Document No. :: IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V3.

0
:: IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V1.0
Interim Report II :: B - Wind Codes
IITK-GSDMA Project on Building Codes

IS: 875(Part3): Wind Loads on Buildings

and Structures
-Proposed Draft & Commentary
by

Dr.Krishen Kumar
Dr. N.M. Bhandari
Dr. Prem Krishna
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Roorkee
DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

 This document has been made available as a “Draft for Comment” and is
not ready for use. It is still in development stage as a part of ongoing
project on Building Codes sponsored by Gujarat State Disaster
Management Authority, Gandhinagar at Indian Institute of Technology
Kanpur.
 The views and opinions expressed are those of the authors and not
necessarily of the GSDMA, the World Bank, IIT Kanpur, or the Bureau of
Indian Standards.
 Comments and feedbacks may please be forwarded to:
Prof. Sudhir K Jain, Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT Kanpur, Kanpur
208016, email: [email protected]; [email protected]

CODE COMMENTARY

Foreword
0.1 This Indian Standard IS:875 (Part 3)
(Third Revision) was adopted by the
Bureau of Indian Standards on
________(Date), after the draft finalized
by the Structural Safety Sectional
Committee had been approved by the
Civil Engineering Division Council.

0.2 A building has to perform many

functions satisfactorily. Amongst these
functions are the utility of the building for
the intended use and occupancy,
structural safety, fire safety and
compliance with hygienic, sanitation,
ventilation and daylight standards. The
design of the building is dependent upon
the minimum requirements prescribed for
each of the above functions. The
minimum requirements pertaining to the
structural safety of buildings are being
covered in loading codes by way of
laying down minimum design loads which
have to be assumed for dead loads,
imposed loads, wind loads and other
external loads, the structure would be
required to bear. Strict conformity to
loading standards, it is hoped, will not
only ensure the structural safety of the
buildings and structures, which are being
designed and constructed in the country
and thereby reduce the risk to life and
property caused by unsafe structures,

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but also reduces the wastage caused by

assuming unnecessarily heavy loadings
without proper assessment.

0.3 This standard was first published in

1957 for the guidance of civil engineers,
designers and architects associated with
the planning and design of buildings. It
included the provisions for the basic
design loads (dead loads, live loads,
wind loads and seismic loads) to be
assumed in the design of the buildings.
In its first revision in 1964, the wind
pressure provisions were modified on the
basis of studies of wind phenomenon
and its effect on structures, undertaken
by the special committee in consultation
with the Indian Meteorological
Department. In addition to this, new
clauses on wind loads for butterfly type
structures were included; wind pressure
coefficients for sheeted roofs, both
curved and sloping were modified;
seismic load provisions were deleted
(separate code having been prepared)
and metric system of weights and
measurements was adopted.
0.3.1 With the increased adoption of this
Code, a number of comments were
received on provisions on live load
values adopted for different
occupancies. Simultaneously, live load
surveys have been carried out in
America and Canada to arrive at realistic
live loads based on actual determination
of loading (movable and immovable) in
different occupancies. Keeping this in
view and other developments in the field
of wind engineering, the Structural
Safety Sectional Committee decided to
prepare the second revision of IS: 875 in
the following five parts:
Part 1: Dead loads
Part 2: Imposed loads
Part 3: Wind loads
Part 4: Snow loads
Part 5: Special loads and load
combinations
Earthquake load being covered in a
separate standard, namely, IS:1893(Part
1)- 2002* , should be considered along
with the above loads.

*
Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures (2002 revision).
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0.3.2 This part (Part 3) deals with wind

loads to be considered when
designing buildings, structures and
components thereof. In its second
revision in 1987, the following
important modifications were made
from those covered in the 1964
version of IS: 875:
(a) The earlier wind pressure
maps (one giving winds of shorter
duration and another excluding
winds of shorter duration) were
replaced by a single wind map
giving basic maximum wind speed
in m/s (peak gust velocity averaged
over a short time interval of about 3
seconds duration). The wind
speeds were worked out for 50
years return period based on the
up-to-date wind data of 43 dines
pressure tube (DPT) anemograph
stations and study of other related
works available on the subject
since 1964. The map and related
recommendations were provided in
the code with the active
cooperation of Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD).
Isotachs (lines of equal velocity)
were not given as in the opinion of
the committee, there was still not
enough extensive meteorological
data at close enough stations in
the country to justify drawing of
isotachs.
(b) Modification factors to modify the
basic wind velocity to take into
account the effects of terrain, local
topography, size of structures, etc.
were included.
(c) Terrain was classified into four
categories based on characteristics
of the ground surface irregularities.
(d) Force and pressure coefficients
were included for a large range of
clad and unclad buildings and for
individual structural elements.
(e) Force coefficients (drag
coefficients) were given for frames,
lattice towers, walls and hoardings.
(f) The calculation of force on circular
sections was included
incorporating the effects of
Reynolds number and surface

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roughness.
(g) The external and internal pressure
coefficients for gable roofs, lean-to
roofs, curved roofs, canopy roofs
(butterfly type structures) and
multi-span roofs were rationalized.
(h) Pressure coefficients were given
for combined roofs, roofs with sky
light, circular silos, cylindrical
elevated structures, grandstands,
etc.
(i) Some requirements regarding
study of dynamic effects in flexible
slender structures were included.
Use of gust energy method to arrive at
the design wind load on the whole
structure was permitted.
0.3.3 The Committee responsible for the
revision of wind maps while reviewing
available meteorological wind data and
response of structures to wind, felt the
paucity of data on which to base wind
maps for Indian conditions on
statistical analysis. The Committee,
therefore, recommended to all
individuals and organizations
responsible for putting-up of tall
structures to provide instrumentation in
their existing and new structures
(transmission towers, chimneys,
cooling towers, buildings, etc.) at
different elevations (at least at two
levels) to continuously measure and
monitor wind data. It was noted that
instruments were required to collect
data on wind direction, wind speed
and structural response of the
structure due to wind (with the help of
accelerometers, strain gauges, etc). It
was also the opinion of the committee
that such instrumentation in tall
structures will not in any way affect or
alter the functional behaviour of such
structures, and the data so collected
will be very valuable in evolving more
accurate wind loading on structures.
0.3.4 It is seen at the time of undertaking
the third revision of this code (during
2003-2004) that:
(i) Not much progress has yet been
made in regard to
instrumentation and collection of
data in India as mentioned in

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0.3.3 though additional data has

become available through
measurements of wind speed at
the meteorological stations. In
addition there is a need to
address the issue of cyclonic
winds and the damage caused
thereby.
(ii) There has been a substantial
research effort on determination
of wind effects on buildings and
structures, the world over, during
the past couple of decades, thus
making available additional
information of improved quality.
(iii) A better understanding has
developed concerning peak
suctions/pressures.
(iv) There is a better appreciation
about the randomness that
prevails in the directionality of
wind, and the degree of
correlation amongst pressures
that it causes on a surface.
(v) There is a better understanding
of the significant influence of the
averaging area used on the
pressures evaluated.
(vi) There is an appreciation of the
fact that wind loads on different
parts of the structure are not
fully correlated.
(vii) There is a significant effect
possible on the wind forces in a
building on account of
interference between similar or
dissimilar buildings.
(viii) It is realized that as a result of
the second revision, the
standard produced was on
contemporary lines. Changes
are therefore warranted only
where these would bring about
an improvement in the quality of
the standard.
In carrying out this revision, the above
observations have been taken into
account.

0.4 The Sectional Committee responsible

for the preparation of this standard has
taken into account the prevailing
practice in regard to loading standards

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followed in this country by the various

authorities and has also taken note of
the developments in a number of other
countries. In the preparation of this
code, the following overseas standards
have also been examined:
(a) BS 6399-2:1997 Loading for
Buildings, Part 2: Code of Practice
for Wind loads.
(b) AS/NZS1170.2: 2002 Structural
Design Actions-Part 2: Wind
Actions.
(c) ASCE 7-02 American Society of
Civil Engineers: Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures.
(d) National Building Code of Canada
1995.
(e) Architectural Institute of Japan
recommendations for loads on
buildings, 1996.
Wind resistant design regulations, A
World List. Association for Science
Documents Information, Tokyo.

0.5 For the purpose of deciding whether a

particular requirement of this standard
is complied with, the final value,
observed or calculated, expressing the
result of a test or analysis, shall be
rounded off in accordance with IS:2-
1960*. The number of significant
places retained in the rounded off
value should be the same as that of
the specified value in this standard.

0 – Scope
1.1 - C1.1 –
This standard gives wind forces and their This code provides information on wind effects
effects (static and dynamic) that should be for buildings and structures, and their
taken into account when designing buildings, components. Structures such as chimneys, cooling
structures and components thereof. towers and bridges are outside the scope of this
code. There are Indian Standards dealing with
chimneys and cooling towers separately.
Information on bridges (only static forces) is
given in IRS and IRC specifications. For
aerodynamics of bridges, specialist literature may
be consulted. With substantial work being done
worldwide in the area of wind engineering there

*
Rules for Rounding-off Numerical Values (Revised)
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is growing body of new information. The user of

this code is adviced to consult specialist literature
for the design of large or important projects
involving various types of structures.

1.1.1 – C1.1.1–
Wind causes a random time-dependent load, Wind is not a steady phenomena due to natural
which can be seen as a mean plus a turbulence and gustiness present in it. However,
fluctuating component. Strictly speaking all when averaged over a sufficiently long time
structures will exhibit a dynamic response to duration (from a few minutes to an hour), a steady
the fluctuating component (gustiness). component of wind velocity can be defined which
However, short rigid structures can be would produce a static force on a structure.
satisfactorily treated as having an equivalent Superimposed on the mean/static component is
static response. This is the approach taken the time varying component having multiple
by most codes and standards, as is also the frequencies spread over a wide band from
case in this standard. The more flexible frequencies above 100 Hz (turbulence) to less
systems such as tall buildings undergo a than 0.1 Hz (gust or large size eddies). The
dynamic response to the gustiness of wind. greater part of energy in these fluctuating
Methods for computing the dynamic effect of components is associated with the lower
wind on buildings have been introduced in frequency components (less than 1 Hz to about 20
this standard. Hz).
Apart from tall buildings there are several
other structural forms (though outside the
scope of this standard) such as tall-latticed
towers, chimneys, guyed masts that need to
be examined for aerodynamic effect.

1.1.2 – C1.1.2 –
This code also applies to buildings or other The construction period of a structure is much
structures during erection/ construction and smaller than its expected life. Therefore, a smaller
the same shall be considered carefully during return period of 5 to 10 years or longer may be
various stages of erection/construction. In considered for arriving at the design velocity
locations where the strongest winds and icing (factor k1) for construction stages/period of a
may occur simultaneously, loads on structure depending on its importance. In snowfall
structural members, cables and ropes shall area where icing occurs, wind loads have to be
be calculated by assuming an ice covering assessed accordingly. Elements such as cables
based on climatic and local experience. and ropes can undergo a dynamic response in
such cases and have to be examined accordingly.

1.1.3– C1.1.3 – See C1.1

In the design of special structures, such as
chimneys, overhead transmission line
towers, etc., specific requirements as given
in the respective codes shall be adopted in
conjunction with the provisions of this code
as far as they are applicable. Some of the
Indian Standards available for the design of
special structures are:
IS: 4998 (Part 1) –1995 Criteria for design of
reinforced concrete chimneys: Part 1 -
Design Criteria (first revision)
IS:6533 –1989 Code of practice for design
and construction of steel chimneys
IS:5613 (Part 1/Sec 1)- 1985 Code of
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practice for design, installation and

maintenance of overhead power lines:
Part 1 Lines up to and including 11 kV,
Section 1 Design
IS:802 (Part 1)-1995 Code of practice for use
of structural steel in overhead
transmission line towers: Part 1 Loads
and permissible stresses (second
revision)
IS:11504-1985 Criteria for structural design
of reinforced concrete natural draught
cooling towers
NOTE: 1 – This standard does not apply to
buildings or structures with unconventional
shapes, unusual locations, and abnormal
environmental conditions that have not been
covered in this code. Special investigations
are necessary in such cases to establish wind
loads and their effects. Wind tunnel studies
may also be required in such situations.
NOTE: 2 – In the case of tall structures with
unsymmetrical geometry, the designs ought
to be checked for torsional effects due to
wind pressure.

1 – Notations

2.1–
The following notations shall be followed
unless otherwise specified in relevant
clauses:
A= Surface area of a structure or
part of a structure
Ae = Effective frontal area
Az = An area at height z
b= Breadth of a structure or
structural member normal to the
wind stream in the horizontal
plane
Cf = Force coefficient / drag
coefficient

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Cfn = Normal force coefficient

Cft = Transverse force coefficient
Cf = Frictional drag coefficient
Cp = Pressure coefficient
Cpe = External pressure coefficients
Cpi = Internal pressure coefficient
d= Depth of a structure or
structural member parallel to
wind stream in the horizontal
plane
D= diameter of cylinder
F= Force on a surface
Fn = Normal force
Ft = Transverse force
F= Frictional force
h= Height of structure above mean
ground level
hx = Height of development of a
velocity profile at a distance x
down wind from a change in
terrain category
hp = Height of parapet
IF Interference factor
k1
k2
Multiplication factors
k3
k4
K= Multiplication factor
Ka = Area averaging factor
Kc = Combination factor
Kd = Wind directionality factor
Kr = Reduction factor due to parapet
l= Length of the member or
greater horizontal dimension of
a building
pd = Design wind pressure
pz = Wind pressure at height z
pe = External pressure
pi = Internal pressure
Re = Reynolds number
S= Size reduction factor
Sr = Strouhal number
Vb = Regional basic wind speed
Vz = Design wind velocity at height z
Vz = Hourly mean wind speed at
height z

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W= lesser horizontal dimension of a

building, or a structural
member;
W = bay width in multi-bay buildings;
We = Equivalent static wind force
X= Distance down wind from a
change in terrain category
Z= A height or distance above the
ground
= Inclination of the roof to the
horizontal
= Effective solidity ratio
= Average height of the surface
roughness
= Solidity ratio
= Shielding factor or shedding
frequency
= Wind angle from a given axis

2 – Terminology
For the purpose of this code, the following
definitions shall apply.
Angle of Attack- Angle between the direction
of wind and a reference axis of the
structure.
Breadth – Breadth means horizontal
dimension of the building measured
normal to the direction of wind.
Depth – Depth means the horizontal
dimension of the building measured in
the direction of the wind.
Note – Breadth and depth are
dimensions measured in relation to
the direction of the wind, whereas
length and width are dimensions
related to the plan.
Developed Height – Developed height is the
height of upward penetration of the
velocity profile in a new terrain. At large
fetch lengths, such penetration reaches
the gradient height, above which the wind
speed may be taken to be constant. At
lesser fetch lengths, a velocity profile of a
smaller height but similar to that of the
fully developed profile of the terrain
category has to be taken, with the
additional provision that the velocity at
the top of this shorter profile equals that
of the unpenetrated earlier velocity profile

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at that height.
Effective Frontal Area – The projected area of
the structure normal to the direction of
the wind.
Element of Surface Area – The area of
surface over which the pressure
coefficient is taken to be constant.
Force Coefficient- A non-dimensional
coefficient such that the total wind force
on a body is the product of the force
coefficient, the dynamic pressure due to
the incident design wind speed and the
reference area over which the force is
required.
NOTE – When the force is in the direction of
the incident wind, the non-dimensional
coefficient will be called as drag coefficient.
When the force is perpendicular to the
direction of incident wind, the non-
dimensional coefficient will be called as lift
coefficient.
Ground Roughness – The nature of the
earth’s surface as influenced by small
scale obstructions such as trees and
buildings (as distinct from topography) is
called ground roughness.
Gust – A positive or negative departure of
wind speed from its mean value, lasting
for not more than, say, 2 minutes over a
specified interval of time.
Peak Gust – Peak gust or peak gust speed is
the wind speed associated with the
maximum amplitude.
Fetch Length – Fetch length is the distance
measured along the wind from a
boundary at which a change in the type
of terrain occurs. When the changes in
terrain types are encountered (such as,
the boundary of a town or city, forest), the
wind profile changes in character but
such changes are gradual and start at
ground level, spreading or penetrating
upwards with increasing fetch length.
Gradient Height – Gradient height is the
height above the mean ground level at
which the gradient wind blows as a result
of balance among pressure gradient
force, coriolis force and centrifugal force.
For the purpose of this code, the gradient
height is taken as the height above the
mean ground level, above which the
variation of wind speed with height need
not be considered.

