Iraduate Texts

i Mathematics
William A. Adkins
Steven H. Weintraub

Algebra
An Approach via Module Theory

Springer-Verlag
 Graduate Texts in Mathematics 136
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S. Axler F.W. Gehring K.A. Ribet

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Graduate Texts in Mathematics

I TAKEUTVZARING. Introduction to 33 HIR.SCH. Differential Topology.

Axiomatic Set Theory. 2nd ed. 34 SPITZER. Principles of Random Walk.
2 OxTOBY. Measure and Category. 2nd ed. 2nd ed.
3 SCHAEFER. Topological Vector Spaces. 35 ALEXANDER/WERMER. Several Complex
4 HILTON/STAMMBACH. A Course in Variables and Banach Algebras. 3rd ed.
Homological Algebra. 2nd ed. 36 KELLEY/NAMIUKA et al. Linear
5 MAC LANE. Categories for the Working Topological Spaces.
Mathematician. 2nd ed. 37 MONK. Mathematical Logic.
6 HUGHES/PIPER. Projective Planes. 38 GRAUERT/FRI ZSCHE. Several Complex
7 SERRE. A Course in Arithmetic. Variables.
8 TAKEUTI/ZARING. Axiomatic Set Theory. 39 ARvESON. An Invitation to C*-Algebras.
9 HUMPHREYS. Introduction to Lie Algebras 40 KEMENY/SNELIJKNAPP. Denumerable
and Representation Theory. Markov Chains. 2nd ed.
10 COHEN. A Course in Simple Homotopy 41 APOSTOL. Modular Functions and
Theory. Dirichlet Series in Number Theory.
I I CONWAY. Functions of One Complex 2nd ed.
Variable 1. 2nd ed. 42 SERRE. Linear Representations of Finite
12 BEALS. Advanced Mathematical Analysis. Groups.
13 ANDERSON/FULLER. Rings and Categories 43 GILLMAWIERISON. Rings of Continuous
of Modules. 2nd ed. Functions.
14 GOLuBrrsKY/GuILLEMIN. Stable Mappings 44 KENDIG. Elementary Algebraic Geometry.
and Their Singularities. 45 LOEVE. Probability Theory 1. 4th ed.
15 BERBERIA.v. Lectures in Functional 46 LOEvE. Probability Theory 11. 4th ed.
Analysis and Operator Theory. 47 MOISE. Geometric Topology in
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17 ROSENBLATT. Random Processes. 2nd ed. 48 SACHS/WU. General Relativity for
18 HALMOS. Measure Theory. Mathematicians.
19 HALMOS. A Hilbert Space Problem Book. 49 GRUENBERO/WEIR. Linear Geometry.
2nd ed. 2nd ed.
20 HUSEMOLLER. Fibre Bundles. 3rd ed. 50 EDWARDS. Fermat's Last Theorem.
21 HUMPHREYS. Linear Algebraic Groups. 51 KLINGENBERG. A Course in Differential
22 BARNES/MACK. An Algebraic Introduction Geometry.
to Mathematical Logic. 52 HARTSHORNE. Algebraic Geometry.
23 GREUB. Linear Algebra. 4th ed. 53 MANIN. A Course in Mathematical Logic.
24 HOLMES. Geometric Functional Analysis 54 GRAVER/WATKINS. Combinatorics with
and Its Applications. Emphasis on the Theory of Graphs.
25 HEwrrr/STROMSERG. Real and Abstract 55 BROwN/PEARCY. Introduction to Operator
Analysis. Theory 1: Elements of Functional
26 MANES. Algebraic Theories. Analysis.
27 KELLEY. General Topology. 56 MASSEY. Algebraic Topology: An
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Vol.l. 57 CROWELL/FOX. Introduction to Knot
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Vo1.1I. 58 KOBLITz p-adic Numbers, p-adic
30 JACOBSON. Lectures in Abstract Algebra I. Analysis. and Zeta-Functions. 2nd ed.
Basic Concepts. 59 LANG. Cyclotomic Fields.
31 JACOBSON. Lectures in Abstract Algebra 60 ARNOLD. Mathematical Methods in
11. Linear Algebra. Classical Mechanics. 2nd ed.
32 JACOBSON. Lectures in Abstract Algebra 61 WHITEHEAD. Elements of Homotopy
III. Theory of Fields and Galois Theory. Theory.

