Module 2-Geodetic Surveying and Theory of Errors

MODULE -2: GEODETIC SURVEYING AND

THEORY OF ERRORS
Geodetic Surveying: Principle and Classification of triangulation system, Selection of base line
and stations, Orders of triangulation, Triangulation figures, Reduction to Centre, Selection and
marking of stations

Theory of Errors: Introduction, types of errors, definitions, laws of accidental errors, laws of
weights, theory of least squares, rules for giving weights and distribution of errors to the field
observations, determination of the most probable values of quantities.

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GEODETIC SURVEYING

The main objective of geodetic surveying is to determine very precisely the relative or absolute
positions on the earths surface of a system of widely separated points.

 The relative positions are determined in terms of the lengths and azimuths of the lines
joining them.
 The absolute positions are determined in terms of longitude, latitude and above mean sea
level.

Since the area embraced by a geodetic survey form an appreciable portion of the surface of the
earth, the sphericity of the earth is taken into consideration while making the computation. The
geodetic

The horizontal positions of points is a network developed to provide accurate control for
topographic mapping, charting lakes, rivers and ocean coast lines, and for the surveys required
for the design and construction of public and private works of large extent.

The horizontal positions of points can be obtained in a number of different ways in addition to
traversing like triangulation, trilateration, intersection, resection and satellite positioning.

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The principle of triangulation is based on the trigonometric preposiotion that if one side and two
angles of a triangle are known, the remaining sides can be computed. Furthermore, if direction of
one side is known, the directions of remaining sides can be computed.

A triangulation system consists of a series of joined or overlapping triangles in which an

occasional side is measured and remaining sides are calculated from angles measured at the
vertices of the triangles. The vertices of the triangles are known as triangulation stations. The
side of the triangle whose length is predetermined is called base line. The lines of triangulation
system form a network that ties together all the triangulation stations.

A trilateration system also consists of a series of joined or overlapping triangles. However, for
trilateration the lengths of all the sides of the triangle are measured and few directions or angles
are measured to establish azimuth. Trilateration has become feasible with the development of
electronic distance measuring (EDM) equipment which has made possible the measurement of
all lengths with high order of accuracy under almost all field conditions.
A combined triangulation and trilateration system consists of a network of triangles in which all
the angles and all the lengths are measured. Such a combined system represents the strongest
network for creating horizontal control.
Since a triangulation or trilateration system covers very large area, the curvature of the earth has
to be taken into account. These surveys are, therefore, invariably geodetic. Triangulation surveys
were first carried out by Snell, a Dutchman, in 1615.

PRINCIPLE OF TRIANGULATION:

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Fig. 1.2 shows two interconnected triangles ABC and BCD. All the angles in both the triangles
and the length L of the side AB, have been measured.

Also the azimuth θ of AB has been measured at the triangulation station A, whose coordinates
(XA, YA), are known.
The objective is to determine the coordinates of the triangulation stations B, C, and D by the
method of triangulation. Let us first calculate the lengths of all the lines.
By sine rule in ΔABC, we have,

We have, ,

Now the side BC being known in ΔBCD, by sine rule, we have,

We have,

To find bearings of all the lines,

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From the known lengths and the respective bearings consecutive co ordinates are
computed,
Line Latitude Departure
AB
AC
BD
CD

The desired coordinates of the triangulation stations B, C, and D are as follows

Point X Y
B XB = X A + DAB YB = YB + LAB
C XC = X A + DAC YC = YA + LAC
D XD = X B + DBD YD = YB + LBD

Note: if lengths of a side are computed by more than one means, to achieve better
accuracy, mean of the computed lengths of a side is to be considered.

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CLASSIFICATION OF TRIANGULATION SYSTEM

Based on the extent and purpose of the survey, and consequently on the degree of
accuracy desired, triangulation surveys are classified as first-order or primary, second-order or
secondary, and third-order or tertiary.

 First-order triangulation is used to determine the shape and size of the earth or to cover
a vast area like a whole country with control points to which a second-order triangulation
system can be connected.
 A second-order triangulation system consists of a network within a first-order
triangulation. It is used to cover areas of the order of a region, small country, or province.
 A third-order triangulation is a framework fixed within and connected to a second-
order triangulation system. It serves the purpose of furnishing the immediate control for
detailed engineering and location surveys.