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Mean Ground Level – The mean ground level

is the average horizontal plane of the
area enclosed by the boundaries of the
structure.
Pressure Coefficient – Pressure coefficient is
the ratio of the difference between the
pressure acting at a point on a surface
and the static pressure of the incident
wind to the design wind pressure, where
the static and design wind pressures are
determined at the height of the point
considered after taking into account the
geographical location, terrain conditions
and shielding effect.
NOTE: Positive sign of the pressure
coefficient indicates pressure acting towards
the surface and negative sign indicates
pressure acting away from the surface.
Return Period – Return period is the number
of years, the reciprocal of which gives the
probability of extreme wind exceeding a
given wind speed in any one year.
Shielding Effect – Shielding effect or
shielding refers to the condition where
wind has to pass along some structure(s)
or structural element(s) located on the
upstream wind side, before meeting the
structure or structural element under
consideration. A factor called shielding
factor is used to account for such effects
in estimating the force on the shielded
structures.
Suction – Suction means pressure less than
the atmospheric (static) pressure and is
taken to act away from the surface.
Solidity Ratio – Solidity ratio is equal to the
effective area (projected area of all the
individual elements) of a frame normal to
the wind direction divided by the area
enclosed by the boundary of the frame
normal to the wind direction.
NOTE – Solidity ratio is to be calculated for
individual frames.
Terrain Category – Terrain category means
the characteristics of the surface
irregularities of an area, which arise from
natural or constructed features. The
categories are numbered in increasing
order of roughness.
Velocity Profile – The variation of the
horizontal component of the atmospheric
wind speed at different heights above the
mean ground level is termed as velocity

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profile.
Topography – The nature of the earth’s
surface as influenced by the hill and
valley configurations in the vicinity of the
proposed structure.

3 – GENERAL
4.1 - C4.1 -
Wind is air in motion relative to the surface For the purpose of this code wind velocity has
of the earth. The primary cause of wind is been considered as that occurring at 10 m height
traced to earth’s rotation and differences in above the general ground level. Several new
terrestrial radiation. The radiation effects are recording stations have been established in the
mainly responsible for convection either country by the Indian Meteorological Department
upwards or downwards. The wind generally over the last two decades, the information from
blows horizontal to the ground at high wind which can help upgrade the wind zoning map of
speeds. Since vertical components of India. However, more extensive data are needed
atmospheric motion are relatively small, the to make this exercise meaningful.
term ‘wind’ denotes almost exclusively the
horizontal wind, vertical winds are always
identified as such. The wind speeds are
assessed with the aid of anemometers or
anemographs, which are installed at
meteorological observatories at heights
generally varying from 10 to 30 meters
above ground.

4.2 – C4.2 -
Very strong winds are generally associated Several atmospheric phenomena are responsible
with cyclonic storms, thunderstorms, dust for wind storms. Cyclonic storms, that hit some
storms or vigorous monsoons. A feature of of the coastal regions of India, are the most
the cyclonic storms over the Indian region is devastating due to extremely high wind speeds in
that they rapidly weaken after crossing the these storms accompanied by storm surge and
coasts and move as depressions/ lows flooding. These can last several hours. The
inland. The influence of a severe storm after current revised draft has recognized the fact that
striking the coast does not, in general exceed the high wind speeds that occur in cyclones far
about 60kilometers, though sometimes, it exceed the wind speeds for design given in the
may extend even up to 120 kilometers. Very code at present, and addresses the problem vis-à-
short duration hurricanes of very high wind vis the 60 km strip at the east coast and the
speeds called Kal Baisaki or Norwesters Gujarat coast by including suitable factors to
occur fairly frequently during summer months enhance the design wind speed, keeping in view
over North East India. the importance of the structure.
Tornados, which are a narrow band phenomenon
of limited time duration often occur during the
summer, mostly in Northern parts of India.
These, however, have extremely high wind
speeds, often higher than the severest cyclones.

4.3 – C4.3 -
The wind speeds recorded at any locality are Higher the intensity of a gust, lower is its
extremely variable and in addition to steady
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wind at any time, there are effects of gusts, duration. The code specifies the basic wind
which may last for a few seconds. These velocity as that of a gust of 3 second duration; or
gust cause increase in air pressure but their in other words, the wind velocity averaged over a
effect on stability of the building may not be 3-second period. The effect of reduction in the
so important; often, gusts affect only part of average wind pressure with increase in the area
the building and the increased local over which the pressure is considered (the
pressures may be more than balanced by a tributary area) is accounted for by the ‘Area
momentary reduction in the pressure Averaging Factor, Ka’ defined in section 6.1.2. A
elsewhere. Because of the inertia of the maximum reduction of 20% in wind pressures is
building, short period gusts may not cause specified for tributary area beyond 100 m2.
any appreciable increase in stress in main
components of the building although the
walls, roof sheeting and individual cladding Contrary to this, one may consider wind
units (glass panels) and their supporting effects over a limited (small) area of the
members such as purlins, sheeting rails and surface. This is particularly important near
glazing bars may be more seriously affected. the edges and ridge of a structure or sharp
Gusts can also be extremely important for corners elsewhere in a building, where large
design of structures with high slenderness suctions occur due to separation. The area
ratios. of influence being small, there is better
correlation within these areas. These local
area effects are treated elsewhere in the
code.

4.4 – C4.4 -
The response of a building to high wind The dynamic characteristics of a flexible structure
pressures depends not only upon the defined by its time period of vibration and
geographical location and proximity of other damping would affect its response to the gustiness
obstructions to airflow but also upon the or turbulence in wind, which itself gets modified
characteristics of the structure itself. by other structures/ obstructions coming in the
way of the wind, particularly those in the close
vicinity of the structure. The effect of the latter is
difficult to evaluate and a simplified approach has
been added for the first time in the code to
approximate these so called interference effects in
Section 7.

4.5 –
The effect of wind on the structure as a C4.5 –
whole is determined by the combined action The pressures created inside a building due to
of external and internal pressures acting access of wind through openings could be suction
upon it. In all cases, the calculated wind (negative) or pressure (positive) of the same order
loads act normal to the surface to which they of intensity while those outside may also vary in
apply. magnitude with possible reversals. Thus the
design value shall be taken as the algebraic sum
of the two in either directions.
Furthermore, the external pressures (or forces)
acting on different parts of a framework, and the
internal pressures, do not correlate fully. Hence
there is a reduction in the overall effect. This has
been allowed for in clause 6.2.3.13.

4.6 – C4.6 -
The stability calculations as a whole shall be The stability of a structure shall be checked both
done considering the combined effect, as with and without the wind loads, as there may be
well as separate effects of imposed loads
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and wind loads on vertical surfaces, roofs reversal of the forces under wind besides a
and other part of the building above general reduced factor of safety considered with the wind
roof level. loads.

4.7 –
Buildings shall also be designed with due
attention to the effects of wind on the comfort C4.7 -
of people inside and outside the buildings. Comfort of the inhabitants of a tall flexible
building can be affected by large wind induced
deflections or accelerations, particularly the latter.
There is no criterion included in this code for
control on these parameters. Since there is no real
tall building activity yet in India, the problem has
not attained importance. Likewise, at the plaza
level around a tall building, there may be
accentuated flow conditions, particularly if the
building has other similar structures adjacent to it.
Thus the pedestrians at the plaza level can be put
to inconvenience. A model study is required to
determine the flow pattern and to carryout the
design accordingly.

4 – WIND SPEED AND

PRESSURE

5.1 - Nature of wind in C5.1 -

Atmosphere As is explained in the code, the wind velocity can
In general, wind speed in the atmospheric be taken to comprise of a static (mean)
boundary layer increases with height from component and a fluctuating component, with the
zero at ground level to a maximum at a magnitude of the latter varying with the time
height called the gradient height. There is interval over which the gust is averaged. Thus
usually a slight change in direction (Ekman with reduction in the averaging time, the
effect) but this is ignored in the code. The fluctuating wind velocity would increase. It is
variation with height depends primarily on the also possible to represent the fluctuating velocity
terrain conditions. However, the wind speed by its root mean square value, that is, the standard
at any height never remains constant and it deviation, or the turbulence intensity.
has been found convenient to resolve its
instantaneous magnitude into an average or
mean value and a fluctuating component
around this average value. The average
value depends on the averaging time
employed in analyzing the meteorological
data and this averaging time can be taken to
be from a few seconds to several minutes.
The magnitude of fluctuating component of
the wind speed, which represents the
gustiness of wind, depends on the averaging
time. Smaller the averaging interval, greater
is the magnitude of the speed.

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5.2 – Basic Wind Speed (Vb) C5.2 -

Figure 1 gives basic wind speed map of Code defines the basic wind speed as the peak
India, as applicable at 10 m height above gust wind velocity averaged over a period of 3
mean ground level for different zones of the seconds. It includes both the mean and the
country. Basic wind speed is based on peak fluctuating components of the turbulent wind. To
gust velocity averaged over a short time obtain hourly mean wind velocity, the 3-second
interval of about 3 seconds and corresponds value may be multiplied by factor 0.65. Since
to mean heights above ground level in an wind velocity varies with height, ground
open terrain (Category 2). Basic wind speeds roughness, local topography and return period of
presented in Fig. 1 have been worked out for the storm, besides the region of the country, the
a 50-year return period. Basic wind speed for conditions for which Vb is defined have been
some important cities/towns is also given in specified in this clause. The country has been
Appendix A. divided into six wind zones and certain coastal
regions affected by cyclonic storms as defined in
clause 5.3.4.

5.3 – Design Wind Speed (Vz) C5.3 -

The basic wind speed for any site shall be To account for various effects governing the wind
obtained from Fig. 1 and shall be modified to speed, modifications in the form of factors k1, k2,
include the following effects to get design k3, and k4 are specified.
wind speed at any height (Vz) for the chosen
structure: (a) Risk level, (b) Terrain
roughness and height of structure, (c) Local
topography, and (d) Importance factor for the
cyclonic region. It can be mathematically
expressed as follows:
Vz = Vb k1 k2 k3 k4,
where
Vz = design wind speed at any height z in
m/s,
k1 = probability factor (risk coefficient) (see
5.3.1),
k2 = terrain, height and structure size factor
(see 5.3.2),
k3 = topography factor (see 5.3.3), and
k4 = importance factor for the cyclonic region
(see 5.3.4).
NOTE: The wind speed may be taken as constant
upto a height of 10 m. However,
pressures for buildings less than 10m
high may be reduced by 20% for the
stability and design of the framing.

5.3.1 – Risk Coefficient (k1) C5.3.1 -

Fig. 1 gives basic wind speeds for terrain The peak wind velocity considered for design is
category 2 as applicable at 10 m above based on the probability of occurrence of the
ground level based on 50 years mean return maximum/severest storm over the design life of
period. The suggested life period to be the structure. It is known that storms of greeter
assumed in design and the corresponding k1 violence are less frequent, that is, such storms
factors for different class of structures for the have a longer return period. Thus for economical
purpose of design are given in Table 1. In the design of structures, the design wind velocity has
design of all buildings and structures, a been related to return-period of storms, with V b
defined for 50-years return period considering the
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regional basic wind speed having a mean generally acceptable value of probability of
return period of 50 years shall be used exceedence as 0.63 for the design wind speed
except as specified in the note of Table 1. over the life of the structure. This has been
termed as the risk level P N in N consecutive years
(Table –1) and the corresponding value of the risk
coefficient, k1, for N taken as 50 years, would be
1.0. The values of k1 for N taken as 5, 25 and 100
years, and for various zones of the country, are
given in Table-1. The designer may, however, use
a higher value of N or k1, if it is considered
necessary to reduce the risk level of an important
structure.

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Figure 1: Basic wind speed in m/s (based on 50 year return period)

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Table 1: Risk coefficients for different classes of structures in different wind speed zones
[Clause 5.3.1]
Mean Probable
design life of
structure in k1 Factor for Basic Wind Speed
years (m/s) of
Class of Structure
33 39 44 47 50 55
All general buildings and structures 50 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Temporary sheds, structures such as those
used during construction operations (for
example, formwork and false work), 5 0.82 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.67
structures during construction stages and
boundary walls
Buildings and structures presenting a low
degree of hazard to life and property in the
event of failure, such as isolated towers in 25 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89
wooded areas, farm buildings other than
residential buildings
Important buildings and structures such as
hospitals, communication buildings, towers, 100 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.07 1.08 1.08
power plant structures
NOTE – the factor k1 is based on statistical concepts, which take account of the degree of reliability required, and
period of time in years during which there will be exposed to wind, that is, life of the structure. Whatever wind
speed is adopted for design purposes, there is always a probability (however small) that it may be exceeded in a
storm of exceptional violence; the greater the period of years over which there will be exposure to the wind, the
greater is the probability. High return periods ranging from 100 to 1000 years (implying lower risk level) in
association with greater period of exposure may have to be selected for exceptionally important structures, such
as, nuclear power reactors and satellite communication towers. Equation given below may be used in such cases
to estimate k1 factors for different periods of exposure and chosen probability of exceedence (risk level). The
probability level of 0.63 is normally considered sufficient for design of buildings and structures against wind
effects and the values of k1 corresponding to this risk level are given above.

  1 
A  B ln ln 1  PN  
X N ,P
k1  
  N 
X 50, 0.63 A  4B

where
N = mean probable design life of structure in years;
PN = risk level in N consecutive years (probability that the design wind speed is exceeded at least
once in N successive years), nominal value = 0.63;
XN,P = extreme wind speed for given value of N and PN; and
X50,0.63 = extreme wind speed for N = 50 years and PN = 0.63

A and B are coefficients having the following values for different basic wind speed zones:
Zone A B
33 m/s 83.2 9.2
39 m/s 84.0 14.0
44 m/s 88.0 18.0
47 m/s 88.0 20.5
50 m/s 88.8 22.8
55 m/s 90.8 27.3

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Table 2: k2 factors to obtain design wind speed variation with height in different
terrains [Clause 5.3.2.2]
Height (z) Terrain and height multiplier (k2)

Terrain Terrain Terrain Terrain

(m) Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4

10 1.12 1.00 0.83 0.75

15 1.16 1.05 0.89 0.75
20 1.19 1.08 0.94 0.75
30 1.22 1.12 1.00 0.80
40 1.24 1.16 1.04 0.85
50 1.25 1.18 1.07 0.90
75 1.27 1.22 1.12 0.98
100 1.29 1.24 1.16 1.03
150 1.31 1.27 1.21 1.11
200 1.32 1.29 1.24 1.16
250 1.34 1.31 1.27 1.20
300 1.35 1.32 1.29 1.23
400 1.37 1.35 1.32 1.28
500 1.38 1.37 1.35 1.31
NOTE: For intermediate values of height z and terrain category, use linear
interpolation.

CODE COMMENTARY

5.3.2 – Terrain and Height Factor

(k2)
5.3.2.1 – C5.3.2.1 -
Terrain – Selection of terrain categories shall The code defines 4 types of terrains and explains
be made with due regard to the effect of that a structure may effectively lie in two different
obstructions which constitute the ground types of terrain for two different wind directions.
surface roughness. The terrain category used In addition, the designer shall keep in mind, the
in the design of a structure may vary future development of the surrounding area which
depending on the direction of wind under may alter the ground roughness and hence the
consideration. Wherever sufficient terrain category.
meteorological information is available about Photographs CP1 to CP4 (Cook 1985) are given
the nature of wind direction, the orientation of to demonstrate how terrain categories 1 to 4 may
any building or structure may be suitably be assigned. This is merely for guidance
planned. purposes.

Terrain in which a specific structure stands

shall be assessed as being one of the
following terrain categories:
a) Category 1 – Exposed open terrain
with few or no obstructions and in
which the average height of any object
surrounding the structure is less than
1.5 m.