(continued after index)

William A. Adkins Steven H. Weintraub

Algebra
An Approach via Module Theory

Springer
William A. Adkins
Steven H. Weintraub
Department of Mathematics
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, LA 70803
USA

Editorial Board
S. Axler F.W. Gehring K.A. Ribet
Mathematics Department Mathematics Department Department of Mathematics
San Francisco State East Hall University of California
University University of Michigan at Berkeley
San Francisco. CA 94132 Ann Arbor, MI 48109 Berkeley, CA 94720-3840
USA USA USA

Mathematics Subject Classifications: 12-01, 13-01, 15-01, 16-01, 20-01

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Adkins, William A.
Algebra: an approach via module theory/William A. Adkins,
Steven H. Weintraub.
p. cm. - (Graduate texts in mathematics; 136)
Includes bibliographical references and indexes..
ISBN 0-387-97839-9. - ISBN 3-540-97839-9
1. Algebra. 2. Modules (Algebra) 1. Weintraub, Steven H.
If. Title. Ill. Series.
QA 154.A33 1992
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Preface

This book is designed as a text for a first-year graduate algebra course.

As necessary background we would consider a good undergraduate linear
algebra course. An undergraduate abstract algebra course, while helpful,
is not necessary (and so an adventurous undergraduate might learn some
algebra from this book).
Perhaps the principal distinguishing feature of this book is its point of
view. Many textbooks tend to be encyclopedic. We have tried to write one
that is thematic, with a consistent point of view. The theme, as indicated
by our title, is that of modules (though our intention has not been to write
a textbook purely on module theory). We begin with some group and ring
theory, to set the stage, and then, in the heart of the book, develop module
theory. Having developed it, we present some of its applications: canonical
forms for linear transformations, bilinear forms, and group representations.
Why modules? The answer is that they are a basic unifying concept
in mathematics. The reader is probably already familiar with the basic
role that vector spaces play in mathematics, and modules are a generaliza-
tion of vector spaces. (To be precise, modules are to rings as vector spaces
are to fields.) In particular, both abelian groups and vector spaces with a
linear transformation are examples of modules, and we stress the analogy
between the two-the basic structure theorems in each of these areas are
special cases of the structure theorem of finitely generated modules over a
principal ideal domain (PID). As well, our last chapter is devoted to the
representation theory of a group G over a field F, this being an important
and beautiful topic, and we approach it from the point of view of such
a representation being an F(G)-module. On the one hand, this approach
makes it very clear what is going on, and on the other hand, this application
shows the power of the general theory we develop.
We have heard the joke that the typical theorem in mathematics states
that something you do not understand is equal to something else you can-
not compute. In that sense we have tried to make this book atypical. It
has been our philosophy while writing this book to provide proofs with a
vi Preface

maximum of insight and a minimum of computation, in order to promote

understanding. However, since in practice it is necessary to be able to com-
pute as well, we have included extensive material on computations. (For
example, in our entire development in Chapter 4 of canonical forms for
linear transformations we only have to compute one determinant, that of
a companion matrix. But then Chapter 5 is almost entirely dedicated to
computational methods for modules over a PID, showing how to find canon-
ical forms and characteristic polynomials. As a second example, we derive
the basic results about complex representations of finite groups in Section
8.3, without mentioning the word character, but then devote Section 8.4 to
characters and how to use them.)
Here is a more detailed listing of the contents of the book, with em-
phasis on its novel features:
Chapter 1 is an introduction to (or review of) group theory, including
a discussion of semidirect products.
Chapter 2 is an introduction to ring theory, covering a variety of stan-
dard topics.
In Chapter 3 we develop basic module theory. This chapter culminates
in the structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a PID. (We
then specialize to obtain the basic structure theorem for finitely generated
Abelian groups.) We feel that our proof of this theorem is a particularly
insightful one. (Note that in considering free modules we do not assume the
corresponding results for vector spaces to be already known.) Noteworthy
along the way is our introduction and use of the language of homological
algebra and our discussion of free and projective modules.
We begin Chapter 4 with a treatment of basic topics in linear alge-
bra. In principle, this should be a review, but we are careful to develop as
much of the theory as possible over a commutative ring (usually a PID)
rather than just restricting ourselves to a field. The matrix representation
for module homomorphisms is even developed for modules over noncommu-
tative rings, since this is needed for applications to Wedderburn's theorem
in Chapter 7. This chapter culminates in the derivation of canonical forms
(the rational canonical form, the (generalized) Jordan canonical form) for
linear transformations. Here is one place where the module theory shows its
worth. By regarding a vector space V over a field F, with a linear transfor-
mation T, as an F[X)-module (with X acting by T), these canonical forms
are immediate consequences of the structure theorem for finitely generated
torsion modules over a PID. We also derive the important special case of
the real Jordan canonical form, and end the chapter by deriving the spectral
theorem.
Chapter 5 is a computational chapter, showing how to obtain effectively
(in so far as is possible) the canonical forms of Chapter 4 in concrete cases.
Along the way, we introduce the Smith and Hermite canonical forms as well.
 Preface vii

