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Assembly Language Programming

This document provides an overview and introduction to assembly language programming. It discusses reasons for using assembly language, including speed, space efficiency, and capability. It also covers basic concepts like registers, segments and offsets, stacks, data types, instructions, and memory models. The document gives examples of basic assembly programs and procedures for passing parameters. It focuses on 80x86 assembly but also mentions MIPS architecture.

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)

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Assembly Language Programming

Uploaded by

Cleve Blakemore

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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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CA225 Assembly Language Programming http://www.computing.dcu.ie/%7Eray/CA225.html CA225 Assembly Language Programming http://www.computing.dcu.ie/%7Eray/CA225.

html

PASSING PARAMETERS THROUGH THE STACK

PART One 80x86 Assembly Language Programming Listing 6:Proc3.asm
PART Two Introduction to MIPS Programming MACROS (in Turbo Assembler)
Recommended Texts: Macros with Parameters
Sargent, Murray. - The personal computer from the inside out / Murray Sargent FILES AND HOW TO USE THEM
Function 3Dh: open file
III and Rich. - Rev. ed. - Reading, Mass : Addison-Wesley Pub. Co, 1986. - Function 3Eh: close file
0201069180 Function 3Fh: read file/device
Waldron, John, 1964-. - Introduction to RISC assembly language programming Listing 7: READFILE.ASM
/ John Waldron. - Harlow, England : Function 3Ch: Create File
Addison-Wesley, 1999. - 0201398281

OVERVIEW OF THE 80x86 FAMILY

Why Assembly Language ?
REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS IN BINARY OVERVIEW OF THE 80x86 FAMILY
REGISTERS
--------------------------------------------------
General Purpose Regs
Index Registers
Stack Register
The 80x86 family was first started in 1981 with the8086 and the newest
SEGMENTS AND OFFSETS
member is the Pentium which was released thirteen years later in 1994.
THE STACK
They are all backwards compatible with each other but each new generation
INTRODUCTION TO ASSEMBLY
PUSH AND POP
has added features and more speed than the previous chip. Today there are very
TYPES OF OPERAND few computers in use that have the 8088 and 8086 chips in them as they are
SOME USEFUL INSTRUCTIONS very outdated and slow. There are a few 286's but their numbers are declining
MOV INT ADD SUB as today's software becomes more and more demanding. Even the 386, Intel's
MUL IMUL DIV IDIV first 32-bit CPU, is now declining and it seems that the 486 is nowthe entry
WHAT ARE MEMORY MODELS level system.
Tiny Small Medium
Large Flat
BASIC ASSEMBLY PROGRAM Why Assembly Language?
Listing 1:1stProgram.asm
COMPILATION INSTRUCTIONS
MAKING THINGS EASIER An old joke goes something like this: "There are three reasons for using assembly
KEYBOARD INPUT language: speed, speed, and more speed." Even those who absolutely hate assembly
PRINTING A CHARACTER language will admit that if speed is your primary concern, assembly language is the
Listing 2: way to go. Assembly language has several benefits:
DOS Interrupt 21h
INTRODUCTION TO PROCEDURES
Listing 3: SIMPROC.ASM
Speed. Assembly language programs are generally the fastest programs
PROCEDURES THAT PASS PARAMETERS around.
Paramater Passing in Registers Space. Assembly language programs are often the smallest.
Listing 4:Proc1.asm Capability. You can do things in assembly which are difficult or impossible
PASSING PARAMETERS THROUGH MEMORY in HLLs.
Listing 5: PROC2.ASM Knowledge. Your knowledge of assembly language will help you write better

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CA225 Assembly Language Programming http://www.computing.dcu.ie/%7Eray/CA225.html CA225 Assembly Language Programming http://www.computing.dcu.ie/%7Eray/CA225.html

programs, even when using HLLs. Of course, another reason for learning assembly language is just for the knowledge.
Now some of you may be thinking, "Gee, that would be wonderful, but I've got lots
to do. My time would be better spent writing code than learning assembly language."
Assembly language is the uncontested speed champion among programming
There are some practical reasons for learning assembly, even if you never intend to
languages. An expert assembly language programmer will almost always produce a
write a single line of assembly code. If you know assembly language well, you'll
faster program than an expert C programmer. While certain programs may not
have an appreciation for the compiler, and you'll know exactly
benefit much from implementation in assembly, you can speed up many programs by
what the compiler is doing with all those HLL statements. Once you see how
a factor of five or ten over their HLL counterparts by careful coding in assembly
compilers translate seemingly innocuous statements into a ton of machine code,
language; even greater improvement is possible if you're not using an
you'll want to search for better ways to accomplish the same thing. Good assembly
optimizing compiler. Alas, speedups on the order of five to ten times are generally
language programmers make better HLL programmers because they understand the
not achieved by beginning assembly language programmers. However, if you spend
limitations of the compiler and they know what it's doing with their code. Those who
the time to learn assembly language really well, you too can achieve these
don't know assembly language will accept the poor performance their
impressive performance gains.
compiler produces and simply shrug it off.
Despite some people's claims that programmers no longer have to worry about
memory constraints, there are many programmers who need to write smaller
programs. Assembly language programs are often less than one-half the size of Representation of numbers in binary
comparable HLL programs. This is especially impressive when you consider the fact
that data items generally consume the same amount of space in both types of ---------------------------------------------------------------------
programs, and that data is responsible for a good amount of the space used by a
typical application. Saving space saves money. Pure and simple. If a program
requires 1.5 megabytes, it will not fit on a 1.44 Mbyte floppy. Likewise, if an Before we begin to understand how to program in assembly it is best to try to
application requires 2 megabytes RAM, the user will have to install an extra understand how numbers are represented in computers. Numbers are stored in
megabyte if there is only one available in the machine. Even on big machines with binary, base two. There are several terms which are used to describe different size
32 or more megabytes, writing gigantic applications isn't excusable. Most users put numbers and I will describe what these mean.
more than eight megabytes in their machines so they can run multiple programs
1 BIT: 0
from memory at one time. The bigger a program is, the fewer applications will be
able to coexist in memory with it. Virtual memory isn't a particularly attractive One bit is the simplest piece of data that exists. Its either a one or a zero.
solution either. With virtual memory, the bigger an application is, the slower the
system will run as a result of that program's size. 1 NIBBLE: 0000
4 BITS
Capability is another reason people resort to assembly language. HLLs are an
abstraction of a typical machine architecture. They are designed to be independent of The nibble is four bits or half a byte. Note that it has a maximum value of 15 (1111
the particular machine architecture. As a result, they rarely take into account any = 15). This is the basis for the hexadecimal (base 16) number system which is used
special features of the machine, features which are available to assembly language as it is far easier to understand.
programmers. If you want to use such features, you will need to use assembly Hexadecimal numbers go from 1 to F and are followed by a h to state that the are in
language. A really good example is the input/output instructions available hex. i.e. Fh = 15 decimal. Hexadecimal numbers that begin with a letter are prefixed
on the 80x86 microprocessors. These instructions let you directly access certain I/O with a 0 (zero).
devices on the computer. In general, such access is not part of any high level
1 BYTE 00000000
language. Indeed, some languages like C pride themselves on not supporting any
2 NIBBLES
specific I/O operations. In assembly language you have no such restrictions.
8 BITS
Anything you can do on the machine you can do in assembly language. This is
definitely not the case with most HLLs. A byte is 8 bits or 2 nibbles. A byte has a maximum value of FFh (255 decimal).

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Because a byte is 2 nibbles the hexadecimal representation is two hex digits in a row Because the x86 processor has so few registers, we'll give each register its own name
i.e. 3Dh. The byte is also that size of the 8-bit registers which we will be covering and refer to it by that name rather than its address. The names for the x86
later. registers are

1 WORD 0000000000000000
2 BYTES AX -The accumulator register
4 NIBBLES BX -The base address register
16 BITS CX -The count register
DX -The data register
A word is two bytes that are stuck together. A word has a maximum value of FFFFh
(65,536). Since a word is four nibbles, it is represented by four hex digits. This is Besides the above registers, which are visible to the programmer, the x86 processors
the size of the 16-bit registers. also have an instruction pointer register which contains the address of the next
instruction to execute. There is also a flags register that holds the result of a
comparison. The flags register remembers if one value was less than, equal to, or
Registers greater than another value.

Because registers are on-chip and handled specially by the CPU, they are much
--------------------------------------------------------------------- faster than memory. Accessing a memory location requires one or more clock cycles.
Accessing data in a register usually takes zero clock cycles. Therefore, you should
try to keep variables in the registers. Register sets are very small and most registers
Registers are a place in the CPU where a number can be stored and manipulated.
have special purposes which limit their use as variables, but they are still an
There are three sizes of registers: 8-bit, 16-bit and on 386 and above 32-bit. There
excellent place to store temporary data.
are four different types of registers; general purpose registers, segment egisters,
index registers and stack registers. Firstly here are descriptions of the main registers. If AX contained 24689 decimal:
Stack registers and segment registers will be covered later.
AH AL
01100000 01110001
General Purpose Registers
AH would be 96 and AL would be 113. If you added one to AL it would be 114 and
--------------------------------------------------------------------- AH would be unchanged.

