Chapter 2

Overview of Energy Harvesting

Technologies

Harvesting or scavenging mechanical energy from the surroundings is a potential

strategy to develop self-powered sensor nodes and electronic devices. In this
chapter, a literature review is presented for various mechanical energy harvesting
technologies to understand the state-of-the-art. The first part of the chapter discusses
commonly used principles to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Basic physics and working all the mechanisms have been explained and previously
developed devices by other research groups have been reviewed.
The second part of the chapter reviews the progress in the area of TENGs.
Different working mechanisms, materials and fabrication techniques utilized for
TENG devices have been reviewed. Thereafter, applications of TENG devices to
harvest mechanical energy in different forms e.g. biomechanical energy, vibration
energy and wind energy, has been discussed. Triboelectric mechanism also has
immense applications in the area of sensing. Triboelectric mechanism has been
reviewed for various type of self-powered sensors e.g. pressure sensors, vibration
sensors, motion tracking systems, chemical sensors etc.

2.1 Mechanical Energy Harvesting Mechanisms

2.1.1 Piezoelectric Energy Harvesters

Piezoelectric mechanism is the most common and well researched technique in the
area of mechanical energy harvesters. These devices work on the property of
material known as piezoelectricity. It is the property of the materials to produce
charge (or voltage) when stimulated by a mechanical stress. Some of the popular
materials which exhibit piezoelectricity are quartz, lead zirconate titanate (PZT),
aluminum nitride (AlN), zinc oxide (ZnO) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).
Piezoelectric effect can be explained using a molecular model as shown in Fig. 2.1.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 9

L. Dhakar, Triboelectric Devices for Power Generation
and Self-Powered Sensing Applications, Springer Theses,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-3815-0_2
10 2 Overview of Energy Harvesting Technologies

Fig. 2.1 Piezoelectricity explained using a molecular model. a A molecule in an undisturbed state
without any external force. b The molecule becomes polarized due to an external force Fk applied.
c Molecules in a piezoelectric material collectively leading to generation of voltage due to
polarization when an external force is applied [1]

In Fig. 2.1a, the molecule is in undisturbed state, but as an external force Fk is

applied, it causes unbalance of charge leading to creation of a small dipole Pk as
shown in Fig. 2.1b. Collectively, all these small dipoles create a dipole P in the
material. This phenomenon in materials is known as piezoelectricity.
Researchers have utilized the piezoelectric effect to harvest mechanical energy
and convert it into electrical energy. The most common configuration and design
used for piezoelectric energy harvester (PEH) is using a cantilever [2, 3]. A typical
configuration of cantilever based PEH is shown in Fig. 2.2. The piezoelectric
cantilever undergoes cycle of compression and tension as it is excited through
external vibration or cyclic force. This cyclic force results into generation of cyclic
voltage signal across the cantilever electrodes across the piezoelectric layer. A proof
mass (M) at the tip of the cantilever beam is typically used to improve the stress
levels in the piezoelectric layer. This results in a higher magnitude of the voltage
generated at the electrodes.
Renaud et al. [4] used a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) based PZT
cantilever design to harvest vibrational energy. The major limitation of cantilever

Fig. 2.2 Schematic of a typical cantilever based PEH. S is the strain in the piezoelectric layer
shown with directional arrows, V is the generated voltage, M is the proof mass and z is vertical
displacement of the cantilever tip [2]
2.1 Mechanical Energy Harvesting Mechanisms 11

Fig. 2.3 Array of cantilevers

used to improve the operating
bandwidth of the vibrational
PEH [5]

based PEH is the limited frequency range in which these devices can operate due to
resonant behavior. Liu et al. [5] used an array of PZT cantilevers (Fig. 2.3) with
different mechanical dimensions and hence different resonant frequencies to
improve the operating bandwidth of the devices.
Apart from the cantilever based designs of PEH devices, researchers have used
piezoelectric materials for demonstrations in many practical applications. Kymissis
et al. [6] from MIT Media Laboratory first demonstrated shoe based energy har-
vesting system in 1998 using PZT and PVDF for wearable applications. The image
of the prototype device is shown in Fig. 2.4. The prototype was demonstrated to
generate enough power to for a radio-frequency identification (RFID) tag.
A windmill based piezoelectric energy harvesting was developed by Priya [7] using
10 piezoelectric bimorphs which were actuated using a windmill.