Second –
Sl. First-order Third order
Characteristics order
No. triangulation triangulation
triangulation
1 Length of base lines 8 to 12 km 2 to 5 km 100 to 500 m

2 Lengths of sides 16 to 150 km 10 to 25 km 2 to 10 km

Average triangular error (after correction

3 less than 1" 3" 12"
for spherical excess)

not more than

4 Maximum station closure 8" 15"
3"

5 Actual error of base 1 in 50,000 1 in 25,000 1 in 10,000

6 Probable error of base 1 in 10,00,000 1 in 500,000 1 in 250,000

Discrepancy between two measures (k is

7 5 k mm 10 k mm 25 k mm
distance in kilometer)

1 in 50,000 to 1 in 20,000 to 1 in 5,000 to 1

8 Probable error of the computed distances
1 in 250,000 1 in 50,000 in 20,000

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Second –
Sl. First-order Third order
Characteristics order
No. triangulation triangulation
triangulation

9 Probable error in astronomical azimuth 0.5" 5" 10"

TRIANGULATION FIGURES AND LAYOUTS

The basic figures used in triangulation networks are the triangle, braced or geodetic quadrilateral,
and the polygon with a central station (Fig.).

Fig.2.3 Basic triangulation figures

The triangles in a triangulation system can be arranged in a number of ways. Some of the
commonly used arrangements, also called layouts, are as follows :
1. Single chain of triangles
2. Double chain of triangles
3. Braced quadrilaterals
4. Centered triangles and polygons
5. A combination of above systems.
1. SINGLE CHAIN OF TRIANGLES
When the control points are required to be established in a narrow strip of terrain such as a valley
between ridges, a layout consisting of single chain of triangles is generally used as shown in
Fig.2.4. This system is rapid and economical due to its simplicity of sighting only four other
stations, and does not involve observations of long diagonals. On the other hand, simple triangles
of a triangulation system provide only one route through which distances can be computed, and
hence, this system does not provide any check on the accuracy of observations. Check base lines

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and astronomical observations for azimuths have to be provided at frequent intervals to avoid
excessive accumulation of errors in this layout.

Fig. 2.4 Single of triangles

2. DOUBLE CHAIN OF TRIANGLES
A layout of double chain of
triangles is shown in Fig. 2.5. This
arrangement is used for covering
the larger width of a belt. This
system also has disadvantages of
single chain of triangles system.

Fig. 2.5 Double chain of triangles

3. BRACED QUADRILATERALS
A triangulation system consisting of figures containing four corner stations and observed
diagonals shown in Fig. 2.6, is known as a layout of braced quadrilaterals. In fact, braced
quadrilateral consists of overlapping triangles. This system is treated to be the strongest and the
best arrangement of triangles, and it provides a means of computing the lengths of the sides
using different combinations of sides and angles. Most of the triangulation systems use this
arrangement.

Fig. 2.6 Braced quadrilaterals

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4. CENTERED TRIANGLES AND POLYGONS:

A triangulation system which consists of figures containing interior stations in triangle and
polygon as shown in Fig. 2.7, is known as centered triangles and polygons.

Fig.2.7 Centered triangles and polygons

This layout in a triangulation system is
generally used when vast area in all
directions is required to be covered. The
centered figures generally are
quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons
with central stations. Though this system
provides checks on the accuracy of the
work, generally it is not as strong as the braced quadrilateral arrangement. Moreover, the
progress of work is quite slow due to the fact that more settings of the instrument are required.

5. A COMBINATION OF ALL ABOVE SYSTEMS:

Sometimes a combination of above systems may be used which may be according to the shape of
the area and the accuracy requirements.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE LAYOUT OF TRIANGLES

The under mentioned points should be considered while deciding and selecting a suitable layout
of triangles.
1. Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.
2. Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate squares.
3. Centered polygons should be regular.
4. The arrangement should be such that the computations can be done through two or more
independent routes.
5. The arrangement should be such that at least one route and preferably two routes form
well conditioned triangles.
6. No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be small, whichever end of the
series is used for computation.

