015; Warde, 1997; Biltekoff, 2010; Swinburn, Egger & Raza, 1999, etc.),
we came up with the set of factors that are used in the literature most frequently.

Scholars divide the factors that influence formation of individual’s behavior in regards to
food into the internal and external (Bruce, Lim, Smith, Cherry, Black, Davis, & Bruce 2015;
Asp,1999, etc.). Therefore, in the presented framework they will be divided accordingly. By
internal factors researchers mean factors that get formed inside the person as a result of
individual values, whereas external factors are those related to interaction with the
environment and society (Bruce et al., 2015; Zhu, Li & Geng, 2013).

2.3.1 Internal Factors

Psychological factors can be defined among the most distinct internal determinants of what
food consumer chooses (Asp,1999). The psychological factors consist of food preferences,
food likes and dislikes, and individual response to sensory attributes, and can be defined as
irrational (Lyman, Prentice-Dunn & Gabel, 1989). Preferences are the result of experience
development and are the indicators of the satisfaction level that consumers get from the
consumed food. Scholars suggest that consumers tend to choose food that they like – familiar
food that is considered as pleasant (Charley & Weaver, 1998). Finally, food preferences also
depend from the such food sensory perception as taste, texture, color, shape (Lyman,

15
Prentice-Dunn & Gabel, 1989). That may be one of the reasons why consumers may not
choose some types of food – because they may decide from the irrational perspective that
they do not like either smell, taste or any other attribute.

Personal food identity. The saying “you are what you eat” is not just a metaphor that is used
in the promotional campaigns. According to Thomsen & Hansen, (2015) consumers define
what persons they are by the food choices they do. Such behavior is possible because people
give the symbolic meaning to the food they consume (Belk, 1988). The researchers in the
field of social psychology suggest that people want to behave in the way that supports the
view they have of themselves (Carson, Blake & Saunders, 2014). Aforesaid means that
person may follow healthy diet not only from the health related reasons, but also to be
perceived as organized in the society (Povey et.al., 1998). At the same time, those who like to
indulge themselves with tasty and pleasurable food may call themselves “food hedonists”
(Thomsen & Hansen, 2015). Furthermore, Asp (1999) supports the idea of food as the
element of identity and suggests that “[f]ood can be used to show status or prestige, make one
feel secure, express feelings and emotions, and to relieve tension, stress or boredom” (p.289).

Emotional factors play an inevitable role in the consumer’s food choices and are among
strongest internal factors (French et al., 1994; Conner & Armitage, 2002). The relations
between consumers and food are so strong, that people can easily find emotive words to
associate with the names of food (Lyman, Prentice-Dunn & Gabel, 1989). According to
Lambie & Marcel (2002) and Smith & Ellsworth, (1985) cited in Achar, Agrawal &
Duhachek, 2016), emotions are “multidimensional feelings that reflect information about
consumers' relationship to their social and physical surroundings as well as their
interpretations regarding these relationships” (p.166). Moreover, Solomon et al., (2006)
defines emotions as “…erred judgments about the world, false and destructive ways of seeing
life and its misfortunes” (p. 128), that are irrational by nature. Emotions may create the
motivation to act in a certain way. For example, as nowadays being slim is perceived as an
essential social emotion in European society (Achar et al. 2016), that is promoted through
such mental states as pleasure, sense of achievement, enthusiasm, people may start following
routines related to weight-loss. Even though the reasons for losing weight may differ – the
desire to be physically fit, prevention of chronic diseases, or meeting the current beauty
standards, the long term effect on appearance may have great emotional impact (French,
1994).

Involvement is another internal factor that can have a hefty influence on consumer eating
decisions (Marshall & Bell, 2011; Dean et al., 2012; Wong et al., 2013). In our case
involvement can be interpreted as “personal relevance or importance attached to food and
health issues, based on inherited needs, values and interests” (Zaichkowsky, 1985, p.348).
Scholars convey that the higher the involvement level between decision maker and the issue,
the higher the probability that the product will be purchased, or that the habit will become a
part of day to day life (Beatty, Homer & Kahle, 1988; Celsi & Olson, 1988). The degree of
involvement, in turn, comprises of four key elements: 1) product or category importance and
perceived importance of the result if the action was not taken (product was not purchased, or
behavior was not undertaken); 2) the subjective probability of action absence; 3) the hedonic
value of the category or product; 4) the individual symbolic value of the category (Beatty et

16
al, 1988). Furthermore, scholars suggest that high involvement level may reduce perceived
complexity of issues related to making decision (Alba & Hutchinson, 1988).

2.3.2 External Factors

The external factors feature the environment, in which consumers makes decisions regarding
the food consumption (Asp, 1999). The systematic literature review revealed the existence
and wide application of ANGELO framework that was specifically developed to study the
external factors that formulate obesity (Swinburn, Egger, & Raza, 1999). After introduction
by Swinburn in 1999, the framework was heavily used to develop the action plans for obesity
prevention (Simmons et al., 2009; Willows, Dyck Fehderau & Raine, 2015; Mooney, Jepson,
Frank & Geddes, 2015) through development the environment favorable for healthy eating
and obesity reduction. The framework divides environment into two levels – micro and
macro.

Micro environment, is set of settings, with which people interact i.e. schools, work
environment, neighborhood, kindergartens (Swinburn, Egger & Raza, 1999. Micro
environment, in turn, influenced by macro environment - education and health systems,
attitudes and beliefs of the society, food industry pressure (Swinburn, Egger & Raza, 1999).
Micro environment, in turn, can be divided into physical, economic, political and socio -
cultural (Swinburn, Egger & Raza, 1999). The afore mentioned categories can either play the
favorable role for healthy eating behavior formulation, or may also prevent it from
happening.

Physical environment refers to whether healthy options available in the sufficient quantity in
the food stores including cafes, shops, vending machines, school premises, workplaces, on
the social events (Glanz, Hewitt & Rudd, 1992). It also entails the proportion between
healthy and unhealthy options availability in store and the level of convenience of buying
healthy food. De Vet et al., (2013) and Glanz, Sallis, Saelens & Frank, (2005) in their studies
revealed, that in some cases convenience is considered to be even more important factor for
food choice then taste and price. This means that if getting healthy food is more difficult than
unhealthy one, consumers may highly likely choose unhealthy option. Physical environment
also relates to the availability of nutrition information on the labels in the supermarkets and

Economic environment indicates the cost of the food (Swinburn, Egger & Raza, 1999).
Healthy choices may be more expensive than unhealthy ones, which will make the
opportunity of buying and consuming healthy food less favorable.

Political environment relates to the regulations and norms that have the influence on the food
consumption, that have an explicit impact on the behavior of the individuals (Booth &
Samdal, 1997). For example, the political environment may have impact on the food rules
development for the schools. This implies, that policy may create the favorable or
unfavorable conditions for healthy food consumption in the micro environment.

Finally, socio – cultural environment refers to the society's’ beliefs, values and norms related
to food (Swinburn, Egger & Raza, 1999). Social and cultural norms, in turn, influenced by
age, gender, traditions, ethnicity and religion of the homogeneous group of people. This

17
environment in other words can also be named as culture or ethos (Swinburn, Egger & Raza,
1999). Food preferences and habits are highly interdependent with culture and seen as
“…culturally standardized set of behaviors regarding food manifested by individuals who
have been reared within a given cultural tradition” (Asp,1999, p. 290). At a micro level, socio
– cultural environment forms the understanding what is more/less applicable to eat. At the
microenvironment level, mass media has a hefty impact on the attitudes, values and beliefs of
the society formation (MacLaren, 1997). Mass media not only reflects the “common culture”
but also through advertising and other marketing activities shape it (Billington, Strawbridge,
Greensides & Fitzsimmons, 1991).

2.4 Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

Besides the earlier discussed internal and external factors (see section 2.3 and 2.4) that
influence the decision making of food, in general, this thesis intends to adopt a well-
established model within the domain of healthy behavior that is the Theory of Planned
Behavior (TPB; Ajzen 1991). This sound theory, which is well supported by empirical
evidence, will be used to gain assumptions on how Millennial consumers form their healthy
eating intention, subsequently how the intention-behavior gap is created. As an extension to
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Bagozzi, 1986), TPB was developed to address the
limitations in dealing with "incomplete volitional control" (Ajzen, 1991, p. 181) by adding
one additional element: perceived behavioral control. Briefly, in the TPB proposed by Ajzen
(1991), the behavior in question is determined directly by the intention. And this intention is
predetermined by three predictors, namely attitudes, subjective norms and perceived
behavioral control. What calls for special attention is that the three predictors also influence
one another in forming the intention. By changing predictors mentioned above, we can
increase/decrease the likelihood that the person will intend to perform certain action.
Consequently, increase the chance of actual behavior (see Figure 1).

Figure 1 Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991, p. 182)

The Theory of Planned Behavior has been one of the mostly cited and influential model to
predict human social behavior since its introduction in the 1980s (Ajzen, 2011). In the
academic world, TPB has been applied in a vast amount of health related behaviors
prediction, including diet (Fila & Smith 2006; Chan, Ng & Prendergast, 2014), physical

18
activity (Norman & Smith, 1995), weight loss (Bagozzi & Warshaw, 1990), and smoking
(Conner, Norman & Bell 1999). Therefore, TPB can be considered as the best suited for the
present study in terms of explaining the factors affecting consumers' healthy eating intention
since it has considered both the impact of personal, as well as social factors influencing the
consumer behavior. Moreover, the respective names mentioned in the model reflect specific
psychological constructs. Thus, each predictor has a special meaning within the theory which
will be explained shortly.

2.4.1 Attitude (towards the Behavior)

The Attitude in TPB is concerned with individual’s overall evaluation of the behavior (Ajzen,
1991). In TPB, the attitude towards the behavior consists of two components which work
together, namely Behavioral Beliefs (e.g. consumption of healthy food will boost health
condition) and Outcome Evaluation (e.g. a better health condition is desirable). Briefly,
behavioral belief is a person's subjective assessment of certain attributes within an object,
whereas outcome evaluation, in turn, refers to the person's positive/negative attitude toward
the behavior, after a subjective evaluation of the attributes (Ajzen, 1991).

2.4.2 Subjective Norms

Subjective norm is a person’s evaluation of the socially "accepted mode of conduct" (Ajzen,
1991, p. 199). In another word, it refers to the social pressure to enact the target behavior
(Ajzen, 1991). Subjective norm, as reported by Ajzen (1991), is assumed to be formed by
normative beliefs weighted by the "motivation to comply" (p. 195). In particular, normative
beliefs are related to how other people, who are significant enough to that person, would like
the person to behave. For instance, a person can hold a normative belief, such as "I feel the
pressure from my husband who would like me to lose weight". Subsequently, the person will
start to evaluate and form "normative expectation, or a source needed to perform the
behavior" (Ajzen, 1991, p. 199), such as "concerning my future diet, I should avoid junk food
and alcohol, so I can achieve my goal in two months".

2.4.3 Perceive Behavioral Control (of the Behavior)

Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC; Ajzen, 1991, p. 183), is the extent to which the person
feels capable or incapable of performing target behavior. Ajzen pointed out that there were
two dimensions within behavioral control, which are named Actual Behavioral Control and
Perceived Behavioral Control. The former describes how much a person has control over the
target behavior (e.g. lack of discipline to control over one's diet). While the latter refers to
how confident a person feels about he or she can enact the behavior (e.g. lack of nutritional
knowledge to practice healthy eating behavior). In theory, actual behavioral control is thus
expected to moderate the effect of intention on behavior. Nevertheless, in practice, it would
be difficult to identify all the factors that influence actual control over the performance of the
behavior. Thus, as Ajzen (1991) conveyed, investigators typically use the measure of
perceived behavioral control instead of the actual behavioral control. Such measurement is
based on the assumption that actual control can be reasonably inferred by individual’s
perceptions of control. Moreover, control beliefs produce a certain level of perceived

19
behavioral control, or "self-efficacy" (Bandura,1977, cited by Ajzen, 1991, p.184) with
regards to behavioral performance.

In general, attitude, subjective norms, and perceive behavioral control are not independent of
each other, for instance, there are cases that the three variables also influence one another
(Ajzen, 1991). Furthermore, Ajzen (1991) claims the more favorable the attitude and
subjective norm concerning behavior, and the greater the perceived behavioral control is, the
stronger chance for an individual to form an intention that will eventually lead to actual
behavior performance. Scholar also admits that the relative importance of attitude, subjective
norm, and perceived behavioral control in the prediction of intention is expected to vary,
depending on the domain of behavior and contextual situation (Ajzen, 1991). For instance, in
some cases, it could be found that the only attitude has a significant impact on intentions.
Whereas in other circumstances, attitudes and perceived behavioral control are sufficient to
generate behavioral intentions. Moreover, people are not assumed to go through a careful
examination of beliefs every time they perform a behavior. With repetition, behavior
becomes routine and is performed without much conscious consideration (Ajzen & Dasgupta,
2015). Additionally, TPB assumes that people’s intentions and behaviors follow reasonably
and consistently from their beliefs no matter how these beliefs were formed (Ajzen, 2011). It
is only in this sense that behavior is said to be reasoned or planned. Thus, despite its great
success in the academic world, the appealing simplicity of the theory is widely criticized, as
skeptics argue that TPB is not taking all plausible factors on behavioral intention into account
(Sparks & Shepherd, 1992; Armitage & Conner, 1998; Bagozzi, 1992). As researchers of this
thesis, we decided to acknowledge this criticism and explore potential factors later in our
empirical data collection phase, to add new elements, which could be applied in the context
of Millennials.