Fig. 2.4 a Schematic diagram of the shoe based energy harvesting device. b Photograph of the
fabricated prototype [6]
12 2 Overview of Energy Harvesting Technologies

Fig. 2.5 a ZnO nanowires actuated using Pt coated AFM tip [8]. b Pt coated AFM tip replaced by
a zigzag Pt electrode actuated using ultrasonic waves [9]

ZnO nanowire based energy harvester was first demonstrated by Wang and Song
[8] using array of aligned nanowires (Fig. 2.5a). The nanowires were deflected with
a conductive atomic force microscope (AFM) tip in contact mode. To improve the
practical application of the concept, the Pt coated AFM tips were replaced by
microfabricated zigzag shaped Pt electrodes as shown in Fig. 2.5b [9]. Chung et al.
[10] fabricated ZnO thin film on a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrate using
simple reactive zinc hydroxo-condensation process (Fig. 2.6a). This device was
demonstrated to be suited for human wearable energy harvesting devices. Lee et al.
[11] fabricated a flexible and conformable ZnO nanowire based piezoelectric
nanogenerator in an aluminum (Al) foil coated with Polymethyl methacrylate
(PMMA) (Fig. 2.6a). The device could generate an output voltage and current of up
to 50 mV and 200 nA respectively, by utilizing fluttering motion generated through
wind energy. Lin et al. [12] demonstrated a transparent flexible nanogenerator by
growing ZnO nanowires on a PDMS substrate. The generated an output voltage and

Fig. 2.6 a Schematic diagram of the ZnO film based piezoelectric nanogenerator on PET
substrate [10]. b Photograph of the super flexible piezoelectric nanogenerator [11]
2.1 Mechanical Energy Harvesting Mechanisms 13

current of 8 V and 0.5 µA, respectively, with a power output density of

5.3 mW/cm3. The device was also demonstrated as a self-powered sensor to
monitor vehicle speed and detect vehicle weight.
Research breakthroughs in the area of novel fabrication techniques for piezo-
electric materials have found applications in the area of wearable and flexible
energy harvesting devices. But limited choice of materials and complex fabrication
techniques still remain one of important challenges for piezoelectric energy har-
vesting devices. These fabrication challenges have been a bottleneck to find
application implantable, biocompatible and wearable energy harvesters, which can
be commercialized.

2.1.2 Electromagnetic Energy Harvesters

Electromagnetic mechanical energy harvesters work on the principle of Faraday’s

law of induction. Majority of the electrical motors, transformers, inductors and
generators are based on this fundamental operating principle. Faraday’s law states
that the voltage or electromotive force (emf) generated in a closed circuit directly
proportional to the total flux through the closed loop circuit. The equation for
Faraday’s law is given by:

dU
V ¼ ð2:1Þ
dt

where V the voltage is induced across the two ends of closed circuit, U is total flux
and t is time. If there are total N coils in the circuit, total flux U is given by:

N Z
X
U¼ B:dA ð2:2Þ
i¼1 Ai

where B is the magnetic field and Ai is the area of the ith coil. Faraday’s law has
been extensively used in large sized commercial generators to produce power using
fuel, hydropower and other traditional sources. Same principle can be utilized to
harvest mechanical energy at a much smaller scale. Williams et al. [13] demon-
strated one of the first micro scale electromagnetic energy harvester using a
samarium-cobalt permanent magnet and planar gold (Au) coils. Lee et al. [14]
demonstrated a AA battery sized electromagnetic energy harvester using laser
micromachining as a fabrication technique (Fig. 2.7a). Same research group also
demonstrated an electromagnetic energy harvester capable of harvesting energy
from different resonant modes as shown in Fig. 2.7b.
Kulkarni et al. [18] developed a micro energy harvester by using electrode-
posited copper coils and NdFeB magnetics. The device had a small volume of
0.1 cm3 and could generated a power of 586 nW across a load resistance of 110 Ω
at an acceleration of 8.829 m/s2. Cepnik and Wallrabe [16] designed a flat
14 2 Overview of Energy Harvesting Technologies

Fig. 2.7 a AA size micro energy harvester by Lee et al. [14]. b Multi-modal energy harvester
developed by Chin et al. [15]

Fig. 2.8 a A flat energy harvester using serpentine springs for in-plane movement [16]. b A low
cost electromagnetic energy harvester using coils etched on a printed circuit board (PCB) [17]

electromagnetic energy harvester which used micro fabricated serpentine springs

for in-plane movement. The device as shown in Fig. 2.8a generated an average
power of 12 µW at an acceleration of 1 ms−2. Yang et al. [17] used an acrylic
fixed-fixed beam with three permanent magnets attached to it. Correspondingly,
three coils were fabricated on a printed a printed circuit board (PCB) and placed
beneath the permanent magnets as shown in Fig. 2.8b. As the beam was excited
using vibrations, it generated power from different vibration modes of the beam.
The maximum power produced by device was demonstrated to be 3.2 µW.
Donelan et al. [19] demonstrated a complete working prototype of a biome-
chanical energy harvester using electromagnetic energy harvesting technique. The
device was designed for applications for powered prosthetic limbs and charging
medical devices (Fig. 2.9). The electromagnetic mechanism based energy har-
vesters have advantage of very low device impedance as compared to piezoelectric,
electrostatic and triboelectric energy harvesting devices. These devices are suitable
for large scale energy production but as the size of the device decreases, the coil and
magnet fabrication becomes a huge challenge.
2.1 Mechanical Energy Harvesting Mechanisms 15