SI, DI, SP and BP can also be used as general purpose registers but have more
These are 16-bit registers. There are four general purpose registers; specific uses. They are not split into two
AX, BX, CX and DX.
They are split up into 8-bit registers. AX is split up into AH which contains the high halves.
byte and AL which contains the low
byte. On 386's and above there are also 32-bit registers, these have the same names
as the 16-bit registers but with an 'E' in front i.e. EAX. You can use AL, AH, AX and
EAX separatly and treat them as separate registers for some tasks.
CPU registers are very special memory locations constructed from flip-flops. They
are not part of main memory; the CPU implements them on-chip. Various members
of the 80x86 family have different register sizes. The 886, 8286, 8486, and 8686
(x86 from now on) CPUs have exactly four registers, all 16 bits wide.
All arithmetic and location operations occur in the CPU registers.

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Index Registers share data. All in all, segmentation is a really neat feature. On the other hand, if you
ask ten programmers what they think of segmentation, at least nine of the ten will
--------------------------------------------------------------------- claim it's terrible. Why such a response?

Well, it turns out that segmentation provides one other nifty feature: it allows you to
These are sometimes called pointer registers and they are 16-bit registers. They are extend the addressability of a processor. In the case of the 8086, segmentation let
mainly used for string instructions. There are three index registers SI (source index), Intel's designers extend the maximum addressable memory from 64K to one
DI (destination index) and IP (instruction pointer). On 386's and above there are also megabyte. Gee, that sounds good. Why is everyone complaining? Well, a little
32-bit index registers: EDI and ESI. You can also use BX to index strings. IP is a history lesson is in order to understand what went wrong.
index register but it can't be manipulated directly as it stores the address of the next
instruction. In 1976, when Intel began designing the 8086 processor, memory was very
expensive. Personal computers, such that they were at the time, typically had four
thousand bytes of memory. Even when IBM introduced the PC five years later, 64K
was still quite a bit of memory, one megabyte was a tremendous amount. Intel's
designers felt that 64K memory would remain a large amount throughout the
lifetime of the 8086. The only mistake they made was completely underestimating
the lifetime of the 8086. They figured it would last about five years, like their earlier
8080 processor. They had plans for lots of other processors at the time, and "86" was
not a suffix on the names of any of those. Intel figured they were set. Surely one
megabyte would be more than enough to last until they came out with something
better.

Unfortunately, Intel didn't count on the IBM PC and the massive amount of software
to appear for it. By 1983, it was very clear that Intel could not abandon the 80x86
architecture. They were stuck with it, but by then people were running up against the
Stack registers one megabyte limit of 8086. So Intel gave us the 80286. This processor could
address up to 16 megabytes of memory. Surely more than enough. The only problem
---------------------------------------------------------------------
was that all that wonderful software written for the IBM PC
was written in such a way that it couldn't take advantage of any memory beyond one
BP and SP are stack registers and are used when dealing with the stack. They will be megabyte.
covered when we talk about the stack later on.
It turns out that the maximum amount of addressable memory is not everyone's main
complaint. The real problem is that the 8086 was a 16 bit processor, with 16 bit
registers and 16 bit addresses. This limited the processor to addressing 64K chunks
Segments and offsets of memory. Intel's clever use of segmentation extended this to one megabyte, but
addressing more than 64K at one time takes some effort. Addressing more than
--------------------------------------------------------------------- 256K at one time takes a lot of effort.

Despite what you might have heard, segmentation is not bad. In fact, it is a really
You cannot discuss memory addressing on the 80x86 processor family without first great memory management scheme. What is bad is Intel's 1976 implementation of
discussing segmentation. Among other things, segmentation provides a powerful segmentation still in use today. You can't blame Intel for this - they fixed the
memory management mechanism. It allows programmers to partition their programs problem in the 80's with the release of the 80386. The real culprit is MS-DOS that
into modules that operate independently of one another. Segments provide a way to forces programmers to continue to use 1976 style segmentation. Fortunately, newer
easily implement object-oriented programs. Segments allow two processes to easily operating systems such as Linux, UNIX, Windows 9x, Windows NT, and

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OS/2 don't suffer from the same problems as MS-DOS. Furthermore, users finally The size of the offset limits the maximum size of a segment. On the 8086 with 16 bit
seem to be more willing to switch to these newer operating systems so programmers offsets, a segment may be no longer than 64K; it could be smaller (and most
can take advantage of the new features of the 80x86 family. segments are), but never larger. The 80386 and later processors allow 32 bit offsets
with segments as large as four gigabytes.
With the history lesson aside, it's probably a good idea to figure out what
segmentation is all about. Consider the current view of memory: it looks like a linear The segment portion is 16 bits on all 80x86 processors. This lets a single program
array of bytes. A single index (address) selects some particular byte from that array. have up to 65,536 different segments in the program. Most programs have less than
Let's call this type of addressing linear or flat addressing. Segmented addressing uses 16 segments (or thereabouts) so this isn't a practical limitation.
two components to specify a memory location: a segment value and an offset within
that segment. Ideally, the segment and offset values are independent of one another. Of course, despite the fact that the 80x86 family uses segmented addressing, the
The best way to describe segmented addressing is with a two-dimensional array. The actual (physical) memory connected to the CPU is still a linear array of bytes. There
segment provides one of the indices into the array, the offset provides the other: is a function that converts the segment value to a physical memory address. The
processor then adds the offset to this physical address to obtain the actual address of
the data in memory. This text will refer to addresses in your programs as segmented
addresses or logical addresses. The actual linear address that
appears on the address bus is the physical address :

Now you may be wondering, "Why make this process more complex?" Linear
addresses seem to work fine, why bother with this two dimensional addressing
scheme? Well, let's consider the way you typically write a program. If you were to
write, say, a SIN(X) routine and you needed some temporary variables, you probably On the 8086, 8088, 80186, and 80188 (and other processors operating in real mode),
would not use global variables. Instead, you would use local variables inside the the function that maps a segment to a physical address is very simple. The CPU
SIN(X) function. In a broad sense, this is one of the features that segmentation offers multiplies the segment value by sixteen (10h) and adds the offset portion. For
- the ability to attach blocks of variables (a segment) to a particular piece of code. example, consider the segmented address: 1000:1F00. To convert this to a physical
You could, for xample, have a segment containing local variables for SIN, a address you multiply the segment value (1000h) by sixteen. Multiplying by the radix
segment for SQRT, a segment for DRAWWindow, etc. Since the variables for SIN is very easy. Just append a zero to the end of the number. Appending a zero to 1000h
appear in the segment for SIN, it's less likely your SIN routine will affect the produces 10000h. Add 1F00h to this to obtain 11F00h. So 11F00h is the physical
variables belonging to the SQRT routine. Indeed, on the 80286 and later operating in address that corresponds to the segmented address 1000:1F00.
protected mode, the CPU can prevent one routine from accidentally modifying the
variables in a different segment.

A full segmented address contains a segment component and an offset component.

This text will write segmented addresses as segment:offset. On the 8086 through the
80286, these two values are 16 bit constants. On the 80386 and later, the offset can
be a 16 bit constant or a 32 bit constant.

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number of registers is very limited, often times less than ten. In most high-level
languages, register access
Segment registers are: CS, DS, ES, SS. On the 386+ there are also FS and GS. isn't permitted, but don't worry; the code the compiler generates uses registers
heavily (and for yet more
Offset registers are: BX, DI, SI, BP, SP, IP. In 386+ protected mode1, ANY general reasons not discussed here, it kind of has to). But back to the topic at hand.
register (not a segment register) can be used as an Offset register. (Except IP, which The register used for the stack is called the Stack Pointer, or SP for short. The
you can't manipulate directly). region of memory is the same very Stack
segment we've been talking about. Since a stack only has two operations, pushing
(adding an item to the stack), and
popping (removing an item from the stack), the easiest way to describe a stack is to
THE STACK
just describe both of these operations.
--------------------------------------------------------------------- When the program is loaded, the stack pointer is set to the highest address of the
stack segment. When an item is pushed
onto the stack, two things occur. First of all, the size of the item, in bytes, is
As there are only six registers that are used for most operations, you're probably subtracted from the stack pointer. Then, all the
wondering how do you get around that. It's easy. There is something called a stack bytes the item consists of are copied into the region of the stack segment that the
which is an area of memory which you can save and restore values to. stack pointer now points to. When an item
This is an area of memory that is like a stack of plates. The last one you put on is the is popped from the stack, the size of the item is added to the stack pointer. The copy
of the item still resides on the stack,
first one that you take off. This is sometimes refered to as Last In First Off (LIFO) or
but will be overwritten when the next push occurs.
First In Last Out (FILO).
If another piece of data is put on the stack it grows downwards.