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7. Angles of simple triangles should not be less than 45°, and in the case of quadrilaterals,
no angle should be less than 30°. In the case of centered polygons, no angle should be
less than 40°.
8. The sides of the figures should be of comparable lengths. Very long lines and very short
lines should be avoided.
9. The layout should be such that it requires least work to achieve maximum progress.
10. As far as possible, complex figures should not involve more than 12 conditions.
It may be noted that if a very small angle of a triangle does not fall opposite the known side it
does not affect the accuracy of triangulation.

ROUTINE OF TRIANGULATION SURVEY

The routine of triangulation survey broadly consists of:
(a) Field work, and (b) computations.
The field work of triangulation is divided into the following operations :
i) Reconnaissance
ii) Erection of signals and towers
iii) Measurement of base line
iv)Measurement of horizontal angles
v) Measurement of vertical angles
vi)Astronomical observations to determine the azimuth of the lines.
i) RECONNAISSANCE
Reconnaissance is the preliminary field inspection of the entire area to be covered by
triangulation, and collection of relevant data. Since the basic principle of survey is working from
whole to the part, reconnaissance is very important in all types of surveys. It requires great skill,
experience and judgment. The accuracy and economy of triangulation greatly depends upon
proper reconnaissance survey. It includes the following operations:
1. Examination of terrain to be surveyed.
2. Selection of suitable sites for measurement of base lines.
3. Selection of suitable positions for triangulation stations.
4. Determination of intervisibility of triangulation stations.
5. Selection of conspicuous well-defined natural points to be used as intersected points.

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6. Collection of miscellaneous information regarding:

i. Access to various triangulation stations
ii. Transport facilities
iii. Availability of food, water, etc.
iv. Availability of labour
v. Camping ground.
Reconnaissance may be effectively carried out if accurate topographical maps of the area are
available. Help of aerial photographs and mosaics, if available, is also taken. If maps and aerial
photographs are not available, a rapid preliminary reconnaissance is undertaken to ascertain the
general location of possible schemes of triangulation suitable for the topography. Later on, main
reconnaissance is done to examine these schemes. The main reconnaissance is a very rough
triangulation. The plotting of the rough triangulation may be done by protracting the angles. The
essential features of the topography are also sketched in. The final scheme is selected by
studying the relative strengths and cost to various schemes.

For reconnaissance the following instruments are generally employed:

1. Small theodolite and sextant for measurement of angles.
2. Prismatic compass for measurement of bearings.
3. Steel tape.
4. Aneroid barometer for ascertaining elevations.
5. Heliotropes for ascertaining intervisibility.
6. Binocular.
7. Drawing instruments and material.
8. Guyed ladders, creepers, ropes, etc., for climbing trees.

ii) ERECTION OF SIGNALS AND TOWERS

A signal is a device erected to define the exact position of a triangulation station so that it can be
observed from other stations whereas a tower is a structure over a station to support the
instrument and the observer, and is provided when the station or the signal, or both are to be
elevated. Before deciding the type of signal to be used, the triangulation stations are selected.
The selection of triangulation stations is based upon the following criteria.

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Criteria for selection of triangulation stations

1. Triangulation stations should be intervisible. For this purpose the station points should be
on the highest ground such as hill tops, house tops, etc.
2. Stations should be easily accessible with instruments.
3. Station should form well-conditioned triangles.
4. Stations should be so located that the lengths of sights are neither too small nor too long.
Small sights cause errors of bisection and centering. Long sights too cause direction error
as the signals become too indistinct for accurate bisection.
5. Stations should be at commanding positions so as to serve as control for subsidiary
triangulation, and for possible extension of the main triangulation scheme.
6. Stations should be useful for providing intersected points and also for detail survey.
7. In wooded country, the stations should be selected such that the cost of clearing and
cutting, and building towers, is minimum.
8. Grazing line of sights should be avoided, and no line of sight should pass over the
industrial areas to avoid irregular atmospheric refraction.

STATION MARK

The triangulation stations should be permanently marked on the ground so that the theodolite and
signal may be centered accurately over them. The following points should be considered while
marking the exact position of a triangulation station :
The station should be marked on perfectly stable
foundation or rock. The station mark on a large size
rock is generally preferred so that the theodolite and
observer can stand on it. Generally, a hole 10 to 15 cm
deep is made in the rock and a copper or iron bolt is
fixed with cement.
i. If no rock is available, a large stone is
embeded about 1 m deep into the ground with a circle,
and dot cut on it. A second stone with a circle and dot
is placed vertically above the first stone.