2.4.4 Qualitative Application of TPB

In spite of its extensive application in a wide range of behavior prediction in the academic
world, there are also critiques from various scholars in recent years. As pointed out by Povey,
Conner, James and Shepherd (2000), the majority of TPB studies across all health behaviors
are quantitative and cross-sectional in design. Although these quantitative studies illustrate
the usefulness of the TPB in predicting behaviors, qualitative studies are also important to
better understand the underlying cultural beliefs associated with dietary behaviors. As Ajzen
(1991) admitted, "the exact nature of these relations is still uncontained" (p. 179).

Moreover, there are very few known studies using the TPB to explore qualitatively eating
behaviors (Brug, Debie, van Assema & Weijts, 1995; Barberia, Attree & Todd, 2008). For
instance, a study conducted by Brug et al. (1995), used four focus groups covering 29
participants to pinpoint determinants of fruit and vegetable consumption in adults. Six issues
emerged as major influences, namely satisfaction, health consequences, social influences,
habit, abilities, barriers, and awareness. Another research conducted by Deskins, Harris,
Brandlyn, Cottrell, Coffmann, Olexa and Neal (2006) used the TPB to identify obstacles to
cholesterol screenings among 50 adults and 92 fifth-grade students in West Virginia.
Concerns with screening outcomes were the primary influence on individuals’ resistance to
participate in the screenings. Barberia, Attree and Todd (2008) used semi-structured
interviews to explore the eating behaviors of 17 Spanish women enrolled in weight-loss

20
treatments and discovered that the women’s evaluation of the outcome of a behavior
influenced the positive or negative attitude towards that behavior. Also, the author agreed
with Crockett and Sims (1995), who argued that intangible elements such as attitudes and
beliefs about food and values cannot be effectively measured and quantified solely with a
survey instrument. Thus, qualitative research methods like interviews can provide other
valuable data (Morse & Field 1996). The interview allows participants to comment, critique,
explain and share their opinions, experiences and attitudes towards the phenomenon. This
type of research also allows respondents to qualify, clarify, and in-depth information
(Bryman & Bell, 2011).

2.5 An Integrated Conceptual Framework

In the following, authors of the present thesis introduce a conceptual framework. As
explained by Miles and Huberman (1994), it "explains, either, either graphically or in
narrative form, the main thing to be studied - the key factors, concepts, or variables - and the
presumed relationships among them" (p.18). Therefore, the conceptual framework proposed
by the authors serves as the overview of pre-understanding before the actual investigation
carried out.

Figure 2 The Conceptual Framework

In the proposed conceptual framework, in line with Ajzen (1991, 2005, 2012), Attitudes,
Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral Control are considered as important elements in
determining intention to perform certain behavior. Moreover, this thesis will add additional
factors in relation to food consumption due to the limitation of TPB due to various critiques.
When it comes to the intention-behavior gap, authors adopt PBS from the TB and listen to the
opinions of the participants.

21
3 Methodology

The third chapter aims at providing information about the methodological reasoning and
substantiating logics behind the present thesis. The authors employ the “research onion”
(Saunders et al., 2009) to describe and explain the choices of data collection. In the following
sections, authors will discuss and demonstrate how the proposed research approach can help
to answer the research question. Also, the data collection and analysis process will be
explained in detail. Lastly, the researchers will discuss the research limitations as well as
ethical considerations of the present study.

3.1 Research Philosophy

In the present thesis, the authors intend to explore what factors influence the healthy eating
intention formulation of the Scandinavian Millennials' and what barriers prevent healthy
eating from happening. Consequently, the present study formulated the research questions as
follows:

RQ1.What factors motivate the intention of Scandinavian Millennial consumers to eat

healthily?

RQ2. When Scandinavian Millennials are motivated to pursue a healthy diet, what are
the barriers prevent healthy eating behavior from happening?

To explain the philosophical grounding of the research strategy and methods, it is vital to use
a systematic approach so the researchers can reason their choice step by step and in detail.
That is why the researchers decided to use “research onion” model (See Appendix A) by
Saunders et al. (2009, p.108).

First, according to Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill (2009), the research philosophy is developed
from "the development of knowledge [Epistemology] and the nature of that
knowledge[Ontology]" (p.107). Therefore, the choice of stands as mentioned earlier has
significant impacts on the assumptions of the world. Consequently, the assumptions will
impact the development of research strategy, research design, and research interpretation at a
later stage. Therefore, it is important to understand the "relationship between epistemology
and ontology to business research" (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 23). In the present study, this
means how the researchers plan to acquire the knowledge about the factors that formulate the
healthy food consumption intention and following behaviors, and what factors prevent the
behavior from happening in the context of millennial consumers. In summary, the authors
share the view of Saunders et al., (2009) who conveys that “the important issue is not so
much whether our research should be philosophically informed, but it is how well we are able
to reflect upon our philosophical choices and defend them in relation to the alternatives we
could have adopted" (p. 108).

22
Ontology by nature comes from the position of the objectivism and constructivism (Bryman
& Bell, 2011). As all the social phenomena developed based on the people’s perception
(Bryman & Bell, 2011), considering that there may be the different way of the reality
perception (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe & Jackson, 2012). The first aspect, objectivism, holds
stand that "the position that social entities exist in reality external to social actors" (Saunders
et al., 2009, p.129). However, the second aspect, constructionism, maintains that "social
phenomena are created from the perceptions and consequent actions of those social actors
concerned with their existence" (Saunders et al., 2009, p.110). In summary, the former
suggests that the reality is independent of the views of social actors while the latter implies
the opposite. Having this paradigm in mind, the authors of this thesis planned to ground the
current study based on the assumption that "social actors have subjective perception and
understanding of the world" (Easterby-Smith et al. 2012, p.70). Moreover, the authors came
from the belief that “that social property are outcomes of the interactions between
individuals, rather than phenomena ‘out there’ and separate from those involved in its
construction” (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 386). Therefore, the subjects of our study may have
different perceptions, attitudes and interpretations of the world and the information and
actions they further do (Saunders et al. 2009). For example, even though the information
about the healthy food benefits are readily available, and it may be logical to eat healthy, not
all the consumers act in a similar way and not all of them eager to endorse healthy eating
behavior. Therefore, we tried to “understand and appreciate the different experiences that
people have, rather than search for external causes and fundamental laws to explain behavior"
(Easterby-Smith et al. 2012, p. 24).

Furthermore, the authors applied the epistemological position named as interpretive. This
stand emphasizes “the understanding of the social world through an examination of the
interpretation of that world by its participants” (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 386). In opposition
to the epistemological approach of positivism, which focuses on the idea of one single right
interpretation of reality, interpretive constructionists' view fits perfectly with researcher's
intention in understanding complex reality through "interpretive understanding of social
action" (Saunders et al. 2009, p.16). This also points out a qualitative research direction.
Since the researchers strive to understand the consumer’s perception and the rationales, the
researchers also adopt the compassionate way of perception. Aforementioned will help us to
approach subjects of the study with an opened mind, understand the deeply rooted reasons
behind their food choice and, consequently, allow the researcher to explore further the factors
that influence the decision-making process and the intention-behavior gap.

3.2 Role of the Theory

According to Bryman and Bell (2011), there are two streams of approaches used in studying
the relationship between theory and research, namely the deductive and inductive methods. In
deduction, the theory is developed to guide the research, whereas, in induction, theory
emerges after the empirical findings. Nevertheless, Bryman and Bell (2011) also admit that
the "inductive process likely entails a modicum of deduction." Moreover, as pointed out
Creswell (1994), "a theory may emerge during the data collection and analysis phase or be
used relatively late in the research process as a basis for comparison with other theories” (pp.
94-95). Following stands as mentioned earlier, during the study, the researcher adopted a

23
combination of both inductive and deductive approach. In the present study, we firstly
applied the deductive approach when obtaining the theoretical reflection of the research area
through an extensive literature review, following the idea of Bryman and Bell (2011), “theory
is often used as a background to qualitative investigations” (p. 13). When reviewing the
literature, we made use of the contemporary works of literature developed by practitioners
and scientists, in order to gain a fresh view on the selected topic. By doing so, we completed
the first part of the empirical material collection. After collecting the already existing
knowledge, we studied its relevance by the inductive approach through a semi-structured
interview with subjects of our study. During the process of primary data collection, additional
questions and new categories can emerge further to strengthen the conceptual framework and
understanding of the phenomenon. For instance, we examined various consumer generation
cohort theories, decision-making models, as well as using a well-established healthy behavior
related model: Theory of Planned Behavior, etc. Besides studying existing models, the
authors of this thesis also allowed new categories of data to emerge from the obtained data at
a later phase.

3.3 Research Strategy and Research Design

As discussed earlier (see Section 3.1) the aim of the research that was not just to quantify data
to test existing theory. On the contrary, the authors strove to understand a phenomenon
through the eyes of the interviewees. Another ground for this thesis to adopt the qualitative
research method was because of the research purpose that is to understand consumer behavior
and decision-making process “through the eyes of people being studied” (Bryman & Bell,
2011, p. 402). In other words, the present thesis studied more intangible elements of
consumer behavior such as beliefs, values, attitude and perceptions to gain an in-depth
understanding of a social phenomenon from the perspective of the Millennial consumers.
Additionally, and importantly, the authors would like to point out the recent raising critiques
of traditional quantitative application of the model that is used in the thesis - the Theory of
Planned Behavior. For example, as noted by Conner et al. (2000), the majority of TPB
researchers concerning health behaviors are carried out with a quantitative and cross-
sectional design. Despite those extensively applied studies, which have tested the usefulness
of the model in predicting behaviors, various scholars (Zoellner, Krzeski, Harden, Cook,
Allen & Estabrooks, 2012; Verstraeten, Van Royen, Ochoa-Avilés, Penafiel, Holdsworth,
Donoso, Maes & Kolsteren, 2014) hold different stands that a qualitative approach shall be
applied to understand the underlying cultural beliefs associated with dietary behaviors better.
The authors of the present thesis intended to provide insight beyond merely confirming the
efficacy between intention and behavior. Furthermore, this study aimed at unveiling the
process of intention formulation of healthy food consumption and how different factors
interplay to construct healthy eating behavior. After evaluation, the qualitative research
seemed to be the best-suited strategy, because by following a qualitative research approach,
the authors were allowed to observe not only the words but also the non-verbal
communications of the participants (Easterby-Smith et al. 2012).

Moreover, the authors decided to adopt a cross-sectional research design. As described by

Bryman and Bell (2011), "qualitative research often entails a form of cross-sectional design."
(p. 57) and cross-sectional design is a design that "entails the collection of data on more than

24
one case [...] and at a single point in time in order to collect a body of quantitative or
quantifiable data" (p.53). In other words, the authors of present study collected data almost
simultaneously by taking snapshots across different empirical materials. This design, as also
supported by Easterby-Smith et al. (2012), "have undoubted strengths in their ability
economically to describe features of a vast number of people or organizations" (p. 100)
However, it is worth to note that cross-sectional research design may not provide information
to determine a cause-and-effect relationship. This is because such design offers a snapshot at
a single point in time, in contrast to longitudinal design, where there is comparison over time.
However, this is line with the earlier statement that this thesis is not to test a theory. Instead,
the current study was more interested in intangible elements concerning Millennial
consumers' views towards healthy eating behavior. In addition, Bryman and Bell (2011) point
out that interview and focus group are the typical forms of cross-sectional design in
qualitative research. Therefore, the researchers of this thesis chose interview over
ethnography and participant observation, which were considered time-consuming and
difficult to get rich and deep data from user generated data. Qualitative data coding and
analysis, interpretation and presentation of results will be described in detail in the following
sections.

3.4 Data Collection and Process

The qualitative strategy of the current research (see section 3.3) has pointed out the direction
of using interviews as primary data collection method. Semi-structured interviews, as a type
of "guided open interview" (Easterby-Smith et al. 2012, p. 139), were used for the collection
of empirical data, as this choice allowed a rich and profound understanding of the
phenomenon in the present study. Next, the researchers of the present thesis will discuss both
data collection techniques and the process in great details.

3.4.1 Semi-structured interview

Decisions to Adopt Semi-Structured Interviews

Semi-structured interviews, according to Bryman & Bell (2011), typically refers to a situation
in which the interviewer has a list of questions that are in the general form of an interview
schedule which is subject to change of sequence. Moreover, scholars also point out that the
questions are often somewhat more general in their frame of reference than that usually found
in a structured interview schedule. Consequently, the interviewer will often ask further
questions to replies which considered as significant. And the relevance of such method is
profoundly supported by Bryman & Bell (2011), who suggest that "in qualitative
interviewing, there is much greater interest in the interviewee’s point of view" (p. 466). Thus,
the idea to conduct semi-structured interviews comes from the belief that in a qualitative
interview going beyond the precisely developed interview guide is highly encouraged
(Bryman & Bell, 2011).

Interview Guide and Questions

The underlying reason for semi-structured interviews was the necessity to have the set of
questions that need to be answered before the beginning of the interview (Bryman & Bell,

25
2011, p. 502). As further pointed out by Bryman & Bell (2011), unlike a structured interview
agenda, an interview guide is more open and general. In fact, the term refers to the brief list
of areas to be covered by the interview. In general, researchers may offer to provide a copy of
the interview guide or schedule to interested readers. This list of questions helped strengthen
the dependability of the present research. It was crucial that the questioning allows
interviewers to glean the ways in which research participants view their social world and that
there is flexibility in the conduct of the interviews. The latter is as much if not more to do
with the conduct of the interview than with the nature of the interview guide as such. The
authors of the thesis carried out the semi-structured interviews with participants from
Scandinavian countries. The list of interview questions (see Appendix B) was prepared in
advance to cover a range of issues, including motivations, emotions, subjective norms, and
their personal stories related to performing healthy diet.