As you can see the stack starts at a high address and grows downwards. You have to
make sure that you don't put too much data in the stack or it will overflow. Why We Have A Stack

The stack is useful for storing context. If a procedure simply pushes all its local
The STACK Segment variables onto the stack when it enters,
and pops them off when its done, its complete context is nicely cleaned up
In general, a stack is a single ended data structure with a first in, last out data afterwards. What's nice is that when a
ordering. That means that if item A is placed procedure calls another procedure, the called procedure can do the same with its
into the stack ("Pushed"), and then item B is placed on the stack, then item B must context; leaving the calling procedure's
be removed ("Popped") from the stack data completely alone.
before item A may be retrieved. This may seem kind of pointless, but the Before we go any further into the stack, we have to define the Instruction
usefullness will be demonstrated soon. Pointer, IP for short. This is
The system implements a stack for all running programs. The implementation of a another register, like the Stack Pointer, which holds the address of the currently
stack is very simple: one variable kept executing instruction in
inside the processor itself and a region of memory memory. This register is maintained by the processor. In fact, the processor runs
by basically doing the
following:
Yes, the processor has a small, limited set of variables inside it. These variables
are called registers. The 1.Read instruction that IP points to

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2.Add length of instruction (in bytes) to IP ---------------------------------------------------------------------

3.Execute instruction
4.Go to step1.
There are a lot of instructions in assembly but there are only about
If the instruction run at step 3 modifies IP, then when the processor goes back to twenty that you have to know and will use very often. Most
step 1, it will execute whatever instructions are made up of three characters and have an operand then
instructions are at the new value of IP. This type of instruction is typically called a comma then another operand. For example to put a data into a
a jump instruction, because the register you use the MOV instruction.
processor jumps to a new location to find its next instruction. This kind of
instruction is very handy for procedure mov ax,10 ;put 10 into ax
calls. mov bx,20 ;put 20 into bx
mov cx,30 ;put 30 into cx
With that said, let's get back to the stack. mov dx,40 ;put 40 into dx
When a procedure is called, several other things are pushed onto the stack. First of Notice that in assembler anything after a ; (semicolon) is ignored.
those is the address of the instruction This is very useful for commenting your code.
immediately after the procedure call. Then the parameters to the function are
pushed onto the stack. After the function has
finished, it will pop its own local variables off of the stack. Then, it will pop its PUSH AND POP: TWO INSTRUCTIONS TO USE THE STACK
parameters off of the stack. It will finally
run a special instruction called a return. This is a special processor instruction ---------------------------------------------------------------------
which pops off the top value of the stack
and loads it into IP. At this point, the stack will have the address of the next
instruction of the calling procedure in it. To You know about the stack but not how to put data in an out of it.
make this a little clearer, a bit of code will help. There are two simple instructions that you need to know: push and
pop. Here is the syntax for their use:
10 i=3;
11 foo(i); PUSH Puts a piece of data onto the top of the stack
12 i=4; Syntax:
Basically, after line 10 is finished executing, the stack will have the address of the push data
instructions composing line 12 pushed POP Puts the piece of data from the top of the stack into a
onto the stack. Then, it will have the number 3 pushed onto the stack. Then, the specified register or variable.
computer begins to execute the instructions
comprising the procedure foo. When it is done, foo will pop the value 3 off of the Syntax:
stack. Then it will execute the return pop register or variable
instruction, which will put the address of the first instruction of line 12 into IP. And
voilá, the state of the system, the Stack This example of code demonstrates how to use the push and pop
Pointer, the Instruction Pointer, etc. is all in the correct state for line 12 to execute. instructions

push cx ;put cx on the stack

push ax ;put ax on the stack
AN INTRODUCTION TO ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS pop cx ;put value from stack into cx
pop ax ;put value from stack into ax

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Notice that the values of CX and AX will be exchanged. There is an For example:
instruction to exchange two registers: XCHG, which would reduce the int 21h ;Calls DOS service
previous fragment to "xchg ax,cx". int 10h ;Calls the Video BIOS interrupt

Most interrupts have more than one function, this means that you
TYPES OF OPERAND have to pass a number to the function you want. This is usually put
in AH. To print a message on the screen all you need to do is this:
--------------------------------------------------------------------- mov ah,9 ;subroutine number 9
int 21h ;call the interrupt
There are three types of operands in assembler: immediate, register But first you have to specify what to print. This function needs
and memory. Immediate is a number which will be known at compilation DS:DX to be a far pointer to where the string is. The string has to
and will always be the same for example '20' or 'A'. A register be terminated with a dollar sign ($). This would be easy if DS could
operand is any general purpose or index register for example AX or be manipulated directly, to get round this we have to use AX.
SI. A memory operand is a variable which is stored in memory which
will be covered later. This example shows how it works:

mov dx,OFFSET Message ;DX contains offset of message

mov ax,SEG Message ;AX contains segment of message
SOME INSTRUCTIONS THAT YOU WILL NEED TO
mov ds,ax ;DS:DX points to message
KNOW mov ah,9 ;function 9 - display string
int 21h ;call dos service
---------------------------------------------------------------------
The words OFFSET and SEG tell the compiler that you want the
segment or the offset of the message put in the register not the
This is a list of some important instructions that you need to know contents of the message. Now we know how to set up the code to
before you can understand or write assembly programs. display the message we need to declare the message. In the data
segment1 we declare the message like this:
MOV moves a value from one place to another.
Message DB "Hello World!$"
Syntax:
MOV destination, source Notice that the string is terminated with an dollar sign. What does
'DB' mean? DB is short for declare byte and the message is an array
for example: of bytes (an ASCII character takes up one byte). Data can be
mov ax,10 ;moves an immediate value into ax declared in a number of sizes: bytes (DB), words (DW) and double
mov bx,cx ;moves value from cx into bx words (DD). You don't have to worry about double words at the moment
mov dx,Number ;moves the value of Number into dx as you need a 32-bit register, such as EAX, to fit them in.
INT calls a DOS or BIOS function which are subroutines to do Here are some examples of declaring data:
things that we would rather not write a function for e.g.
change video mode, open a file etc. Number1 db ?
Number2 dw ?
Syntax:
INT interrupt number The question mark (?) on the end means that the data isn't
initialised i.e. it has no value in to start with. That could as

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easily be written as: multiplied if a byte sized operand is given and the result is stored
in AX. If the operand is word sized AX is multiplied and the result
Number1 db 0 is placed in DX:AX.
Number2 dw 1
On a 386, 486 or Pentium the EAX register can be used and the answer
This time Number1 is equal to 0 and Number2 is equal to 1 when you is stored in EDX:EAX.
program loads. Your program will also be three bytes longer. If you
declare a variable as a word you cannot move the value of this DIV Divides two unsigned integers (always positive)
variable into a 8-bit register and you can't declare a variable IDIV Divides two signed integers (either positive or negitive)
as a byte and move the value into a 16-bit register. For examples:
Syntax:
mov al,Number1 ;ok DIV register or variable
mov ax,Number1 ;error IDIV register or variable

mov bx,Number2 ;ok This works in the same way as MUL and IMUL by dividing the number in
mov bl,Number2 ;error AX by the register or variable given. The answer is stored in two
places. AL stores the answer and the remainder is in AH. If the
All you have to remember is that you can only put bytes into 8-bit operand is a 16 bit register than the number in DX:AX is
registers and words into 16-bit registers. divided by the operand and the answer is stored in AX and remainder
in DX.
ADD Add the contents of one number to another
YOUR FIRST ASSEMBLY PROGRAM
Syntax:

ADD operand1,operand2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------

This adds operand2 to operand1. The answer is stored in operand1.
Immediate data cannot be used as operand1 but can be used as Now that you know some basic instructions and a little about data it
operand2. is time that we looked at a full assembly program which can be
compiled.
SUB Subtract one number from another

Syntax: Listing 1: 1STPROG.ASM

SUB operand1,operand2

This subtracts operand2 from operand1. Immediate data cannot be used ;This is a simple program which displays "Hello World!" on the
as operand1 but can be used as operand2. ;screen.

MUL Multiplies two unsigned integers (always positive) .model small

.stack
IMUL Multiplies two signed integers (either positive or negitive) .data

Syntax: Message db "Hello World!$" ;message to be display

MUL register or variable
.code
IMUL register or variable mov dx,OFFSET Message ;offset of Message is in DX
mov ax,SEG Message ;segment of Message is in AX
This multiples AL or AX by the register or variable given. AL is mov ds,ax ;DS:DX points to string

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mov ah,9 ;function 9 - display string mov dx,OFFSET MyMessage

int 21h ;call dos service mov ax,SEG MyMessage
mov ds,ax
mov ax,4c00h ;return to dos DOS
int 21h

END start ;end here

We can replace all this with just one line. This makes the code
easier to read and it easier to remember.