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NOTE – This category includes open sea coasts

and flat treeless plains.
b) Category 2 – Open terrain with well-
scattered obstructions having height
generally between 1.5 to 10 m.
NOTE – This is the basis for specifying basic
wind speeds and includes airfields,
open parklands and undeveloped
sparsely built-up outskirts of towns and
suburbs. Open land adjacent to
seacoast may also be classified as
Category 2 due to roughness of large
sea waves at high winds.
c) Category 3 – Terrain with numerous
closely spaced obstructions having the
size of building-structures up to 10 m
in height with or without a few isolated
tall structures.
NOTE 1 – This category includes well-wooded
areas, and shrubs, towns and industrial
areas full or partially developed.
NOTE 2 – It is likely that the next higher category
than this will not exist in most design
situations and that selection of a more
severe category will be deliberate.
NOTE 3 – Particular attention must be given to
performance of obstructions in areas
affected by fully developed tropical
cyclones. Vegetation, which is likely to be
blown down or defoliated, cannot be relied
upon to maintain Category 3 conditions.
Where such a situation may exist, either an
intermediate category with velocity
multipliers midway between the values for
Category 2 and 3 given in Table 2, or
Category 2 should be selected having due
regard to local conditions.
d) Category 4 – Terrain with numerous
large high closely spaced obstructions.
NOTE – This category includes large city centers,
generally with obstructions above 25 m
and well-developed industrial complexes.
5.3.2.2 – C5.3.2.2 -
Variation of wind speed with height for The variation of wind with height is also
different terrains (k2 factor) – Table 2 gives dependent upon the ground roughness and is thus
multiplying factor (k2) by which the basic wind different for each terrain category, as can be
speed given in Fig. 1 shall be multiplied to visualized from Fig. C1. Also it takes quite a
obtain the wind speed at different heights, in distance, called fetch length, for wind to travel
each terrain category. over a typical terrain to fully develop the velocity
profile idealized for that terrain category.

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Fig C1. – Boundary Layer Profile for Different

Approach Terrains

5.3.2.3 –
C5.3.2.3 -
Terrain categories in relation to the direction Ground obstructions in the path of wind may be
of wind – As also mentioned in 5.3.2.1, the different for different directions of the wind. As
terrain category used in the design of a such different terrain categories shall be
structure may vary depending on the considered in such a case.
direction of wind under consideration. Where
sufficient meteorological information is
available, the basic wind speed may be
varied for specific wind direction.

5.3.2.4 –
Changes in terrain categories – The velocity C5.3.2.4 -
profile for a given terrain category does not The development of wind profile to full height in
develop to full height immediately with the a particular terrain type cannot occur at the onset
commencement of that terrain category but of that category but would be gradual as the wind
develops gradually to height (hx) which passes over it. Thus the developed height, h x,
increases with the fetch or upwind distance becomes a function of the distance covered by
(x). wind into the terrain category, called the fetch
length, x. The code gives the relationship of h x
a) Fetch and developed height relationship with x for various terrain categories.
– The relation between the developed
height (hx) and the fetch (x) for wind-flow
over each of the four terrain categories
may be taken as given in Table 3.
b) For structures of heights greater than the
developed height (hx) in Table 3, the
velocity profile may be determined in
accordance with the following:
(i) The less or least rough terrain, or
(ii) The method described in Appendix
B.

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Table 3: Fetch and developed height relationship [Clause 5.3.2.4]

Developed Height hx (m)

Fetch (x)
(km) Terrain Terrain Terrain Terrain
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
0.2 12 20 35 60
0.5 20 30 35 95
1 25 45 80 130
2 35 65 110 190
5 60 100 170 300
10 80 140 250 450
20 120 200 350 500
50 180 300 400 500

CP1 – Photograph Indicative of Terrain Category 1 Features

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5.3.3 – C5.3.3 -
Topography (k3 factor) – The basic wind The factor k3 is a measure of the enhancement
speed Vb given in Fig. 1 takes account of the that occurs in wind speeds over hills, cliffs and
general level of site above sea level. This escarpments.
does not allow for local topographic features
such as hills, valleys, cliffs, escarpments, or
ridges, which can significantly affect wind
speed in their vicinity. The effect of
topography is to accelerate wind near the
summits of hills or crests of cliffs,
escarpments or ridges and decelerate the
wind in valleys or near the foot of cliffs, steep
escarpments, or ridges.

5.3.3.1 –
C5.3.3.1–
The effect of topography will be significant at No increase in wind speed is indicated for upwind
a site when the upwind slope () is greater ground slopes upto 3o, while a maximum increase
than about 3o, and below that, the value of k3 of 36% is specified for slopes beyond 17 o. Thus
may be taken to be equal to 1.0. The value of maximum effect is seen to occur at the crest of a
k3 is confined in the range of 1.0 to 1.36 for cliff or escarpment and reduces gradually with
slopes greater than 3o. A method of distance from the crest. Also locally, k 3 reduces
evaluating the value of k3 for values greater from the base of a structure to its top.
than 1.0 is given in Appendix C. It may be
noted that the value of k3 varies with height
above ground level, at a maximum near the
ground, and reducing to 1.0 at higher levels.

5.3.4 – C5.3.4 –
Importance Factor for Cyclonic Region (k4)
A belt of approximately 60 km width near sea
Cyclonic storms usually occur on the east coast in certain parts of the country is identified
coast of the country in addition to the Gujarat to be affected by cyclonic storms. The peak wind
coast on the west. Studies of wind speed and velocities in these regions may exceed 70 m/s.
damage point to the fact that the speeds Therefore, factor k4 has been introduced with a
given in the map are often exceeded during maximum value of 1.30. However, the highest
such cyclones. The effect of cyclonic storms value may be used only for structures of post-
is largely felt in a belt of approximately 60 km cyclone importance such as cyclone shelters,
width at the coast. In order to ensure greater hospitals, school and community buildings,
safety of structures in this region (60 km wide communication towers, and power-plant
on the east coast as well as the Gujarat structures, water tanks, while a lower value of
coast), the following values of k 4 are 1.15 may be used for industrial structures,
stipulated, as applicable according to the damage to which can cause serious economic
importance of the structure: losses. For reasons of economy, other structures
may be designed for a k 4 value of unity, that is,
Structures of Post–cyclone Importance 1.30
without considering the effect of the possible
Industrial Structures 1.15
higher wind speeds in cyclonic storms.
All other structures 1.0
For non-cyclonic regions the factor k 4 shall
obviously be taken as 1.0.

5.4 – Design Wind Pressure C5.4–

The wind pressure at any height above mean
The relationship between design velocity Vz and
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ground level shall be obtained by the the pressure produced by it assumes the mass
following relationship between wind pressure density of air as 1.20 kg/m 3, which changes
and wind velocity: somewhat with the atmospheric temperature and
2 pressure.
p z  0.6 Vz

To obtain the design wind pressure various

where
modifications through factors Kd, Ka and Kc are to
pz = wind pressure in N/m2 at height z, and
be applied. These factors are explained in section
Vz = design wind velocity in m/s at height z.
6 in appropriate clauses.

The design wind pressure pd can be obtained

as,
pd = Kd. Ka. Kc. pz
where
Kd = Wind directionality factor (See 6.1.1)
Ka = Area averaging factor (See 6.1.2)
Kc = Combination factor (See 6.2.3.13)

NOTE 1 – The coefficient 0.6 (in SI units) in the

above formula depends on a number of
factors and mainly on the atmospheric
pressure and air temperature. The value
chosen corresponds to the average
appropriate Indian Atmospheric conditions.
NOTE 2 – Ka should be taken as 1.0 when
considering local pressure coefficients.

5.5 – Offshore Wind Velocity

C5.5 -
Cyclonic storms form far away from the sea
coast and gradually reduce in speed as they The cyclonic storms are formed away from the
approach the sea coast. Cyclonic storms coasts and have wind velocities much higher than
generally extend up to about 60 kilometers recorded on the coasts. At least 15% higher wind
inland after striking the coast. Their effect on velocity than at the coast may be considered for
land is already reflected in basic wind speeds distances upto about 200 kilometers into the sea
specified in Fig.1. The influence of wind in the affected regions.
speed off the coast up to a distance of about
200 kilometers may be taken as 1.15 times
the value on the nearest coast in the
absence of any definite wind data.

5– WIND PRESSURES
AND FORCES ON
BUILDINGS/STRUCT
URES

6.1 – General C6.1 -

The wind load on a building shall be A major purpose of the code being commented
calculated for: upon is to determine forces and pressures on
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a) The building components of a building or a structure as

as a whole, required for design purposes. For clad buildings,
pressures on the cladding are required in order to
b) Individual
design the cladding and its supporting elements,
structural elements as roofs and walls,
from which the forces get transferred to the
and
framework. Thus the building frame experiences
Individual cladding units including glazing the cumulative effect of pressures causing forces
and their fixings on different parts of the cladding – both on the
walls as well as the roof as the case may be.
These forces are used in designing the
framework. The code provides values of pressure
coefficients for a variety of cases covered.
Alternatively, force coefficients are given for (i)
clad buildings and (ii) unclad structures and (iii)
elements. These coefficients can be used to
determine forces on an element, or an assembly
of members or a framework. This information is
not adequate for the design of cladding (or its
supporting elements).

Both pressure and force coefficients are derived

on the basis of models tested in wind tunnels.

6.1.1 – Wind Directionality Factor, C6.1.1 -

Kd The factor recognizes the fact of (i) reduced
Considering the randomness in the probability of maximum winds coming from any
directionality of wind and recognizing the fact given direction (ii) reduced probability of the
that pressure or force coefficients are maximum pressure coefficient occurring for any
determined for specific wind directions, it is given wind direction.
specified that for buildings, solid signs, open This factor has not been included in the 1987
signs, lattice frameworks, trussed towers version of the code. Some of the other codes
(triangular, square, rectangular) a factor of (ASCE/Australian) give varying values of the
0.90 may be used on computed forces. For factor for different situations based on a more
circular or near – circular forms this factor detailed study of wind directionality. A flat value
may be taken as 1.0. of 0.9 has been used in the present revision
except for circular, near – circular and
axisymmetric sections which offer a uniform
resistance, irrespective of the direction. These
have been assigned a value of 1.0 for the factor
Kd.

6.1.2 – Area Averaging Factor, Ka C6.1.2 -

Pressure coefficients given in 6.2 are a result It is well recognized that the incoming wind
of averaging the measured pressure values becomes increasingly un-correlated as the area
over a given area. As the area becomes considered increases. This would naturally lead to
larger the correlation of measured values a lack of correlation amongst pressures induced
decrease and vice-versa. The decrease in by the wind impinging on a surface, pressures
pressures due to larger areas may be taken being directly proportional to the square of the
into account as given in Table 4. wind velocity. In fact the lack of correlation
amongst the pressures gets modified because of
the generation of local eddies and the distortion of
Table 4: Area averaging factor (K a) those contained in the incoming wind, as the wind
[Clause 6.1.2] flows past a surface. This reduced correlation is
deemed to be accounted for by introducing the
Tributary Area area reduction factor, to be used as a multiplier of
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Area (A) (m2) Averaging the pressures/forces occurring on the structure.

Factor (Ka) The area to be considered for any part of the
building for computing the area reduction factor,
 10 1.0 Ka, shall be the surface area from which the wind
25 0.9 pressures/forces get transferred to the
element/part of the structure being designed. This
 100 0.8 area is defined as the tributary area for the
element/part of the structure. Thus, as an
example, the tributary area will be smaller for a
purlin as compared to that for a roof truss or a
framework.

Conversely, near the edges and corners of a

structure, there are local area effects. Because of
separation of the flow at the edges and the
corners, suctions are experienced at these
locations, which can be quite high, though the
area of influence of such suction peaks is
expected to be small. The magnitude of these
suctions can be greatly influenced by the
geometry of the structure and the angle of wind
incidence. Local area effects are already being
taken into account in the 1987 version of the code
for the design of the cladding and its connections
to the supporting framework. These should not be
used for calculating the forces on the roof or the
framework as a whole.

6.2 - Pressure Coefficients C6.2/6.2.1 –

Wind causes pressure or suction normal to the
The pressure coefficients are always given
surface of a building or structure. The nature and
for a particular surface or part of the surface
magnitude of these pressures/suctions is
of a building. The wind load acting normal to
dependent upon a large number of variables,
a surface is obtained by multiplying the area
namely, the geometry, the nature of the incident
of that surface or its appropriate portion by
wind, direction of wind incidence, etc., which
the pressure coefficient (Cp) and the
determine the nature of wind flow over or around
corresponding design wind pressure. The
a building/structure. As mentioned in C 6.1.2,
average values of these pressure coefficients
separation of the flow at the edges and corners
for some building shapes are given in 6.2.2
and formation of vortices generates suctions,
and 6.2.3.
often large in magnitude. The pressures caused
Areas of high local pressure or are also often quite sensitive to changes in
suction frequently occur near the edges of geometry and the angle of wind incidence. The
walls and roofs. In addition higher values most common approach to the determination of
may also be experienced on small (local) pressure distribution on different building forms
areas on walls. Coefficients for these are is to test geometrically similar rigid models in a
given separately for the design of cladding in simulated wind environment in wind tunnels.
6.2.3.3. Coefficients for the local effects This is generally done by making ‘point’ pressure
should only be used for calculation of forces measurements over the model, and averaging the
on these local areas affecting roof sheeting, pressure values over a specified tributary area.
glass panels, individual cladding units Early wind tunnel work did not recognize the
including their fixtures. They should not be importance of simulating the ‘boundary layer’
used for calculating force forces on entire flow of wind and its characteristics, primarily the
structural elements such as roof, walls or turbulence. However, there has been a realization
structure as a whole. of the importance of such simulation over the last

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NOTE 1 – The pressure coefficients given in different 3-4 decades. The body of information that has
tables have been obtained mainly from
thus emerged is expected to better represent the
measurements on models in wind tunnels.
wind effects expected in the field. The lack of
NOTE 2 – For pressure coefficients for structures not adequacy of the database, however, remains
covered here, reference may be made to
specialist literature on the subject or advice because of the large variability involved both,
may be sought from specialists in the subject. with respect to the wind – its structure and
directionality - as well as the building geometry.
NOTE 3 – Influence of local values of suction or
pressure may not be of much consequence
for the overall safety of the structure but can
be a cause of local damage to cladding or Typically, pressure coefficient contours over a
glazing. This in turn may have a ‘chain’ effect
and lead to much economic loss.
gable roof may be as seen in Figure C2.
Obviously, it will be ideal to divide the roof into
a large number of zones to specify the pressures
for each zone. This would increase accuracy but
will create difficulties in practical design work.
Making a coarser grid-work will lead to averaged
out values such as in Figure C 3. The approach
adopted in practice is to go by the latter and use
area averages which, in an overall analysis, may
be on the conservative side.
Pressure coefficients are commonly based on the
quasi – steady assumption, whereby the pressure
coefficient is taken to be the ratio of mean
pressure measured over a point divided by the
1
dynamic pressure ( 2 V2) for the mean velocity
of incident wind. Here  is the mass density of air
and V the wind velocity. The approach followed
in the present Indian Code as well as the
proposed revision (and several other codes) is to
take V as the peak gust value. Some codes use
the mean wind speed averaged over a longer
period. The approach used implicitly assumes
that the fluctuations in pressure follow directly
those in the velocity. This of course may not be
true, since the wind turbulence gets modified as it
approaches the structure, and eddies form at
separation. However, the method has the
advantage of simplicity, though it may not be
suitable for very large structures. This is for two
reasons – (i) the increasing lack of correlations
over an extended area, and (ii) the dynamics of a
large structural system.

Pressures are caused both on the exterior as well

as the interior surfaces, the latter being dependent
on openings (or permeability) in the structure,
mostly in the walls. The following sections,
namely 6.2.2 and 6.2.3, respectively give values
of pressure coefficients for the interior and
exterior surfaces.

6.2.1 – Wind Load on Individual

Members

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When calculating the wind load on individual

structural elements such as roofs and walls,
and individual cladding units and their fittings,
it is essential to take account of the pressure
difference between opposite faces of such
elements or units. For clad structures, it is,
therefore, necessary to know the internal
pressure as well as the external pressure.
Then the wind load, F, acting in a direction
normal to the individual structural element or
cladding unit is:
F = (Cpe – Cpi) A pd
where
Cpe = external pressure coefficient,
Cpi = internal pressure coefficient
A = surface area of structural element or
cladding unit, and
pd = design wind pressure
NOTE 1 - If the surface design pressure varies with
height, the surface areas of the structural
element may be sub-divided so that the
specified pressures are taken over
appropriate areas.
NOTE 2 – Positive wind load indicates the force acting
towards the structural element (pressure) and
negative away from it (suction).