Selection of Participants

As mentioned by Bryman & Bell (2011) selection of the participants for the qualitative
interviews can be associated with some difficulties when it comes to the transparency of the
respondent selection. However, authors decided to apply one of the highly used technique in
qualitative studies, which is convenience sampling. According to Bryman & Bell (2011), “a
convenience sample is one that is simply available to the researcher by virtue of its
accessibility” (p. 190) and, accordingly, is a type of a non-probability sampling. Having said
this, we mean that when selecting the participants, we had in mind the purpose of our study to
be sure that participants will be able to contribute to the discussion.

The following table (see Table 1) presents the semi-structured interview participants,
including anonymized name, age, gender nationality and occupation:

Table 1 Overview of semi-structured interview participants

Name Age Gender Nationality Occupation

David 35 Male Danish IT consultant

Mie 28 Female Danish Sales representative

Tonje 27 Male Norwegian Graduate Student

Martin 26 Male Norwegian Freelancer

Annika 28 Female Norwegian Dance teacher

Jan 34 Male Danish Manager

Berit 33 Male Danish Logistic assistant

Janni 35 Male Danish School Teacher

26
 Mariet 24 Female Swedish Student

Linnea 24 Female Swedish Social Worker

Anne 35 Female Swedish Student

Fillippa 22 Female Swedish Graduate Student

Nora 26 Female Swedish Student

Sofie 22 Female Swedish Student

Jenie 20 Female Swedish Student

Conducting, recording and transcribing the interviews

Before the actual interview, the researcher carried out three pilot interviews with business
school students, and working professionals to make sure that the questions were clear and
consistent towards the objectives of the research. The feedback from pilot interviews was
further used to improve the questions formulation and to add those questions that were
missing and did not allow to answer the research question.

The authors conducted nine semi-structured interviews in person and six via Skype with
representatives of Millennial generation who were either student or employees. The need to
have both students and working Millennials in the sample was driven due to the need to
check the similarity of values, beliefs and attitudes on different life stages. Authors were
both present during the interview process to provide support, ask additional questions in case
one of the interviewers felt confused or was too engaged in the conversation with the
interviewee. Moreover, for not to create confusion during the process, the roles of the
interviewers were divided before the beginning of each interview (Bryman & Bell, 2011).
Furthermore, all the interviews were audio recorded, as was suggested by Saunders, Lewis &
Thornhill (2009) and further transcribed via computer. The average duration of each
interview was approximately 30 minutes, and the interviewed were informed about the
expected length in advance to have the chance allocating their time accordingly.

Moreover, as authors aimed to reveal the behavioral motives of the participants, the romantic
approach was employed (Alvesson, 2003). More specifically, romantic approach implies
building trustworthy relationships with the participants that allow obtaining more personal
and sincere responses and helps to understand respondent’s beliefs, values and attitudes
(Alvesson, 2003). To build this connection in a given short time frame, we asked interviewed
to start the discussion with the brief story about themselves as well as explained the motives
of our research. Furthermore, to build even stronger trust connection, we underlined that the
replies cannot be neither right nor wrong and that we will value personal thoughts,
observations, and ideas. Finally, to make participants feel comfortable and relaxed, we

27
conducted interviews either in the places where respondents live or in the quiet rooms in the
university premises.

Also, as suggested by Alvesson (2003), it was important not to idealize the results of the
interview, as the respondents could be biased by social situation of the interview itself and
could provide socially desirable answers. Therefore, we carefully listened to the participants,
but also kept in mind the theoretical fundamentals of the issues, therefore, could apply the
reflexive approach.

3.5 Data Analysis

Data analysis is the process of forming and developing meanings out of a set of data.
According to Bryman and Bell (2011), in contrary to the analysis of quantitative data, there
are well-founded and commonly accepted guides for the analysis of qualitative data. As
further supported by Easterby-Smith et al. (2012), there are two widely accepted methods of
language analysis: content analysis and grounded analysis. The former refers to an approach,
where the researchers cross examine the data for constructs and ideas which have been
predetermined prior to data analysis. Whilst the latter method concerning another approach,
where the researchers have a tendency to let the "data speak for itself" (Easterby-Smith et al.,
2012, p. 307). Such a general strategy is also called iterative, by Bryman and Bell (2011), it
entails a waving back and forth between data and the theoretical understandings. In the
present study,the author of this thesis agreed to make use of grounded theory as the
framework to analyze the data, as Charmaz (2000, cited by Bryman and Bell, 2011) puts it,
we coded as the data emerged, using own interpretations. By doing so, the authors were
more intuitive in the development of their understanding of the data, thus it is considered
"more holistic than content analysis in the cultural and historical dimension" (Easterby-Smith
et al., 2012, p.307).

After the interviews transcription, authors used the coding method to structure the findings
and understand the strongest influencers for each research question. Each code in the research
stands for the word of phrase that captures the meaning of language data (Corbin & Strauss,
2008). As pointed out by Bryman and Bell (2011), coding is the "key process in grounded
theory" (p.577), and qualitative data is not governed by "codified rules" (Bryman and Bell,
2011, p. 591) following suit of quantitative data analysis principles. Consequently, this thesis
adopted three levels of coding practices proposed by Strauss and Corbin (1990), namely open
coding, axial coding, and selective coding. This thesis started with an open coding (Strauss
and Corbin, 1990, p. 61), where data was broken down, examined, compared, conceptualized
and categorized. By doing so, the process of data analysis strove to maintain a "constant state
of potential revision and fluidity" (Bryman and Bell, 2011, p. 578). For this purpose, the
researchers of this thesis listened to the recording at least twice prior to reading the transcripts
carefully. Additionally, we went back to the recording materials if necessary to ensure a
coherent and clear understanding of the empirical materials. Sometimes, new concepts
emerged during the transcripts reading. Furthermore, the coding was carried on as a team
work. Specifically, one authors of this thesis was assigned as the "codebook editor" (Saldaña,
2009, p. 27), who was in charge of creating, updating, revising and maintaining of the master
list for the group. Since this is collaborative work between the two authors, we endeavored to

28
question each other provocatively in order to create a sound understanding of the
phenomenon and to generate new and rich codes.

Following the open coding process, the authors of the present study began the axial coding
process by examining the categorized codes carefully in order to discover their linkages to
according transcript contexts, consequences, and pattern of interaction (Bryman and Bell,
2011, p. 578). For instance, the extent to which factor mentioned in the interview can be
defined as influential and meaningful for the respondents was calculated as the frequency of
the codes mentioned during the interview. Secondly, the authors further grouped the codes
into categories for effective summarization and interpretation.

Lastly, we systematically consolidated the preliminary categories into a few core categories
during the process of selective coding. The core categories were considered as the key
elements to construct the final analysis of the present study, i.e. the storyline as Strauss and
Corbin (1991) put it. In order to tell a great story, the authors strove to understand the
relationship among different core categories. Subsequently, we transformed the reality of the
data into thematic, conceptual, and theoretical level.

In consideration of data analysis tool, the present study chose Microsoft Word and Excel over
advanced Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS; Bryman and
Bell, 2011, 594). Since there were only 15 interviews conducted during the limited 10-week
timeframe, the authors of this thesis saw it was not necessary for a small project, and it would
be time consuming to acquire proper user knowledge of CAQDAS. Therefore, the authors of
the present thesis used Microsoft Word to record down the transcripts, and Excel to proceed
with coding subsequently.

3.6 Methodological Limitations

For the evaluation of research, the three criteria of reliability, validity and generalization are
often used to evaluate the quality of a study, as stated by Bryman and Bell (2011). However,
since criteria mentioned above are primarily designed for quantitative research evaluation,
thus "there has also been some discussion among qualitative researchers regarding their
relevance for qualitative research” (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 394). Mason (1996), also argues
that reliability, validity, and generalizability "are different kinds of measures of the quality,
rigour and wider potential of research, which are achieved according to certain
methodological and disciplinary conventions and principles" (p. 21). For that reason, Guba
and Lincoln (1994) propose alternative criteria to assess the specific nature of qualitative
research. Following their stand, the researchers of this thesis intended to analyze the
limitation of present qualitative study by applying the criteria of "authenticity and
trustworthiness” (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 395).

Trustworthiness consist of four criteria, namely credibility, transferability, dependability and

conformability (Bryman & Bell, 2011): The first element credibility, which parallels internal
validity in quantitative research, refers to establishing acceptability of the research findings.
As this thesis employed semi-structured interviews, where the participants offered several
possible accounts of a social reality, the findings of this thesis thus might not be applicable in
another context. To reduce the impact of potential discredit of the findings, the authors of this

29
thesis analyzed the empirical data by applying a predefined conceptual framework and
conducted a "respondent validation or member validation" (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 396) to
achieve highest possible credibility.

The second element transferability, which parallels external validity in quantitative

research, refers to the degree in which the research can be transferred into another context.
Taking into consideration that the number of the participants were rather small, this thesis
cannot promise "hold in some other context, or even in the same context at some other time"
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 316). Nonetheless, the authors of present study endeavored to
provide the description as rich and detailed as possible for other researchers to judge the
transferability of this thesis.

The third element dependability, which parallels reliability in quantitative research, refers to
"ensuring that complete records are kept of all phases of the research process" (Bryman &
Bell, 2011, p. 398). Authors of this thesis strove to provide a detailed description of all
stages of the process and kept the different record of the research, such as interview guide,
selection of the participants. However, due to the overwhelming data set generated from the
interviews, the complete record of interview transcripts was not kept for review by other
researchers.

The fours element, confirmability, which parallels objectivity in quantitative research, refers
to the research findings shall derive from the collected data instead of the researcher's
"personal values or theoretical inclinations" (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 398). While refraining
from applying personal values to analyze data, the authors of this thesis were also aware that
there is no absolute objectivity (Bryman & Bell, 2011). Consequently, the authors of current
thesis aimed at demonstrating their thoughts in the course of perspective formulation in detail
for the readers to judge with their own eyes.

In addition to trustworthiness, Guba and Lincoln (1994) suggest authenticity as an additional

criterion, which "raise a wider set of issues concerning the wider political impact of research"
(Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 398). The pure consumer perspective of this thesis can be seen as a
weakness of the study, since the angle of this study did not include "perceptions of other
stakeholders" (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 398), such as nutritionist and policy makers.

Lastly, the convince sampling might result in a homogeneity of the interviewees which could
potentially bias the findings. To avoid this kind of homogeneity, the researcher of the current
thesis strove to select samples from various nations and age by taking into consideration of
their life stages (students v.s. working professionals).

3.7 Ethical Considerations

Cooper and Schindler (2008, cited by Saunders et al., 2009) define ethics as the "norms or
standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our relationships with
others". In the context of business research, ethics refers to the appropriateness of your
research regarding the rights of the participants "who become the subject of your work, or are
affected by it"(Saunders et al., 2009, p.184). Ethical issues cannot be overlooked, because
they "relate directly to the integrity of a piece of research and of the disciplines that are

30
involved" (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 122). This thesis took the perspective from Diener and
Crandall (1978, cited by Bryman & Bell, 2011) to consider the ethical principles of this thesis
using four primary ethical considerations, namely harm to participants, lack of informed
consent, invasion of privacy, and deception.

First of all, the authors of present thesis tried to reduce the likelihood to harm participants.
Consequently, they adopted AoM Code of Conduct and the university guidelines to access
carefully the possibility of causing harm to research participants. Thus, the confidentiality of
data and anonymity of participants was negotiated before the interviews, as “particular care
has to be taken with regard to the possible identification of persons” (Bryman & Bell, 2011,
p. 130). The researchers endeavored to anonymize the participant identities to make sure that
they were not identifiable (Bryman & Bell, 2011).

Secondly, this thesis followed the principle of informed consent by providing the participants
with “as much information as might be needed to make an informed decision about whether
or not they wish to participate in a study” (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 133). In particular, the
authors of current thesis notified the participants about the purpose of the study,
confidentiality of data. Besides, we also requested an oral consent to record data from the
participants.

Thirdly, the invasion of privacy was taken into ethical consideration (Bryman & Bell, 2011).
The authors of this thesis gave the opportunity for the participants to refuse invasion of their
privacy, such as the right to stop and withdraw from the interview anytime during the
conversation.

Lastly, the current thesis intended to minimize the deception of participants. For this
reason, “honesty and transparency in communicating about the research” (Easterby-Smith et
al., 2012, p. 95) is key. For instance, detailed and crucial information provided before the
beginning of the interview, where the research purpose was communicated clearly and openly
to avoid potential deception of participants. Besides the open communication, an oral consent
was obtained from the participants as a green light to record the whole conversation.

31
4 Analysis and Discussion

As pointed out by Saunders et al. (2009), a grounded theory strategy is, especially suitable for
researchers to predict and explain behavior, since the emphasis being upon forming and
developing theory. Thus authors of this thesis decide to make use of the grounded theory as
the point of the departure in the analysis of empirical data. In this chapter, the authors present
the empirical findings that were collected as a result of 15 semi-structured interviews. First of
all, the different dimensions of intention formulation are explicitly analyzed and discussed
after the consolidation. Secondly, this thesis identifies three primary sources, derived from
the empirical data to explain the barriers that prevent the healthy eating behavior from
happening.

4.1 Understanding the Healthy Eating Intention Motivators in

the Millennial Context
4.1.1 Attitudes as a Motivator of Healthy Eating Intention

Attitude, according to Ajzen (1991), is related to the overall evaluation of the behavior,
which can be either positive or negative. Below attitudes illustrate overall evaluation and
stance of eating healthy. While studying the attitude of healthy eating behavior, the
participants are asked to illustrate the meaning of healthy eating in their own terms.by doing
so, the interviewers are able to discover the healthy eating concept from a Scandinavian
Millennial's perspective.

Interview participants, in general, perceive healthy eating a positive type of behavior. The
prevailing view among participants regarding core benefit of healthy eating is the ability to
live a high-quality life. For example, Jan, and Berit consider the high-quality life, as having
the physical ability to be active. According to those participants, being active is possible
when one is not overweight and can move effortlessly, spend time actively.