COMPILATION INSTRUCTIONS mov dx,OFFSET MyMessage

---------------------------------------------------------------------
To make this work at the beginning of your code add these lines:

These are some instructions to compile and link programs. If you mov ax,@data
have a compiler other than TASM or A86 then see your instruction mov ds,ax

manual.

Turbo Assembler: Note: for A86 you need to change the first line to:

tasm file.asm mov ax,data

tlink file [/t]

This is because all the data in the segment has the same SEG value.
The /t switch makes a .COM file. This will only work if the memory Putting this in DS saves us reloading this every time we want to
model is declared as tiny in the source file. use another thing in the same segment.
A86:
KEYBOARD INPUT
a86 file.asm
---------------------------------------------------------------------
This will compile your program to a .COM file. It doesn't matter
what the memory model is. We are going to use interrupt 16h, function 00h to read the keyboard. This gets a key
from the keyboard buffer. If there isn't
one, it waits until there is. It returns the SCAN code in AH and the ASCII translation
MAKING THINGS EASIER in AL.

---------------------------------------------------------------------
xor ah,ah ;function 00h - get character
int 16h ;interrupt 16h

The way we entered the address of the message we wanted to print was
a bit cumbersome. It took three lines and it isn't the easiest thing All we need to worry about for now is the ascii value which is in AL.
to remember
Note: XOR performs a Boolean Exclusive OR. It is commonly used to
erase a register or variable.

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It is easy. We use the jump on condition commands. Here is a list

of them:
PRINTING A CHARACTER
JUMP ON CONDITION INSTRUCTIONS:
--------------------------------------------------------------------- JA jumps if the first number was above the second number
JAE same as above, but will also jump if they are equal
JB jumps if the first number was below the second
The problem is that we have the key that has been pressed in ah. How JBE same as above, but will also jump if they are equal
do we display it? We can't use function 9h because for that we need JNA jumps if the first number was NOT above (JBE)
to have already defined the string which has to end with a dollar JNAE jumps if the first number was NOT above or the same as (JNB)
sign. This is what we do instead:
JNB jumps if the first number was NOT below (JAE)
JNBE jumps if the first number was NOT below or the same as (JA)
;after calling function 00h of interrupt 16h JZ jumps if the two numbers were equal
mov dl,al ;move al (ascii code) into dl
JE same as JZ, just a different name
mov ah,02h ;function 02h of interrupt 21h JNZ jumps if the two numbers are NOT equal
int 21h ;call interrupt 21h JNE same as above
JC jump if carry flag is set
If you want to save the value of AH then push AX before and pop it
Note: the jump can only be a maximum of 127 bytes in either
afterwards.
direction.

Syntax:
FLOW CONTROL CMP register or variable, value
jxx destination
---------------------------------------------------------------------
An example of this is:

In assembly there is a set of commands for control flow like in any cmp al,'Y' ;compare the value in al with Y
other language. Firstly the most basic command: je ItsYES ;if it is equal then jump to ItsYES

jmp label Every instruction takes up a certain amount of code space. You will
get a warning if you try and jump over 127 bytes in either direction
All this does it to move to the label specified and start executing from the compiler. You can solve this by changing a sequence like this:
the code there. For example:
cmp ax,10 ;is AX 10?
je done ;yes, lets finish
jmp ALabel
.
. to something like this:
.
ALabel:
What do we do if we want to compare something? We have just got a cmp ax,10 ;is AX 10?
key from the user but we want to do something with it. Lets print jne notdone ;no it is not
something out if it is equal to something else. How do we do that? jmp done ;we are now done

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notdone: mov dl,al ;move al to dl

mov ah,02h ;function 02h - display character
int 21h ;call DOS service
This solves the problem but you may want to think about reordering
cmp bl,'Y' ;is al=Y?
your code or using procedures if this happens often.
je Prompt_Again ;if yes then display it again
cmp bl,'y' ;is al=y?
Now we are going to look at a program which demonstrates input, je Prompt_Again ;if yes then display it again
output and control flow.
TheEnd:
mov dx,OFFSET GoodBye ;print goodbye message
mov ah,9 ;using function 9
Listing 2: PROGFLOW.ASM int 21h ;of interrupt 21h
mov ah,4Ch ;terminate program DOSusing
int 21h
;a program to demonstrate program flow and input/output
.model tiny end start
.DATA
CR equ 13
LF equ 10
;enter
;line-feed
INTRODUCTION TO PROCEDURES
Message DB "A Simple Input/Output Program$" ---------------------------------------------------------------------
Prompt DB CR,LF,"Here is your first prompt.$"
Again DB CR,LF,"Do you want to be prompted again? $"
Another DB CR,LF,"Here is another prompt!$"
GoodBye DB CR,LF,"Goodbye then.$" In assembly a procedure is the equivalent to a function in C or
Pascal. A procedure provides a easy way to encapsulate some
.code
org 100h
calculation which can then be used without worrying how it works.
start: With procedures that are properly designed you can ignore how a
job is done.
mov dx,OFFSET Message ;display a message on the screen
mov ah,9 ;using function 09h
int 21h ;of interrupt 21h
This is how a procedure is defined:

mov dx,OFFSET Prompt ;display a message on the screen

PROC AProcedure
mov ah,9 ;using function 09h
.
int 21h ;of interrupt 21h
jmp First_Time . ;some code to do something
.
Prompt_Again: RET ;if this is not here then your computer will crash
mov dx,OFFSET Another ;display a message on the screen ENDP AProcedure
mov ah,9 ;using function 09h
int 21h ;of interrupt 21h
It is equally easy to run a procedure all you need to do is this:
First_Time:
mov dx,OFFSET Again ;display a message on the screen
mov ah,9 ;using function 09h call AProcedure
int 21h ;of interrupt 21h

xor ah,ah ;function 00h of

int 16h ;interrupt 16h gets a character This next program is an example of how to use a procedure. It is
mov bl,al ;save to bl like the first example we looked at, all it does is print "Hello
World!" on the screen.

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In registers

Listing 3: SIMPPROC.ASM ---------------------------------------------------------------------

;This is a simple program to demonstrate procedures. It should The advantages of this is that it is easy to do and is fast. All you
;print Hello World! on the screen when ran. have to do is to is move the parameters into registers before
calling the procedure.
.model tiny
.data
HI DB "Hello World!$" ;define a message
Listing 4: PROC1.ASM
.code
org 100h
;this a procedure to print a block on the screen using
Start:
;registers to pass parameters (cursor position of where to
mov ax ,@data ;Initialise Data Seg
mov ds,ax ;print it and colour).
call Display_Hi ;Call the procedure
mov ax,4C00h ;return to DOS .model tiny
int 21h ;interrupt 21h function 4Ch .code
org 100h
Display_Hi PROC
Start:
mov dx,OFFSET HI ;put offset of message into DX
mov dh,4 ;row to print character on
mov ah,9 ;function 9 - display string
mov dl,5 ;column to print character on
int 21h ;call DOS service
mov al,254 ;ascii value of block to display
ret mov bl,4 ;colour to display character
Display_Hi ENDP
call PrintChar ;print our character
end Start
mov ax,4C00h ;terminate program
int 21h

PrintChar PROC NEAR

push cx ;save registers to be destroyed
PROCEDURES THAT PASS PARAMETERS
xor bh,bh ;clear bh - video page 0
mov ah,2 ;function 2 - move cursor
--------------------------------------------------------------------- int 10h ;row and col are already in dx

pop bx ;restore bx
xor bh,bh ;display page - 0
Procedures wouldn't be so useful unless you could pass parameters to
mov ah,9 ;function 09h write char & attrib
modify or use inside the procedure. There are three ways of doing mov cx,1 ;display it once
this and I will cover all three methods: in registers, in memory and int 10h ;call bios service
in the stack.
pop cx ;restore registers
ret ;return to where it was called
There are three example programs which all accomplish the same task. PrintChar ENDP
They print a square block (ASCII value 254) in a specified place.
end Start
The sizes of the files when compiled are: 38 for register, 69 for
memory and 52 for stack.
PASSING THROUGH MEMORY

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--------------------------------------------------------------------- mov al,Char

mov bl,Colour
xor bh,bh ;display page - 0
mov ah,9 ;function 09h write char & attrib
The advantages of this method is that it is easy to do but it makes
mov cx,1 ;display it once
your program larger and can be slower. int 10h ;call bios service

To pass parameters through memory all you need to do is copy them to pop bx cx ax ;restore registers
a variable which is stored in memory. You can use a variable in the ret ;return to where it was called
PrintChar ENDP
same way that you can use a register but commands with registers are
a lot faster.
end Start
Listing 5: PROC2.ASM
Passing through Stack