Fig. 2.9 Biomechanical energy harvester to harvest energy during human walking for applica-
tions in prosthetic limbs [19]

2.1.3 Electrostatic Energy Harvesters

Electrostatic energy harvesters work on the principle of variable parallel plate

capacitor. The mechanical energy available in the surroundings is used to change
the gap between two parallel plates, which together form the capacitor system. This
change in the gap or relative position of the two plates leads to flow of charges in
the external load connected across the two plates. The physical mechanism of the
electrostatic energy harvesters can be distinguished based on the type of relative
motion between the two plates as shown in Fig. 2.10.
Electrostatic energy harvesters can be divided into categories: (i) using external
voltage supply for biasing (ii) using electrets. The first category of the devices rely
on an external bias to create a potential difference between the two parallel plates.
In the second type of device, electrets are used to create a potential difference
between the parallel plates. Electrets are essentially dielectric materials with per-
manent electrical polarization analogous to permanent magnet.
Meninger et al. [21] proposed one of the first energy harvesters based on the
electrostatic mechanism. To improve the overall capacitance per unit displacement
of the moving part, Hoffmann et al. [22] used triangular electrode design as shown
in Fig. 2.11a. Yang et al. [23] demonstrated a rotary comb based energy harvester
design for planar vibrations. The device produced a maximum power of 2.5 µW at
an acceleration of 2.5 g. Nguyen et al. [24], Nguyen and Halvorsen [25] proposed
and demonstrated the concept of utilizing non-linear springs as shown in Fig. 2.12b
16 2 Overview of Energy Harvesting Technologies

Fig. 2.10 a–f Various configurations used for electrostatic energy harvesters. The arrows depict
the direction of relative motion between the fixed and moving part [20]

Fig. 2.11 a Triangular electrodes used in the electrostatic energy harvesters to increase the
capacitance change per unit of displacement [22]. b Non-linear springs to improve the operating
bandwidth of vibration based electrostatic energy harvesters [24]. c Vibrational energy harvester
using CYTOP electret [27]

to improve the operating frequency bandwidth of the device. The non-linear springs
were designed to exhibit softening in leading to wideband characteristics and higher
output power.
Boland et al. [26] proposed a micro fabricated Teflon electret based energy
harvester utilizing rotation mechanism. The rotational electrostatic energy harvester
generated a power of 25 µW. Tsutsumino et al. [27] used a CYTOP based electret
to harvest vibrational energy which could produce a power of up to 38 µW
(Fig. 2.11c). They later improved the surface charge density of the electrodes by the
2.1 Mechanical Energy Harvesting Mechanisms 17

Fig. 2.12 Charge transfer due to the difference in work function between two metal for
metal-metal contact [29]

addition of amidosilyl end group [28]. The improved device generated power
output up to 0.7 mW.
The electrostatic energy harvesters are not the most popular solution for
mechanical energy harvesting because of their low power output as compared to
other mechanisms. Moreover, electret less electrostatic energy harvesters need an
external voltage supply which is not suitable for self-powered wireless nodes. On
the other hand, electret based electrostatic energy harvesters retain the charges only
for a limited period of time.

2.2 Triboelectric Energy Harvesting

Triboelectric energy harvesters utilize two principles working in conjunction: tri-

boelectric effect and electrostatic induction. Triboelectric effect is a type of contact
electrification which leads to charging of two surfaces when there are put in contact
with each other. Many theories have been proposed in literature to explain the
phenomenon of contact electrification [29]. One of the well-established and
accepted model to explain the concept of electron transfer is based on difference in
work functions of various materials [30]. As per this model, as two metals come in
contact with each other, the electrons transfer by tunneling in order to prevail the
thermodynamic equilibrium. The potential difference V1=2 generated between the
two metals due to this charge transfer can be given by the following equation:

ð/1  /2 Þ
V1=2 ¼  ð2:3Þ
e

where V1=2 is the contact potential difference of metal 1 against metal 2, /1 is the
work function of metal 1, /2 is the work function of metal 2 and e is the elementary
charge. The same theoretical model can be used to explain and understand the
charge transfer in metal-insulator and insulator-insulator contact by using the
18 2 Overview of Energy Harvesting Technologies