Berit: "Healthy eating means having the right type of food, since I have stomach issue
constantly. I am going through a diet treatment to reduce the poor condition by sticking high
fat low carb diet prescribed by the doctors from the hospital. I had a difficult time before i
practice the new diet, it affected very much of my life quality so I was not able to perform
everyday exercise which I am passionate for".

Jan: "Healthy eating means a varied diet, getting the correct nutrition for you, what is
necessary for your body, that is kind of it...typically, you will feel better, more energy, less
sickness. Generally, better health. It means you are able to do more than you normally do, if
you get better food you get better energy, so I assume you will be able to achieve more in
your day, better quality".

32
In Mariet's case, she considers better concentration can improve her life quality. Mariet also
shares the view that a healthy diet affects her ability to concentrate in a positive way, as
digestion gets through quickly and does not make her feel sleepy:

Mariet: “I think you get more energy out of it. If you eat healthily, you can concentrate better
on what you are doing, which means a better life quality.”

Surprisingly, even those who do not call themselves as healthy eaters convey, that healthy
eating brings energy and prevents from diseases (e.g. there is less chance to be sick).
Respondents suggest that it is merely possible to live a high-quality life if practicing
unhealthy diet.

Furthermore, another aspect of attitude formed by the participants is that healthy food grants
them opportunities to avoid unhealthy condition. For instance, Nora reveals that after eating
a healthy meal when she is sick, she feels that she gains more energy to perform other
activities than lying in bed.

Nora: "Healthy food can save you from sickness by providing nutrition your body needs. Last
winter, I feel sick for two weeks and I was so depressed. You know what, after I had a bowl of
home-made soup, I felt immediately relief. Then I realized that I have been eating junk food
for weeks before I got sick."

On the other hand, another participant Fillippa provides a vivid example of the bad feeling
after eating unhealthy food. She claims that she tends to feel full, sluggish and lazy, after
consumption of high fat and high processed food.

Fillippa: "High fat and high processed food can never be healthy. It makes you less
productive and you just want to lay or sleep after having a pizza from the shop".

Finally, weight loss is often mentioned as a positive outcome of the healthy eating behavior
and is an important factor for a healthy diet as many participants say that have overweight
issue.

Anne: “Once I had a big event where I wanted to look stunning. So I practiced a healthy diet
for several months that included loads of vegetables and fruits, was controlling my calorie
intake and eventually managed to lose weight.”

Therefore, based on the collected empirical material, authors can affirm that in the case of
Millennial consumers, favorable attitude influences the intention formulation, that correlates
with the claim that the great invention may be formed if there is a positive attitude
(McDermott, Oliver, Svenson, Simnadis, Beck, Coltman, Iverson, Caputi & Sharma, 2015).
Therefore, it is important to pay explicit attention to the favorable attitude towards healthy
eating creation to motivate individuals form the intention to eat healthily.

4.1.2 Subjective Norms as a Motivator of Healthy Eating Intention

Such factor as subjective norms, as suggested by Ajzen (1991), is the following element of
the intention formulation, according to the Theory of Planned Behavior. Subjective norms

33
refer to the estimation of the social pressure that is experienced by the individuals to perform
or not to perform the particular behavior. In our case, it is the pressure from the external
environment that may either advocate for healthy eating or, in contrary, promote unhealthy
eating behavior. Subjective norms, in turn, is formed as a result of normative beliefs – the
expectations that set other people (who’s opinion is valuable for the person) in respect to
one’s behavior. Normative beliefs can also be defined as the perception of whether an
individual feels the significant others (e.g. Friends and family) think he or she should engage
in the behavior (McDermott, et al., 2015).

In Scandinavian countries, according to the reports from the interviewees, Normative Beliefs
regarding healthy eating are quite high in general within the society. For example, Sofie
mentions, that she notices the growing amount of media pressure that promotes a healthy diet.
Moreover, she conveys that there is a larger number of healthy meals being cooked in the
culinary shows, more speeches are being made by the medical specialists regarding the
benefits of healthy eating, even among their friends more people start getting interested in the
healthy diet:

Sofie: “It seems like all the country got obsessed with healthy eating. You only have to put on
the TV and will get up to five–seven recommendations right away. This is not to mention the
friends, who can’t spend the evening, not talking about a new healthy receipt.”

However, it seems the power of Subjective Norms is quite limited when it comes to the
Scandinavian Millennials. Representatives of Millennial generation convey their expressive
skepticism regarding the healthy eating recommendations from others. Especially those
provided by the health professionals through the media sources. For instance, Martin tells us
that quite often the recommendations provided by experts are funded by respective concerned
organization:

Martin: “Professionals can to some extent be biased, professionals are typically hired to do
the research by some institutions (supermarket, universities, brands).”

According to the belief of Anne, recommendations can be biased due to lack of information
regarding sample size or the method of measurement. This idea is also supported by Linnea
and Annika, who notice that the statements, are often provided by health experts or medical
professionals who are contradictive to each other. Therefore, those participants express the
need to scrutinize thoroughly into details to check the validity of the recommendations and
suggestions. Moreover, one of the participants mention that sometimes the recommendations
seem to be too radical and extreme:

Anne: “In Sweden recommendations are extreme – it seems like everything is perceived to be
unhealthy, except for vegetables.”

Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that a couple of participant’s express high level of involvement

when it comes to the recommendations obtained from the people they know and trust:

David: “I have a colleague who have done that, who have gone through a diet thing, you
know he lost lots of weight and (he became) a happier guy, but again he is very restricted to

34
certain things. But look at him, he is getting happier, I am glad for him. He has given me a
thought of going on a diet.”

Respondents also express a high level of trust and involvement to a Facebook and Instagram
groups where participants share their success stories of eating healthily and practicing a
healthy lifestyle. For example, Nora and Jenie mention that follow several groups in the
Instagram and Facebook in which one can find suggestions about eating healthy, exercise.
They feel confident in advice provided those virtual fiends who share their real stories and
experience in the group:

Nora: “I started following one group on the Facebook that provides recommendations about
exercises and dietary suggestions, began adhering to them and I see the results. What I like
even more, is that this group contains of real people who share their results, and they are
amusing! This makes me trust the group!”

Jenie: "Online community offers more perspectives for those who want to practice healthy
diet."

Furthermore, Sofie and Fillippa share, that they formed their perception of eating healthy
back in the childhood with the help of the family recommendations, lessons at school and
because they were reading the articles and books about food. These days, in their twenties
they are practicing the healthy diet that they got a feel of in the adolescent phase.

Sofie: “Back in school, between fourth and eighth grade, we had special lessons, where we
were taught how to cook and what affect different food items may have on our bodies”

Fillippa: “My mother taught me how to cook and explained the fundamentals of healthy
eating. When I grew up, I took interested in the topic and started learning about it. However,
I still use a lot of knowledge I got from my mother.”

The above-mentioned findings allow us to conclude that even though the normative beliefs
and pressure to engage in the healthy eating behavior is gaining the momentum in the society,
Millennials tend to feel rather skeptical regarding the vast majority of recommendations.
Moreover, this generational cohort prefers either delve into details individually or adhere to a
trust–worthy and verified sources. Not to be neglected that, the respondents seem to have
contradicting statements across the group. While some have said that they rely on their
personal judgments, when making decisions related to a healthy diet, the others tend to
express trust towards the recommendations from the trust-worthy source. Therefore, it can be
concluded as, Millennials may not have much faith the recommendations from the mass-
media, instead they perceive a higher level of credibility to the people whom they trust,
namely their close circle.

4.1.3 Perceived Behavioral Control as a Motivator of Healthy Eating Intention

The Perceived behavioral control (PBC) is the third factor, according to the Theory of
Planned Behavior, which influences the intention formation (Ajzen, 1991). According to
Ajzen (1991), PBC is the extent, to which person feel how capable of executing the particular
type of behavior. By capable, the founder of the theory means the level of control over the

35
behavior and the degree of confidence that person expresses in the relation to behavior
achievement (Ajzen, 1991).

To understand the level of PBC over the healthy eating phenomenon among Millennials, we
asked them to sate how difficult to follow healthy eating principles. It turns out respondents
consider adhering to the healthy eating diet is not a simple thing. Despite their previous
positive attitude towards such behavior. Some of them even change their mind from agreeing
to practice healthy eating to being reluctant to do so. For example, Sofie conveys that
adhering to the healthy diet is hard, after expressing her positive attitude regarding healthy
eating. The main reason for her is due to the social events and parties that she attends quite
often, as lives in a dorm. Sofie suggests that at the parties the unhealthy food options usually
prevail, and that is where she drinks alcohol. Linnea, also considers eating healthy as difficult
to achieve. The respondent's friends do not adhere to the healthy diet, so when she is in their
company, does not want to differentiate herself from others. Tonje mentions that it can be
hard to practice healthy diet when she is very busy at work. When the She has projects with
strict deadlines, she does not have time to do grocery shopping and cook at home, and there
are not that many options of healthy food available in the vending machines or the kitchens at
work. However, albeit provided replies, respondents still have the intention to eat healthily.
For example, Nora notices that even though she considers healthy eating as hard to achieve,
she also mentions that if she has a clear goal she will manage to accomplish healthy eating
behavior.

Above findings imply that Perceived Behavioral Control might have higher impact on the
intention execution phrase than its influence on the intention. Moreover, it is evident that
Perceived Behavioral Control, in turn, can influence the attitude. As David illustrate:

David: "Even though I feel happy for my colleague, however, when I come home and think
about my passion for food, I have changed my mind".

This type of process of attitude change is also in line with TPB, in which the three elements
that form an intention can be interacting with one another. That is to say two contradicting
elements will result in lower level of willingness toward healthy eating intention. In our case,
the positive attitude and a negative perfection of lacking control of external factors can result
in a decision as not practicing healthy diet.

4.1.4 Other Motivators of Healthy Eating Intention Formation

As was discussed in Chapter 2.5, the theory of planned behavior is one of the most used
models to understand and explain health-related behaviors (Warshaw & Davis, 1984; Conner,
Norman & Bell, 1999). However, after the literature review, authors came to the conclusion
that theory does not include a set of additional factors that, according to scholars (Asp,1999;
Thomsen & Hansen, 2015; Zaichkowsky, 1985) also have a compelling influence on the
intention and behavior in regards to healthy food formation. Therefore, in the following
additional factors, derived from the literature review will be analyzed with regard to healthy
eating intention formulation.

36
Emotions

Among others, emotions were mentioned as one of the strongest motivators of healthy eating
intention creation. Lambie & Marcel (2002) and Smith & Ellsworth, (1985) define emotions
as “multidimensional feelings that reflect information about consumers' relationship to their
social and physical surroundings as well as their interpretations regarding these relationships”
(cited in Achar et al., 2016, p.166). Moreover, as suggested by Lyman, Prentice-Dunn &
Gabel, (1989), relations between individuals and food are so high, that people can easily find
emotive words to associate with the names of food.

The respondents convey that emotions correlate with food consumption significantly. For
example, Fillippa mentions that for her healthy eating is strongly associated with the sense of
control over herself that results in feeling satisfied with the behavior achievement. Annika
mentions that eating healthy makes her feel happy, pleased, satisfied with herself.
Particularly, Mariet, who once practiced the healthy diet, but gave up at a later stage, also
mentions that when she was eating healthy, she felt positive as was able to control herself
fully:

Mariet: “When I eat healthy I feel that I am controlling my life and do good things for my
body. I feel proud for myself, as I take care about myself.”

Due to this emotional satisfaction, Mariet plans to practice the healthy diet in the future as
this emotional statement is far better than the joy or pleasure that any sweets or junk food can
provide. In contrast to the positive feelings when eating healthy, violation of healthy eating
routines brings the different negative emotional state. For example, Jenie discloses that when
she eats unhealthy food, she starts feeling guilty and upset that she can’t control herself.
Moreover, she notices that this feeling is also applicable to her other friends:

Jenie: When we all sit in the cafe and order pizza, we eat it, and then all together tell that we
are weak-willed and were supposed to order salads instead. So we sit all together and
discuss how miserable we are.”

The above-mentioned findings correspond with the concept of French, Blair & Booth, (1994)
who confirm that following the regime and making actions that consequently will positively
influence the personal physical condition, thus can cause the positive mental state whereas
violation of it may lead to the negative one. Scholars suggest that such emotional reactions
often lie in the cultural codes that get formed from the childhood (French, Blair & Booth,
1994).

Psychological Factors

Another factor that influences the intention to eat healthy as well helps to form the behavior
is psychological. Respondents conveyed that together with emotional factors, psychological
factors have also a significant impact on the intention creation. By psychological factors
Lyman, Prentice-Dunn & Gabel (1989) mean food preferences, food likes and dislikes, and
individual response to sensory attributes.

37
Scholars suggest, that preferences, likes and dislikes and individual responses to sensory
attributes get formed during the early years of life, and it is problematic to change them
during the adult years (Capaldi,1996; Birch,1999). The similar idea can be found in the
participants' statements. For example, Sofie mentions that their preferences were formed in
the childhood and since then only minor elements have changed:

Sofie: “These days I am following the same routines my mother taught me. I do also search
for some additional inspiration when it comes to healthy eating, but the fundamentals were
settled while I was living with my parents.”

However, according to the respondent’s feedback not in always food likes and dislikes are
unchangeable. For example, Annika specifies that she is capable of changing her food
preferences because it was necessary for her job as a chance teacher:

Annika: “Even though I love chocolate and sweets I managed to quit eating it as I have to be
in a good shape for my students as I am a dance teacher.”