;this a procedure to print a block on the screen using memory ---------------------------------------------------------------------

;to pass parameters (cursor position of where to print it and
;colour).
This is the most powerful and flexible method of passing parameters
the problem is that it is more complicated.
.model tiny
.data
Row db ? ;variables to store data Listing 6: PROC3.ASM
Col db ?
Colour db ?
Char db ?
;this a procedure to print a block on the screen using the
.code ;stack to pass parameters (cursor position of where to print it
org 100h
;and colour).
Start:
mov ax,@data
mov ds,ax
.model tiny
mov Row,4 ;row to print character .code
mov Col,5 ;column to print character on org 100h
mov Char,254 ;ascii value of block to display Start:
mov Colour,4 ;colour to display character mov dh,4 ;row to print string on
mov dl,5 ;column to print string on
call PrintChar ;print our character mov al,254 ;ascii value of block to display
mov bl,4 ;colour to display character
mov ax,4C00h ;terminate program
int 21h push dx ax bx ;put parameters onto the stack
call PrintString ;print our string
PrintChar PROC NEAR pop bx ax dx ;restore registers
push ax cx bx ;save registers to be destroyed
mov ax,4C00h ;terminate program
xor bh,bh ;clear bh - video page 0 int 21h
mov ah,2 ;function 2 - move cursor
mov dh,Row PrintString PROC NEAR
mov dl,Col push bp ;save bp
int 10h ;call Bios service mov bp,sp ;put sp into bp
push cx ;save registers to be destroyed

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xor bh,bh ;clear bh - video page 0 Small

mov ah,2 ;function 2 - move cursor
mov dx,[bp+8] ;restore dx
int 10h ;call bios service
This means that by default all code is place in one segment and all
mov ax,[bp+6] ;character data declared in the data segment is also placed in one segment.
mov bx,[bp+4] ;attribute This means that all procedures and variables are addressed as NEAR
xor bh,bh ;display page - 0
by pointing at offsets only.
mov ah,9 ;function 09h write char & attrib
mov cx,1 ;display it once
int 10h ;call bios service
Compact
pop cx ;restore registers
pop bp
ret ;return to where it was called This means that by default all elements of code are placed in one
PrintString ENDP
segment but each element of data can be placed in its own physical
end Start segment. This means that data elements are addressed by pointing at
both at the segment and offset addresses. Code elements (procedures)
To get a parameter from the stack all you need to do is work out are NEAR and variables are FAR.
where it is. The last parameter is at BP+2 and then the next at
BP+4.
Medium

WHAT ARE MEMORY MODELS? This is the opposite to compact. Data elements are NEAR and
procedures are FAR.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Large
We have been using the .MODEL directive to specify what type of
memory model we use, but what does this mean?
This means that both procedures and variables are FAR. You have to
Syntax: point at both the segment and offset addresses.

.MODEL MemoryModel
Flat
Where MemoryModel can be SMALL, COMPACT, MEDIUM, LARGE, HUGE,
TINY This isn't used much as it is for 32 bit unsegmented memory space.
OR FLAT. For this you need a DOS extender. This is what you would have to use
if you were writing a program to interface with a C/C++ program that
used a DOS extender such as DOS4GW or PharLap.
Tiny

This means that there is only one segment for both code and data. MACROS (in Turbo Assembler)
This type of program can be a .COM file.
---------------------------------------------------------------------

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jmp SkipData
(All code examples given are for macros in Turbo Assembler.) PrintMe db SomeText,'$'

Macros are very useful for doing something that is done often but SkipData:
for which a procedure can't be use. Macros are substituted when the push ax dx ds cs
pop ds
program is compiled to the code which they contain.
mov dx,OFFSET cs:PrintMe
mov ah,9
This is the syntax for defining a macro:
int 21h
pop ds dx ax
endm
Name_of_macro macro
; endm
;a sequence of instructions
;
endm The only problems with macros is that if you overuse them it leads
to you program getting bigger and bigger and that you have problems
These two examples are for macros that take away the boring job of with multiple definition of labels and variables. The correct way to
pushing and popping certain registers: solve this problem is to use the LOCAL directive for declaring names
inside macros.

SaveRegs macro Syntax:

pop ax
pop bx LOCAL name
pop cx
pop dx
endm Where name is the name of a local variable or label.
RestoreRegs macro
pop dx
pop cx
pop bx Macros with parameters
pop ax
endm
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Note that the registers are popped in the reverse order to they were
pushed. To use a macro in you program you just use the name of the Another useful property of macros is that they can have parameters.
macro as an ordinary instruction: The number of parameters is only restricted by the length of the
line.
SaveRegs Syntax:
;some other instructions
RestoreRegs

Name_of_Macro macro par1,par2,par3

;
This example shows how you can use a macro to save typing in. This ;commands go here
macro simply prints out a message to the screen. ;
endm

OutMsg macro SomeText

local PrintMe,SkipData This is an example that adds the first and second parameters and

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puts the result in the third: OUTPUT:

CF = 0 function is succesful
AddMacro macro num1,num2,result
AX = handle
push ax ;save ax from being destroyed CF = 1 error has occured
mov ax,num1 ;put num1 into ax AX = error code
add ax,num2 ;add num2 to it 01h missing file sharing software
mov result,ax ;move answer into result 02h file not found
pop ax ;restore ax
endm 03h path not found or file does not exist
04h no handle available
05h access denied
0Ch access mode not permitted
FILES AND HOW TO USE THEM
What does ASCIIZ mean? An ASCIIZ string like a ASCII string with a
zero on the end instead of a dollar sign.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Important: Remember to save the file handle it is needed for later.
Files can be opened, read and written to. DOS has some ways of doing How to save the file handle
this which save us the trouble of writing our own routines. Yes,
more interrupts. Here is a list of helpful functions of interrupt It is important to save the file handle because this is needed to do
21h that deal with files. anything with the file. Well how is this done? There are two methods
we could use: copy the file handle into another register and don't
Note: Bits are numbered from right to left. use that register or copy it to a variable in memory.

The disadvantages with the first method is that you will have to
Function 3Dh: open file remember not to use the register you saved it in and it wastes a
register that can be used for something more useful. We are going to
use the second. This is how it is done:
Opens an existing file for reading, writing or appending on the
specified drive and filename.
FileHandle DW 0 ;use this for saving the file handle
INPUT: .
AH = 3Dh .
.
AL = bits 0-2 Access mode mov FileHandle,ax ;save the file handle
000 = read only
001 = write only Function 3Eh: close file
010 = read/write
bits 4-6 Sharing mode (DOS 3+)
000 = compatibility mode Closes a file that has been opened.
001 = deny all
INPUT:
010 = deny write
AX = 3Eh
011 = deny read
BX = file handle
100 = deny none
DS:DX = segment:offset of ASCIIZ pathname OUTPUT:

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CF = 0 function is successful
AX = destroyed .model small
CF = 1 function not successful .stack
AX = error code - 06h file not opened or unauthorised handle. .data

Handle DW ? ;to store file handle

Important: Don't call this function with a zero handle because that FileName DB "C:\test.txt",0 ;file to be opened
will close the standard input (the keyboard) and you won't be able
to enter anything. OpenError DB "An error has occured(opening)!$"
ReadError DB "An error has occured(reading)!$"

Buffer DB 100 dup (?) ;buffer to store data

Function 3Fh: read file/device .code

start:

Reads bytes from a file or device to a buffer.

mov ax,@data ;base address of data segment
INPUT: mov ds,ax ;put this in ds
AH = 3Fh
mov dx,OFFSET FileName ;put address of filename in dx
BX = handle mov al,2 ;access mode - read and write
CX = number of bytes to be read mov ah,3Dh ;function 3Dh -open a file
DS:DX = segment:offset of a buffer int 21h ;call DOS service

mov Handle,ax ;save file handle for later

OUTPUT: jc ErrorOpening ;jump if carry flag set - error!
CF = 0 function is successful
AX = number of bytes read mov dx,offset Buffer ;address of buffer in dx
mov bx,Handle ;handle in bx
CF = 1 an error has occurred
mov cx,100 ;amount of bytes to be read
05h access denied mov ah,3Fh ;function 3Fh - read from file
06h illegal handle or file not opened int 21h ;call dos service
jc ErrorReading ;jump if carry flag set - error!
If CF = 0 and AX = 0 then the file pointer was already at the end of
mov bx,Handle ;put file handle in bx
the file and no more can be read. If CF = 0 and AX is smaller than
mov ah,3Eh ;function 3Eh - close a file
CX then only part was read because the end of the file was reached int 21h ;call DOS service
or an error occurred.
mov cx,100 ;length of string
This function can also be used to get input from the keyboard. Use a mov si,OFFSET Buffer ;DS:SI - address of string
xor bh,bh ;video page - 0
handle of 0, and it stops reading after the first carriage return, mov ah,0Eh ;function 0Eh - write character
or once a specified number of characters have been read. This is a
good and easy method to use to only let the user enter a certain
NextChar:
amount of characters.
lodsb ;AL = next character in string
int 10h ;call BIOS service
loop NextChar
Listing 7: READFILE.ASM
mov ax,4C00h ;terminate program
int 21h
;a program to demonstrate creating a file and then writing to
;it
ErrorOpening:

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mov dx,offset OpenError ;display an error Function 4Eh: find first matching file
mov ah,09h ;using function 09h
int 21h ;call DOS service
mov ax,4C01h ;end program with an errorlevel =1
int 21h
Searches for the first file that matches the filename given.