(a)

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(b)

Fig C2. : Contours of Pressure Coefficients over a Pitched Roof (a) C p min (b) Cp mean

Fig C3. : Variation of Pressure over a

Pitched Roof ( - ) and the Average Value (- -)

Pressure coefficients are commonly based

on the quasi – steady assumption, whereby
the pressure coefficient is taken to be the
ratio of mean pressure measured over a
1
point divided by the dynamic pressure ( 2
V2) for the mean velocity of incident wind.
Here  is the mass density of air and V the
wind velocity. The approach followed in the
present Indian Code as well as the proposed
revision (and several other codes) is to take
V as the peak gust value. Some codes use
the mean wind speed averaged over a longer
period. The approach used implicitly
assumes that the fluctuations in pressure
follow directly those in the velocity. This of
course may not be true, since the wind
turbulence gets modified as it approaches
the structure, and eddies form at separation.
However, the method has the advantage of
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CODE COMMENTARY

simplicity, though it may not be suitable for

very large structures. This is for two reasons
– (i) the increasing lack of correlations over
an extended area, and (ii) the dynamics of a
large structural system.

Pressures are caused both on the

exterior as well as the interior surfaces,
the latter being dependent on openings
(or permeability) in the structure,
mostly in the walls. The following
sections, namely 6.2.2 and 6.2.3,
respectively give values of pressure
coefficients for the interior and exterior
surfaces.

6.2.2 – Internal Pressure C6.2.2 –

Coefficients Cpi
Internal pressures are not influenced much by
Internal air pressure in a building depends the external shape or geometry of the building
upon the degree of permeability of cladding but are primarily a function of the openings in it.
to the flow of air. The internal air pressure These can be positive or negative and have to be
may be positive or negative depending on combined algebraically with the external values,
the direction of flow of air in relation to Cpe, to obtain the critical design combination.
openings in the buildings. Internal pressures vary with the degree of
permeability, specified herein as normal, medium
and large. Normal permeability implies upto 5%
openings and may be deemed to occur even with
doors and windows closed, since flow can take
place through slits and recesses in doors,
windows, etc. Buildings with one large opening
6.2.2.1 – may be treated as per Fig. 2 in the code.

In case of buildings where the claddings

permit the flow of air with openings not more
than about 5 percent of the wall area but
where there are no large openings, it is
necessary to consider the possibility of the
internal pressure being positive or negative.
Two design conditions shall be examined,
one with an internal pressure coefficient of
+0.2 and another with an internal pressure
coefficient of –0.2.
The internal pressure coefficient is
algebraically added to the external pressure
coefficient and the analysis, which indicates
greater distress of the member, shall be
adopted. In most situations a simple
inspection of the sign of external pressure
will at once indicate the proper sign of the
internal pressure coefficient to be taken for
design.

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NOTE: The term normal permeability

relates to the flow of air commonly afforded
by claddings not only through open windows
and doors, but also through the slits round
the closed windows and doors and through
chimneys, ventilators and through the joints
between roof coverings, the total open area
being less than 5 percent of area of the walls
having the openings.

6.2.2.2 –
Building with medium enlarge openings
-Buildings with medium and large openings
may also exhibit either positive or negative
internal pressure depending upon the
direction of wind. Buildings with medium
openings between about 5 to 20 percent of
wall area shall be examined for an internal
pressure coefficient of + 0.5 and later with
an internal pressure coefficient of – 0.5, and
the analysis, which produces greater distress
of the members, shall be adopted. Buildings
with large openings, that is, openings large
than 20 percent of the wall area shall be
examined once with an internal pressure
coefficient of + 0.7 and again with an internal
pressure coefficient of –0.7, and the analysis,
which produces greater distress on the
members, shall be adopted.
Buildings with one open side or opening
exceeding 20 percent of wall area may be
assumed to be subjected to internal positive
pressure or suction similar to those for
buildings with large openings. A few
examples of buildings with one-sided
openings are shown in Fig.2 indicating
values of internal pressure coefficients with
respect to the direction of wind.
In buildings with roofs but no walls, the roofs
will be subjected to pressure from both inside
and outside and the recommendations shall
be as given in 6.2.2.

6.2.3– External Pressure C6.2.3-

Coefficients It has been explained in C 6.2/6.2.1 as to how
pressure coefficients are obtained. Since the
present version of I.S. 875 (Part 3)-1987 was
written, there have been further studies of wind
effects on low buildings. These have further
underlined the influence of wind incidence angle
particularly on edges and corners. Recent versions
of some international codes have been revised on
the basis of these studies. However, a
comparative analysis has shown that the overall
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design values as obtained by the present IS code

do not differ by significant enough extent to
warrant a revision of these coefficients.
Furthermore, though the revised international
codes have become more elaborate, and, also a
little more accurate, these have also become
somewhat more complex to use. Most part of this
section has therefore been retained as it occurs in
the current code.

6.2.3.1– C6.2.3.1 –
Table 5 provides mean pressure coefficients for
Walls - The average external pressure
walls of closed rectangular buildings with
coefficient for the walls of clad buildings of
different aspect ratios. Local pressure coefficients
rectangular plan shall be as given in Table 5.
at the edges of the wall, which have relevance to
In addition, local pressure concentration
the design of the cladding and its connections to
coefficients are also given.
the supporting framework are also given in the
Table. Information on force coefficients for free
standing walls is given separately in 6.3.4.11.

6.2.3.2– C6.2.3.2 –
This clause provides information on the roofs of
Pitched, Hipped and Monoslope Roofs of
clad buildings, which are perhaps the most
rectangular clad buildings and effect of
commonly used. Table 6 gives pressure
parapets – The average external pressure
coefficients for pitched roofs with different aspect
coefficients and pressure concentration
ratios and varying roof pitch for two directions of
coefficients for pitched roofs of rectangular
wind incidence - 0o and 90o. The roof surface is
clad building shall be as given in Table 6.
divided into different zones for the purpose of
Where no pressure concentration coefficients
specifying the design pressure values. The values
are given, the average coefficients shall
on the leeward slope are not affected much by the
apply. The pressure coefficients on the under
variations in geometry, which is not so for the
side of any overhanging roof shall be taken in
windward slope where values vary from large
accordance with 6.2.3.5.
pressures to suctions. Local pressure coefficients
Parapets can reduce the wind loads over a for the design of cladding and its connections at
roof. The reduction can be made as given in the edges and ridge are also given – these act
Table 7. upwards, i.e., suction. It is now known that wind
NOTE 1 - The pressure concentration shall be assumed directions other than 0o and 90o can give values
to act outward (suction pressure) at the higher than those at 0o and 90o. However, values
ridges, eaves, cornices and 90 degree are given here for 0o and 90o only, for simplicity
corners of roofs. in design.
NOTE 2 - The pressure concentration shall not be
included with the net external pressure when
computing overall load.
For monoslope and hipped roof also the pressure
NOTE 3 – For hipped roofs, pressure coefficients coefficients can be taken from Table 6, for the
(including local values) may be taken on all applicable roof slope. It has, however, been
the four slopes, as appropriate from Table 6,
and be reduced by 20% for the hip slope. shown that hipped roofs experience smaller
suction as compared to pitched roofs of
For monoslope roofs of rectangular clad corresponding geometry (see Fig. C4 and also
buildings, the average pressure coefficient C5). Thus a relief of 20% is being permitted in
and pressure concentration coefficient for coefficients in the hipped slope.
monoslope (lean-to) roofs of rectangular clad Furthermore, parapets around a roof lead to its
buildings shall be as given in Table 8. shielding. Reduction factors to be used with roof
pressure coefficients depend upon parapet height,
and are given in Table 7. Clad buildings with
monoslope roofs are covered in detail in Table 8.
Pressure coefficients for different angles of wind
incidence are given therein.
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Fig. C4. : Worst Peak Negative Pressure Coefficients – all azimuths (Meecham 1992)

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Fig. C5. : Effects of Roof Architecture on Uplifts

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

(a) For (b/d) > 1 (b)For(b/d)<1

Wind +0.8 b
+0.8 b

d
d

-0.5
-0.7

-0.4 -0.3

(c) For (b/d) = 1, use average values

Arrows indicate direction of wind.

Figure 2: Large opening in buildings (values of coefficients of internal pressure)

with top closed [Clause 6.2.2.2]

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Table 5 External Pressure Coefficients (Cpe) For Walls Of Rectangular Clad Buildings
(Clause 6.2.3.1)

Wind b +0.8
+0.8

d
d

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Table 6 External Pressure

-0.4 -0.3
Coefficient (Cpe) For Pitched Roofs Of Rectangular Clad
Buildings (Clause 6.2.2.2)

Table - 7: Reduction factor Kr) due to parapets [Clause 6.2.3.2]

h Height (hp) of parapet above average roof level Kr
0.07 h 1.0
 25 m
0.1 h 0.8
0.02 w 1.0
> 25 m
0.03 w 0.8
NOTE: w = shortest horizontal dimension of the building.
For intermediate values, use linear interpolation.

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CODE COMMENTARY

6.2.3.3– Canopy roofs with C6.2.3.3 –

1 h L 
   1 and 1   3  -The pressure Tables 9 and 10 give pressure coefficients for the
 4 w w  1
coefficients are given in Tables 9 and 10 limited dimensions of h/w ( 4 to 1) and L/w (1
separately for mono pitch and double pitch to 3) for free standing canopies for the roof slope
canopy roofs such as open-air parking varying between 0o and 30o. Positive values are
garages, shelter areas, outdoor areas, not effected by the blockage under the roof while
railway platforms, stadiums and theatres. the suctions (negative values) are given for two
The coefficients take account of the cases,  = 0 for no blockage and  = 1 for full
combined effect of the wind exerted on and blockage. For intermediate values of  (blockage
under the roof for all wind directions; the ratio), values of pressure coefficients may be
resultant is to be taken normal to the canopy. interpolated. Table 9 gives values of coefficients
Where the local coefficients overlap, the for monopitch roofs and Table 10 for duopitch
greater of the two given values should be roofs. Local coefficients are also specified.
taken. However, the effect of partial closures
of one side and or both sides, such as those
due to trains, buses and stored materials
shall be foreseen and taken into account. .
The solidity ratio  is equal to the area of
obstructions under the canopy divided by the
gross area under the canopy, both areas
normal to the wind direction.  = 0
represents a canopy with no obstructions
underneath.  = 1 represents the canopy
fully blocked with contents to the downwind
eaves. Values of Cp for intermediate solidifies
may be linearly interpolated between these
two extremes, and apply upwind of the
position of maximum blockage only.
Downwind of the position of maximum
blockage the coefficients for  = 0 may be
used.
In addition to the pressure forces normal to
the canopy, there will be horizontal loads on
the canopy due to the wind pressure on any
fascia and to friction over the surface of the
canopy. For any wind direction, only the
greater of these two forces need be taken
into account. Fascia loads should be
calculated on the area of the surface facing
the wind, using a force coefficient of 1.3.
Frictional drag should be calculated using the
coefficients given in 6.3.1.

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Table 8 External Pressure Coefficient (Cpe) For Monoslope Roofs For

H
Rectangular Clad Buildings With  2 (Clause 6.2.3.2)
W

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Table 9 Pressure Coefficient For Monoslope Roofs (Clause 6.2.3.3)

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Table 10 Pressure Coefficient For Free Standing Double Sloped Roofs (Clause
6.2.3.3)

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6.2.3.4– Pitched and saw-tooth roofs of multi- C6.2.3.4 –

span buildings - For pitched (Fig. 3) and saw-
tooth roofs (Fig. 4) of multi-span buildings, The figures and Tables are self-explanatory. It is
the external average pressure coefficients to be noted that whereas the roof surfaces of
shall be as given in Tables 11 and 12 exterior spans (A, B, C, Y for pitched roofs, and
respectively provided that all spans shall be A, B, C, D, W, X, Y for saw- tooth roofs) will
equal Where two values are given for the experience different wind pressures, the roofs of
coefficients, both shall be used for design. All interior spans (M for pitched roof and M, N for
pressure coefficients shall be used with the saw-tooth roof) will experience similar effects.
value of wind speed applying at average roof Furthermore, for some slopes both negative as
height (h). well as positive values are applicable and should
be considered, as found critical in design.
External pressure coefficients for wind
directions of  = 90o and  = 270o shall be
obtained from clauses 6.2.3.1 and 6.2.3.2 but
Tables 11 and 12 do, however, have to be used in
[-0.05 (n-1)] shall be added to the roof
conjunction with Tables 5 and 6 to give the
pressure coefficients in the region 0 to 1h
complete information on wind forces on such
from the leading edge, where n is the total
structures.
number of spans. For this calculation, take n
= 4, if n is greater than 4. Local Pressures
may be taken at the edges and ridge of each
span, over a width equal to h or 0.1 d s
whichever is less. For the end spans take the
local coefficient as – 2.0 and for the
intermediate spans as – 1.5.

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 DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

B C M
Wind
direction

M M M M M

A Y

dS

Figure3: External pressure coefficients (Cpe) for multi-span buildings- pitched roofs
[Clause 6.2.3.4 ]

Wind
B D N N X Wind
direction C M M W
 direction
 = 0o
 = 180o
A h
Y

dS

Figure4: External pressure coefficients (Cpe) for multi-span buildings-saw-tooth roofs

[Clause 6.2.3.4 ]

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Table11: External pressure coefficients (Cpe) for multi-span buildings – pitch roofs
[Clause 6.2.3.4]

Surface reference (see Figure3)

A B C M Y

Use Table 6 for same (h/d), and , -0.3 and 0.2 for  < 10 o

0.7 -0.2
as appropriate - 0.5 and 0.3 for  10o

Table12: External pressure coefficients (Cpe) for multi-span buildings – saw-tooth roofs
[Clause 6.2.3.4]

Wind Surface reference (see Figure 4)

Direction 
(degrees) A B C D M N W X Y

-0.5, -0.5, -0.5, -0.3,

0 0.7 -0.9 -0.9 -0.4 -0.2
0.2 0.5 0.3 0.5
-0.2, -0.2,
180 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.4 -0.7 -0.3 0.7
0.2 0.2

6.2.3.5– Pressure coefficients on overhangs C6.2.3.5 –

from roofs - The pressure coefficients on the
top-overhanging portion of the roofs shall be Overhangs from a buildings are affected by wind
taken to be the same as that of the nearest pressure acting from underneath. These combined
top portion of the non-overhanging portion of with pressures (or suctions) on the top surface
the roofs. The pressure coefficients for the often create a severe design condition.
underside surface of the overhanging portion
shall be taken as follows and shall be taken
as positive if the overhanging portion is on
the windward side:
a) 1.25 if the overhanging slopes
downwards,
b) 1.00 if the overhanging is horizontal, and
c) 0.75 if the overhanging slopes upwards.
For overhanging portions on sides other than
the windward side, the average pressure
coefficients on adjoining walls may be used.

6.2.3.6 – Curved Roofs -For curved roofs, the C6.2.3.6 –

external pressure coefficients shall be as This clause specifies values of pressure
given in Table13. coefficients on curved convex roof surfaces,
which are perhaps the most common amongst
curved roofs. Most part of the roof exterior is
subjected to suction. A variety of other curved
shapes have been used in roofs, such as, domical,
singly curved concave, saucer shaped, and doubly
curved (hyperbolic paraboloid). Values of wind
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 DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

pressure coefficients are available for such

shapes, more as a result of case specific studies,
and are contained in the literature (Prem Krishna,
1989). Considering that these roof shapes are not
a common occurrence, these are not covered in
this code or in other International Codes.

Table 13: External pressure coefficients for curved roofs. [Clause 6.2.3.6]
C

–0.4
Wind
C1 H
0.7
H

l
H/l C C1 C2
0.1 -0.8 +0.1 -0.8
0.2 -0.9 +0.3 -0.7
C
0.3 -1.0 +0.4 -0.3
0.4 -1.1 +0.6 +0.4
–0.4
0.5 -1.2 +0.7 +0.7

0.7 H
C2
H NOTE – When the wind is blowing normal to
gable ends, Cpe may be taken as
Wind equal to –0.7 for the full width of the
roof over a length of l/2 from the gable
+0.8 -0.6 ends and –0.5 for the remaining
portion.