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ii. A G.I. pipe of about 25 cm diameter driven vertically into ground up to a depth of one
metre, also servedas a good station mark.
iii. The mark may be set on a concrete monument. The station should be marked with a
copper or bronze tablet. The name of the station and the date on which it was set, should
be stamped on the tablet.
iv. In earth, generally two marks are set, one about 75 cm below the surface of the ground,
and the other extending a few centimeters above the surface of the ground. The
underground mark may consist of a stone with a copper bolt in the centre, or a concrete
monument with a tablet mark set on it (Fig. 1.23).
v. The station mark with a vertical pole placed centrally, should be covered with a conical
heap of stones placed symmetrically. This arrangement of marking station, is known as
placing a cairn (Fig. 1.27).
vi. Three reference marks at some distances on fairly permanent features, should be
established to locate the station mark, if it is disturbed or removed.
vii. Surrounding the station mark a platform 3 m × 3 m × 0.5 m should be built up of earth.

SIGNALS

Signals are centered vertically over the station mark, and the observations are made to these
signals from other stations. The accuracy of triangulation is entirely dependent on the degree of
accuracy of centering the signals. Therefore, it is very essential that the signals are truly vertical,
and centered over the station mark. Greatest care of centering the transit over the station mark
will be useless, unless some degree of care in centering the signal is impressed upon.
A signal should fulfill the following requirements:
i) It should be conspicuous and clearly visible against any background. To make the
signal conspicuous, it should be kept at least 75 cm above the station mark.
ii) It should be capable of being accurately centered over the station mark.
iii) It should be suitable for accurate bisection from other stations.
iv) It should be free from phase, or should exhibit little phase.

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CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS
The signals may be classified as under:
i) Non-luminous, opaque or daylight signals
ii) Luminous signals.
1) NON-LUMINOUS SIGNALS
Non-luminous signals are used during day time and for short distances. These are of various
types, and the most commonly used are of following types.
(a) Pole signal (Fig. 1.24): It consists of a round pole painted black and white in alternate
strips, and is supported vertically over the station mark, generally on a tripod. Pole
signals are suitable up to a distance of about 6 km.
(b) Target signal (Fig. 1.25): It consists of a pole carrying two squares or rectangular targets
placed at right angles to each other. The targets are generally made of cloth stretched on
wooden frames. Target signals are suitable upto a distance of 30 km.
(c) Pole and brush signal (Fig. 1.26): It consists of a straight pole about 2.5 m long with a
bunch of long grass tied symmetrically round the top making a cross. The signal is
erected vertically over the station mark by heaping a pile of stones, upto 1.7 m round the
pole. A rough coat of white wash is given to make it more conspicuous to be seen against
black background. These signals are very useful, and must be erected over every station
of observation during reconnaissance.
(d) Stone cairn (Fig. 1.27): A pile of stone heaped in a conical shape about 3 m high with a
cross shape signal erected over the stone heap, is stone cairn. This white washed opaque
signal is very useful if the background is dark.
(e) Beacons (Fig. 1.28): It consists of red and white cloth tied round the three straight poles.
The beacon can easily be centered over the station mark. It is very useful for making
simultaneous observations.

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2) LUMINOUS SIGNALS
Luminous signals may be classified into two types:
i. Sun signals
ii. Night signals.
i) Sun signals (Fig. 1.29): Sun signals reflect the rays of the sun towards the station of
observation, and are also known as heliotropes. Such signals can be used only in day time in
clear weather.
a) Heliotrope: It consists of a circular plane mirror with a small hole at its centre to reflect
the sun rays, and a sight vane with an aperture carrying a cross-hairs. The circular mirror
can be rotated horizontally as well as vertically through 360°. The heliotrope is centered
over the station mark, and the line of sight is directed towards the station of observation.
The sight vane is adjusted looking through the hole till the flashes given from the station
of observation fall at the centre of the cross of the sight vane. Once this is achieved, the