Girls suggest that the reason for the change in taste preferences was in the interplay of
emotional factors with psychological: when respondents saw that healthy eating (even though
it was not very tasty) brought results in the form of better physical condition, energy influx,
they felt satisfied, happy and proud. Nora mention that healthy food became their favorite one
and it even tastes better than unhealthy food:

Nora: “I used to love unhealthy food, but I felt so upset when summer was approaching and
when trying my summer clothes, I was not in the desired shape. However, after I started to
eat healthy, have seen the result – slim body and feeling of satisfaction. So I just began to like
healthy food because I have seen what results it can give me.”

That is a case of how individuals managed to change their food preferences and were able to
like the food that they did not enjoy in their childhood. Scholars (Capaldi, 1996; Britch,
1999) also suggest that food likes and dislikes can be changed under intervention of internal
and external (environmental) factors. As an example, consumption in pleasant company, or
eating particular food as a reward, when the individuals see the outcomes of the behavior or
other enjoyable circumstances, it may lead to food preferences change. Therefore, we
conclude that psychosocial factors are important for respondents, but also deeply interrelated
with other factors.

Personal Food Identity

Another factor that authors derived from literature review and later confirmed it’s impacts on
the intention and behavior formulation was personal food identity. As suggested by Thomsen
& Hansen, (2015) consumers give symbolic meaning to the food they consume therefore may
identify themselves through the food they eat. Moreover, Belk (1988) it his extended self -
theory also mentioned that consumption of goods serves the role of self–expression and self-
identification.

Our respondents indicate that what they and their friends eat may tell who they are. For
example, Martin notices that quite usual, when the person eats healthy, he or she is also

38
determined, goal – oriented, organized, can be characterized as the achiever and is capable of
overcoming difficulties. Moreover, Mariet also suggests that eating healthy can help to form
positive perception and make people respect individual:

Mariet: “I eat healthy because I want people to respect me.”

At the same time, Sofie also notices that those people who intended to eat healthily but
eventually quit, or did not managed to achieve the healthy eating behavior at all, can be
characterized as individuals with little will power, feeble, unable to meet the goal, yield by
fleeting desires. The girl also conveys, that such perception is widespread among many
people of her circle.

However, not for every participant eating is associated with the ability to form the personal
identity. For example, David, Jan and Annika, who already finished their studies and started
to build their careers have mentioned, that food for them is not the way of self – expression
but rather the mean of living. David suggests that in his early age while he was studying at
the university, he used to perceive food as something more than just food, and used it as the
opportunity to express himself. However, as he got older, he found other means of self –
expressions such as his profession and hobby.

David: “Yes, previously I used food to show that I have strong willpower, I know what-what
is. But these days I have fully concentrated on my work achievements and the way, how I am
perceived as a professional.”

Annika extends on this and mentions that have just lost the need for self – expression, as
wants to live simple and comfortable live, and, has no reason to prove anything to anyone. At
the same time, respondents at their student years, such as Linnea and Mariet conveyed that
self – expression an essential element of their lives, and if they have anything to stand off
with, food suits an excellent opportunity:

Linnea: “It is important for me to build the positive impression about myself, so food is a
good chance for this.”

Above mentioned phenomenon can be explained by the life-stage theory proposed by

Levinson, Darrow, Klein, Levinson and McKee (1978). According to the scholars, people
tend to change their values during different stages of their life. While during the college and
university years’ people are driven by the willingness to develop personal self-identity and
seek to deliver it to the community they live (Levinson et al., 1978). When entering the labor
market, individuals tend to focus more on professional and personal achievements and care
less about self – identification, or find more sophisticated forms for self -
realization. Moreover, during the period of identity formation, people tend to be more
influenced by peer pressure, whereas after moving to the next life stage the importance of
perception from other people becomes less sensed.

Involvement

Lastly, involvement was also named as the predictor of intention creation and further
behavior implementation during the interviews. By involvement, scholars mean level of

39
personal relevance and importance that consumer attaches to the particular issue (Marshall &
Bell, 2004). Researchers suggest that if the person considers something as relevant and
important, this leads increasing amount of interest and attention that can consequently lead to
better decisions (Beatty, Kahle, & Homer, 1988). After conducting the interviews, this
phenomenon was fully confirmed. It appears that those people who either intend to eat
healthily or already follow a healthy diet are highly involved with healthy food issues. For
instance, Nora conveys, that dedicate particular attention to the literature related to healthy
eating and reads the labels in the supermarket. She also searches the information in the social
media and gets inspiration from Facebook and Instagram groups about healthy eating and
healthy lifestyle. Furthermore, Annika also mentions that she makes decisions about what to
eat thoroughly and tends to think about the consequences:

Annika: “Every time I eat something, do my grocery shopping or cook, I carefully think what
this food will give me and how it will influence me. I am approaching this issue thoroughly
and believe the food is an essential element of good wellbeing.”

Moreover, those who express high involvement level like to experiment with recipes, cook
more at home. For example, David mentions that is interested in cooking, therefore always
searches for new receipts, likes buying new, unusual ingredients, experiment with food.
Moreover, he also tends to spend more time, than his close friends in the supermarket as
carefully examines the labels. On a contrary, those who do not have the intention to eat
healthy, convey that are not interested in food. As an example, Jan mentioned that when
buying food, he is mostly driven by the desire to suffice hunger or to indulge himself, and
more importantly, to make it fast. Beatty, Kahle and Homer, (1988) suggest that involvement
is “the importance of the product to the individual and the individual’s self – concept, values,
and ego” (p. 150). Aforementioned means that to be interested in the issue, such as, for
example, healthy eating, one should express the relevance for oneself and to coincide with
personal values and beliefs.

4.2 Exploring the Barriers between Intention and Behavior

Among many factors that have the impact on the gap formulation between intention to eat
healthy and actual behavior, three major categories emerged in the process of analyzing the
intention and behavior gap. Furthermore, the empirical findings suggest that remarkably the
control issue (PBC), planning and goal setting, as well as conflicting intentions shall be
considered as the primary constructs moderating the gap between healthy eating intention and
healthy eating behavior.

4.2.1 Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)

As implied by Ajzen (1991), perceived behavioral control is the perception of how easy or
difficult to perform a particular behavior. The analysis of PBC suggests, most of the
interviewees consider that adhering to the healthy eating diet is not an easy task. Among
other reasons, Perceived Behavioral Control emerged as the essential reason of non-
performance of healthy eating behavior, despite one's intention to do so. Authors also notice
from the empirical materials that the following three elements are the main sources that lead
to low level of Perceived Behavioral Control.

40
Social Setting

Tonje has danced tango and salsa for seven years. As a dancer, she values healthy food in her
daily life, since eating healthy provide her with more energy to achieve better concentration
and obtain physique to dance well. Nevertheless, she points out that when she goes out with
friends, who are more into cakes, Tonje drops her healthy eating principle in order to "enjoy a
good meet-up instead of being picky" (Tonje). This is especially the case when Millennials
are surrounded by friends and family at social events such as "a Friday bar and New Year's
Eve "(Annika). In short "It is hard to control when we were going out" (Tonje).

In a similar manner, the respondents in Sweden suggest that a dominating cultural factor
named fika (the Swedish tradition of drinking coffee with sweets over the day period) – as a
means of socializing. During the interviews, several respondents claim their healthy eating
behavior could not be triggered due to they were surrounded by unhealthy eating people at a
social event, where the Millennials feel a need to blend in with others. Specially, in the group
of student participants, the authors found that "socializing" was commonly accepted by this
group.

However, it is noteworthy that, Jan, Mie, and David states clearly in the interview that they
feel no pressure to perform according to others' expectation. Moreover, Mie mentions her 14-
year-old younger sister is more subjected to the "group pressure, since she is now going
through her teenage period, where blending in is crucial...She does not have a sense of self
yet.".

Therefore, the authors reach the conclusion that while social setting can be considered as a
main source of low PBC, yet we need to consider that for working professional social setting
might not be so influential as for the younger Millennials, who are still in school and are
more influenced by their peers.

Lack of Knowledge and Inspiration

The authors also identify lack of knowledge and inspiration will also impact the PBC in a
negative way, even though they are positive about consuming healthy food. A typical
statement is named by David, who wants to eat healthily without scarifying the taste:

David: "I really would like to eat healthy food, however, I am passionate about cooking.
Therefore, I spend hours in the kitchen, trying to make delicious dishes. Unfortunately, I do
not have the knowledge on how to combine healthy eating with tasty food, so I can also make
healthy dishes at home".

David also mentions that lack of inspiration in the supermarket will also impact his
confidence in performing healthy eating behavior:

David: "Another issue is, when you walk into the supermarket in Denmark, it is so boring.
They looked almost the same with plain display. Unlike in Asia, they even have staff standing
by to prepare food for you, so you are inspired when you are shopping."

41
Similar statement is also made by Tonje, who believes that one reason of eating junk food
when she is out with friends is due to lack of inspiration:

Tonje: "I wish we can think of other alternatives when we are going out'.

The authors also notice that despite knowledge on nutrition is available to most of the
participants, yet the knowledge of know-how regarding HEB performance is missing, from
the participants’ perspective.

Personality

As pointed out by Sheeran (2002), personality as a variable concerns general tendency of

human beings. Furthermore, its significance has never been "examined in the context of
intention-behavior gap" (Sheeran, 2002, p. 21). Nevertheless, Pieters and Verplanken (1995)
revealed that individual variations in the tendency to rationalize were related to the amount of
reasoning about the behavior, which in turn can lead to greater consistency between
intentions and behavior.

In the present study, participants, who were viewed as action oriented (Sheeran, 2002), had a
greater tendency to focus on their ultimate goal. For example:

Martin:" I am conscious of what I eat at home and outside...when I am at friends' place, I

simply just need to have more willpower...stick to my routine meals and drink more tea."

In opposite to Martin, Mie expresses her mind as state oriented (Sheeran, 2002). She has a
tendency to focus on her current state rather than consider specific alternatives to achieve
healthy eating goal. In other words, she was in favor of a healthy lifestyle, yet she did not
wish to go through a change which required higher level of control, such as of choosing
particular food categories in her daily life:

Mie: " I think I am healthy, I eat what I crave for, and I never had a weight problem".

In general, the authors observed that participants, who are action oriented have a greater
tendency to focus on their ultimate goal. This also explains why they perceive behavioral
control is stronger in relation to David and Mie, despite various social, situational factors
exist. According to the knowledge obtained from the TPB, the greater ability to control one's
action, the higher chance to produce stronger intention-behavior relations.

4.2.2 Planning and Goal Setting

Authors have also found the intention type could also impact how well the intention can
predict behavior. Meaning, people are likely to perform a behavior when they have a plan or
a goal in mind. For example, when the participants are asked to share their healthy eating
stories, they often mention their experience of overcoming various obstacles to achieve their
goals:

42
David: "In my younger days, I was one of the many guys who did lots of sports, like soccer,
swimming. I was so passionate about combining food that gave your more energy when you
eat at that time, but that has been changed".

Moreover, Jan, another interview participant further reflects on his 12-month healthy eating
experience, which happened a few years back. The reason why he could adhere to the
nutritionist's diet plan is he had a goal to achieve, namely a healthier lifestyle:

Jan: "At that point I had a little more time to plan, I prepared and cooked and packaged it
into different amounts and labeled them. Like the salad, if you put it into water and fridge you
can gain three more days. You plan them based on how many portions you need every day
and label them, so you come home and eat them. It is very structured, and there was no room
for spontaneity."

This goal-oriented nature of the behavior will often trigger motives for giving up existing
behavior, overcoming inconveniences to achieve personal goals, as proclaimed by recent
studies of Gollwitzer’s (1993, 1996, 1999). He raises the concept of implementation
intentions, which extend behavioral intention such as "I intend to perform behavior X" to
implementation intention, which is "I intend to perform behavior X in situation Y". Sheeran
(2002) further supports this concept and asserted as follow:

Despite equivalent intentions to perform the behavior, participants who specify the
situation for performing an intended action in this manner (form implementation
intentions) seem invariably to demonstrate increased likelihood of performance
compared to controls. [Sheeran,2002, p.12]

In general, the participants report higher motivation to execute their intention by either
having a plan, or planning to achieve certain goal.

4.2.3 Conflicting Intentions

The final category, which influences the intention-behavior gap, emerged during the research
is the conflicting intentions. Sheeran et al. (1998) distinguish between Competing Intentions
and Conflicting Intentions. Competing Intentions involve behaviors that make it impossible
to perform the focal behavior because the intentions both specify the same time (e.g. if a
student travels abroad during a particular week, this makes it impossible for her to attend
lectures during that week). Conflicting Intentions, on the other hand, are also negatively
correlated with the focal intention but involve behaviors that, and if they are performed, are
likely to impede the performance of the focal behavior (Sheeran et al., 1998). One example
which help elaborate conflicting intention is that, a student' intention to go party during the
academic year might be conflicting intentions for her intention to attend all classed. This is
because going to party does not make it impossible to attend all her classes)

In the present study, the author notice that participants have tendency to blame different
distractive factors moderating their intention-behavior gap. One example can be heard from
our participant, Tonje:

43
Tonje: "I like to be in the kitchen but when I was living in the dorm, I could not stand the
massive kitchen shared with others."

In Tonje's case, her intention to use kitchen for eating home-made food is hindered by her
intention not to clean up the dirty common kitchen.

And a similar viewpoint was also expressed by another participant, David:

David: "... nowadays, I focus on work, so I am not so relaxed like before. You are more 'lazy'
when you are working."

Later in the interview, David also reveal his genuine passion is cooking, therefore, he choose
to follow his conflicting intention of cooking tasty meals instead of following the healthy diet
guidance.

It is worth to note that not all participants reveal their genuine conflicting intentions during
the interview, when they are asked to discuss more of their underlying conflicting intentions.
This could be ascribed to their concern of personal privacy. In general, the authors tend to
agree that stronger conflicting intentions made it less likely that the focal behavior to be
enacted.