Gold, Platinum
Natural rubber
Nickel, copper
Human body

Polyethylene
Aluminum

Urethane
Polyester
Acetate
Gelatin
Cotton

Silicon
Teflon
Nylon

Sulfur
Paper

Wood

Vinyl
Glass

Wool
Lead

Steel
Air

Positive Negative

Fig. 2.13 Triboelectric series for various materials arranged in order of their tendency to attract or
donate electrons

concept of effective work function for insulators [31, 32]. Figure 2.12 pictorially
depicts this model given by Harper [30].
The charges generated during the contact electrification process are generated on
the surface of the both the materials or triboelectric layers. Based on chemical
structure and properties, various metals and dielectric materials have different
tendencies to donate and accept electrons. Different metals and dielectric materials
can be arranged in an order as per their tendency to donate or accept electrons. This
order is known as triboelectric series [33, 34] and is shown in Fig. 2.13 for a limited
number of materials. The materials on the positive side of the series have a tendency
to donate electrons relative to the materials on negative side. This means that the
materials on the positive side have propensity to get positive charged and vice
versa. Relative positions of materials in triboelectric series can be used to predict
and choose the polarity of charges generated when two material are put in contact
with each other. Also farther the two triboelectric materials in series, higher is the
surface charge density produced during the contact electrification process. This rule
is important for selection of materials during the design of TENGs.
On the basis of mechanical operating principle, triboelectric mechanism for
energy harvesting can broadly be divided into two categories: (i) Out-of-plane
contact-separation mechanism (ii) in-plane sliding mechanism. The theory and
working principle for both the mechanisms are explained in following sections.

2.2.1 Out-of-Plane Contact-Separation Mechanism

In out-of-plane mechanism the triboelectric layers undergo relative motion in the

direction normal to the plane of contact. This relative motion results in contact and
separation of the triboelectric layers. As the triboelectric layers come into contact
with each other, both layers get charged with equal and opposite surface charge
density r due to contact electrification. The surface charges lead to induced charges
on the metal electrodes in the energy harvesting device as shown in Fig. 2.14 [35].
As the two layers undergo relative motion i.e. separating or approaching due to
2.2 Triboelectric Energy Harvesting 19

Fig. 2.14 Schematic of

an out-of-plane
contact-separation based
triboelectric energy
harvester [35]

external mechanical pressure/force, the relative potential between the two electrode
changes. This change in relative potential leads to a current in the external load
connected between the two electrodes. This system can be treated as a system of
parallel plate capacitors and can be used to develop a theoretical model. In this case,
working principle is essentially similar to the electrostatic energy harvester but the
charges are internally generated using contact electrification instead of an externally
power supply or using electrets. A general theoretical model for this mechanism
was developed by Niu et al. [35]. As per the model, the open circuit voltage and
short circuit current can be given by Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5), respectively.

rxðtÞ
Voc ¼ ð2:4Þ
e0

Srd0 vðtÞ
ISC ¼ ð2:5Þ
ðd0 þ xðtÞÞ2

where Voc is the open circuit voltage, r is the surface charge density, xðtÞ is the
relative distance between two triboelectric layers, e0 is the dielectric constant of air,
ISC is the short circuit current, S is the area of triboelectric layer, vðtÞ is the relative
velocity of triboelectric layers, d0 is defined as the effective thickness constant
given by erd11 þ erd22 . Here d1 and d2 are thickness of triboelectric layers 1 and 2, er1
and er2 are relative dielectric constants of triboelectric layers 1 and 2.

2.2.2 In-Plane Sliding Mechanism

As the name suggests, in-plane sliding mechanisms comprises of relative sliding

motion between triboelectric layers. A schematic for in-plane sliding mechanism is
shown in Fig. 2.15. As the two triboelectric layers are in contact there is an equal
20 2 Overview of Energy Harvesting Technologies

Fig. 2.15 Schematic for in-plane sliding mechanism based triboelectric energy harvester

and opposite surface charge generated on surface of both the layers. As triboelectric
layer 1 moves out relative to triboelectric layer 2, there is a decrease in the contact
area between two layers. This leads to charges induced in electrodes corresponding
to balance the surface charges on both triboelectric layers. As both the electrodes
are connected through a load resistor, there is a flow of electrons from top electrode
to bottom electrode to balance the charges. This flow of electrons in the load
resistor or current flow continues till the two triboelectric layers are completely
separated as shown in Fig. 2.15c.
As the energy generation cycle continues, triboelectric layer 1 moves in relative
to triboelectric layer 2 due to the external mechanical force. This leads to a flow of
current in the external circuit in the opposite direction of sliding out process as
shown in Fig. 2.15d. A theoretical model was proposed by Niu et al. [36] for the
in-plane sliding mechanism based triboelectric energy harvester. According to the
model, the open circuit voltage and short circuit current can be expressed by
Eqs. (2.6) and (2.7).
 
rx d1 d2
Voc ¼ þ ð2:6Þ
e0 ðl  xÞ er1 er2

ISC ¼ rwvðtÞ ð2:7Þ

where Voc is the open circuit voltage, r is the surface charge density, x is the relative
separation distance between triboelectric layers in lateral direction, l is the length of
2.2 Triboelectric Energy Harvesting 21

triboelectric layers in the direction of motion, e0 is the dielectric constant of air, d1

and d2 are thickness of triboelectric layers 1 and 2, er1 and er2 are the relative
dielectric constants of triboelectric layers 1 and 2, Isc is the short circuit current, vðtÞ
is the relative velocity of triboelectric layers, w is the width in the lateral direction
perpendicular to motion direction of the triboelectric layer.