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heliotrope is disturbed. Now the heliotrope frame carrying the mirror is rotated in such a
way that the black shadow of the small central hole of the plane mirror falls exactly at the
cross of the sight vane. By doing so, the reflected beam of rays will be seen at the station
of observation. Due to motion of the sun, this small shadow also moves, and it should be
constantly ensured that the shadow always remains at the cross till the observations are
over.
The heliotropes do not give better results compared to signals. These are useful when the
signal station is in flat plane, and the station of observation is on elevated ground. When
the distance between the stations exceed 30 km, the heliotropes become very useful.

ii) Night signals: When the observations are required to be made at night, the night signals of
following types may be used.
a. Various forms of oil lamps with parabolic reflectors for sights less than 80 km.
b. Acetylene lamp designed by Capt. McCaw for sights more than 80 km.
c. Magnesium lamp with parabolic reflectors for long sights.
d. Drummond‟s light consisting of a small ball of lime placed at the focus of the
parabolic reflector, and raised to a very high temperature by impinging on it a
stream of oxygen.
e. Electric lamps.

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TOWERS
A tower is erected at the triangulation station when the station or the signal or both are to be
elevated to make the observations possible form other stations in case of problem of
intervisibility. The height of tower depends upon the character of the terrain and the length of the
sight. The towers generally have two independent structures. The outer structure is for
supporting the observer and the signal whereas the inner one is for supporting the instrument
only. The two structures are made entirely
independent of each other so that the
movement of the observer does not disturb
the instrument setting. The two towers may
be made of masonary, timber or steel. For
small heights, masonary towers are most
suitable. Timber scaffolds are most
commonly used, and have been constructed
to heights over 50 m. Steel towers made of
light sections are very portable, and can be
easily erected and dismantled. Bilby towers
patented by J.S. Bilby of the U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey, are popular for heights
ranging from 30 to 40 m. This tower
weighing about 3 tonnes, can be easily
erected by five persons in just 5 hrs. A
schematic of such a tower is shown in Fig.
1.30.

iii) MEASUREMENT OF BASE LINE

The accuracy of an entire triangulation system depends on that attained in the measurement of
the base line and, therefore, the measurement of base line forms the most important part of the
triangulation operations. As base line forms the basis for computations of triangulation system it
is laid down with great accuracy in its measurement and alignment. The length of the base line
depends upon the grade of the triangulation. The length of the base is also determined by the

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desirability of securing strong figures in the base net. Ordinarily the longer base, the easier it will
be found to secure strong figures. The base is connected to the triangulation system through a
base net. This connection may be made through a simple figure as shown in Fig. 2.8, or through
much more complicated figures discussed in the base line extension.

Fig. 2.8 Base net

Apart from main base line, several other check bases are also measured at some suitable
Intervals. In India, ten bases were measured, the length of nine bases varies from 6.4 to 7.8
miles, and that of the tenth base is 1.7 miles.

SELECTION OF SITE FOR BASE LINE

Since the accuracy in the measurement of the base line depends upon the site conditions, the
following points should be taken into consideration while selecting the site for a base line.
1. The site should be fairly level or gently undulating. If the ground is sloping, the slope
should be uniform and gentle.
2. The site should be free from obstructions throughout the length of the base line.
3. The ground should be firm and smooth.
4. The two extremities of the base line should be intervisible.
5. The site should be such that well-conditioned triangles can be obtained while connecting
extremities to the main triangulation stations.
6. The site should be such that a minimum length of the base line as specified, is available.

EQUIPMENT FOR BASE LINE MEASUREMENT

Generally the following types of base measuring equipments are used:
1. Standardized tapes: These are used for measuring short bases in plain grounds.
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2. Hunter‟s short base: It is used for measuring 80 m long base line and its extension is
made by subtense method.
3. Tacheometric base measurements: It is used in undulating grounds for small bases
4. Electronic distance measurement: This is used for fairly long distances

iv) MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES

The instruments used for triangulation surveys, require great degree of precision. Horizontal
angles are generally measured with an optical or electronic theodolite in primary and secondary
triangulation. For tertiary triangulation generally transit or Engineer‟s transit having least count
of 20" is used.