4.3 Chapter Summary

Following the preceding analysis and discussion regarding Scandinavian Millennial
consumer healthy eating intention and the intention-behavior gap, it becomes evident that
there is room to include additional factors in understanding this generation cohort, in forming
their healthy eating intentions, as well as barriers which trigger the intention-behavioral gap.

From the analysis of the healthy eating intention formulation, the authors deduce that
Scandinavian Millennial consumers are mainly influenced by internal factors when forming
their food choices. Our empirical interviews affirm that TPB is a powerful tool to study
human behavioral by considering both personal as well as social influencers Nevertheless,
there are a limitation of TPB to be noticed. For instance, Subjective Norms, do not appear to
be having substantial impacts on forming healthy eating intention for the Scandinavian
Millennials, since they tend to be skeptical towards external recommendation. Yet, some of
the participants do claim that they listen more to their inner circle, such as friends and family.
The authors would suggest a quantitative study in examining the usefulness in Scandinavian
Millennials context. Through the empirical materials collection, the authors also found there
is a change of attitude, after the participants are asked how much control they have over the
behavior. This thought into practical obstacles seems to have counter effect towards their
original positive attitude to eat healthily. Together, Positive attitude and negative PBC has
resulted in lower level of willingness at a later stage, as reported by the some of the
participants. Hence, authors can also conclude that in the current study of Millennials' food
consumption phenomenon, participants' attitude is affected by the PBC, and ultimately affect
the intention.

44
When it comes to analysis of healthy eating intention-behavior gap, there are three main
sources of barriers can be derived from the empirical data, namely Perceived Behavioral
Control, lack of planning and goal setting, as well as conflicting intentions. First of all, in
relation to PBC, our empirical materials suggest that social setting, lack of knowledge and
inspiration, as well as personality are three main discoveries which impact the level of PBC.
It is noteworthy that in the discussion of the social setting, the authors observed an interesting
fact that the younger Millennials, compared to the older Millennials, are more likely be
affected by social setting to give up their current healthy food practice. Second of all, lack
planning and goal setting are considered being another significant factors that prevent
behavior from happening. Lastly, this thesis also discovers that various participants hold
conflicting intentions, despite they claim their willingness to eat healthily. This conflicting
intentions seem to be non-neglectable to study further, as there are few studies with
conflicting intentions applied in the dietary behavior to the best knowledge of the authors.

45
5.Conclusions
In the last chapter, the authors draw final conclusions as a result of research questions
reflation. Moreover, theoretical contributions and managerial implications of the findings are
presented. Lastly, the authors discuss limitations of the study and suggest areas for future
research.

5.1 Conclusion
The present thesis intended to investigate what factors motivate the healthy eating intention
formulation and what factors affect the formulation of the gap between healthy eating
intention and healthy eating behavior, within the domain of Scandinavian Millennials. The
preceding chapter has provided convincing evidence that the conceptual framework is a
useful tool to understand the intention formulation and intention-behavior gap. Here authors
provide the acquired knowledge built upon participants' understanding in relation to the
healthy eating behavior.

Considering formulation of healthy eating intention, the present research confirms that TPB
model is still applicable with a few interesting characteristics from the Millennials' angle.
Firstly, attitudes are strongest influencer on the intention formulation for Millennial
consumers. Secondly, the empirical study suggest that the subjective norms is rather
complicated matter to understand. While respondents conveyed that they did not adhere to the
healthy diet recommendations of the professionals, it was also remarkable that
recommendation of close friends or people whom they trust still have a large influence on the
intention formation. Moreover, authors also noticed that Perceived Behavioral Control has a
limited impact on the intention formulation. According to the research results, even though
the substantial amount of respondents conveyed that eating healthy is difficult in the
execution stage, they did often form healthy eating intention.

Besides TPB elements, there are also other internal, external factors come into play in
forming the healthy eating intention. Following internal and external factors are supported by
the empirical data. First of all, it seems that emotional factor has a high impact on the
intention formulation, as respondents associate food with different emotional statements such
as satisfaction and sense of achievement. As was suggested by interviewees, when the person
eats healthy, he or she is determined, goal–oriented, organized, can be named as the achiever
and can overcome difficulties. Furthermore, we have also noticed that personal food identity
has a significant influence intention formulation, as it allows individuals to express
themselves through consuming food. However, food identity factor has the different impact
on the representatives of one generation cohort. While younger Millennials, who are at the
stage of studying in the university, use food as the opportunity to express themselves,
individuals who move to the next life stage and are working, show different values and do not
find it important to seek for self-expression. Finally, involvement is another significant
influencer of healthy eating intention. It appears that the higher the involvement level
regarding the issue, the more likely intention gets formed. As a result of the study, the

46
updated conceptual framework can be drawn in below (Figure 3) to indicate the motivators to
form healthy eating intention.

TPB factors: (Attitudes,

Subjective norms, PBC)
)
Involvement
Healthy Eating Intention
Personal Food Identity

Emotions

Figure 3 Factors influencing Healthy Eating Intention formation

Further building on the formulation of healthy eating intention from Millennial consumers,
the authors discovered that the following three sources can be in use to explain the intention-
behavior gap. Firstly, Perceive Behavioral Control, as suggested by Ajzen (1991) that it has
an indirect impact on the behavior. In the current study, the authors agreed to the TPB model
and dug further into factors will could have impacts on PBC. Based on the empirical data
gathered from 15 Scandinavian Millennials, the authors found out that social setting, lack of
knowledge and inspiration, as well as personality will impact the level of PBC. Nevertheless,
the participants' life stage shall also be taken into account when considering efficacy of social
setting element. For instance, the empirical materials suggest that participant in different life
stage will have different weighting of social pressure. That is to say, the younger Millennials
are more likely to lose control under the social setting, compared with the older ones.
Secondly, planning and goal setting also play role in creating a gap between healthy eating
intention and healthy eating behavior. Participants, who have formed the intention to eat
healthily without a concrete plan, or a clear goal, are not likely to perform behavior in
question. Thirdly, conflicting intentions shall be considered as a moderating factor between
the intention-behavior gap. In this study, the author discovered the action-oriented personality
had a stronger tendency to perform healthy eating behavior once they believe in the healthy
eating benefits. The higher level of conflicting intentions related to healthy eating is, the
chance of enacting healthy eating behavior reduced. Following the discussion, another
updated framework derived from the empirical data can be found in Figure 4.

47
 Conflicting
Intentions

Healthy Eating Intention

Execution Phrase Healthy Eating Behavior

PBC Planning & Goal

Setting

Figure 4 Barriers that prevent Healthy Eating Behavior from Happening

5.2 Theoretical Contributions

The present thesis has made theoretical contributions which are significant in three main
aspects:

First, this paper adds to current understanding in relation to the role of TPB. It seems like the
subjective norms, or normative beliefs from the external environment do not have a hefty
influence on the Millennials' intention to eat healthy, according to the empirical materials.
Even though the promotional efforts of eating healthy are high, Millennials tend to trust their
own experiences, want to delve into details when it comes to recommendations and make
their own decisions. This also apply to receiving recommendations from their close circle.
Millennials have a tendency to be skeptical towards external information and check the
validity and reliability before accept the health claims.

Second, the author found out from the conversations that besides the existing TPB factors,
there are room to include internal factors such as emotional, personal food identity and
involvement, when it comes to formulation of the healthy eating behavior.

Third, to the authors' best knowledge, Scandinavian Millennials have been rarely studied
within healthy eating domain. Hence, the current study can serve as a stepping stone,
potentially lead to further significant discoveries in exploring Scandinavian Millennials
healthy food trend.

48
5.3 Managerial Implications
The findings that were obtained during the research give useful insight for the practitioners
who work in the fast moving consumer goods sector and produce products that refer to the
category of healthy food. As the Millennial generation expresses precise attention to food as a
category, it is vital for practitioners to understand what are the motives of this generation to
engage the healthy eating behavior. Even more importantly, it is also essential to comprehend
why their intention to eat healthy may not transfer into actual practice. The profound
understanding of the motivators of healthy eating as well as knowing what factors make
consumers not to eat healthy can help the companies to engage with already existing
consumers in a more direct and straightforward way. Moreover, the knowledge may also help
businesses to obtain new customers via correct messages delivery in the communication. For
example, the knowledge about the attitudes towards healthy eating (eating healthy food
allows to feel energetic, helps stay concentrated, feel vitality) of Millennial generation may
help practitioners to develop marketing campaigns that will be positively anticipated by
potential consumers and will lead to purchase.

Also, the notion of the low level of subjective norms pressure that Millennial consumers
express in regards to healthy eating, and their little anticipation of recommendations from
media persons and health professionals can also be useful. Understanding the fact mentioned
above, together with the knowledge that Millennial consumers want to delve into the details
before following any recommendations and insight regarding the high level of trust for their
friends may help practitioners in several ways. Firstly, food producers may develop
marketing communication stressing rational messages and conveying the information in the
comfortable yet simple – to understand way. Secondly, companies may consider
communicating with representatives of Generation Y through the opinion leaders – people
whom millennials trust. Finally, the knowledge regarding the high level of trust that
Millennials express to social media such as Facebook and Instagram groups about success
stories of healthy eating may help practitioners to develop media mix in the cost – efficient
way, activating the touch points where they can see their target group.

The knowledge of the different impact of the factor (personal food identity) on the food-
related behavior among people of one generation cohort that come through various life stages
can also serve a substantial help. Firstly, when developing products or communication that
has Millennial consumers as a target group, practitioners may consider checking the
relevance of the products and messages to the target group. Also, this knowledge may
increase the chance that marketing professionals will review the values of consumers on the
different life stages and develop several messages, that will be more appealing to the
particular target group.

More importantly, knowing what factors prevent the intention to eat healthy to turn into the
behavior is also vital for commercial organizations, public, non-profit organizations and
government institutions. As unhealthy diet may lead to obesity and increase of chronical
diseases, it is vital to understand what prevents representatives of Millennial generation from
eating healthy. Knowing that price and availability are among the most often mentioned
factors that prevent Millennials from eating healthy may help commercial organizations to

49
start thinking about the increase of variety of healthy alternatives. On the government level,
officials may consider providing the tax discounts for producers of the healthy product to
decrease the end price of goods. Moreover, it can also be considered to regalement the
proportion of healthy versus unhealthy products on a shelf. Furthermore, as among
representatives of Millennial generation many students start living on their own, non-profit or
government organizations may develop the set of healthy eating guidelines, or provide with
the variety of healthy options in the student premises.

5.4 Limitations and Future Research

Although the authors were able to answer the overall research question during the research,
there are some limitations besides the methodological limitations discussed earlier in chapter
three which need to be acknowledged. Simultaneously, the authors also intend to provide
suggestions for future research projects.

First of all, due to the nature of qualitative research, the present study aims to explore factors
that could have potential impacts on the intention formulation, as well as intention-behavior
relations. That is to say, the present study aims at providing the hypothesis for future
quantitative studies instead of testing the conceptual framework. Future researchers are called
for testing the efficacy between various factors and respect intention and behavior within the
healthy eating domain.

Second of all, another research limitation was that the authors asked the participants to
identify the meaning the healthy eating behavior, instead of providing the same identification.
It was because, to the best knowledge of the authors, there was no previous research
illuminating healthy eating concept in the Millennials domain. Thus, the authors thought it
worth to know what healthy eating behavior is standing for in the Millennials context.
However, it also introduces the risk of being difficult to distinguish the healthy eating group
from non-healthy eating group. For instance, if a participant belonged to a non-healthy eating
group but had a lower standard for himself/herself, thus was considered as a healthy eating
person. The authors suggest a unique identification should be employed to include the
participants into the correct category.

Finally, the present thesis focused on Millennials as the research object, taking into account
the distinct traits of this generation, derived from the literature review. However, it could also
be suitable to conduct a comparison study between Millennial generation and other
generation cohorts, in order to investigate similarities, as well as differences in the eating
behavior.

50
References
Abraham, R., & Harrington, C. (2015). Consumption Patterns of the Millenial Generational
Cohort. ME, vol.06, no. 1, pp.51-64.
AC Nielsen (2016). Available online:
http://www.nielsen.com/content/dam/nielsenglobal/eu/nielseninsights/pdfs/Nielsen%20Globa
l%20Health%20and%20Wellness%20Report%20-%20January%202015.pdf [Accessed 23
Feb. 2016].
Achar, C., So, J., Agrawal, N. & Duhachek, A. (2016). What we feel and why we buy: the
influence of emotions on consumer decision-making. Current Opinion in Psychology, vol.10,
pp.166-170.
Ad Age (2016). Millennials Want to Party with Your Brand but on Their Own Terms.
Available online: http://adage.com/article/digitalnext/millennials-party-brand-terms/236444/
[Accessed 5 Apr. 2016].
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes, vol. 50, pp. 179-211.
Ajzen, I. (2011). The theory of planned behaviour: Reactions and reflections. Psychology &
Health, vol. 26, no.9, pp.1113-1127.
Ajzen, I., & Dasgupta, N. (2015). Explicit and implicit beliefs, attitudes, and intentions: The
role of conscious and unconscious processes in human behavior. In P. Haggard & B. Eitam
(Ed.), The sense of agency, New York: Oxford University Press, pp.115-144
Alba J.W. & Hutchinson, J.W. (1988). Dimensions of consumer expertise. Journal of
Consumer Research, vol.13 no.4, pp. 411–454.
Alvesson, M. (2003). ‘Beyond neopositivists, romantics, and localists: a reflexive approach to
interviews in organizational research’. Academy of Management Review, vol. 28, no. 1,
pp.13-33
Arctic Apples, (2014). Millennials desire healthy, convenient food. Available online:
http://www.arcticapples.com/millennials-desire-healthy-convenient-foodand-arctic-apples-
deliver/ [Accessed 25 Feb. 2016].
Armitage C.J. & Conner M. (2001). Efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour: a meta-
analytic review. British Journal Social Psychology, vol.40, no.4, pp. 471–99.
Askegaard, S. & Madsen, T. (1998). The local and the global: exploring traits of
homogeneity and heterogeneity in European food cultures. International Business Review,
vol. 7, no.6, pp.549-568.
Asp, E. (1999). Factors affecting food decisions made by individual consumers. Food Policy,
24(2-3), pp.287-294.
Åstrosm, A. N. & Rise, J. (2001). Young adults’ intention to eat healthy food: Extending the
theory of planned behaviour. Psychology & Health, vol. 16, no.2, pp. 223–237.
Babin, B, J. & Darden, W. R. (1996) Good and bad shopping vibes: Spending and patronage
satisfaction. Journal of Business Research, vol. 35, no.3, pp. 201-206.
Bagozzi, R. (1986). Attitude formation under the theory of reasoned action and a purposeful
behaviour reformulation, British Journal of Social Psychology, vol.25, no.2, pp.95-107.