Central Half (c)

Leeward Quarter (–0.4)

Windward
quarter (c2)

Portion of roof below this line

to be treated as an extension
Wind of vertical supports
l

L
+0.8 -0.6

6.2.3.7 – Cylindrical structures C6.2.3.7 –

For the purpose of calculating the wind Wind effects on cylindrical structures are
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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

pressure distribution around a cylindrical influenced by the Reynold’s Number, Re given

structure of circular cross-section, the value by VD/, where V is the velocity of wind, D the
of external pressure coefficients given in diameter, and  the kinematic viscosity of air. The
Table 14 may be used provided that the values given in the code are for Re greater than
Reynolds number is greater than 10,000. 10,000, a value commonly achieved in practice.
These may be used for wind blowing normal These are given for different proportions of a
to the axis of cylinders having axis normal to cylinder, and values of Cpi are specified for open
the ground plane (that is, chimneys and silos) ended cylinders.
and cylinders having their axis parallel to the
ground plane (that is, horizontal tanks)
provided that the clearance between the tank Slender cylinders, such as those with h/D greater
and the ground is not less than the diameter than 5 may experience aerodynamic effects in the
D of the cylinder. along-wind as well as across-wind direction.
These are dealt with later in Sections 8 and 9.
h is height of a vertical cylinder or length of a
horizontal cylinder. Where there is a free flow
of air around both ends, h is to be taken as
half the length when calculating h/D ratio.
In the calculation of the resulting force on the
periphery of the cylinder, the value of Cpi
shall be taken into account. For open-ended
cylinders, Cpi shall be taken as follows:
a) -0.8 where h/D is not less than 0.3, and
b) -0.5 where h/D is less than 0.3.

6.2.3.8– Roofs and bottoms of cylindrical C6.2.3.8 –

structures - The external pressure The clause specifies forces on roofs over a
coefficients for roofs and bottoms of cylindrical structure, placed on ground or
cylindrical elevated structures shall be as elevated. The roof may be flat, sloping or
given in Table 15. For details of roof pressure domical. While Table 15 gives the overall force
distribution see Fig. 5. coefficients, detailed pressure distribution over a
The total resultant load (P) acting on the roof conical roof is given in Fig. 5.
of the structure is given by the following
formula: In addition to the external pressures/forces,
internal pressure may also occur on the roof of a
P = 0.785 D2 (pi – Cpe pd) container. This may be due to the vapour of the
liquid stored, or due to wind where there is a
Where pi is the pressure inside the tank
degree of permeability to allow entry to the wind.
caused by the stored fluid.
Cpi should be taken as zero for an R.C.C. water
The resultant of P for roofs lies at 0.1 D from tank, being of monolithic construction.
the center of the roof on the windward side.

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Table 14: External pressure distribution coefficients around cylindrical structures

[Clause 6.2.3. 7]

h/D = 25
h/D = 7
_
h/D = 1
h
Cpe


Wind
D

Position of Pressure Coefficients, Cpe

Periphery 
h/D = 25 h/D = 7 h/D = 1
(degrees)
0 1.0 1.0 1.0
15 0.8 0.8 0.8
30 0.1 0.1 0.1
45 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7
60 -1.9 -1.7 -1.2
75 -2.5 -2.2 -1.6
90 -2.6 -2.2 -1.7
105 -1.9 -1.7 -1.2
120 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7
135 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5
150 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4
165 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4
180 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4

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Table 15: External pressure coefficients for roofs and bottoms of cylindrical
buildings [Clause 6.2.3. 8]

P
P
Direction e = 0.1 D e = 0.1 D
of wind Cpe
Cpe

(a) Flat roof

H
Cpe (d)
D
(b) Curved roof
Z
Cpe Cpe

(c) Conical roof

H
h

Coefficient of External Pressure, Cpe

Structure According to Shape
a, b and c d
H/D Roof (z/H)-1 Roof Bottom
0.5 -0.65 1.00 -0.75 -0.8
1.00 -1.00 1.25 -0.75 -0.7
2.00 -1.00 1.50 -0.75 -0.6

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

1.5 1.0
0.5

0.2D < h < 3.D h

tan  < 0.2

1.1.1.1 SECTION AA
( < 11.5o)
D

45o

Wind
A A

0.2a

Cpe = -1.5 Cpe = -0.5

a
Cpe = -1.0

A = 0.5D for 2< (h/D)<3 PLAN

= 0.15h + 0.2D for 0.2 < (h/D) < 2

(For Force Coefficient Corresponding to Shell Portion, See Table 20)

Figure 5: External pressure coefficient on the upper roof surface of circular

structure standing on the ground. [Clause 6.2.3.8]

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Table 16: External pressure coefficients, Cpe for combined roofs. [Clause 6.2.3. 9]

0.8
Direction c d Direction 1  30o
1 2
b b1  b2
a
h1
0.6 h2
a

b1 b2

Cpe = 0.4 (h1/h2)-0.6

0.4

1.
Cpe 2 h1/h2
0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

0.13
a
Cpe = (h1/h2)-1.7

0
Direction c d Direction
1 2
b
a
Cpe = 2(h1/h2)- h1
- 0.2 e
2.9 h2

a
- 0.4

- 0.6
Values of Cpe
1.1.1.1 Portion 1.1.1.2 Direction 1 Direction 2
a From the Diagram
- 0.8
Cpe = -0.5, (h1/h2)  1.75 -0.4
b
Cpe = +0.7, (h1/h2) > 1.75

-c1.0
and d See 6.2.3.2
e See 6.2.3.5

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Table 17: External pressure coefficients, Cpe for roofs with a skylight. – [Clause 6.2.3.10]

Wind +0.4 -0.6

-0.6 -0.5

-0.8
Wind b -0.6
a
-0.5

h1 h2

b1 b2

b1 > b2 b1  b2
Portion a b a and b
Cpe -0.6 +0.7 See Table 16

CODE COMMENTARY

6.2.3.9 – Combined roofs - The average C6.2.3.9 –

external pressure coefficients for combined This clause deals with a situation often found in
roofs are shown in Table 16 practice – that of a pitched roof with a porch (or a
car park), both open and closed. The clause takes
recourse to the use of clauses 6.2.3.2 and 6.2.3.5
for assigning pressure coefficients on roof slopes
and on overhangs respectively. Two principal
wind directions are covered for the building with
varying geometrical proportions.

6.2.3.10 – Roofs with skylight - The average C6.2.3.10 –

external pressure coefficients for roofs with The clauses give pressure coefficients and the
skylight are shown in Table 17. corresponding figures/tables are self explanatory

6.2.3.11 - C6.2.3.11 –
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CODE COMMENTARY

The clauses give pressure coefficients and the

corresponding figures/tables are self explanatory
Grandstands - The pressure coefficients on
the roof (top and bottom) and rear wall of a
typical grandstand roof, which is open on
three sides, is given in Table.18. The
pressure coefficients are valid for a particular
ratio of dimensions as specified in Table 18.
but may be used for deviations up to 20
percent. In general, the maximum wind load
occurs when the wind is blowing into the
open front of the stand, causing positive
pressure under the roof and negative
pressure on the roof.

6.2.3.12– C6.2.3.12 –
Spheres – The external pressure coefficients The clauses give pressure coefficients and the
for spheres shall be as given in Table 19. corresponding figures/tables are self explanatory.

6.2.3.13– C6.2.3.13 –
Frames – When taking wind loads on frames, Pressure coefficients on different faces of a
of clad buildings it is reasonable to assume structure, namely the walls or the roof slopes are
that the pressures or suctions over the entire given in the code. These values, as explained
structure will not be fully correlated. earlier, are obtained by averaging values of
Therefore when taking the combined effect of measured pressures in different parts of the
wind loads on the frame, the forces obtained structure. For analysing a frame, reactions from
in the frame may be reduced as per values of these different parts will be accounted for. Forces
Kc given in Table 20. on account of internal pressures will also be
included. The frame will experience the
integrated effect of these different force
components, caused by wind which is
characterized by randomness. Thus the forces
from different components are going to be only
partly correlated. A reduction factor on the
computed responses of the frame is thus being
permitted. The factor varies between 0.8 and 1.0.

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Table 18: Pressure coefficients at top and bottom roof of grandstands open on
three sides (roof angle up to 5o) [Clause 6.2.3.11]
(h:b:l = 0.8 : 1 : 2.2)

Front and Back of Wall

AC EG
 J K L M

0.4 h
0o +0.9 -0.5 +0.9 -0.5
B D F H
o
45 +0.8 -0.6 +0.4 -0.4
h
135o -1.1 +0.6 -1.0 +0.4
o
180 -0.3 +0.9 -0.3 +0.9
JL KM

A E
B F J K


0o l

C G
D H
L M

Top and Bottom of Roof

 A B C D E F G H
0o -0.1 +0.9 -1.0 +0.9 -0.7 +0.9 +0.7 +0.9
o
45 -1.0 +0.9 -0.7 +0.4 -0.5 +0.8 -0.5 +0.3
135o -0.4 -1.1 -0.7 -1.0 -0.9 -1.1 -0.9 -1.0
o
180 -0.6 -0.3 -0.6 -0.3 -0.6 -0.3 -0.6 -0.3

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Table 19: External pressure distribution coefficients around spherical structures

[Clause 6.2.3.12]

Cpe


Wind
CL
D

Position of Cpe Remarks

Periphery,  in
Degrees
0 +1.0 Cf = 0.5 for DVz < 7
15 +0.9 = 0.2 for DVz  7
30 +0.5
45 -0.1 where D is the diameter of the sphere
60 -0.7
75 -1.1
90 -1.2
105 -1.0
120 -0.6
135 -0.2
150 +0.1
165 +0.3
180 +0.4

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Table 20: Combination factors for wind pressure contributing from two or more
building surfaces to effects on major structural elements [Clause
6.2.3.13]

Combination
Design case Example diagrams
factor (Kc)
(a) Where wind action
from any single
surface contributes 1.0 ----
75 percent or more to
an action effect.
(b) Pressures from
windward and
leeward walls in
combination with
positive or negative
roof pressures 0.8

(c) Positive pressures on

roofs in combination
with negative internal
pressures (from a
0.8
wall opening)

(d) Negative pressures

on roofs or walls in
combination with
positive internal
pressures 0.95

(c) All other cases 1.0 ----

NOTE: The action combination factors less than 1.0 can be justified because wind pressures
are highly fluctuating and do not occur simultaneously on all building surfaces.

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

6.3 – Force Coefficients C6.3 -

The value of force coefficients apply to a An obstruction to the flow of wind by an object
building or structure as a whole, and when results in creating a pressure on the surface of the
multiplied by the effective frontal area Ae of object, in a direction normal to it. When
the building or structure and by design wind multiplied by the area over which the pressure is
pressure pd, gives the total wind load on that acting, a force results. Since the pressure over a
particular building or structure. surface varies, ideally, the computation of force
over an area should be done by dividing the
F = Cf Ae pd
surface into small tributary areas, and then
where F is the force acting in a direction integrating the obtained forces over these small
specified in the respective tables and Cf is the areas. In other words, a force over an element of a
force coefficient for the building. structure, or the structure as a whole is obtained
NOTE 1 –The value of the force coefficient differs as an integration of the term ‘pressure  area’, as
for the wind acting on different faces of a relevant. Such a force can be obtained on a clad
building or structure. In order to building, or an unclad building or its components
determine the critical load, the total wind and can be expressed in terms of a force
load should be calculated for each wind coefficient, as in this clause. In deducing the force
direction. coefficient the direction of the force has to be
NOTE 2 – If surface design pressure varies with specified. A force taken to act in the direction of
height, the surface area of the the wind is called ‘drag’, while that in a direction
building/structure may be sub-divided so perpendicular to it is called ‘lift’.
that specified pressures are taken over
appropriate areas. Whereas the use of the force coefficients as given
NOTE 3 –In tapered buildings/structures, the force will only help in determining the overall force
coefficients shall be applied after sub- system on the structure and its foundation in order
dividing the building/structure into to design the framework or to compute stability;
suitable number of strips and the load on the distribution of pressure (and hence the local
each strip calculated individually, taking pressure coefficient) is essentially required for
the area of each strip as Ae. designing the fasteners, cladding, and its support
system.

6.3.1 – Frictional Drag: C6.3.1 –

A force due to frictional drag shall be taken The flow of wind around/over a structure, as
into account in addition to those loads mentioned already, causes surface pressures. In
specified in 6.2. For rectangular clad addition, there is friction between the surface of
buildings, this addition is necessary only the structure and the wind flowing over it. This
where the ratio d/h or d/b is greater than 4. results in a frictional force in the direction of
The frictional drag force, F, in the direction of wind. This clause specifies the frictional drag for
the wind is given by the following formulae: a rectangular clad building.
If h  b, F = Cf (d - 4h) bpd + Cf (d - 4h) 2
hpd, and
If h > b, F = Cf (d – 4b) bpd + Cf (d – 4b) 2
hpd, and
The first term in each case gives the drag on
the roof and the second on the walls. The
value of Cf has the following values:
Cf = 0.01 for smooth surfaces without
corrugations or ribs across the wind
direction,
Cf = 0.02 for smooth surfaces with
corrugations or ribs across the wind
direction,

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CODE COMMENTARY

Cf = 0.04 for surfaces with corrugations or

ribs across the wind direction,
For other buildings, the effect of frictional
drag has been included, where necessary, in
the values of pressure coefficients and force
coefficients.

6.3.2 – Force Coefficients for Clad C6.3.2 –

Buildings
Clad rectangular buildings with different
proportions are covered in this clause in addition
to buildings of a variety of other shapes, both
with sharp edges as well as rounded corners. For
cases where the edges are sharp, or nearly so, the
Reynolds number has only a limited influence on
the wind pressures or forces. However, for
rounded edges, or for shapes which are circular or
near circular, Reynolds number has a marked
effect. This has been accounted for in Table 21 by
specifying the applicable range of V zb. The force
values are also a function of the aspect ratio.
However, noticing the lack of sensitivity to the
height/breadth ratio, the Table-21 from the
existing code has been consolidated.

6.3.2.1 – Clad buildings of uniform section -

The overall force coefficients for rectangular
clad buildings of uniform section with flat
roofs in uniform flow shall be as given in Fig.
6 and for other clad buildings of uniform
section (without projections, except where
otherwise shown) shall be as given in Table
21.

6.3.2.2 – Free standing walls and hoardings -

Force coefficients for free standing walls and
hoardings shall be as given in Table 22.
To allow for oblique winds, the design shall
also be checked for net pressure normal to
the surface varying linearly from a maximum
of 1.7 Cf at the windward edge to 0.44 Cf at
the leeward edge.
The wind load on appurtenances and
supports for hoardings shall be accounted for
separately by using the appropriate net
pressure coefficients. Allowance shall be
made for shielding effects of one element on
another.

6.3.2.3 – Solid circular shapes mounted on a

surface - The force coefficients for solid
circular shapes mounted on a surface shall
be as given in Table 23 .

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CODE COMMENTARY

6.3.3 – Force Coefficients for C 6.3.3 –

Unclad Buildings and Force coefficients in this section are given for
Frameworks skeletal frameworks or individual elements,
This section applies to frameworks of unclad which imply considerations of their shape, aspect
buildings (permanently or temporarily) and to ratio, Reynolds number effect and shielding
frameworks of other structures amongst members. The angle of wind incidence
can also affect the coefficients.