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Methods of observation of horizontal angles

The horizontal angles of a triangulation system can be observed by the following methods:
a. Repetition method – Secondary order triangulation and tertiary order triangulation
b. Reiteration method – Primary order triangulation

v) MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLES

Measurement of vertical angles is required to compute the elevation of the triangulation stations.

vi) ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS

To determine the azimuth of the initial side, intermediate sides, and the last side of the
triangulation net, astronomical observations are made.

vii) SOME EXTRA PRECAUTIONS IN TAKING OBSERVATIONS

To satisfy first-second, and third-order specifications as given in Table 1.1, care must be
exercised. Observer must ensure the following:
1) The instrument and signals have been centered very carefully.
2) Phase in signals has been eliminated.
3) The instrument is protected from the heating effects of the sun and vibrations caused
by wind.
4) The support for the instrument is adequately stable.
5) In case of adverse horizontal refraction, observations should be rescheduled to the
time when the horizontal refraction is minimum.
Horizontal angles should be measured when the air is the clearest, and the lateral refraction is
minimum. If the observations are planned for day hours, the best time in clear weather is from 6
AM to 9 AM and from 4 PM till sunset. In densely clouded weather satisfactory work can be
done all day. The best time for measuring vertical angles is form 10 AM to 2 PM when the
vertical refraction is the least variable. First-order work is generally done at night, since
observations at night using illuminated signals help in reducing bad atmospheric conditions, and
optimum results can be obtained. Also working at night doubles the hours of working available
during a day. Night operations are confined to period from sunset to midnight.

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SATELLITE STATION AND REDUCTION TO CENTRE

To secure well-conditioned triangles or to have good visibility, objects such as chimneys, church
spires, flat poles, towers, lighthouse, etc., are selected as triangulation stations. Such stations can
be sighted from other stations but it is not possible to occupy the station directly below such
excellent targets for making the observations by setting up the instrument over the station point.
Also, signals are frequently blown out of position, and angles read on them have to be corrected
to the true position of the triangulation station. Thus, there are two types of problems:
1. When the instrument is not set up over the true station, and
2. When the target is out of position.

Fig.2.9 Reduction to centre

In Fig. 2.9, A, B, and C are the three triangulation stations. It is not possible to place instrument
at C. To solve this problem another station S, in the vicinity of C, is selected where the
instrument can be set up, and from where all the three stations are visible for making the angle

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observations. Such station is known as satellite station. As the observations from C are not
possible, the observations form S are made on A, B, and, C from A and B on C. From the
observations made, the required angle ACB is calculated. This is known as reduction to centre.

In the other case, S is treated as the true station point, and the signal is considered to be shifted to
the position C. This case may also be looked upon as a case of eccentricity of signal. Thus, the
observations from S are made to the triangulation stations A and B, but from A and B the
observations are made on the signal at the shifted position C. This causes errors in the measured
values of the angles BAC and ABC.
Both the problems discussed above are solved by reduction to centre.
Let the measured

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THEORY OF ERRORS
A discrepancy is defined as the difference between two or more measured values of the same
quantity. However, measurements are never exact and there will always be a degree of variance
regardless of the survey instrument or method used. These variances are known as errors and will
need to be reduced or eliminated to maintain specific survey standards.
Even when carefully following established surveying procedures, observations may still contain
errors. Errors, by definition, are the difference between a measured value and its true value. The
true value of a measurement is determined by taking the mean value of a series of repeated
measurements. Surveyors must possess skill in instrument operation and knowledge of surveying
methods to minimize the amount of error in each measurement.
1. Blunders
A blunder (or gross error) is a significant, unpredictable mistake caused by human error that
often leads to large discrepancies. Blunders are typically the result of carelessness,
miscommunication, fatigue, or poor judgment. Examples of common blunders are:
 Improperly leveling the surveying instrument.
 Setting up the instrument or target over the wrong control point.
 Incorrectly entering a control point number in the data collector.
 Transposing numbers or misplacing the decimal point.

All blunders must be found and eliminated prior to submitting a survey for inclusion in the
project mapping. The surveyor must remain alert and constantly examine measurements to
eliminate these mistakes. Blunders can be detected and eliminated by reacting to “out-of-
tolerance” messages by the data collector when they occur. They can also be detected by
carefully examining a plot of the collected survey points while in the office.

TYPES OF ERRORS:
The errors which creep in surveying may be classified into the following three:
1. Mistakes
2. Systematic errors
3. Accidental errors

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MISTAKES: Mistakes are the errors due to carelessness of the observer. They may be due to
wrong reading or recording of the observations. These errors are very large and can be easily
detected by the following field procedures:

a. Carefully targeting objects before taking reading

b. Taking multiple scale readings
c. Recorded loudly announcing the readings so that reader hears what he records.
d. Taking additional readings for checking.