ErrorReading: INPUT:
mov dx,offset ReadError ;display an error AH = 4Eh
mov ah,09h ;using function 09h CX = file attribute mask (bits can be combined)
int 21h ;call DOS service
bit 0 = 1 read only
mov ax,4C02h ;end program with an errorlevel =2 bit 1 = 1 hidden
int 21h bit 2 = 1 system
bit 3 = 1 volume label
bit 4 = 1 directory
END start bit 5 = 1 archive
bit 6-15 reserved
DS:DX = segment:offset of ASCIIZ pathname
Function 3Ch: Create file
OUTPUT:
CF = 0 function is successful
Creates a new empty file on a specified drive with a specified pathname. [DTA] Disk Transfer Area = FindFirst data block
INPUT: The DTA block
AH = 3Ch
CX = file attribute Offset Size in bytes Meaning
bit 0 = 1 read-only file
bit 1 = 1 hidden file 0 21 Reserved
bit 2 = 1 system file 21 1 File attributes
bit 3 = 1 volume (ignored) 22 2 Time last modified
bit 4 = 1 reserved (0) - directory 24 2 Date last modified
bit 5 = 1 archive bit 26 4 Size of file (in bytes)
bits 6-15 reserved (0) 30 13 File name (ASCIIZ)
DS:DX = segment:offset of ASCIIZ pathname
An example of checking if file exists:
OUTPUT:
CF = 0 function is successful File DB "C:\file.txt",0 ;name of file that we want
AX = handle
mov dx,OFFSET File ;address of filename
CF = 1 an error has occurred mov cx,3Fh ;file mask 3Fh - any file
03h path not found mov ah,4Eh ;function 4Eh - find first file
04h no available handle int 21h ;call DOS service
jc NoFile
05h access denied
;print message saying file exists
Important: If a file of the same name exists then it will be lost. NoFile:
Make sure that there is no file of the same name. This can be done ;continue with creating file
with the function below.

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This is an example of creating a file and then writing to it. int 21h ;call dos service
jc WriteError ;jump if there is an error
cmp ax,cx ;was all the data written?
jne WriteError ;no it wasn't - error!
Listing 8: CREATE.ASM
mov bx,Handle ;put file handle in bx
mov ah,3Eh ;function 3Eh - close a file
;This example program creates a file and then writes to it. int 21h ;call dos service

mov dx,offset EndMessage ;display the final message

mov ah,09h ;using function 09h
.model small
int 21h ;call dos service
.stack
.data
ReturnToDOS:
mov ax,4C00h ;terminate program
CR equ 13
int 21h
LF equ 10

WriteError:
StartMessage DB "This program creates a file called NEW.TXT"
mov dx,offset WriteMessage ;display an error message
DB ,"on the C drive.$"
jmp EndError
EndMessage DB CR,LF,"File create OK, look at file to"
DB ,"be sure.$"
OpenError:
mov dx,offset OpenMessage ;display an error message
WriteMessage DB "An error has occurred (WRITING)$"
jmp EndError
OpenMessage DB "An error has occurred (OPENING)$"
CreateMessage DB "An error has occurred (CREATING)$"
CreateError:
mov dx,offset CreateMessage ;display an error message
WriteMe DB "HELLO, THIS IS A TEST, HAS IT WORKED?",0

EndError:
FileName DB "C:\new.txt",0 ;name of file to open
mov ah,09h ;using function 09h
Handle DW ? ;to store file handle
.code int 21h ;call dos service
mov ax,4C01h ;terminate program
mov ax,@data ;base address of data segment int 21h
mov ds,ax ;put it in ds

mov dx,offset StartMessage ;display the starting message

mov ah,09h ;using function 09h END
int 21h ;call dos service

mov dx,offset FileName ;put offset of filename in dx

This is an example of how to delete a file after checking it exists:
xor cx,cx ;clear cx - make ordinary file
mov ah,3Ch ;function 3Ch - create a file
int 21h ;call DOS service
jc CreateError ;jump if there is an error Listing 9: DELFILE.ASM
mov dx,offset FileName ;put offset of filename in dx
mov al,2 ;access mode -read and write ;a demonstration of how to delete a file. The file new.txt on
mov ah,3Dh ;function 3Dh - open the file ;c: is deleted (this file is created by create.exe). We also
int 21h ;call dos service ;check if the file exits before trying to delete it
jc OpenError ;jump if there is an error
mov Handle,ax ;save value of handle .model small
.stack
mov dx,offset WriteMe ;address of information to write .data
mov bx,Handle ;file handle for file
mov cx,38 ;38 bytes to be written CR equ 13
LF equ 10
mov ah,40h ;function 40h - write to file

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File db "C:\new.txt",0 .model small

.stack
Deleted db "Deleted file c:\new.txt$" .data
NoFile db "c:\new.txt doesn't exits - exiting$"
ErrDel db "Can't delete file - probably write protected$" FileName db "c:\*.*",0 ;file name
DTA db 128 dup(?) ;buffer to store the DTA
.code ErrorMsg db "An Error has occurred - exiting.$"
mov ax,@data ;set up ds as the segment for data
mov ds,ax ;use ax as we can't do it directly .code
mov ax,@data ;set up ds to be equal to the
mov dx,OFFSET File ;address of filename to look for
mov ds,a ;data segment
mov cx,3Fh ;file mask 3Fh - any file mov es,ax ;also es
mov ah,4Eh ;function 4Eh - find first file
int 21h ;call dos service mov dx,OFFSET DTA ;DS:DX points to DTA
jc FileDontExist mov ah,1AH ;function 1Ah - set DTA
int 21h ;call DOS service
mov dx,OFFSET File ;DS:DX points to file to be killed
mov ah,41h ;function 41h - delete file mov cx,3Fh ;attribute mask - all files
int 21h ;call DOS service mov dx,OFFSET FileName ;DS:DX points ASCIZ filename
jc ErrorDeleting ;jump if there was an error mov ah,4Eh ;function 4Eh - find first
int 21h ;call DOS service
jmp EndOk
jc error ;jump if carry flag is set

EndOk:
LoopCycle:
mov dx,OFFSET Deleted ;display message
mov dx,OFFSET FileName ;DS:DX points to file name
jmp Endit
mov ah,4Fh ;function 4fh - find next
ErrorDeleting: int 21h ;call DOS service
jc exit ;exit if carry flag is set
mov dx,OFFSET ErrDel ;display message
jmp Endit
mov cx,13 ;length of filename
FileDontExist: mov si,OFFSET DTA+30 ;DS:SI points to filename in DTA
mov dx,OFFSET NoFile ;display message xor bh,bh ;video page - 0
mov ah,0Eh ;function 0Eh - write character
EndIt:
mov ah,9 NextChar:
int 21h lodsb ;AL = next character in string
int 10h ;call BIOS service
mov ax,4C00h ;terminate program and exit to DOS loop NextChar
int 21h ;call DOS service
mov di,OFFSET DTA+30 ;ES:DI points to DTA
end
mov cx,13 ;length of filename
xor al,al ;fill with zeros
USING THE FINDFIRST AND FINDNEXT FUNCTIONS rep stosb ;erase DTA

jmp LoopCycle ;continue searching

---------------------------------------------------------------------
error:
mov dx,OFFSET ErrorMsg ;display error message
mov ah,9
Listing 10: DIRC.ASM int 21h
exit:
mov ax,4C00h ;exit to DOS
int 21h
;this program demonstrates how to look for files. It prints
;out the names of all the files in the c:\drive and names of end
;the sub-directories

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STRING INSTRUCTIONS rep StringInstruction

---------------------------------------------------------------------
STOS* Move byte, word or double word from AL, AX or EAX to ES:DI

Syntax:
In assembly there are some very useful instructions for dealing with
strings. Here is a list of the instructions and the syntax for using
them: stosb ;move AL into ES:DI
stosw ;move AX into ES:DI
stosd ;move EAX into ES:DI
MOV* Move String: moves byte, word or double word at DS:SI
to ES:DI LODS* Move byte, word or double word from DS:SI to AL, AX or EAX