51
Bagozzi, R. P. & Warshaw, R. P. (1990). Trying to consume. Journal of Consumer Research,
vol.17, no. 2, pp.127-140.
Bagozzi, R. P. (1992). The self-regulation of attitudes, intentions, and behavior. Social
Psychology Quarterly, vol. 55, 178–204.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
Psychological Review, vol. 84, no.2, pp.191-215.
Barberia AM, Attree M, Todd C. (2008). Understanding eating behaviours in Spanish women
enrolled in a weight-loss treatment. Journal of Clinical Nursing, vol. 17, no.7, pp.957-66.
Bargh, J., Chen, M. and Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects
of trait construct and stereotype activation on action, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, vol.71, no.2, pp.230-244.
Barkin, S., Heerman, W., Warren, M. & Rennhoff, C. (2010). Millennials and the World of
Work: The Impact of Obesity on Health and Productivity. Journal of Business Psychology,
vol.25, no.2, pp.239-245.
Beatty, S., Homer, P. & Kahle, L. (1988). The involvement—commitment model: Theory
and implications. Journal of Business Research, vol. 16, no.2, pp.149-167.
Belasco, W. (1989). Appetite for change. New York: Pantheon Books.
Belk, R. (1988). Possessions and the Extended Self. Journal of Consumer Research, vol.15,
no.2, pp.139-168.
Billington R., Strawbridge S., Greensides L. & Fitzsimmons A. (1991). Culture and society.
London: MacMillan Education Ltd.
Biltekoff, C. (2010). Consumer response: the paradoxes of food and health. Annals of the
New York Academy of Sciences, vol.1190, no.1, pp.174-178.
Birch L.L. (1999). Development of food preferences. Annual Review of Nutrition, vol. 19,
no.1, pp. 41-62.
Bisogni, C., Jastran, M., Seligson, M. & Thompson, A. (2012). How People Interpret Healthy
Eating: Contributions of Qualitative Research. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior,
vol.44, no.4, pp.282-301.
Booth M.L. & Samdal O. (1997) Health-promoting schools in Australia: models and
measurements. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Public Health, vol.21, no.4, pp.365–70.
Borland, R., Owen, N., Hill, D. and Schofield, P. (1991). Predicting attempts and sustained
cessation of smoking after the introduction of workplace smoking bans. Health Psychology,
vol. 10, no.5, pp.336-342.
Bruce, A., Lim, S., Smith, T., Cherry, J., Black, W., Davis, A. & Bruce, J. (2015). Apples or
candy? Internal and external influences on children's food choices. Appetite, vol. 93, pp.31-
34.
Brug, J. (2008). Determinants of healthy eating: motivation, abilities and environmental
opportunities. Family Practice, vol. 25(Supplement 1), pp. i50-i55.
Brug, J., Debie, S., van Assema, P. & Weijts, W. (1995). Psychosocial determinants of fruit
and vegetable consumption among adults: Results of focus group interviews, Food Quality
and Preference, vol.6, no.2, pp.99-107.
Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2011). Business Research Methods, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

52
Capaldi, E.D. (1996). Why We Eat What We Eat. Washington, DC, USA: American
Psychological Association.
Carpenter, J.M. & Moore, M. (2009). Consumer demographics, retail attributes and apparel
cross – shopping behaviour. Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management,
vol.6, no.1, pp.1-14.
Carson, N., Blake, C. & Saunders, R. (2014). Perceptions and Dietary Intake of Self-
Described Healthy and Unhealthy Eaters with Severe Mental Illness. Community Mental
Health Journal, vol. 51, no.3, pp.281-288.
Catalyst, (2012). Generations: Demographic Trends in Population and Workforce. Available
online: http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/generations-demographic-trends-population-and-
workforce#footnote4_lha33l8 [Accessed 5 Apr. 2016].
Celsi, R.L. & Olson, J.C. (1988). The role of involvement in attention and comprehension
processes. Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 15, no.2, pp. 210–224.
Chan, K., Y. L. Ng. & G. Prendergast. (2014). Should different marketing communication
strategies be used to promote healthy eating among male and female adolescents? Health
Marketing Quarterly, vol. 31, no.4, pp. 339–352.
Charley, H. & Weaver, C. (1998). Foods: A scientific approach. 3rd Edition. New York.
Prentice-Hall.
Charters, S., Velikova, N., Ritchie, C., Fountain, J., Thach, L., Dodd, T., Fish, N., Herbst, F.
& Terblanche, N. (2011). Generation Y and sparkling wines: a cross‐cultural
perspective. International Journal of Wine Business Research, vol. 23, no.2, pp.161-175.
Chartrand, T. & Bargh, J. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception-behavior link and
social interaction, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol.76, no.6, pp.893-910.
Conner, M. & Armitage, C. J. (1998). Extending the theory of planned behavior: a review
and avenues for further research. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 28, pp.1429-
1464.
Conner, M., Norman, P. & Bell, R. (2002). The theory of planned behavior and healthy
eating. Health Psychology, vol.21, no.2, pp.194-201.
Cooke, R., Dahdah, M., Norman, P. & French, D. (2014). How well does the theory of
planned behaviour predict alcohol consumption? A systematic review and meta-
analysis. Health Psychology Review, vol. 10, no.2, pp.148-167.
Corvi, E. & Bigi, A. (2007). The European Millennials versus the US Millennials: similarities
and differences. Fourth Annual conference of Italian Marketing. University of Brescia, pp.2-
8. Available online: http://www.unibs.it/sites/default/files/ricerca/allegati/Paper68.pdf
[Accessed 5 Apr. 2016].
Creswell, J. (1994). Qualitative inquiry & research design. Thousand Oaks: Sage
Publications.
Crockett, S. J. & Sims, L. S. (1995) Environmental influences of children's eating. Journal of
Nutrition Education, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 235-249.
De Vries, H., Backbier, E., Dijkstra, M., Van Breukelen, G., Parcel, G. & Kok, G. (1994). A
Dutch social influence smoking prevention approach for vocational school students. Health
Education Research, 9(3), pp.365-374.

53
Debevec, K. & Schewe, C. (2013). Are today's millenials splintering into a new generational
cohort? Maybe! Journal of Consumer Behaviour, vol. 12, no.1, pp.20-31.
Deskins, S., Harris, C. V., Bradlyn, A. S., Cottrell, L., Coffman, J. W., Olexa, J. & Neal, W.
(2006). Preventive care in Appalachia: use of the theory of planned behavior to identify
barriers to participation in cholesterol screenings among west virginians, The Journal of
Rural Health, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 367-374.
Dietz, T., Kalof, L. & Stern, P.C. (2003). Gender, Values, and Environmentalism. Social
Science Quarterly, vol.83, no.1, pp.353-364.
Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. & Jackson, P. (2012). Management Research, London: Sage
Publications.
Eastman J., Iyer R. & Thomas S. (2013). The impact of status consumption on shopping
styles: an exploratory look at the millenial generation. Marketing Management Journal,
vol.23, no.1, pp.57-73.
Falk, L. W., Sobal, J., Bisogni, C. A., Connors, M. & Devine, C. M. (2001). Managing
healthy eating: Definitions, classifications, and strategies. Health Education & Behavior, vol.
28, no.4, pp.425–439.
Ferguson, R., Davies, C., Lester, L. & Rosenberg, M. (2015). Healthy food intentions fail to
lead to healthy consumption at an Australian festival. Nutrition & Dietetics, vol. 73, no.1,
pp.67-72.
Fila, S. A. & C. Smith. (2006). Applying the theory of planned behavior to healthy eating
behaviors in urban Native American youth. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and
Physical Activity, vol.3, pp.11–20.
Financial Times (2016). Mergers on the menu for food and drink industry - FT.com.
Available online: http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/56c74a04-981e-11e5-9228-
87e603d47bdc.html#axzz3xQAZ2DzK [Accessed 23 Feb. 2016].
Food Navigator (2016). Generation Y is driving food trends, says report. Available online:
http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Suppliers2/Generation-Y-is-driving-food-trends-says-
report [Accessed 21 Apr. 2016].
French, J., Blair, A. & Booth, D. (1994). Social Situation and Emotional State in Eating and
Drinking. British Food Journal, vol. 96, no.1, pp.23-28.
Glanz, K., Hewitt, A. & Rudd, J. (1992). Consumer behavior and nutrition education: An
integrative review. Journal of Nutrition Education, vol. 24, no.5, pp.267-277.
Glanz, K., Sallis, J., Saelens, B. & Frank, L. (2005). Healthy Nutrition Environments:
Concepts and Measures. American Journal of Health Promotion, vol. 19, no.5, pp.330-333.
Gollwitzer, P. (1993). Goal Achievement: The Role of Intentions. European Review of Social
Psychology, vol. 4, no.1, pp.141-185.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1996). The volitional benefits of planning. The Psychology of Action, pp.
287-312.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans.
American Psychologist, vol. 54, pp.493-503.
Greenberg, K. (2009). Ford Uses Social Media To Target Younger Buyers. Available online:
http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/112172/ford-uses-social-media-to-target-
younger-buyers.html [Accessed 11 May 2016].

54
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K.
Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage,
pp.105-117.
Gurau, C. (2012). A life stage analysis of consumer loyalty profile: comparing Generation X
and Millenial consumers. Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 29, no.2, pp.103-113.
Hakim, S. & Meissen, G. (2013). Increasing Consumption of Fruits and Vegetables in the
School Cafeteria: The Influence of Active Choice. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and
Underserved, vol. 24, no.2A, pp.145-157.
Hansen, T. (2005). Perspectives on consumer decision making: an integrated approach.
Journal of Consumer Behaviour, vol. 4, no.6, pp.420-437.
Hewlett, S. A., Sherbin, L. & Sumberg, K. (2009). How Gen Y and boomers will reshape
your agenda. Harvard Business Review, vol. 87, no.7-8, pp.71-6.
Hochbaum, G. M. (1981) Strategies and their rationale for changing people's eating habits.
Journal of Nutrition Education, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. S59-S65.
Holbrook, M. B. & Hirschman, E. C. (1982) The experiential aspects of consumption:
Consumer fantasies, feelings and fun. Journal of Consumer Research, vol.9, no.2, pp.132-
140.
Howe N. & Strauss, W. (2000). Millenials rising: The next great generation. New York:
Vintage Books.
Howe, N. & Strauss, W. (2008). Millennials & K-12 Schools. Life Course Associates,
pp. 109-111.
Huntley, R. (2006). The world according to Y: Inside the new adult generation. Crow’s Nest
Australia: Allan and Unwin.
Inglehart, R. & Carballo, M. (1997). Does Latin America Exist? (And is There a Confucian
Culture?) A Global Analysis of Cross-Cultural Differences, Political Science & Politics,
vol.30, no.01, pp.34-47.
Keane, A. & Willetts, A. (1996). Concepts of healthy eating: An anthropological
investigation in South-East London. London: Goldsmith College.
Klein, G., Orsanu, J., Calrerwood, R. & Zsambok, C. (1993). Decision making in action:
models and methods. Norwood, New Jersey: Abex Publishing Corporation, pp.16-17.
Kotler, P. (1974) Atmospherics as a marketing tool. Journal of Retailing, vol. 49, no.4,
pp.48-64.
Krahn, V., Lengyel, C. & Hawranik, P. (2011). Healthy Eating Perceptions of Older Adults
Living in Canadian Rural and Northern Communities. Journal of Nutrition in Gerontology
and Geriatrics, vol. 30, no.3, pp.261-273.
Krølner, R., Rasmussen, M., Brug, J., Klepp, K., Wind, M. & Due, P. (2011). Determinants
of fruit and vegetable consumption among children and adolescents: a review of the
literature. Part II: qualitative studies. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and
Physical Activity, vol.8, no.1, pp.112-149.
Lambie, J.A. & Marcel, A.J., (2002). Consciousness and the varieties of emotion experience:
a theoretical framework. Psychological Review, vol.109, no.2, pp.219-259.