2.3 Materials and Fabrication of Triboelectric

Nanogenerators

During the design of TENG devices, contact electrification process due to tribo-
electric effect can be engineered to improve the power generation performance. The
performance of contact electrification majorly depends on two factors: (a) choice of
triboelectric materials and (b) surface topography of the triboelectric layers. Choice
of materials for triboelectric layers is important as it fundamentally affects the
amount of surface charge generated due to triboelectric effect. The generated sur-
face charge depends on the relative tendency of two triboelectric materials. Other
practical factors affecting the choice of materials are cost, type of application,
biocompatibility and fabrication limitations. In addition, surface topography is
another crucial factor as it is predominantly responsible for defining effective
contact area and charge separation during contact electrification due to triboelectric
effect.
Researchers have used various materials as triboelectric layers based on the
fabrication compatibility, cost and patternability. Another design step to improve
the performance of TENGs is to deploy different fabrication techniques to achieve
various type of micro/nano surface topographies to enhance the surface charge
density during contact electrification. A summary is presented in Table 2.1 about
these materials and topographies used to improve the device performance.

2.4 Triboelectric Energy Harvesters

and Self-powered Sensors

One of the early prototype of TENG was reported in 2012 by Fan et al. [53] based
on triboelectric mechanism as shown in Fig. 2.16a. A transparent and flexible
energy harvester was demonstrated which used patterned PDMS films as tribo-
electric layer. Three patterns including line, cube and pyramid shaped structures
were used to pattern PDMS films. It was demonstrated that plain film, line, cube
and pyramid patterns based device had performance in the increasing order as
depicted in Fig. 2.16b. The device generated a maximum output voltage and current
of 18 V and 0.7 lA, respectively. The device was also demonstrated as a
22 2 Overview of Energy Harvesting Technologies

Table 2.1 Materials and surface topographies for triboelectric energy harvesters
Material Surface topography/processing Reference
TiO2 Nanowires and nanosheet Lin et al. [37]
Al Nanopores Yang et al. [38]
PTFE Nanowires Yang et al. [38]
SiO2 Nanoparticles Cheng et al. [39]
PDMS Pyramid shaped structures using molding Han et al. [40]
Al Nanostructures of average size *200 nm Han et al. [40]
PDMS Nanowire Yang et al. [41]
Si Pyramid shaped texture Yang et al. [41]
PTFE Etched nanoparticle topography Yang et al. [42]
Ag Nanowire/nanoparticle composite Lin et al. [43]
Fluorinated Dry etched nanowire structures Yang et al. [44]
ethylene-propylene
Kapton Dispersed with PTFE nanoparticles Jing et al. [45]
PDMS Micropillars Yang et al. [46]
Al Nanopores Bai et al. [47]
Poly-vinylchloride Nanowires Du et al. [48]
Cu Micro roughness by coating Cu Guo et al. [49]
on etched Si structures
Kapton Dry etched nanowires Zhu et al. [50]
PDMS Convex dome shaped structures Hou et al. [51]
Au Nanoparticles Zhu et al. [52]

Fig. 2.16 a Schematic drawing of one of the early prototypes of triboelectric mechanism based
energy harvester. b Voltage generated by the energy harvester using different topographies for
patterned PDMS films [53]

self-powered pressure sensor which means the sensors do not need any external
power source in order to operate as is required in the case of capacitive and
piezoresistive sensors. In this Sect. 2.4, TENG devices have been reviewed based
on different applications.
2.4 Triboelectric Energy Harvesters and Self-powered Sensors 23