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS: The errors which follow a well – defined pattern are classified as
systematic errors. They can be determined by mathematical expressions. They are regarded as
positive, if they make result too great and as negative if they make result too small. Examples of
such errors are use of a tape which is shorter than the actual as per marking or using a steel tape
at a temperature different from calibrated temperature. If tape is short, makes each measured
length longer, hence contributes posit6ive error. FI the actual length of the tape is determined
actual measured length can be calculated. This type of errors is called cumulative errors, since
each measurement adds to the error in the same sense.

ACCIDENTAL ERRORS: There are errors in measurements which cannot be prevented, even
with sufficient care. These errors may be positive or negative their magnitude may vary from
reading to reading for example taking a reading with a survey instrument Human eye has a
limitation of distinguishing between two close readings. Marking the end of a chain length is
another common example of accidental error. The thickness of marking and its exact position
contribute to accidental errors. These errors are not deterministic they are probabilistic hence
they cannot be estimated using standard functional relations. However, using laws of probability
they may be accounted satisfactorily.

SOURCES OF ERRORS
Errors may arise from the following sources:
1. Instrumental errors
2. Natural errors
3. Human limitations
4. Carelessness

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INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS: Instruments used for linear measurements may not be having
true length due to manufacturing defects and instruments may not show true horizontal and
vertical angles due to manufacturing defects or out of adjustments. There are limitations on the
scales used which contribute to instrumental errors.

NATURAL ERRORS: Errors will creep in because of the natural phenomena like variation in
temperature humidity refraction, curvature of the earth and magnetic declination. They are to be
properly accounted to arrive at exact values.

HUMAN LIMITATIONS: Human eye cannot distinguish between two points closer than 0.25
mm. when ends of a chain/tape line is marked, the thickness of line contributes to error, when
next length is measured.

CARELESSNESS: These errors are purely due to the mistakes. They are quite large. They can
be avoided by following good surveying practice by taking precautions and check readings.

DEFINITIONS
The following are some of the terms which shall be used

1. Independent quantity: An observed quantity may be classified as i) independent and ii)

conditioned. An independent quantity is the one whose value is independent of the values
of other quantities. It bears no relation with any other quantity and hence change in other
quantities does not affect the value of this quantity. Ex: reduced levels of several bench
marks
2. Conditioned quantity: A conditioned quantity is one whose value is dependent upon the
values of one or more quantities. It is also called a dependent quantity. For ex: in a
triangle ABC

MOST PROBABLE VALUE OF ACCIDENTAL ERROR

Though accidental errors are unpredictable, the following features of these errors are observed:
a. Positive and negative errors will occur with equal frequency
b. Small errors occur more frequently
c. Very large errors do not occur.

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This type of error distribution is called normal distribution. Gives two such distributions. In both
frequency of occurrence of error is high when error is very little, positive and negative errors
occur with equal frequency and very large errors occur rarely.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy and precision are two different, yet equally important surveying concepts. Accuracy is
the degree of conformity of a given measurement with a standard value. Precision is the extent to
which a given set of measurements agree with their mean.
These concepts are illustrated in Figures III-3 through III-5 with a target shooting example. In
Figure III-3, all five shots are closely grouped indicating good precision due to the degree of
repeatability. However the accuracy is poor because the shots are far from the center of the
target. In Figure III-4, the five shots appear randomly scattered about the target indicating neither
accuracy nor precision. In Figure III-5, all five shots are closely spaced about the target‟s center
indicating both precision and accuracy.

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The goal of any survey should be to produce accurate and precise observations. Often
measurements with greater accuracy and precision requirements employ multiple observations to
minimize procedural errors.

WEIGHT OF AN OBSERVATION

• The weight of an observation is measure of its relative trustworthiness. Quality of each

measurement result is evaluated by means of a number known as weight. The more
reliable the result, higher its weight. The weights are established either by estimation or
in accordance with the measurement condition.

Rules for assigning weights to the observations:

Rule 1: the weight of an angle varies directly as the number of observations made on the angle.