Syntax: Syntax:

lodsb ;move ES:DI into AL

movsb ;move byte
lodsw ;move ES:DI into AX
movsw ;move word
lodsd ;move ES:DI into EAX
movsd ;move double word

Listing 11: STRINGS.ASM

CMPS* Compare string: compares byte, word or double word at
DS:SI to ES:DI
;This program demonstrates string examples
Syntax:
.model small
cmpsb ;compare byte .stack
.data
cmpsw ;compare word
cmpsd ;compare double word
CR equ 13
LF equ 10

Note: This instruction is normally used with the REP prefix. String1 db "This is a string!$"
String2 db 18 dup(0)
SCAS* Search string: search for AL, AX, or EAX in string at ES:DI
Diff1 db "This string is nearly the same as Diff2$"
Diff2 db "This string is nearly the same as Diff1$"
Syntax:
Equal1 db "The strings are equal$"
Equal2 db "The strings are not equal$"
scasb ;search for AL
scasw ;search for AX SearchString db "1293ijdkfjiu938uHello983fjkfjsi98934$"
scasd ;search for EAX
Message db "This is a message"

Message1 db "Using String instructions example program.$"

Note: This instruction is usually used with the REPZ or REPNZ prefix. Message2 db CR,LF,"String1 is now: $"
Message3 db CR,LF,"String2 is now: $"
REP Prefix for string instruction repeats instruction CX times Message4 db CR,LF,"Strings are equal!$"
Message5 db CR,LF,"Strings are not equal!$"
Syntax: Message6 db CR,LF,"Character was found.$"
Message7 db CR,LF,"Character was not found.$"

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NewLine db CR,LF,"$" mov ah,9 ;function 9 - display string

.code mov dx,OFFSET Message6 ;ds:dx points to message
int 21h ;call dos function
mov ax,@data ;ax points to of data segment
mov ds,ax ;put it into ds jmp Lodsb_Example
mov es,ax ;put it in es too

mov ah,9 ;function 9 - display string Not_Found:

mov dx,OFFSET Message1 ;ds:dx points to message
int 21h ;call dos function mov ah,9 ;function 9 - display string
mov dx,OFFSET Message7 ;ds:dx points to message
cld ;clear direction flag int 21h ;call dos function

mov si,OFFSET String1 ;make ds:si point to String1

mov di,OFFSET String2 ;make es:di point to String2 Lodsb_Example:
mov cx,18 ;length of strings
rep movsb ;copy string1 into string2 mov ah,9 ;function 9 - display string
mov dx,OFFSET NewLine ;ds:dx points to message
mov ah,9 ;function 9 - display string int 21h ;call dos function
mov dx,OFFSET Message2 ;ds:dx points to message
int 21h ;call dos function mov cx,17 ;length of string
mov si,OFFSET Message ;DS:SI - address of string
mov dx,OFFSET String1 ;display String1 xor bh,bh ;video page - 0
int 21h ;call DOS service mov ah,0Eh ;function 0Eh - write character

mov dx,OFFSET Message3 ;ds:dx points to message NextChar:

int 21h ;call dos function lodsb ;AL = next character in string
int 10h ;call BIOS service
mov dx,OFFSET String2 ;display String2 loop NextChar
int 21h ;call DOS service
mov ax,4C00h ;return to DOS
mov si,OFFSET Diff1 ;make ds:si point to Diff1
int 21h
mov di,OFFSET Diff2 ;make es:di point to Diff2 end
mov cx,39 ;length of strings
repz cmpsb ;compare strings
jnz Not_Equal ;jump if they are not the same HOW TO FIND OUT THE DOS VERSION

mov ah,9 ;function 9 - display string ---------------------------------------------------------------------

mov dx,OFFSET Message4 ;ds:dx points to message
int 21h ;call dos function

jmp Next_Operation In many programs it is necessary to find out what the DOS version
Not_Equal: is. This could be because you are using a DOS function that needs
the revision to be over a certain level.
mov ah,9 ;function 9 - display string
mov dx,OFFSET Message5 ;ds:dx points to message Firstly this method simply finds out what the version is.
int 21h ;call dos function

Next_Operation: mov ah,30h ;function 30h - get MS-DOS version

int 21h ;call DOS function
mov di,OFFSET SearchString ;make es:di point to string
mov cx,36 ;length of string
mov al,'H' ;character to search for This function returns the major version number in AL and the minor
repne scasb ;find first match version number in AH. For example if it was version 4.01, AL would
jnz Not_Found be 4 and AH would be 01. The problem is that if on DOS 5 and higher

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SETVER can change the version that is returned. The way to get round push dx
this is to use this method. push bx
push temp
mov ah,33h ;function 33h - actual DOS version
push bp
mov al,06h ;subfunction 06h push si
int 21h ;call interrupt 21h push di
The main advantage is that it is less typing, a smaller instruction
This will only work on DOS version 5 and above so you need to check and it is a lot faster. POPA does the reverse and pops these
using the former method. This will return the actual version of DOS registers off the stack. PUSHAD and POPAD do the same but with the
even if SETVER has changed the version. This returns the major 32-bit registers ESP, EAX, ECX, EDX, EBX, EBP, ESI and EDI.
version in BL and the minor version in BH.

USING SHIFTS FOR FASTER MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

MULTIPLE PUSHES AND POPS
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------

Using MUL's and DIV's is very slow and should be only used when
You can push and pop more than one register on a line in TASM and speed is not needed. For faster multiplication and division you can
A86. This makes your code easier to understand. shift numbers left or right one or more binary positions. Each shift
is to a power of 2. This is the same as the << and >> operators in
push ax bx cx dx ;save registers C. There are four different ways of shifting numbers either left or
pop dx cx bx ax ;restore registers right one binary position.

SHL Unsigned multiple by two

When TASM (or A86) compiles these lines it translates it into
SHR Unsigned divide by two
separate pushes an pops. This way just saves you time typing and
SAR Signed divide by two
makes it easier to understand.
SAL same as SHL
Note: To make these lines compile in A86 you need to put commas (,)
The syntax for all four is the same.
in between the registers.
Syntax:
SHL operand1,operand2
THE PUSHA/PUSHAD AND POPA/POPAD INSTRUCTIONS
Note: The 8086 cannot have the value of opperand2 other than 1.
--------------------------------------------------------------------- 286/386 cannot have operand2 higher than 31.

PUSHA is a useful instruction that pushes all general purpose LOOPS

registers onto the stack. It accomplishes the same as the following:

temp = SP ---------------------------------------------------------------------
push ax
push cx Using Loop is a better way of making a loop then using JMP's. You

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place the amount of times you want it to loop in the CX register and
every time it reaches the loop statement it decrements CX (CX-1) and .model tiny
then does a short jump to the label indicated. A short jump means .code
that it can only 128 bytes before or 127 bytes after the LOOP org 100h
instruction. start:

push ax ;save value of ax

Syntax: push bx ;save value of bx
push cx ;save value of cx
mov cx,100 ;100 times to loop
Label:
mov ax,10 ;first parameter is 10
...
mov bx,20 ;second parameter is 20
... mov cx,3 ;third parameter is 3
...
Loop Label: ;decrement CX and loop to Label Call ChangeNumbers ;call procedure

pop cx ;restore cx
This is exactly the same as the following piece of code without pop bx ;restore bx
pop ax ;restore dx
using loop:
mov ax,4C00h ;exit to dos
int 21h
mov cx,100 ;100 times to loop
Label: ChangeNumbers PROC
dec cx ;CX = CX-1 add ax,bx ;adds number in bx to ax
jnz Label ;continue until done mul cx ;multiply ax by cx
mov dx,ax ;return answer in dx
ret
Which do you think is easier to understand? Using DEC/JNZ is faster ChangeNumbers ENDP
on 486's and above and it is useful as you don't have to use CX. end start

This works because JNZ will jump if the zero flag has not been set.
Setting CX to 0 will set this flag. Now compile it to a .COM file and then type:

HOW TO USE A DEBUGGER td name of file

--------------------------------------------------------------------- Turbo Debugger then loads. You can see the instructions that make up
your programs, for example the first few lines of this program is
This is a good time to use a debugger to find out what your program shown as:
is actually doing. I am going to demonstrate how to use Turbo
Debugger to check what the program is actually doing. First we need cs:0000 50 push ax
a program which we can look at. cs:0001 53 push bx
cs:0002 51 push cx

Listing 12: DEBUG.ASM Some useful keys for Turbo Debugger:

F5 Size Window
;example program to demonstrate how to use a debugger F7 Next Instruction

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int 10h ;call bios service

F9 Run
ALT F4 Step Backwards mov dx,OFFSET Text ;DS:DX points to message
mov ah,9 ;function 9 - display string
int 21h ;call dos service
The numbers that are moved into the registers are different that the
mov ax,4C00h ;exit to dos
ones that in the source code because they are represented in their int 21h
hex form (base 16) as this is the easiest base to convert to and
Text DB "This is some text$"
from binary and that it is easier to understand than binary also.