2.4.1 Biomechanical Energy Harvesters

Biomechanical energy is one of the most prevalent form of energy around human
beings which can be used to power portable electronic devices like smartphones,
watches and wearable sensors. Researchers have demonstrated various concepts
and prototype devices to harvest biomechanical energy. Yang et al. [38] used an
integrated rhombic gridded structure to harvest mechanical energy from vibrations
generated from human walking (Fig. 2.17a). Rhombus shaped stacked structure
used the hybridization of both contact-separation and sliding mode to enable
contact electrification process. The TENG device was assembled on a backpack to
develop a mobile source power for disaster relief workers, explorers in remote
locations and field engineers. To harvest the energy directly from human heel strike,
a low cost triboelectric energy harvester was developed by Bai et al. [47]. The
device utilized multilayered zigzag structure in order to increase the effective
contact area without significantly affecting the overall form factor of device
(Fig. 2.17b). The device was assembled at the bottom of a common shoe and
generated enough power to light up a few LEDs using the human walking motion.
The energy harvesting device generated a maximum open circuit voltage of 215 V
and a short circuit current of 0.66 mA. The maximum power density was reported
to be 9.76 mW/cm2.
Majority of the mechanical energy harvesting devices focus on harvesting
energy from the external body movements like walking, hand movement etc. This
energy can be used to power wearable sensors and small electronic devices. But as
the technology advances, there will be many implanted sensors and devices being
designed aimed at curing diseases, remote monitoring and aiding organs in func-
tioning. Zheng et al. [54] proposed a breathing driven TENG to power in vivo
devices such as pacemaker as shown in Fig. 2.18a. The device utilized micro
pyramid patterned PDMS and aluminum metal layer as two triboelectric layers for
energy generation. The device was also demonstrated for in vivo applications by
implanting it on a living rat’s diaphragm as shown in Fig. 2.18b. The implanted
TENG generated a maximum power density of 8.44 mW m−2, which was shown to
drive a pacemaker device.

Fig. 2.17 a Rhombus shaped stacked structure to harvest mechanical energy from vibrations
generated by human walking [38]. b Schematic diagram of the zigzag shaped multilayered
triboelectric energy harvester; SEM micrograph of Al nanopores used one of the triboelectric
layers; complete fabricated prototype of integrated multilayered triboelectric energy harvester [47]
24 2 Overview of Energy Harvesting Technologies

Fig. 2.18 Schematic diagram of the breathing driven TENG to power a pacemaker device [54]

2.4.2 Wind Based Energy Harvesters

Wind energy is a natural form of energy which has been used as a renewable source
of energy to generate energy at a large scale. Conventional wind energy turbines
used for large scale wind energy harvesting are bulky and require a huge capital
investment to set up. Triboelectric mechanism can be used to generate electrical
energy using wind energy at a smaller scale, which can be used to power wireless
sensor nodes and electrical appliances. Xie et al. [55] demonstrated one of the first
prototypes to harvest wind energy based on triboelectric mechanism as shown in
Fig. 2.19a. The prototype device used a wind cup structure, which converted the
wind flow energy into rotational kinetic energy. This rotational kinetic energy was
then utilized to enable contact electrification between polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE) nanowire-like structure and aluminum layer. The device generated a
maximum power of 62.5 mW at a wind speed of 15 m/s. A rotary sliding mech-
anism based TENG was demonstrated by Zhu et al. [56] with a high power output
of 1.5 W. The device comprised of a rotator and stator as shown in Fig. 2.19b. The
stator constituted of a fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) layer with
micro-patterned complementary sectors as electrode. The rotor was fabricated using
2.4 Triboelectric Energy Harvesters and Self-powered Sensors 25

Fig. 2.19 a Wind-cup structure based TENG [55]. b High output TENG using micro-sector
structures [56]

copper which acted as a triboelectric layer in conjunction with FEP. TENG was
demonstrated to effectively harvest energy from air flow and water flow. Chen et al.
[57] also demonstrated a rotary sliding mechanism based TENG which was shown
to generate enough voltage for oxidation of sulphur dioixide, which has applica-
tions in self-powered air cleaning systems.
Another type of wind based TENG devices use flutter motion to convert wind
energy into electrical energy. Bae et al. [58] proposed a TENG device which
enabled contact electrification using fluttering motion of a flexible triboelectric
layer. The flexible triboelectric layer was fabricated using a gold coated woven
fabric as shown in Fig. 2.20a. The device demonstrated that the fluttering flag
26 2 Overview of Energy Harvesting Technologies

Fig. 2.20 a Schematic of the fluttering motion based wind energy harvester. b Fluttering motion
of the flexible triboelectric layer captures using high speed camera [58]

motion can be utilized for small scale wind energy harvesting. It generated a
maximum voltage of 250 V and current of 70 µA at a flow velocity of 22 ms−1.

2.4.3 Water Based Energy Harvesters

Majority of TENG devices use solid materials such as dielectric polymers or metals
as triboelectric layers to enable contact electrification phenomenon in order generate
surface charge. In 2013, Lin et al. [59] demonstrated contact electrification between
water and a PDMS layer. A device was fabricated in order to harvest mechanical
energy which used water as one of the triboelectric layer. Patterned PDMS layer
was chosen as another triboelectric layer due to its hydrophobic properties which
aided in separation of water and PDMS during the contact electrification process.
The working mechanism of the water based TENG is shown in Fig. 2.21a. During
the contact electrification process due to contact separation motion between the two
triboelectric layers enabled by external mechanical setup, water was observed to get
positively charged as it donated electrons to PDMS layer. For the electrode cor-
responding to water as triboelectric layer, PMMA substrate coated with Cu was
placed at the bottom of the experimental water tank. The experiments were con-
ducted using deionized water, tap water and 0.6 M sodium chloride (NaCl) solu-
tion. The deionized water was shown to have a better performance as a triboelectric
layer compared to tap water and NaCl solution. The performance for tap water and
NaCl solution decreased due to the presence of electrolytes. As the water droplets
cannot be completely prevented to form a layer on PDMS film, more positive
charges including the dissolved ions in the water layer resulting into screening of
negative surface charge generated on the PDMS film. Deionized water as a tribo-
electric layer along with patterned PDMS generated a charge density of
31.3 µQ m−2 during the contact electrification process. Lin et al. [60] fabricated a
2.4 Triboelectric Energy Harvesters and Self-powered Sensors 27