Rule 2: for an angle repeated a great number oif times, the weight is inversely propotional to the
square of the probable error.

Rule 3: For a line of levels, the weight varies inversely as the length of the route.

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Rule 4: Corrections to be applied are inversely proportional to the weights.

LAWS OF WEIGHTS:

Law 1: Weight of an arithmetic mean of a number of observations of unit weight is equal to the
number of observations.

Where, W = weight of arithmetic mean.

 When weight of all observations are = 1 (unit weight).

Law 2: Weight of weighted arithmetic mean of a number of observations is equal to the sum of
the individual weights of observations.

Where, W = weighted arithmetic mean when weight of all observations are w1,w2,w3……..wn.

Example:

Weight
480 20‟ 8” 3
480 20‟ 10” 2
480 20‟ 12” 3

x3 10 2 12

 Weight of the weighted arithmetic mean is 8

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Law 3: If two or more quantities are added algebraically, the weight of the result is equal to the
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual weights.

W = Weight of result of sum or difference (when weight of all observations are different, i.e, w1,
w2, w3 ………wn)

Example:

Weight
α = 460 30‟ 30” 3
β = 240 42‟ 20” 2

Law 4: If a quantity is multiplied by a factor, the weight of the product is equal to the weight of
that quantity divided by the square of the factor.

Let z be the factor,

Where, W = weight of result. And w is the weight of observation made.

Example:

Let α = 320 12‟ 12” and weight, w = 2,

And 3 be the factor,

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α ‟ ”

Law 5: If a quantity is divided by a factor, the weight of the result is equal to the weight of that
quantity multiplied by the square of the factor.

Let z be the factor,

Where, W = weight of result. And w is the weight of observation made.

Example:

Let α = 410 31‟ 15” and weight, w = 2,

And 3 be the factor,

( ) ‟ ”
α

Law 6: If an equation is multiplied by its own weight, the weight of the resulting equation is
equal to the reciprocal of the weight of the equation

Where, W = weight of result. And w is the weight of observation made.

Let angle (A + B) = 1890 40 „ 20 “

„ “

Law 7: if an equation is added to or subtracted from a constant or if all the signs of the equation
are changed, the weight remains unchanged

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Most probable value: Different conditions under which the measurements are made, cause
variations in measurements and therefore, no measured quantity is completely determinable. A
fixed value of a quantity may be conceived as its true value τ. The difference between the
measured quantity and its true value τ is known as error ε,

Since the true value of a measured quantity cannot be determined, the exact value of ε can never
be found out. However, if a best estimate ŷ which is known as most probable value of τ, can be
determined, ŷ can be used as a reference to express the variations in y. if we define n as residual
then,

The residuals express the variations or deviations in the measurements.

Standard Deviation:

Standard deviation also called the root-mean square (RMS) error, is a measure of spread of a
distribution and for the population, assuming the observations are of equal reliability it is
expressed as

However, μ cannot be determined from a sample of observations. Instead, the arithmetic mean is
accepted as the most probable value and the population standard deviation is estimated as,

The standard deviation given by the above expression is also called the standard error (SE).

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VARIANCE
Variance of a quantity is expressed as

and is also used as a measure of dispersion or spread of a distribution.

STANDARD ERROR OF MEAN

The standard error of mean σ m is given by

√
√

and hence the precision of the mean is enhanced with respect to that of a single observation.
There are n deviations (or residuals) from the mean of the sample and their sum will be zero.
Thus, knowing (n – 1) deviations the surveyor could deduce the remaining deviation and it may
be said that there are (n – 1) degrees of freedom. This number is used when estimating the
population standard deviation.
MOST PROBABLE ERROR
The most probable error is defined as the error for which there are equal chances of the true error
being less and greater than probable error. In other words, the probability of the true error being
less than the probable error is 50% and the probability of the true error being greater than the
probable error is also 50%. The most probable error is given by,

PRINCIPLES OF LEAST SQUARE

According to the principle of least squares, the most probable value of an observed quantity
available from a given set of observation is the one for which the sum of the squares of the
residual errors is a minimum. When a quantity is being deduced from a series of observation, the
residual errors will be the difference between adopted value and the several observed values.
Let v1, v2,v3………………………vn be the observed value

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X= most probable value

Then,
x-v1=

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