This chapter also has Dixon's proof of a criterion for similarity of matrices
based solely on rank computations.
In Chapter 6 we discuss duality and investigate bilinear, sesquilinear,
and quadratic forms, with the assistance of module theory, obtaining com-
plete results in a number of important special cases. Among these are the
cases of skew-symmetric forms over a PID, sesquilinear (Hermitian) forms
over the complex numbers, and bilinear and quadratic forms over the real
numbers, over finite fields of odd characteristic, and over the field with two
elements (where the Arf invariant enters in the case of quadratic forms).
Chapter 7 has two sections. The first discusses semisimple rings and
modules (deriving Wedderburn's theorem), and the second develops some
multilinear algebra. Our results in both of these sections are crucial for
Chapter 8.
Our final chapter, Chapter 8, is the capstone of the book, dealing with
group representations mostly, though not entirely, in the semisimple case.
Although perhaps not the most usual of topics in a first-year graduate
course, it is a beautiful and important part of mathematics. We view a
representation of a group G over a field F as an F(G)-module, and so this
chapter applies (or illustrates) much of the material we have developed in
this book. Particularly noteworthy is our treatment of induced representa-
tions. Many authors define them more or less ad hoc, perhaps mentioning as
an aside that they are tensor products. We define them as tensor products
and stick to that point of view (though we provide a recognition principle
not involving tensor products), so that, for example, Frobenius reciprocity
merely becomes a special case of adjoint associativity of Hom and tensor
product.
The interdependence of the chapters is as follows:

I.

I.

4.1-4.3

4.4-4.6 7
F-61
1 J.

5 8
viii Preface

We should mention that there is one subject we do not treat. We do

not discuss any field theory in this book. In fact, in writing this book we
were careful to avoid requiring any knowledge of field theory or algebraic
number theory as a prerequisite.
We use standard set theoretic notation. For the convenience of the
reader, we have provided a very brief introduction to equivalence relations
and Zorn's lemma in an appendix. In addition, we provide an index of
notation, with a reference given of the first occurrence of the symbol.
We have used a conventional decimal numbering system. Thus a refer-
ence to Theorem 4.6.23 refers to item number 23 in Section 6 of Chapter
4, which happens to be a theorem. Within a given chapter, the chapter
reference is deleted.
The symbol O is used to denote the end of a proof; the end of proof
symbol 0 with a blank line is used to indicate that the proof is immediate
from the preceding discussion or result.
The material presented in this book is for the most part quite standard.
We have thus not attempted to provide references for most results. The
bibliography at the end is a collection of standard works on algebra.
We would like to thank the editors of Springer-Verlag for allowing
us the opportunity, during the process of preparing a second printing, to
correct a number of errors which appeared in the first printing of this book.
Moreover, we extend our thanks to our colleagues and those readers who
have taken the initiative to inform us of the errors they have found. Michal
Jastrzebski and Lyle Ramshaw, in particular, have been most helpful in
pointing out mistakes and ambiguities.