6.3.3.1 – Individual members - C6.3.3.1 –

(a) The coefficients refer to the members For a member of finite length, held in free space,
of infinite length. For members of finite wind would escape at the two ends of the
length, the coefficients should be multiplied member. Thus there is a reduction in the overall
by a factor K that depends on the ratio l/b wind force acting on the member. The shorter the
where l is the length of the member and b is member the greater is this reduction. Table 25
the width across the direction of wind. Table gives the reduction factors. In reckoning the
25 gives the required values of K. The length of the member, the end conditions play a
following special cases must be noted while role. For example, if a member is connected into
estimating K. plates at the ends, its length is to be treated as
i. Where any member abuts onto a plate or infinite, with reduction factor becoming 1.0.
wall in such a way that free flow of air around
that end of the member is prevented, then Table 24 provides the coefficients for flat–sided
the ratio of l/b shall be doubled for the members, in which Reynolds number will not
purpose of determining K; and have an influence. Table 26 likewise gives the
ii. When both ends of a member are so values for wires and cables, for which Reynolds
obstructed, the ratio l/b shall be taken as number will have a marked influence. Wind
infinity for the purpose of determining K. forces will also be influenced by the surface
roughness.
(b) Flat-sided members – Force coefficients
for wind normal to the longitudinal axis of flat-
sided structural members shall be as given in
Table 24.
The force coefficients are given for two
mutually perpendicular directions relative to a
reference axis on the structural member.
They are designated as Cfn and Cft, force
normal and transverse, respectively to the
reference plane as shown in Table 24.
Normal force, Fn = Cfn pdK l b
Transverse force, Ft = Cft pdK l b
(c) Circular sections – Force coefficients for
members of circular section shall be as given
in Table
3.0 21.
(d) Force coefficients for wires
h/b =and
 cables
shall be as given in Table 26 according to the
diameter a
2.5 (D), the design wind speed
20 (Vz) and
the surface roughness.
Cf 10 Wind b F
5
2.0
6A Values of Cf versus a/b for h/b  1 Plan

1.5 3
h F
1

1.0
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Elevation
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0.5 a/b F = Cf pd bh
 0

DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

1.4

1/4
1.2 1/4
1/2
h/b =
1/2 1/4
h/b = 1/2
1.0

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

0.8 a/b
6B Values of Cf versus a/b for h/b < 1

Figure 6: Force coefficients for rectangular clad buildings in uniform flow [Clause
6.3.2.1]

Table 21: Force coefficients Cf for clad buildings of uniform section (acting in the
direction of wind) [Clause 6.3.2.1]

Cf for Height / Breadth Ratio

Plan Shape Vzb m2/s
2 10  20
All Surfaces <6
Rough or 0.7 0.9 1.2
Wind with 6
b
Vz projections
Smooth 6 0.5 0.5 0.6

d
Ellipse < 10 0.5 0.6 0.7

b b/d = 1/2
 10 0.2 0.2 0.2

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

d <8 0.9 1.1 1.7

Ellipse
b/d = 2
b
8 0.9 1.1 1.5

<4 0.6 0.8 1.0

r b/d = 1
r/b = 1/3
4 0.4 0.5 0.5

< 10 0.8 1.0 1.3

r b/d = 1
r/b = 1/6
 10 0.5 0.6 0.6

d
b/d = 1/2 <3 0.3 0.3 0.4

r b r/b = 1/2
3 0.2 0.3 0.3

d
b/d = 1/2
All values 0.5 0.6 0.7
r b r/b = 1/6

b/d = 2
b All values 1.0 1.2 1.9
r/b = 1/12

d <6 0.8 1.0 1.6

b/d = 2
b r/b = ¼
6 0.5 0.5 0.6

< 10 0.9 1.1 1.5

d

b r/a = 1/3
r
 10 0.5 0.5 0.6
a

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

r/a = 1/12 All values 0.9 1.2 1.6

a
45o
r/a = 1/48 All values 0.9 1.2 1.6

< 11 0.7 0.9 1.2

r b
r/b = ¼

 11 0.4 0.5 0.5

d

b
r/b = 1/12 All values 0.8 1.1 1.4

b r/b = 1/48 All Values 0.8 1.0 1.3

<8 0.8 1.0 1.3

b
r/b = ¼

8 0.4 0.5 0.5

d

1/48 < r/b <

All Values 1.2 1.6 2.1
1/12

12-sided < 12 0.8 1.0 1.3

polygon

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

 12 0.7 0.8 1.1

Octagon All values 1.1 1.2 1.4

Hexagon All values 1.2 1.4 1.5

Structures that, because of their size and design wind velocity, are in the supercritical flow
regime may need further calculation to ensure that the greatest loads do not occur at some
wind speed below the maximum when the flow will be sub-critical.
The coefficients are for buildings without projections, except where otherwise shown. In this
table Vzb is used as an indication of the airflow regime .

Table 22: Force coefficients for low walls or hoardings (< 15 m high). [Clause 6.3.2.2]

b
b

h
h

h

Above Ground h  0.25 h One edge on Ground

Width to Height Ratio, b/h

Drag Coefficient, Cf
Wall above Ground Wall on Ground
From 0.5 to 6 From 1 to 12 1.2
10 20 1.3

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

16 32 1.4
20 40 1.5
40 80 1.75
60 120 1.8
80 or more 160 or more 2.0

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Table 23: Force coefficients for solid shapes mounted on a surface. [Clause 6.3.2.3]

SIDE ELEVATION DESCRIPTION OF SHAPE Cf

CIRCULAR DISC
1.2

HEMISPHERICAL BOWL 1.4

HEMISPHERICAL BOWL 0.4

HEMISPHERICAL SOLID 1.2

SPHERICAL SOLID 0.5 FOR VzD < 7

0.2 FOR VzD  7

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Table 24: Force coefficients (Cf) for individual structural members of infinite length [Clause 6.3.3.1(a)]

½b Ft Ft Ft Ft Ft Ft
b Fn 0.1 b
Fn Fn
b 0o 0o b
0 o 0 o o
0 b 0o b Fn
b b
 Fn b
Fn
Wind 0.1b 0.45 b 1.1 0.43 b
b

 Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft
Degrees
0 +1.9 +0.95 +1.8 +1.8 +1.75 +0.1 +1.6 0 +2.0 0 +2.05 0
45 +1.8 +0.8 +2.1 +1.8 +0.85 +0.85 +1.5 -0.1 +1.2 +0.9 +1.85 +0.6
90 +2.0 +1.7 -1.9 -1.0 +0.1 +1.75 -0.95 +0.7 -1.6 +2.15 0 +0.6
135 -1.8 -0.1 -2.0 +0.3 -0.75 +0.75 -0.5 +1.05 -1.1 +2.4 -1.6 +0.4
180 -2.0 +0.1 -1.4 -1.4 -1.75 -0.1 -1.5 0 -1.7 2.1 -1.8 0
Ft Ft Ft Ft Ft

o 0.5 b Fn Fn b Fn *
b 0 b
Fn 0o b 0o 0o Fn b
0o

1.6 b
b 0.48 b
b 0.1 b

 Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft
Degrees
0 +1.4 0 +2.05 0 +1.6 0 +2.0 0 +2.0 0
45 +1.2 +1.6 +1.95 +0.6 +1.5 +1.5 +1.8 +0.1 +1.55 +1.55
90 0 +2.2 +0.5 +0.9 0 +1.9 0 +0.1 0 +2.0
NOTE: In this table, the force coefficient Cf is given in relation to the dimension b and not, as in other cases, in relation to effective frontal area Ae.

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CODE COMMENTARY

Table 25: Reduction factor K for individual members. [Clause 6.3.3.1 (a)]

l /b or l /D 2 5 10 20 40 50 100 
Circular cylinder, 0.58 0.62 0.68 0.74 0.82 0.87 0.98 1.00
subsritical flow
Circular cylinder, 0.80 0.80 0.82 0.90 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.00
supercritical flow
(DVz 6 m2/s)
Flat plate perpendicular 0.62 0.66 0.69 0.81 0.87 0.90 0.95 1.00
to wind (DVz  6 m2/s)

Table26: Force coefficients for wires and cables (l/d =100). [Clause 6.3.3.1(d)]

Force Coefficients, Cf for

Moderately Fine Thick
Flow Regime Smooth Smooth Wire Stranded Stranded
Surface (Galvanized or Cables Cables
Painted)
DVz < 0.6 m2/s -- -- 1.2 1.3
DVz  0.6 m2/s -- -- 0.9 1.1
DVz < 6 m2/s 1.2 1.2 -- --
DVz  6 m2/s 0.5 0.7 -- --

6.3.3.2 – Single frames - Force coefficients C6.3.3.2 –

for a single frame having either: Force coefficients for single frames are given for
(a) All flat sided flat sided members or members of circular
members, or section, the latter being influenced by the flow
(b) All circular regime. Where a frame consists of both flat sided
members in which all the members of the members and members of circular cross-section,
frame have either: the coefficients given for these respective shapes
i. DVz less than 6 m2/s, or may be used from Table 27.

ii. DVz greater than 6 m2/s The solidity ratio of the frame also effects the
value of Cf. The solidity ratio implies the ratio of
shall be as given in Table 27 according to
the type of the member, the diameter (D), the net exposed area of the frame members divided
design wind speed (Vz) and the solidity ratio by the gross area bound by these members. See
Fig. C6.
().
Shaded area
 
Area a b c d

a b

c
d
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 CODE COMMENTARY

For latticed steel towers  varies typically

between about 0.1 and 0.3. For lattice frames see
6.3.3.4.

Table 27: Force coefficients for single frames [Clause 6.3.3.2(b)]

Force Coefficients, Cf
For Circular Members
Solidity Ratio  Flat-sided
Sub-critical flow Supercritical flow
members
(DVz < 6 m2/s) (DVz  6 m2/s)
0.1 1.9 1.2 0.7
0.2 1.8 1.2 0.8
0.3 1.7 1.2 0.8
0.4 1.7 1.1 0.8
0.5 1.6 1.1 0.8
0.75 1.6 1.5 1.4
1.00 2.0 2.0 2.0
NOTE: Linear interpolation between the values is permitted.

Force coefficients for a single frame not

complying with the above requirements shall
be calculated as follows:
A circ sub A flat
C f  γ C f super  1  γ  Cf sub  1  γ  Cf flat
A sub A sub

where
Cf super = force coefficient for the supercritical
circular members as given in Table 27.
Cf sub = force coefficient for subcritical circular
members as given in Table 27.
Cf flat = force coefficient for the flat sided
members as given in Table 27,
Acirc sub = effective area of subcritical circular
members,
Aflat = effective area of flat-sided members,
Asub = Acirc sub + A flat, and
 Area of the frame in a supercritical flow 
γ 
 Ae 
 

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6.3.3.3 – Multiple frame buildings – C6.3.3.3 –

This section applies to structures having two During the construction of a clad building, a
or more parallel frames where the windward situation will often occur when the framework
frames may have a shielding effect upon the will still be unclad (This may occur for a structure
frames to leeward side. The windward frame or a part of it even permanently). For such unclad
and any unshielded parts of other frames frames, or parts thereof, force coefficients can be
shall be calculated in accordance with6.3.3.2, taken as in 6.3.3.2. If there are multiple frames, as
but the wind load on the parts of frames that envisaged in this clause, and as will occur
are sheltered should be multiplied by a commonly, one frame may shield the other. The
shielding factor which is dependent upon the manner of accounting for this shielding, and its
solidity ratio of the windward frame, the types extent, is clearly explained in the Clause.
of the members comprising the frame and
the spacing ratio of the frames. The values of
the shielding factors are given in Table 28.

Table 28: Shielding factor  for multiple frames [Clause 6.3.3.3]

Effective Frame Spacing Ratio

Solidity
Ratio,  <0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 > 8.0

0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

0.1 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.2 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.3 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.4 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.0
0.7 0.3 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0
1.0 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.8 1.0
NOTE: Linear interpolation between values is permitted.

Where there are more than two frames of

similar geometry and spacing, the wind load
on the third and subsequent frames should
be taken as equal to that on the second
frame. The loads on the various frames shall
be added to obtain total load on the structure.
a) The frame spacing ratio is equal to the
distance, centre to centre of the frames,
beams or girders divided by the least overall
dimension of the frame, beam or girder
measured at right angles to the direction of
the wind. For triangular framed structures or
rectangular framed structures diagonal to the
wind, the spacing ratio should be calculated
from the mean distance between the frames
in the direction of the wind.
b) Effective solidity ratio, :

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 =  for flat-sided members.

 is to be obtained from Fig. 7 for

members of circular cross-sections.

Effective solidity
Ratio, 

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25

ratio,  for round section members [Clause 6.3.3.3(b)]

Figure 7: Effective solidity0.20

0.15

6.3.3.4 – Lattice towers - 0.1 0.2 C6.3.3.4

0.3 0.4 –0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
0.10 0
The
a) Force coefficient for lattice towers of Solidity clause provides for force coefficients for
square well astriangular based latticed towers
asRatio,
square or equilateral triangle section
0.05 with flat-
sided members for wind blowing against any with flat-sided or circular sections used for the
face shall be as given in Table 29. members. Such towers often taper from the base
towards the top. The frontal area exposed to the
wind as well as the solidity ratio therefore goes on
changing. It may thus become necessary to divide
the tower into several smaller parts along the
height and compute forces on each part
separately. (a), (b) and (c) deal with towers with
flat sided members, while (d) and (e) address
towers with circular members. For square based
towers, it is pertinent to distinguish between
‘wind onto face’ or ‘onto corner’. Former is
critical for the design of bracings while the latter
for tower legs.

b) For square lattice towers with flat-sided

members the maximum load, which

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occurs when the wind blows into a

corner, shall be taken as 1.2 times the
load for the wind blowing against a face.
c) For equilateral-triangle lattice towers with
flat-sided members the load may be
assumed to be constant for any
inclinations of wind to a face.
d) Force coefficients for lattice towers of
square section with circular members, all
in the same flow regime, may be as
given in Table 30.
e) Force coefficients for lattice towers of
equilateral-triangle section with circular
members all in the same flow regime
may be as given in Table 31.

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Table 30: Overall force coefficient for square towers composed of rounded members
[Clause 6.3.3.4 (d)]
Solidity Force Coefficient for
Ratio of
Sub-critical flow Supercritical flow
Front Face
(DVz < 6 m2/s)
(DVz  6 m2/s)
Onto face Onto corner Onto face Onto corner
0.05 2.4 2.5 1.1 1.2
0.1 2.2 2.3 1.2 1.3
0.2 1.9 2.1 1.3 1.6
0.3 1.7 1.9 1.4 1.6
0.4 1.6 1.9 1.4 1.6
0.5 1.4 1.9 1.4 1.6

Table 31: Overall force coefficient for equilateral-triangular towers composed of rounded
members [Clause 6.3.3.4 (e)]

Solidity Ratio of Front Force Coefficient for

Face Subcritical Flow Equilateral Triangular Towers
 (DVz < 6 m2/s) (DVz  6 m2/s)
0.05 1.8 0.8
0.1 1.7 0.8
0.2 1.6 1.1
0.3 1.5 1.1
0.4 1.5 1.1
0.5 1.4 1.2

6.3.3.5 – Tower Appurtenance -The wind

loading on tower appurtenances, such as
ladders, conduits, lights, elevators etc, shall
be calculated using appropriate net pressure
coefficients for these elements. Allowance
may be made for shielding effect from other
elements.

6 – INTERFERENCE
EFFECTS

7.1 - C7.1 -

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Wind interference is caused by modification When a structure is surrounded by other

in the wind characteristics produced by the structures of similar size, the oncoming wind
obstruction caused by an object or a characteristics may get substantially modified due
structure in the path of the wind. If such wind to formation of a highly turbulent wake zone on
strikes another structure, the wind pressures the downstream side of the interfering
usually get enhanced, though there can also structure(s). While the mean velocity may reduce
be some shielding effect between two very (shielding effect), the fluctuating velocity
closely spaced buildings/structures. The components of the wind get significantly
actual phenomenon is too complex to justify enhanced on account of the high turbulence so
generalization of the wind forces/pressures generated. Besides, large size eddies are formed
produced due to interference, which can only and released at more or less regular intervals. As
be ascertained by detailed wind tunnel/CFD a result, narrow but unstable shear zones are
studies. However, some guidance can be created at the wake boundaries. The modifications
provided for the purpose of preliminary in the flow affect the small height (rigid)
design. To account for the effect of structures differently than the flexible tall
interference, a wind interference factor (IF) structures. The mean pressures over the short
has been introduced as a multiplying factor rigid structures may often reduce (shielding)
for the (or to be applied to the) design wind while the fluctuating ones may get enhanced. In
pressure/force. tall structures, whereas the mean along-wind
response may often reduce, the fluctuating along-
wind response (dynamic component) and the
across-wind response quite commonly get
enhanced.

Interference is governed by a large number of

geometrical parameters (shape and dimensions of
various interfering structures vis-à-vis those of
the interfered structure, and, layout of interfering
and interfered structures defined by their relative
distances and orientations which could be
innumerable), and flow parameters (wind
direction, wind angle of attack and Strouhal
Number/Reduced velocity, besides Reynolds
number in case of rounded bodies), which has
made generalization and codification of
interference effect difficult, though much research
has been done on the subject and a good amount
of literature is available on the same.