55
Lancaster, L.C. & Stillman, D. (2003), When Generations Collide: Who They Are. Why
They Clash. How to Solve the Generational Puzzle at Work, Harper business, New York,
NY.
Levinson, D.J., Darrow, C.N., Klein, E.B., Levinson, M.H. & McKee, B. (1978). The
Seasons of a Man’s Life, New York: Ballantine Books.
Lyman, R., Prentice-Dunn, S. & Gabel, S. (1989). Residential and inpatient treatment of
children and adolescents. New York: Plenum Press.
MacLaren T. (1997). Messages for the masses: food and nutrition issues on television.
Journal of the American Dietetic Association, vol. 97, no.7, pp.733–8.
Mannheim, K. (1923). The problem of generations. Available online:
http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/201/articles/27MannheimGenerations.p
df [Accessed 7 March 2015].
Marshall, D. & Bell, R. (2004). Relating the food involvement scale to demographic
variables, food choice and other constructs. Food Quality Preferences, vol.15, pp. 871–879.
Mason, Jennifer (1996). Qualitative Researching. London: Sage.
McDermott, M., Oliver, M., Svenson, A., Simnadis, T., Beck, E., Coltman, T., Iverson, D.,
Caputi, P. & Sharma, R. (2015). The theory of planned behaviour and discrete food choices: a
systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and
Physical Activity, vol.12, no.1, pp.1-12.
Miles, M. and Huberman, A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis an expanded sourcebook,
Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
Millennial Marketing (2016). Gen Y Food Preferences: You Are What You Eat | Millennial
Marketing. Available online: http://www.millennialmarketing.com/2009/08/gen-y-food-
preferences-you-are-what-you-eat/ [Accessed 21 Apr. 2016].
Montano, D. & Taplin, S. (1991). A test of an expanded theory of reasoned action to predict
mammography participation. Social Science & Medicine, vol.32, no.6, pp.733-741.
Mooney, J., Jepson, R., Frank, J. & Geddes, R. (2015). Obesity Prevention in Scotland: A
Policy Analysis Using the ANGELO Framework. Obesity Facts, vol. 8, no.4, pp.273-281.
Morse, J. & Field, P. (1996). Nursing research. London: Chapman & Hall.
Morton, L. P. (2002). Targeting Generation Y. Public Relations, vol. 47, no.2, pp. 46-48.
Nimon, S. (2007). Generation Y and Higher Education: the “Other” Y2K. Journal of
institutional research, vol. 13, no.1, pp. 24-41.
Norman, P. & Smith, L. (1995). The theory of planned behaviour and exercise: An
investigation into the role of prior behaviour, behavioural intentions and attitude variability.
European Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 25, no.4, pp.403-415.
Novak, J. (2012). The six living generations in America. Marketing Teacher. Available
online: http://www.marketingteacher.com/the-six-living-generations-in-america/ [Accessed 4
March 2015].
One Europe (2013). Great Expectations of Generation Y. Available online: http://one-
europe.info/eurographics/post-33 [Accessed 20 Apr. 2016].
Paquette, M.C. (2005). Perceptions of healthy eating: State of knowledge and research gaps.
Canadian Journal of Public Health, vol. 96, pp. S15–S19.

56
Parment, A. (2013). Generation Y vs. Baby Boomers: Shopping behavior, buyer involvement
and implications for retailing. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, vol. 20, no.2,
pp.189-199.
Peskett, S. (2006). Under-30s are the big spenders in UK market. Harpers, vol.10, p.26.
Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project (2010). Millennials: Confident.
Connected. Open to Change. Available online: http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1501/millennials-
new-survey-generational-personality-upbeat-open-new-ideas-technology-bound [Accessed 5
Apr. 2016].
Pieters, R. and Verplanken, B. (1995). Intention-behaviour consistency: Effects of
consideration set size, involvement and need for cognition, European Journal of Social
Psychology, vol.25, no.5, pp.531-543.
Pinsker, J. (2015). Why Are Millennials So Obsessed with Food? The Atlantic. Available
online: http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/08/millennial-foodies/401105/
[Accessed 6 Apr. 2016].
Pinto, M., Parente, D. & Palmer, T. (2000). Materialism and credit card use by college
students. Psychological reports, vol. 86, no.2, pp.643-652.
Pomarici, E. & Vecchio, R. (2014). Millennial generation attitudes to sustainable wine: an
exploratory study on Italian consumers. Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 66, pp.537-545.
Povey R., Conner M., Sparks P., James R., & Shepherd R. (2000). The theory of planned
behaviour and healthy eating: examining additive and moderating effects of social influence
variables. Psychological Health, vol.14, pp. 991–1006.
Povey, R., Conner, M., Sparks, P., James, R. & Shepherd, R. (1998). Interpretations of
healthy and unhealthy eating and implications for dietary change. Health Education
Research, vol. 13, pp.171-183.
PwC (2016). Millennials at work. Available online:
http://www.pwc.com/m1/en/services/consulting/documents/millennials-at-work.pdf
[Accessed 5 Apr. 2016].
Ragaert, P., Verbeke, W., Devlieghere, F. & Debevere, J., 2004. Consumer perception and
choice of minimally processed vegetables and packaged fruits. Food Quality Preferences,
vol. 15, pp. 259–270.
Randall, D. & Wolff, J. (1994). The time interval in the intention-behaviour relationship:
Meta-analysis. British Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 33, no.4, pp.405-418.
Reeves, T.C. & Oh, E. (2008). Generational differences, Handbook of Research On
Educational Communications and Technology, pp. 295-303.
Richarme, M. (2005). Consumer Decision-Making Models, Strategies, and Theories, oh My!
Available online: www.decisionanalyst.com/Downloads/ConsumerDecisionMaking.pdf
[Accessed 4 Mar. 2016].
Rugimbana, R. (2007). Generation Y: How cultural values can be used to predict their choice
of electronic financial services. Journal of Financial Services Marketing, vol. 11, pp. 301-
313.
Ryder, N. B. (1965). The cohort as a concept in the study of social change. American
Sociological Review, vol. 30, pp. 834–836.

57
Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2009). Research methods for business students.
Harlow, England: Prentice Hall. Fifth edition.
Schewe, C. & Meredith, G. (2004). Segmenting global markets by generational cohorts:
determining motivation by age. Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 4, no.1, pp. 51-63.
Schewe, C., Debevec, K., Madden, T., Diamond, W., Parment, A. & Murphy, A. (2013). If
You've Seen One, You've Seen Them All! Are Young Millennials the Same
Worldwide? Journal of International Consumer Marketing, vol.25, no.1, pp.3-15.
Scott, J. & L. Zak. (1993). Collective memories in Britain and the United States. Public
Opinion Quarterly, vol. 57, no.3, pp. 315–331.
Sheeran, P. & Sutton, S. (1999). Past behaviour and the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-
analytic review (unpublished raw data). University of Sheffield, UK.
Sheppard, B., Hartwick, J. & Warshaw, P. (1988). The Theory of Reasoned Action: A Meta-
Analysis of Past Research with Recommendations for Modifications and Future Research. J
CONSUM RES, vol.15, no.3, pp.325.
Simmons, A., Mavoa, H., Bell, A., De Courten, M., Schaaf, D., Schultz, J. & Swinburn, B.
(2009). Creating community action plans for obesity prevention using the ANGELO
(Analysis Grid for Elements Linked to Obesity) Framework. Health Promotion International,
vol. 24, no.4, pp.311-324.
Simon, H. (1955). A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice. The Quarterly Journal of
Economics, vol. 69, no.1, p.99.
Smith, C. & Ellsworth, P. (1985). Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 48, no.4, pp.813-838.
Smith-Di Julio, K., Windsor, C. & Anderson, D. (2010). The Shaping of Midlife Women's
Views of Health and Health Behaviors. Qualitative Health Research, vol. 20, no.7, pp.966-
976.
Solomon M., Bamossy, G., Askegaar, S. & Hogg, M. (2006). Consumer Behaviour: A
European Perspective. 3rd ed. Harlow: Prentice Hall.
Sparks, P., & Shepherd, R. (1992). Self-identity and the theory of planned behavior:
Assessing the role of identification with "green consumerism". Social Psychology Quarterly,
vol.55, no.4, pp. 388-399.
Stokes, B. (2015). Who are Europe’s Millennials? Pew Research Center. Available online:
http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/02/09/who-are-europes-millennials/ [Accessed 5
Apr. 2016].
Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures
for Developing Grounded Theory, Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications
Strauss, W. & Howe, N. (1991). Generations: The history of America’s future, 1584 to 2069.
New York: Quill/William/Morrow.
Swinburn B., Egger G. & Raza F. (1999). Dissecting obesogenic environments: the
development and application of a framework for identifying and prioritizing environmental
interventions for obesity. Preventive Medicine, vol.29, no.6, pp.563-570.
Swinburn, B.A., Caterson, I., Seidell, J.C. & James, W.P.T. (2004) Diet nutrition and the
prevention of excess weight gain and obesity. Public Health Nutrition, vol. 7, pp.123–146.

58
Syrett, M. & Lammiman, J. (2003). Catch them if you can. Director, vol. 57, no. 3, pp. 70-76.
Tapscott, D. (2009). Grown Up Digital: How the Net Generation Is Changing Your World,
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Teagle, J., Mueller, S. & Lockshin, L. (2010). How do millennials’ wine attitudes and
behaviour differ from other generations? In: International Academy of Wine Business
Research Conference, pp.1-8.
The Caterer (2016). Elior reveals insight into Generation Y food attitude. Available online:
https://www.thecaterer.com/articles/356682/elior-reveals-insight-into-generation-y-food-
attitude [Accessed 21 Apr. 2016].
Thomsen, T. & Hansen, T. (2015). Perceptions that matter: perceptual antecedents and
moderators of healthy food consumption. International Journal of Consumer Studies, vol.39,
no.2, pp.109-116.
Thomson, C. & Ravia, J. (2011). A Systematic Review of Behavioral Interventions to
Promote Intake of Fruit and Vegetables. Journal of the American Dietetic Association,
vol.111, no.1, pp.1523-1535.
Trends Active – International Trend Interpretation Agency. (2016). Generation trends.
Characteristics of generations. Available online: http://www.trendsactive.com/#!/our-
trends/generation-trends/ [Accessed 21 Apr. 2016].
Turow, E. (2015). A Taste of Generation Yum: How the Millennial Generation’s Love for
Organic Fare, Celebrity Chefs, and Microbrews Will Make or Break the Future of Food. New
York: Pronoun.
Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. (1986). Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions. Journal
of Business, vol. 59, no.4, pp. 251-278.
Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. (1992). Advances in prospect theory: Cumulative
representation of uncertainty. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, vol. 5, no.4, pp.297-323.
Twenge, J. M. (2010). A Review of the Empirical Evidence on Generational Differences.
Journal of Business and Psychology, vol. 25, no.2, pp.201-210
Twenge, J. M., Charles E. L., Hoffman, B. J. & Campbell, S. M. (2010). Generational
Differences in Work Values: Leisure and Extrinsic Values Increasing, Social and Intrinsic
Values Decreasing. Journal of Management, vol. 36, no.5, pp.1117-1142
Valentine, D.B. & L. Powers, T.L. (2013). Generation Y values and lifestyle segments.
Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol.30, no.7, pp.597-606.
Verstraeten, R., Van Royen, K., Ochoa-Avilés, A., Penafiel, D., Holdsworth, M., Donoso, S.,
Maes, L. & Kolsteren, P. (2014). A Conceptual Framework for Healthy Eating Behavior in
Ecuadorian Adolescents: A Qualitative Study, PLoS ONE, vol.9, no.1, pp. e87183.
Vijay, V. & Varsha, J. (2013). A dual system approach to understanding "generation Y"
decision making. Journal of consumer marketing, vol. 30, no.6, pp. 484-492.
Warde, A. (1997). Consumption, food, and taste. London: Sage Publications.
Warshaw, P. R. & Davis, F. D. (1985). Disentangling behavioral intention and behavioral
expectation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 21, pp.213-28.
Wegner, D. and Wheatley, T. (1999). Apparent mental causation: Sources of the experience
of will, American Psychologist, vol.54, no.7), pp.480-492.

59
Willows, N., Dyck Fehderau, D. & Raine, K. (2015). Analysis Grid for Environments Linked
to Obesity (ANGELO) framework to develop community-driven health programmes in an
Indigenous community in Canada. Health Social Care Community, vol.24, no.3, pp.1-9.
Yap, S., Noor, N., Marshall, R. & Liew, K. (2014). Promoting preventive health behaviour
among young Malaysian consumers: toward an integrated conceptual
framework. Australasian Marketing Journal, vol. 22, no.3, pp.268-278.
Zaichkowsky, J.L. (1985). Measuring the involvement construct. Journal of Consumer
Research, vol.12, pp. 341–352.
Zhu, Q., Li, Y., Geng, Y. & Qi, Y. (2013). Green food consumption intention, behaviors and
influencing factors among Chinese consumers. Food Quality and Preference, vol. 28, no.1,
pp.279-286.
Zoellner, J., Krzeski, E., Harden, S., Cook, E., Allen, K. and Estabrooks, P. (2012).
Qualitative Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior to Understand Beverage
Consumption Behaviors among Adults. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics,
vol.112, no.11, pp.1774-1784.

60
Appendices
Appendix A: The research Onion

61
Appendix B: The Interview Guide for the Representatives of
Millennial Generation
Introduction of the interview -warm up

1. Purpose of the study and interview in particular

2. Length of the interview
3. There are no right/wrong answers – we want to hear your personal
4. To get started, please tell us about yourself

Opening questions In your opinion, what does healthy eating stands for?
regarding HEB based on Do you associate yourself with healthy eating behavior, why
TPB and why not? Extend on the key words

Attitude What is your perception of healthy eating?

Tell me about main consequences of practicing healthy diet?
(Advantages and disadvantages)

Subjective norms Tell me how you feel about the healthy eating
recommendation? (For example health professionals, family,
friends)

Did you experience a social pressure to perform a Healthy

Eating Behavior? Why?

Behavioral intention I want you to tell me about your intention healthier eating in
the future 1 month

Perceived control behavior Do you think it is hard/easy to eat healthily? Why?

What can make it easier for you to eat healthily?

Additional questions based on the theory analysis:
1. What factors have an influence on your healthy eating intention – please share the
stories from a real life.
2. What factors prevent healthy eating intention from happening? Please share the most
remarkable cases.

62