Fig. 2.21 a Operating mechanism of triboelectric energy harvester using water as triboelectric
layer. b Current area density produced by different liquids as a triboelectric layer [59]

device to harvest energy using the charged water drops from rain or pipes. The
device used PTFE hierarchal micro/nanostructures for contact electrification pro-
cess with water drops. The device generated a peak voltage of 9.3 V and a peak
current of 17 µA. Liang et al. [61] have demonstrated a prototype of transparent
water based TENG which could be assembled on the windows in order to harvest
energy from rainwater.
Apart from using water as a triboelectric layer, another method to harvest energy
from water is utilizing the water’s mechanical energy to enable contact electrifi-
cation between two triboelectric layers. Yang et al. [62] demonstrated a TENG
device, which used PTFE and polyamide (PA) as triboelectric layers. The device
was fully enclosed in a spherical shell (Fig. 2.22) and was shown to harvest energy
from water waves. Chen et al. [63] proposed the concept of network of small water
wave energy harvester unit (Fig. 2.23a) to produce electricity at a large scale from
sea/ocean waves. As per calculations, it was shown that power output of up to
1.15 MW can be generated from a water area of 1 km2.

2.4.4 Wearable Energy Harvesters

Wearable energy harvesting devices which can harvest energy from human activ-
ities, are a solution to potentially power the wearable devices. One of the major
direction of research in the area of wearable energy harvesters is focused towards
textile or fabric based nanogenerators. Fabric based nanogenerators can camouflage
with the clothes and also utilize large area of clothes for high power output. Kim
et al. [64], demonstrated a stretchable weaved fabric for wearable energy harvesting
applications. The fibers used to weave the fabric utilized PDMS tubes with high
28 2 Overview of Energy Harvesting Technologies

Fig. 2.22 a Prototype of fully enclosed TENG to harvest energy from water waves. b Voltage and
current generated by the device when shaken by hand. c–f Operating mechanism of the TENG [62]

Fig. 2.23 a Single unit of water wave TENG. b A conceptual schematic of network or farm of
unit TENGs to generate energy at a large scale [63]

aspect ratio nanostructured surface on the inner side and ZnO nanowires coated
with Au as two triboelectric layers as shown in Fig. 2.24a. The weaved fabric with
multiple fibers in an area of 14 cm  14 cm generated a maximum voltage and
current of 40 V and 210 lA, respectively. Seung et al. [65] demonstrated a fabric
based TENG using a stacked structure of triboelectric layers as shown in
Fig. 2.24b. A four layer stacked structure was shown to produce a peak voltage and
current of 170 V and 120 µA, respectively.
2.4 Triboelectric Energy Harvesters and Self-powered Sensors 29

Fig. 2.24 a Fabric based TENG by weaving a fiber structured TENG [64]. b Fabric TENG by
stacking of triboelectric layers [65]

Yang et al. [66] demonstrated a flexible TENG which utilized a wavy Kapton
structure to enable contact electrification between a copper film and Kapton, as
shown in Fig. 2.25. Due to the unique structure, the device could operate in both
compressive and stretching mode. The device could generate a maximum voltage of
up to 30 V from knee bending and straightening.

2.4.5 Self-powered Sensors

Sensors are an integral part of consumer and industrial electronic devices. Majority
of these sensors work on the principle of measuring the change in properties such as
capacitance and resistance. These sensors require external power supply in order to
function. On the other hand, mechanical sensors to sense force, pressure or
vibrations based on piezoelectric mechanisms do not require any external power for
sensing as they have an ability to generate an electrical signal in response to a
mechanical stimulation. Similarly, triboelectric mechanism can also generate an
electrical signal when stimulated with an external mechanical force. These sensors
30 2 Overview of Energy Harvesting Technologies

Fig. 2.25 Operating mechanism of the wavy structure based flexible TENG for wearable
applications [66]

can be categorized as self-powered active sensors as they do not require an external

power supply for sensing. Various kind of sensors have been realized by
researchers using triboelectric mechanism and are reviewed in the following
sections.