It is usual to express the effect of interference in

terms of the ratio of the modified pressure/force
due to interference and the wind pressure/force
without any interference (i.e., stand-alone
condition). This non-dimensional term is called as
Interference Factor (IF).

7.2 – Roof of Low-rise C7.2 --

Buildings As explained above, there could be some
Maximum increase in wind force on the roof shielding effect when the two buildings are too
due to interference from similar buildings in close (x < b) to each other. Such situations may
case of closely spaced low-rise buildings arise in row-housings or group/mass housing
may be upto 25% for distance (x) between schemes. It would be conservative to neglect

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the buildings of 5 times the dimension (b) of shielding (i.e., take IF as unity) in such cases or
the interfering building normal to the direction take specialist advice. The code recommends IF
of wind. Interference effect beyond 20b may values in the range of 1.0 to 1.25 considering
be considered to be negligible (Figure 8). For worst wind direction.
intermediate distances, linear interpolation
may be used. Figure C7 shows how the value of IF varies for a
typical case. Use of interference factors will be of
greater relevance for buildings in terrain
categories 1 and 2.

Wind b

2b  x  5b IF = 1.25
x = 10 b IF = 1.10
x = 20b IF = 1.00
Figure 8 : Interference factor (IF) for roof of low buildings [Clause 7.2]

Fig. C7 : Typical Interference factor contours for design pressure coefficients over the roof of a
Gabled building (TB) as a building of same size is placed at different positions in plan (Kwatra
2000)

7.3 – Tall Buildings C7.3 -

Based on studies on tall rectangular Tall flexible buildings (T > 1.0 sec) would
buildings, Fig. 9 gives various zones of respond to wind dynamically not only in the
interference. The wind interference factor (IF) direction of wind (along-wind or drag) but also
for preliminary estimate of the wind forces normal to the flow direction (across-wind or lift).

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may be assumed as follows for interference Interference could increase the dynamic response
caused by a tall building of same or greater substantially in either directions, generally to
height. different extent as one might expect. Interference
effects are primarily due to modifications in the
Zone Z2 Z2 Z3 Z4
incident and wake flow characteristics. The
IF 1.35 1.25 1.15 1.07 turbulence characteristics (like eddy sizes etc.)
approaching the building face and then releasing
from the sides are effected. Interfering structures
The interference effect due to buildings of some times bring the vortex shedding frequency
height less than one-third may be considered close to the natural frequency of structure as well
to be negligible while for interference from a as they may push it away from the natural
building of intermediate height, linear frequency. Figure C8 is a typical representation of
interpolation may be used between one–third contours of IF for the response of a tall building
and full height. over a rectangular plan when interfered with a
similar building in different plan positions. There
is a decrease in the interference effect as the
height of the interfering structure(s) becomes
smaller than the affected structure/building,
becoming insignificant for height of interfering
structure smaller than one-third the height of the
building under interference. The complex
phenomenon of interference due to several
upstream or downstream structures has to be
studied through the wind tunnel studies but
generalization is not possible. Even for an
isolated one or two structure situation, the values
of IF provided in the code are given to provide
guidelines only.

5b 10b 15b 20b

4b 3b
5b Z1 – Zone of large interference
Z4 Z2
Z2 – Zone of moderate interference
Z2 Z3 Z4 Wind
Z Z
Z3b– Zone of low interference
1 2b 4b 1
Z4 – Zone of negligible interference
5b

Figure 9 : Interference zones for tall rectangular buildings of same or greater height
4b 3b 5b 10b 7.3]
[Clause 15b 20b

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C 8: A typical set of contours for IF for the response of a rectangular tall building interfered
with by a similar building placed in different positions in plan, as the wind blows from
right to left. [Abhay Gupta (1996)]

7 DYNAMIC EFFECTS
8.1 - General C8.1 –
Flexible slender structures and structural Section 8 of the code contains methods of
elements shall be investigated to ascertain evaluating the dynamic effects of wind on flexible
the importance of wind induced oscillations structures that can oscillate in the wind. The wind
or excitations along and across the direction on earth’s surface is turbulent in nature that gives
of wind. rise to randomly varying wind pressures about a
certain value associated with the mean wind
In general, the following guidelines may be
velocity. The dynamic part of the wind pressures
used for examining the problems of wind-
would set up oscillations in a flexible structure,
induced oscillations:
which may be defined as one having the
a) Buildings and closed fundamental time period of vibration more than
structures with a height to minimum lateral 1.0 second. Oscillations will thus be caused in the
dimension ratio of more than about 5.0, or along-wind direction. Furthermore, flexible
b) Buildings and structures structures also respond in the across-wind
with natural frequency in the first mode less direction on account of vortex shedding. In the
than 1.0 Hz. cross-wind direction, a flexible structure would
Any building or structure which satisfies tend to oscillate due to shedding of the eddies
either of the above two criteria shall be alternately from either sides of the structure at
examined for dynamic effects of wind. For regular intervals, thus imposing a dynamic force
buildings and closed structures with natural that has a major component in a direction normal
frequency in the first mode more than 1 Hz, to that of the wind and only a small component
the gust factor G may be taken as 0.90. along the direction of wind. This force due to
regular shedding of the eddies was first observed
NOTE 1 – The fundamental time period (T) may
either be established by experimental by Von Karman and the frequency of eddy
observations on similar buildings or calculated by shedding is dependent on structure size, shape
any rational method of analysis. In the absence of and wind velocity, all grouped into a non-
such data, T may be determined as follows for dimensional parameter called Strouhal Number.
multi-storied buildings: The IS:875(Part 3) – 1987 code does not lay
(a) For down any specific procedure for determining the
moment resistant frames without bracings or design wind force related to the cross-wind
shear walls for resisting the lateral loads motion.
T = 0.1 n
where
Structures which are relatively stiff are not
n = number of storeys including basement storeys; dynamically sensitive to wind. The dynamic

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and response factor (also called the gust response

(b) For all factor, or simply, gust factor) for rigid structures
others is reported to be less than 0.85 (ASCE 7-02).
0.09 H However, a somewhat conservative value is
T  recommended in this revised draft.
d
where
The dynamic response induced by the wind can
H = total height of the main structure of the
be attributed to the following actions of wind:
building in meters, and
d = maximum base dimension of building in (a) Non-correlation of the
meters in a direction parallel to the applied wind fluctuating along-wind pressures over the height
force. of a tall structure or width of a wide structure.
(b) Resonant vibrations of a
NOTE 2 – If preliminary studies indicate that wind-
structure.
induced oscillations are likely to be significant,
investigations should be pursued with the aid of (c) Vortex shedding forces
analytical methods or, if necessary, by means of acting mainly in a direction normal to the
wind tunnel tests on models. direction of wind causing across-wind as well
torsional response.
NOTE 3 – Cross-wind motions may be due to
lateral gustiness of the wind, unsteady wake flow
(for example, vortex shedding), negative The fluctuating wind pressures are random in
aerodynamic damping or due to a combination of nature and have a wide range of frequencies. The
these effects. These cross-wind motions may frequencies away from the natural frequencies of
become critical in the design of tall
buildings/structures. vibration of a structure (about  20% on either
sides) have relatively very small dynamic effect
NOTE 4 – Motions in the direction of wind (known and the associated wind pressures are almost
also as buffeting) are caused by fluctuating wind static in nature while those in the narrow bands
force associated with gusts. The excitations
around the natural frequencies of vibration of the
depend on gust energy available at the resonant
frequency. structure produce a large response that is
essentially dynamic and limited only by damping
NOTE 5 – The wake shed from an upstream body in the system. At the same time, the lower
may intensify motion in the direction of the wind, frequency components of the wind velocities and
and may also affect crosswind motion.
pressures have the greatest energy, so that the
NOTE 6 – The designer shall also be aware of the higher frequency modes of structure would be
following three forms of wind induced motion subjected to lower excitation forces. Thus,
which are characterized by increasing amplitude generally the major dynamic response of a
of oscillation with the increase of wind speed. flexible structure due to wind is confined only to
a) Galloping –
the fundamental mode of vibration of the
Galloping is transverse oscillations of some
structures due to the development of aerodynamic structure. This is particularly true for tall
forces which are in phase with the motion. It is buildings and towers, the contribution from
characterized by the progressively increasing higher modes of vibration being rarely significant.
amplitude of transverse vibration with increase of
wind speed. The cross-sections which are
particularly prone to this type of excitation include The dynamic along-wind response of a structure
the following: comprises of a non-resonant component and a
i) All structures resonant component, on which is superimposed a
with non-circular cross-sections, such as static component due to the mean wind velocity.
triangular, square, polygons, as well as angles, Thus the total along-wind responses (deflections,
crosses, and T-sections. forces, etc.) are obtained as the sum of ‘mean’
ii) Twisted value and a ‘peak’ value. The latter can be
cables and cables with ice encrustations. determined by applying the theory of distribution
of random variables and expressed in terms of the
b) Flutter - Flutter is
unstable oscillatory motion of a structure due to
standard deviation, also called as the root mean
coupling between aerodynamic force and elastic square (rms). value, by the following expression:
deformation of the structure. Perhaps the most

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common form is oscillatory motion due to x pk  x  g

combined bending and torsion. Although
oscillatory motion in each degree of freedom may where xpk, x and  are the peak, mean and
be damped, instability can set in due to energy standard deviation respectively of the variable x
transfer from one mode of oscillation to another,
and g is called the peak factor having a value
and the structure is seen to execute sustained or
divergent oscillations with a type of motion which between 3.5 and 4.0.
is a combination of the individual modes of
vibration. Such energy transfer takes place when
the natural frequencies of modes, taken The across-wind response, on the other hand, has
individually, are close to each other (ratio being zero mean and involves a different mechanism of
typically less than 2.0). Flutter can set in at wind excitation (vortex shedding) and is more structure
speeds much less than those required for exciting specific, needing calculation models that are
the individual modes of motion. Long span
based on spectra generated from wind-tunnel
suspension bridge decks or any member of a
structure with large values of d/t ( where d is the studies.
length of the member and t is its dimension
parallel to wind stream) are prone to low speed
flutter. Wind tunnel testing is required to determine
critical flutter speeds and the likely structural
response. Other types of flutter are single degree
of freedom stall flutter, torsional flutter, etc.
c) Ovalling – Thin
walled structures with open ends at one or both
ends such as oil storage tanks and natural
draught cooling towers, in which the ratio of the
diameter of minimum lateral dimension to the wall
thickness is of the order of 100 or more, are prone
to ovalling oscillations. These oscillations are
characterized by periodic radial deformation of the
hollow structure.
NOTE 7 – Buildings and structures that may be
subjected to serious wind excited oscillations
require careful investigations. It is to be noted that
wind induced oscillations may occur at wind
speeds lower than the static design wind speed
for the location.
NOTE 8 – Analytical methods for the response of
dynamic structures to wind loading can be found
in the following publications:
i) Wind Effects on Structures
by E. Simiu and R.H. Scanlan, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1996.
ii) Supplement to the National
Building Code of Canada, 1980, NRCC,
No.17724, Ottawa, National Research Council of
Canada, 1980.
iii) Wind forces on structures
by Peter Sachs, Pergamon Press, 1978.
iv) Flow Induced Vibration by
Robert D. Blevins, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.
New York, 1990.
v) Wind Engineering – A
Handbook for Structural Engineers by Henry Liu,
Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1991
vi) Wind Effects on Civil
Engineering Structures (Part 2) by V. Kolousek,

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M. Pirner, O. Fishcer and J. Naprstek, Elsevier

Science Pub. Co., Amsterdam, 1984.
vii) Appropriate Indian
Standards (See 1.1.3)
NOTE 9 – In assessing wind loads due to such
dynamic phenomenon as galloping, flutter and
ovalling, if the required information is not available
either in the references of Note 8 or other
literature, specialist advise shall be sought,
including experiments on models in wind tunnels.

8.2 - Motion due to Vortex C8.2.1 –

Expression for the frequency of vortex shedding
Shedding by a structure / member has been given. Strouhal
8.2.1 – Slender Structures number values for shapes often encountered are
For a structure, the shedding frequency  also given. Explanatory notes 1 to 4 give more
shall be determined by the following formula: information on the phenomenon and its effect.

S r Vd

b
where
Sr = Strouhal number,
Vd = design wind velocity, and
b = breadth of a structure or structural
member normal to the wind direction as well
as the axis of the structure/member.
a) Circular
Structures – For structures circular
in cross-section:
Sr = 0.20 for bVd not greater than
7, and
= 0.25 for bVd greater than 7.
b) Rectangular
Structures – For structures of
rectangular cross-section:
Sr = 0.15 for all values of bVd.
NOTE 1 – Significant cross wind motions
may be produced by vortex shedding if the
natural frequency of the structure or
structural element is equal to the frequency
of the vortex shedding within the range of
expected wind velocities. In such cases,
further analysis should be carried out on the
basis of references given in Note 8 of 8.1.
NOTE 2 – Unlined welded steel
chimneys/stacks and similar structures are
prone to excitations by vortex shedding.
NOTE 3 – Intensification of the effects of

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periodic vortex shedding has been reported

in cases where two or more similar
structures are located in close proximity, for
example, at less than 20 b apart, where b is
the dimension of the structure normal to the
wind.
NOTE 4 – The formulae given in 8.2.1 (a)
and (b) are valid for infinitely long cylindrical
structures. The value of S decreases slowly
as the ratio of length to maximum transverse
width decreases; the reduction being up to
about half the value, if the structure is only
three times higher than its width. Vortex
shedding need not be considered if the ratio
of length to maximum transverse dimension
is less than 2.0.

8 – Gust Factor Method

9.1 – Along Wind Load C9.1 –
To obtain the along-wind response of a flexible
For calculation of action effects (bending
structure (time period > 1.0 sec), the design wind
moments, shear forces, member forces) at a
pressure pz has to be multiplied by the gust factor
height s on the structure, the wind pressures
G. This approach is based on the stochastic
on the structure at a height z shall be
response of an elastic structure acted upon by
multiplied by a gust factor G. This factor is
turbulent wind producing random pressures. The
dependent on both z and s and s < z < h. For
structure is considered to vibrate in its
calculation of base bending moment,
fundamental mode of vibration. The gust factor,
deflections and acceleration at the top of the
G includes the effect of non-correlation of the
structure, a single value of G shall be used
peak pressures by defining a size reduction factor,
with s taken as zero.
S. It also accounts for the resonant and the non-
resonant effects of the random wind forces. The
definition of gust factor G has changed from that
in the earlier Code (1987 edition) which was
applied to the wind loading due to hourly mean
wind velocity, against the 3-sec gust velocity
being now used.

The equation for G contains two terms, one for

the low frequency wind speed variations called
the non-resonant or ‘background’ effects, and the
other for resonant effects. The first term accounts
for the quasi-static dynamic response below the
natural frequency of vibration of the structure
while the second term depends on the gust energy
and aerodynamic admittance at the natural
frequency of vibration, as well as on the damping
in the system.

The resonant response is insignificant for rigid

structures (T< 1.0 Hz). For flexible structures, the
background factor Bs may be small resulting in

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reduced wind forces obtained from dynamic

analysis as compared to the static analysis.

Turbulence intensity, Ih is defined as the average

level of fluctuation in the wind velocity as a ratio
of the mean wind speed.