At the left of this display there is a box showing the contents of This next example demonstrates how to write to the screen using the
the registers. At this time all the main registers are empty. Now file function 40h of interrupt 21h.
press F7 this means that the first line of the program is run. As
the first line pushed the AX register into the stack, you can see Listing 13: TEXT2.ASM
that the stack pointer (SP) has changed. Press F7 until the line
which contains mov ax,000A is highlighted. Now press it again. Now
if you look at the box which contains the contents of the registers
you can see that AX contains A. Press it again and BX now contains .model small
.stack
14, press it again and CX contains 3. Now if you press F7 again you .code
can see that AX now contains 1E which is A+14. Press it again and mov ax,@data ;set up ds as the segment for data
now AX contains 5A 1E multiplied by 3. Press F7 again and you will mov ds,ax ;put this in ds
see that DX now also contains 5A. Press it three more times and you mov ah,40h ;function 40h - write file
can see that CX, BX and AX are all set back to their original values mov bx,1 ;handle = 1 (screen)
of zero. mov cx,17 ;length of string
mov dx,OFFSET Text ;DS:DX points to string
int 21h ;call DOS service

MORE OUTPUT IN TEXT MODES mov ax,4C00h ;terminate program

int 21h
--------------------------------------------------------------------- .data

Text DB "This is some text"

I am going to cover some more ways of outputting text in text modes. end
This first program is an example of how to move the cursor to
display a string of text where you want it to go.
The next program shows how to set up and call function 13h of
interrupt 10h - write string. This has the advantages of being able
Listing 12: TEXT1.ASM to write a string anywhere on the screen in a specified colour but
it is hard to set up.
.model tiny
.code Listing 14: TEXT3.ASM
org 100h
start:
mov dh,12 ;cursor col
.model small
mov dl,32 ;cursor row
.stack
mov ah,02h ;move cursor to the right place .code
xor bh,bh ;video page 0 mov ax,@data ;set up ds as the segment for data

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mov es,ax ;put this in es

mov bp,OFFSET Text ;ES:BP points to message
.model small
mov ah,13h ;function 13 - write string .stack
mov al,01h ;attrib in bl,move cursor .code
xor bh,bh ;video page 0 mov ax,@data
mov bl,5 ;attribute - magenta mov ds,ax
mov cx,17 ;length of string
mov dh,5 ;row to put string mov ax,0B800h ;segment of video buffer
mov es,ax ;put this into es
mov dl,5 ;column to put string
int 10h ;call BIOS service
mov ah,3 ;attribute - cyan
mov ax,4C00h ;return to DOS mov cx,17 ;length of string to print
int 21h mov si,OFFSET Text ;DX:SI points to string
xor di,di

.data Wr_Char:
lodsb ;put next character into al
Text DB "This is some text" mov es:[di],al ;output character to video memory
end inc di ;move along to next column
mov es:[di],ah ;output attribute to video memory
inc di
The next program demonstrates how to write to the screen using rep loop Wr_Char ;loop until done
stosw to put the writing in video memory.
mov ax,4C00h ;return to DOS
int 21h

Listing 15: TEXT4.ASM .data

Text DB "This is some text"

.model small end

.stack
.code
mov ax,0B800h ;segment of video buffer It is left as an exercise to the reader to modify it so that only
mov es,ax ;put this into es one write is made to video memory.
xor di,di ;clear di, ES:DI points to video memory
mov ah,4 ;attribute - red
mov al,"G" ;character to put there MODE 13h
mov cx,4000 ;amount of times to put it there
cld ;direction - forwards
rep stosw ;output character at ES:[DI] ---------------------------------------------------------------------
mov ax,4C00h ;return to DOS
int 21h
Mode 13h is only available on VGA, MCGA cards and above. The reason
end that I am talking about this card is that it is very easy to use for
graphics because of how the memory is arranged.
The next program demonstrates how to write a string to video memory.

FIRST CHECK THAT MODE 13h IS POSSIBLE

Listing 15: DIRECTWR.ASM
---------------------------------------------------------------------
;write a string direct to video memory

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It would be polite to tell the user if his/her computer cannot Just use this to check if mode 13h is supported at the beginning of
support mode 13h instead of just crashing his computer without your program to make sure that you can go into that mode.
warning. This is how it is done.

SETTING THE VIDEO MODE

Listing 16: CHECK13.ASM
---------------------------------------------------------------------
.model small
.stack
.data It is very simple to set the mode. This is how it is done.

NoSupport db "Mode 13h is not supported on this computer."

db ,"You need either a MCGA or VGA video" mov ax,13h ;set mode 13h
int 10h ;call BIOS service
db ,"card/monitor.$"
Supported db "Mode 13h is supported on this computer.$"

.code Once we are in mode 13h and have finished what we are doing we need
mov ax,@data ;set up DS to point to data segment
to we need to set it to the video mode that it was in previously.
mov ds,ax ;use ax This is done in two stages. Firstly we need to save the video mode
and then reset it to that mode.
call Check_Mode_13h ;check if mode 13h is possible
jc Error ;if cf=1 there is an error

VideoMode db ?
mov ah,9 ;function 9 - display string
....
mov dx,OFFSET Supported ;DS:DX points to message
int 21h ;call DOS service mov ah,0Fh ;function 0Fh - get current mode
int 10h ;Bios video service call
jmp To_DOS ;exit to DOS mov VideoMode,al ;save current mode

Error: ;program code here

mov ah,9 ;function 9 - display string
mov al,VideoMode ;set previous video mode
mov dx,OFFSET NoSupport ;DS:DX points to message
int 21h ;call DOS service xor ah,ah ;clear ah - set mode
int 10h ;call bios service
To_DOS: mov ax,4C00h ;exit to dos
mov ax,4C00h ;exit to DOS int 21h ;call dos function
int 21h

Check_Mode_13h PROC ;Returns: CF = 1 Mode 13h not possible

Now that we can get into mode 13h lets do something. Firstly lets
mov ax,1A00h ;Request video info for VGA put some pixels on the screen.
int 10h ;Get Display Combination Code
cmp al,1Ah ;Is VGA or MCGA present?
je Mode_13h_OK ;mode 13h is supported Function 0Ch: Write Graphics Pixel
stc ;mode 13h isn't supported CF=1

Mode_13h_OK:
ret This makes a colour dot on the screen at the specified graphics
Check_Mode_13h ENDP
coordinates.

end INPUT:

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AH = 0Ch
AL = Color of the dot SOME OPTIMIZATIONS
CX = Screen column (x coordinate) ---------------------------------------------------------------------
DX = Screen row (y coordinate)
This method isn't too fast and we could make it a lot faster. How?
OUTPUT: By writing direct to video memory. This is done quite easily.
Nothing except pixel on screen.
The VGA segment is 0A000h. To work out where each pixel goes you use
Note: This function performs exclusive OR (XOR) with the new colour this simple formula to get the offset.
value and the current context of the pixel of bit 7 of AL is set.
Offset = X + ( Y x 320 )
This program demonstrates how to plot pixels. It should plot four
All we do is to put a number at this location and there is now a
red pixels into the middle of the screen.
pixel on the screen. The number is what colour it is.

There are two instructions that we can use to put a pixel on the
Listing 17: PIXINT.ASM
screen, firstly we could use stosb to put the value in AL to ES:DI
or we can use a new form of the MOV instruction like this:
;example of plotting pixels in mode 13 using bios services -
;INT 10h mov es:[di], color

.model tiny
.code
Which should we use? When we are going to write pixels to the screen
org 100h we need to do so as fast as it is possible.
start: Instruction Pentium 486 386 286 86
mov ax,13 ;mode = 13h
int 10h ;call bios service STOSB 3 5 4 3 11
MOV AL to SEG:OFF 1 1 4 3 10
mov ah,0Ch ;function 0Ch
mov al,4 ;color 4 - red If you use the MOV method you may need to increment DI (which STOSB
mov cx,160 ;x position = 160 does).
mov dx,100 ;y position = 100
int 10h ;call BIOS service [ put pixel instruction]
inc dx ;plot pixel downwards
int 10h ;call BIOS service
If we had a program which used sprites which need to be continuously
inc cx ;plot pixel to right draw, erased and then redraw you will have problems with flicker. To
int 10h ;call BIOS service avoid this you can use a 'double buffer'. This is another part of
dec dx ;plot pixel up memory which you write to and then copy all the information onto the
int 10h ;call BIOS service
screen.
xor ax,ax ;function 00h - get a key
int 16h ;call BIOS service
mov ax,3 ;mode = 3
int 10h ;call BIOS service

mov ax,4C00h ;exit to DOS

int 21h

end start

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