2.4.5.1 Tactile and Pressure Sensors

Yang et al. [67] demonstrated a self-powered tactile sensor array as shown in

Fig. 2.26a. The device was designed for touch pad applications. It utilized
micro-patterned PDMS as one of the triboelectric layers. As bare human finger
touched the PDMS pixels, the electrons were injected from skin to PDMS due to
contact electrification. Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) was used as an electrode beneath
PDMS film to collect charged using triboelectric mechanism. The detection sen-
sitivity of the pressure for every pixel was shown to be 0.29 ± 0.02 V kPa−1.
A similar device was also demonstrated by Meng et al. [68], which was shown to
powered a liquid crystal display (LCD) screen.
Zhu et al. [69] fabricated a self-powered pressure sensor with a sensitivity of
44 V kPa−1 (Fig. 2.27a). The device was tested for durability and showed stable
output for 105 cycles.
2.4 Triboelectric Energy Harvesters and Self-powered Sensors 31

Fig. 2.26 a A photograph of the tactile sensor array. b Plot of the output voltage versus pressure
[67]

Fig. 2.27 a Schematic of the self-powered pressure sensor, SEM image of the polymer nanowires
and a photograph of the fabricated sensor. b Output voltage produced by the sensor due to finger
tapping [69]

2.4.5.2 Motion Tracking Sensors

Sensors based on triboelectric mechanism can also be utilized to sense motion

parameters such as displacement, velocity and acceleration. Zhou et al. [70] pro-
posed a grating based structure for motion sensing as shown in Fig. 2.28a. The
structure comprised of parylene and silicon dioxide (SiO2) gratings which under-
went sliding motion relative to each other. Due to relative sliding motion of the two
triboelectric layers, the two gratings experienced full overlap, partial separation and
full separation. As the relative position of the two gratings changes, the open circuit
potential between the ITO and Al electrode changes periodically. The data collected
from the relative potential difference between electrodes and gap between the
consecutive gratings was used to calculate the displacement with a resolution of
173 nm. Using the contact electrification effect and electrostatic induction between
patterned electrodes, Wu et al. [71] designed a self-powered sensor for angular
motion measurement (Fig. 2.28b).
32 2 Overview of Energy Harvesting Technologies

Fig. 2.28 a Triboelectric motion sensor using dual grating design [70]. b Schematic and
photograph of the self-powered angular motion sensor [71]

Fig. 2.29 a Eardrum inspired design of the voice recognition sensor. b Membrane vibrations
simulated for different applied vibrations [72]

Various other self-powered mechanical sensors have been designed utilizing the
triboelectric effect. Yang et al. [72] fabricated a self-powered voice recognition
sensor using an eardrum inspired diaphragm design as shown in Fig. 2.29a. The
sensor was also demonstrated for sensing arterial pulse wave for biometric recog-
nition. Chen et al. [73] demonstrated a vibration sensor to sense vibration in the
range of 0–200 Hz.

2.4.5.3 Chemical Sensors

Apart from mechanical sensing, triboelectric mechanism can also be used to detect
chemical changes as the contact electrification phenomenon is affected by the
chemical composition of the triboelectric layers. Several sensors have been
demonstrated by the researchers using this principle. Lin et al. [74] detected the
concentration of mercury ions (Hg2+) with Tris-borate used as a buffer solution. The
triboelectric layers comprised of a PDMS film and Au nanoparticles deposited onto
an Au film. To enable the selective detection of Hg2+, 3-mercaptopropionic acid
2.4 Triboelectric Energy Harvesters and Self-powered Sensors 33

Fig. 2.30 a Sensitivity of the self-powered Hg2+ ion sensor. b Plot depicting the selectivity of the
device for Hg2+. The concentration of all metal ions tested was 5 µM [74]. c Current and d voltage
signals from the sensor for various phenol concentrations [75]

(3-MPA) was self-assembled onto the surface of Au nanoparticles using strong

Au-S interaction. The change in the performance of TENG resulted due to differ-
ence in triboelectric polarities of Au nanoparticles and Hg2+ ions. The device had a
detection limit of 30 nM and linear range between 100 nM and 5 µM (Fig. 2.30a).
The device was also shown to have high selectivity for Hg2+ ions. Li et al. [75]
demonstrated a self-powered phenol detection sensor using titanium dioxide (TiO2)
nanowires and PTFE as triboelectric layers. b-cyclodextrin molecules were
assembled onto TiO2 nanowire layer, which acted as the phenol recognition element
and also improved the performance of the contact electrification. The device
achieved a detection sensitivity of 0.01 µM−1 by calibrating the current and voltage
signals in the range of 10–100 µM.

2.5 Summary

In this chapter, various mechanical energy harvesting technologies have been

reviewed. The applications of triboelectric devices in harvesting mechanical energy
available in different forms has been reviewed. Thereafter, various self-powered
34 2 Overview of Energy Harvesting Technologies

devices based on triboelectric effect have been discussed including tactile sensing,
motion sensing and chemical sensing.

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