Level at which
action effects
are calculated

s
z

Figure 10 : Notation for heights [Clause 9.1]

Along wind load on a structure on a strip area

(Ae) at any height (z) is given by:
Fz = Cf Ae pz G
where
Fz = along wind load on the structure at
any height z corresponding to strip
area Ae,
Cf = force coefficient for the building,
Ae = effective frontal area considered for
the structure at height z,
pz = wind pressure at height z obtained
as 0.6 V z2 (N/m2),

G = Gust factor (= total load/ mean

load), and is given by:
0.5
 2 H g SE 
2

1  2 I h  g v Bs  s R 
  
G
1  2 g v I h 
where
s = height of the level at which action
effects are calculated for a structure
h = average roof height of a structure
above the ground
Ih = turbulence intensity, obtained from

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Table 32 by setting z equal to h

gv = peak factor for the upwind velocity
fluctuations, which shall be taken as
3.5
Bs = background factor, which is a
measure of the slowly varying
background component of the
fluctuating response, caused by low
frequency wind speed variations,
given as follows:

1
Bs 
1
36(h  s) 2
 64bsh 
2 0.5

2 Lh

Hs = height factor for the resonant

response = 1+(s/h)2

gR = peak factor for resonant response (1

hour period) given by:

gR  2 log e (3600 f 0 )

S = size reduction factor given as follows:

1
S
 4 f 0 h(1  g v I h )   4 f 0 b0 h (1  g v I h ) 
1   1  
 Vh  Vh 
E = (/4) times the spectrum of
turbulence in the approaching wind
stream, given as follows:
N
E
1  70 N  2 5/6

 = ratio of structural damping to

critical damping of a structure, as
given in Table 33.
bsh = average breadth of the structure
between heights s and h
Lh = measure of the integral turbulence
length scale at height h = 100
(h/10)0.25
f0 = first mode natural frequency of
vibration of a structure in the along-

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 CODE COMMENTARY

wind direction in Hertz, and

b0h = average breadth of the structure
between heights 0 and h.
N = reduced frequency
= f0Lh {1+(gvIh)]/ Vh,
Vh = design wind speed at height h.
9.1.1 – Peak Along-wind C9.1.1 –
Acceleration is assumed to be produced only by
Acceleration
the resonant component of the response, hence
The peak acceleration, xh at the top of a tall only the second term under the square-root has
building in the along-wind direction shall be been considered. Also only the first mode
obtained from the following expression. response is assumed to dominate and it is
assumed that the mode shape is linear. Thus the
SE acceleration would also vary linearly with height
gR Ih
6   h 
xh    C f p z Ae Z 
m0 h 2 (1  2 g v I h )  z  0 
where
m0 = average mass per unit height (kg/m).
The acceleration at any height may be
obtained by considering it to vary linearly
with height.

Table 32 : Turbulence intensity (Iz) [Clause 9.1]

Height (z) m Terrain Terrain Terrain Terrain
category 1 category 2 category 3 category 4
10 0.157 0.183 0.239 0.342
15 0.152 0.176 0.225 0.342
20 0.147 0.171 0.215 0.342
30 0.140 0.162 0.203 0.305
40 0.133 0.156 0.195 0.285
50 0.128 0.151 0.188 0.270
75 0.118 0.140 0.176 0.248
100 0.108 0.131 0.166 0.233
150 0.095 0.117 0.150 0.210
200 0.085 0.107 0.139 0.196
250 0.080 0.098 0.129 0.183
300 0.074 0.092 0.121 0.173
400 0.068 0.082 0.108 0.155
500 0.058 0.074 0.098 0.141
Table 33: Damping coefficient [Clause 9.1]

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 CODE COMMENTARY

Nature of Structure Damping Coefficient, 

Welded steel structures 0.010
Bolted steel structures 0.020
Reinforced or prestressed concrete 0.020

9 – CROSS-WIND
RESPONSE

10.1 – General C10.1 -

Clause 10.2 gives, method for determining Forces causing cross-wind response of tall
equivalent static forces and base overturning structures are of three kinds.
moments and G for tall enclosed buildings
(a) Incident turbulence :
and towers of rectangular cross-section.
Turbulence In the wind gives rise to fluctuations
Calculation of cross–wind response is not
in wind speeds and directions which in turn
required for lattice towers.
produces forces varying with time. The
magnitude of the across-wind force (also called as
lift) and the pitching moment thus produced
would depend not only on the turbulence level but
also the mean wind speed and the angle of attack
(angle of wind incidence in elevation). This effect
is important for canopy and similar roofs and
bridge decks particularly with fast rate of change
of the lift and moment coefficients with respect to
the angle of attack. Computation of these forces
need wind tunnel studies and / or CFD analysis
and are outside the scope of this Code.
(b) Cross-wind displacement :
Mechanisms that may get activated under the
cross-wind displacements are of different nature.
The excitations under all these mechanisms are
dependent on displacement and their derivatives
including rotations. They are named differently
depending upon the type of excitation, such as
galloping, flutter, lock-in, etc. All these
excitations are also affected by turbulence in the
wind. They occur only in very flexible structures
with damping that is a fraction of 1% of the
critical damping. The analysis of these structures
is also beyond the scope of this Code.
(c) Wake Excitation: It is the most
common type of across-wind excitation and
is caused by shedding of the vortices by a
structure at regular intervals alternately
from its two opposite sides. The periodicity
of eddy shedding is defined by Strouhal
Number that depends on the shape of cross-
section of the structure. Resonance would

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 CODE COMMENTARY

result when the frequency of eddy shedding

matches the natural frequency of vibration
of the structure. This would give rise to large
amplitudes of vibration which are limited
only by the damping present in the system.
In case of tall structures the wind velocity as
well as turbulence varies with the height of
structure making the phenomenon spread
over a band of frequencies. For this reason
wake excitation includes also the response
due to non-resonant frequencies. This Code
describes the methods of computing the
cross-wind response at resonant wind
velocities due to wake excitation

10.2 – Cross-wind response C10.2 -

of tall enclosed buildings and The excitation of the building/structure is
towers of rectangular cross- considered in its natural mode of vibration. The
forcing function for the across-wind excitation is
section based on studies conducted by Saunders,
Melbourne and others on specific cases of width-
to-length ratios and height-to-width ratios of the
buildings and is expressed in a non-dimensional
spectral form.

10.2.1– Equivalent static wind C10.2.1 -

force It represents a lateral load varying in height and
The equivalent cross–wind static wind force proportional to the mode shape of the
per unit height (We) as a function of z, fundamental mode of vibration of the structure,
(evaluated using force equals mass times defined by the power exponent k. The force
acceleration) in Newton per meter shall be spectrum coefficient Cfs for some typical cases is
as follows: given in the Code for buildings having square and
rectangular plan shapes.
We (z) = 0.6 [Vh]2 d G
where d = Lateral dimension of the structure
parallel to the wind stream, and
k
b Km z C fs
G  1.5g R   2  
 d  1  g v I h   h  
where
Km = mode shape correction factor for
cross–wind acceleration
= 0.76 + 0.24 k
where
k = mode shape power exponent for the
fundamental mode of vibration
= 1.5 for a uniform cantilever

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 CODE COMMENTARY

= 0.5 for a slender framed structure (moment

resistant)
= 1.0 for building with central core and
moment resisting façade
= 2.3 for a tower decreasing in stiffness with
height, or with a large mass at the top
1(z) = first mode shape as a function of
height z, normalized to unity at z = h.
Cfs = cross–wind force spectrum
coefficient generalized for a linear
mode shape (Figures 10–13).

10.2.2– Cross–wind base C10.2.2 -

overturning moment It is obtained from the equivalent static wind
The cross–wind base overturning moment force given in the preceding clause.
(M0) in Newton – meters is given by:

 0.6V z  2  2  3  C fs
M 0  0 .5 g R b   h   K
 1  g v I h    k  2  
2 m

 3 
where the value   K m is the mode
k 2
shape correction factor for cross–wind base
overturning moment.

10.2.3– C10.2.3 -
Cross–wind force spectrum coefficient Since the spectra given in the Code are based on
(Cfs) linear mode shape, these need a correction to be
applied for the non-linear mode shapes defined by
The reduced velocity (Vn) shall be calculated
mode shape power exponent (k) values other than
as follows:
unity. Thus a correction factor k m has been
Vz incorporated in the expression for G.
Vn 
f 0 b(1  g v I h )
Values of the cross–wind force spectrum
coefficient generalized for a linear mode
shape (Cfs) shall be calculated from the
reduced velocity (Vn) given in Figures 10–13.
-1.0

Turbulence intensity
-1.5
Figure 10: Cross–wind force spectrum coefficient for aat 2h/3
3:1:1of 0.12
square section
Log10 (Cfs)

[Clause 10.2.3]
-2.0 Turbulence intensity
at 2h/3 of 0.20
-2.5
3:1:
1
-3.0

-3.5

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-4.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Reduced Velocity (Vn)
 CODE COMMENTARY

-1.0
Figure 11: Cross–wind force spectrum coefficient for a 6:1:1 square section [Clause
Log 10 (Cfs)

-1.5 10.2.3]
Turbulence intensity
-2.0 at 2h/3 of 0.12

-2.5 Turbulence intensity

at 2h/3 of 0.20

-3.0

-3.5 6:1:1

-4.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Reduced Velocity Vn

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 Log 10 (Cfs) CODE COMMENTARY

6:2:1

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

-1.0

-1.5 Turbulence intensity

at 2h/3 of 0.12
-2.0
Turbulence intensity
at 2h/3 of 0.20
-2.5

-3.0

-3.5

-4.0

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 CODE COMMENTARY

-1.0 Turbulence intensity at

2h/3 of 0.12
Log 10 (Cfs)

-1.5
Turbulence intensity at
2h/3 of 0.20
-2.0

-2.5

6:1:-3.0
2
Figure 13: Cross–wind force spectrum coefficient for a 6:1:2 rectangular section
-3.5 [Clause 10.2.3]

-4.0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
16
Reduced Velocity Vn

10.2.4– Peak Across-wind C10.2.4 –

Acceleration In the across-wind direction, accelerations are
The peak across-wind acceleration, yh at the obtained from the expression for the cross-wind
top of a tall building is given by the following force given in the preceding section. The mass
expression per unit height, mo has been assumed to be
constant. The variation of displacement and
hence the acceleration is assumed to be linear
2 along the height.
0.90 bg R  Vh   C fs
ymax    Km
m0 1  g v I h  
The acceleration at any level may be
obtained by linear interpolation.

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Appendix A
(Clause 5.2)
Basic Wind Speed at 10m Height for some Important Cities/Towns

Basic Wind Speed Basic Wind

City/Town City/Town
(m/s) Speed (m/s)
Agra 47 Kanpur 47
Ahmadabd 39 Kohima 44
Ajmer 47 Kolkata 50
Almora 47 Kurnool 39
Amritsar 47 Lakshadweep 39
Asansol 47 Lucknow 47
Aurangabad 39 Ludhiana 47
Bahraich 47 Madurai 39
Bangalore 33 Mandi 39
Barauni 47 Mangalore 39
Breilly 47 Moradabad 47
Bhatinda 47 Mumbai 44
Bhilai 39 Mysore 33
Bhopal 39 Nagpur 44
Bhubaneshwar 50 Nainital 47
Bhuj 50 Nasik 39
Bikaner 47 Nellore 50
Bokaro 47 Panjim 39
Calicut 39 Patiala 47
Chandigarh 47 Patna 47
Chennai 50 Pondicherry 50
Coimbatore 39 Port Blair 44

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DRAFT Code & Commentary IS:875 (Part 3)

Cuttack 50 Pune 39
Darbhanga 55 Raipur 39
Darjeeling 47 Rajkot 39
Dehradun 47 Ranchi 39
Delhi 47 Roorkee 39
Durgapur 47 Rourkela 39
Gangtok 47 Simla 39
Guwahati 50 Srinagar 39
Gaya 39 Surat 44
Gorakhpur 47 Tiruchirapalli 47
Hyderabad 44 Trivandrum 39
Imphal 47 Udaipur 47
Jabalpur 47 Vadodara 44
Jaipur 47 Varanasi 47
Jamshedpur 47 Vijaywada 50
Jhansi 47 Visakhapatnam 50
Jodhpur 47

Appendix B
[Clause 5.3.2.4 (b)(ii)]
Changes in Terrain Categories

B–1 Low To High Number

B–1.1 In case of transition from a low
category number (corresponding to a low
terrain roughness) to a high category number
(corresponding to a rougher terrain), the
velocity profile over the rougher terrain shall
be determined as follows:
(a) Below height hx, the
velocities shall be determined in relation
to the rougher terrain; and
(b) Above height hx, the
velocities shall be determined in relation
to the less rough (more distant) terrain.

B–2 High To Low Number

B–2.1 In case of transition from a more rough
to a less rough terrain, the velocity profile
shall be determined as follows:
(a) Above height hx, the
velocities shall be determined in
accordance with the rougher (more
distant) terrain; and
(b) Below height hx, the
velocity shall be taken as the lesser of
the following:

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 i. That determined
in accordance with the less rough
terrain, and
ii. The velocity at
height hx, as determined in relation
to the rougher terrain.
NOTE: Examples of determination of velocity
profiles in the vicinity of a change in
terrain category are shown in Fig. 14 a
and 14 b.

B–3 More Than One Category

B–3.1 Terrain changes involving more than
one category shall be treated in similar
fashion to that described in B-1 and B-2.
NOTE: Examples involving three terrain
categories are shown in Fig. 14 c.

x4 = fetch, h4 = height for category

4 Profile for category
Profile for category
4
2 esign profile at A
D

Wind h4 x4
Direction

h4

A
Category 2 x4 Category 4

(a) Determination of Velocity Profile Near a Change in Terrain Category from less
rough to more rough.

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 x2 = fetch, h2 = height for category
2 Profile for category
Profile for category
4
2 esign profile at A
D

h2 x2
Wind
Direction
h2

Category 4 A
Category 2
x2

(b) Determination of Velocity Profile Near a Change in Terrain Category (more rough to
less rough)

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x4 = fetch, h4 = height for category h4
4 h4 x4
x1 = fetch, h1 = height for category h1 h1
1
h1 x1 h2
Wind Direction

A B
Category 3 Category 1 Category 4

x1 x2

Velocity profile for category 4

Velocity profile for category 3
Velocity profile for category 1
Design Profile
Height

h1
Height

h4
h1
Height

h4

h4

Velocity Velocity Velocity

(c) Determination of Design Profile Involving More Than One Change in Terrain Category

Figure 14: Velocity profile in the vicinity of a change in terrain category

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 Appendix C
[Clause 5.3.3.1]
Effect of a Cliff or
Escarpment on Equivalent
height above Ground
(k3 FACTOR)

C-1. The influence of the topographic feature

is considered to extend 1.5 Le upwind and
2.5 Le downwind of the summit of crest of the
feature where Le is the effective horizontal
length of the hill depending on slope as
indicated below (see Fig. 15).
Slope Le
3o <   17o L
> 17o Z/0.3

where
L = actual length of the upwind slope in the
wind direction,
Z = effective height of the feature, and
 = upwind slope in the wind direction.
If the zone downwind from the crest
of the feature is relatively flat (  < 3o) for a
distance exceeding Le, then the feature
should be treated as an escarpment. If not,
then the feature should be treated as a hill or
ridge. Examples of typical features are given
in Figure 15.
NOTE:1–No difference is made, in evaluating
k3 between a three dimensional hill
and a two dimension ridge.
NOTE: 2 – In an undulating terrain, it is often
not possible to decide whether the
local topography to the site is
significant in terms of wind flow. In
such cases, the average value of the
terrain upwind of the site for a
distance of 5 km should be taken as
the base level from wind to assess
the height z, and the upwind slope ,
of the feature.

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 C-2. Topography Factor, k3

The topography factor k3 is given by the

following:
k3 = 1 + C . s
where C has the following values:

Slope C
3 <   17
o o
1.2 (z/L)
> 17o 0.36
and s is a factor derived in accordance with
C-2.1 appropriate to the reference height, H
on the structure above the mean local ground
level, and the distance, X from the summit or
crest, relative to the effective length, Le.
C-2.1 The factor, s, should be determined
from:
(a) Fig. 16 for cliffs and escarpments,
and
(b) Fig. 17 for hills and ridges.
NOTE: Where the downwind slope of a hill or
ridge is greater than 3o, there will be large regions
of reduced accelerations or even shelter and it is
not possible to give general design rules to cater
for these circumstances. Values of s from Fig. 17
may be used as upper bound values.

Region affected by Topographical

Feature Cres
1.5 L H 2.5 Le
e
Ht
Wind Upwind x Downwind
Z slope slope
Average X
ground level 
L
5 km
-ve upwind +ve Downwind

(a) General Notations

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 Crest

Wind
Downwind Slope > 3o

(b) Hill and Ridge

Wind
Crest
Downwind slope < 3o

(c) Cliff and Escarpment

Figure 15: Topographical dimensions

Crest Crest
2.0 2.0

1.5 1.5

H/Le 1.0 1.0

H/Le
0.5 0.4 0.5
0.6
0 0.8 0
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
1.0
Upwind X/Le Downwind X/Le

Figure 16: Factors for cliff and escarpment

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 Crest Crest
2.0 2.0

1.5 1.5

H/Le 1.0 1.0 H/Le

0.5 0.4 0.5

0.6

0.8
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Upwind X/Le Downwind X/Le
Figure 17: Factors for ridge and hill

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