Baton Rouge, Louisiana William A. Adkins

Steven H. Weintraub
Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V

Chapter 1 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Definitions and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Subgroups and Cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Normal Subgroups, Isomorphism Theorems,
and Automorphism Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Permutation Representations and the Sylow Theorems . . 22
1.5 The Symmetric Group and Symmetry Groups . . . . . 28
1.6 Direct and Semidirect Products . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.7 Groups of Low Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter 2 Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.1 Definitions and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.2 Ideals, Quotient Rings, and Isomorphism Theorems . . . 58
2.3 Quotient Fields and Localization . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.4 Polynomial Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.5 Principal Ideal Domains and Euclidean Domains . . . . 79
2.6 Unique Factorization Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Chapter 3 Modules and Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

3.1 Definitions and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

3.2 Submodules and Quotient Modules . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.3 Direct Sums, Exact Sequences, and Horn . . . . . . . . 118
3.4 Free Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.5 Projective Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.6 Free Modules over a PID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.7 Finitely Generated Modules over PIDs . . . . . . . . . 156
3.8 Complemented Submodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
x Contents

Chapter 4 Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

4.1 Matrix Algebra . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.2 Determinants and Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.3 Matrix Representation of Homomorphisms . . . . . . . 214
4.4 Canonical Form Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.5 Computational Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
4.6 Inner Product Spaces and Normal Linear Transformations 269
4.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 278

Chapter 5 Matrices over PIDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

5.1 Equivalence and Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
5.2 Hermite Normal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
5.3 Smith Normal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
5.4 Computational Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
5.5 A Rank Criterion for Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
5.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

Chapter 6 Bilinear and Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . 341

6.1 Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
6.2 Bilinear and Sesquilinear Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
6.3 Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
6.4 Exercises . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

Chapter 7 Topics in Module Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

7.1 Simple and Semisimple Rings and Modules . . . . . . . 395
7.2 Multilinear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
7.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434

Chapter 8 Group Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438

8.1 Examples and General Results . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
8.2 Representations of Abelian Groups . . . . . . . . . . 451
8.3 Decomposition of the Regular Representation . . . . . . 453
8.4 Characters . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . 462
8.5 Induced Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
8.6 Permutation Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
8.7 Concluding Remarks . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . 503
8.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Index of Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Index of Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Chapter 3
Modules and Vector Spaces

3.1 Definitions and Examples

Modules are a generalization of the vector spaces of linear algebra in which
the "scalars" are allowed to be from an arbitrary ring, rather than a field.
This rather modest weakening of the axioms is quite far reaching, including,
for example, the theory of rings and ideals and the theory of abelian groups
as special cases.

(1.1) Definition. Let R be an arbitrary ring with identity (not necessarily

commutative).
(1) A left R-module (or left module over R) is an abelian group M together
with a scalar multiplication map
:RxM-M
that satisfy the following axioms (as is customary we will write am in
place of (a, m) for the scalar multiplication of m E 1LI by a E R). In
these axioms, a, b are arbitrary elements of R and m, n are arbitrary
elements of M.
(ai)a(m + n) = am + an.
(bi)(a + b)m = am + bm.
(ci) (ab)m = a(bm).
(di)lm = m.
(2) A right R-module (or right module over R) is an abelian group M
together with a scalar multiplication map
:MxR-+M
that satisfy the following axioms (again a, b are arbitrary elements of
R and m, n are arbitrary elements of M).
(&)(m + n)a = ma + na.
(b,)m(a + b) = ma + mb.
108 Chapter3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(cr)m(ab) = (ma)b.
(dr)m1 = m.

(1.2) Remarks.
(1) If R is a commutative ring then any left R-module also has the struc-
ture of a right R-module by defining mr = rm. The only axiom that
requires a check is axiom (cr). But
m(ab) = (ab)m = (ba)m = b(am) = b(ma) = (ma)b.
(2) More generally, if the ring R has an antiautomorphism (that is, an
additive homomorphism 0: R -' R such that 0(ab) = m(b)4(a)) then
any left R-module has the structure of a right R-module by defining
ma = ¢(a)m. Again, the only axiom that needs checking is axiom (cr):
(ma)b = .(b)(ma)
= O(b)(O(a)m)
= (m(b)O(a))m
= 0(ab)m
= m(ab).
An example of this situation occurs for the group ring R(G) where R
is a ring with identity and G is a group (see Example 2.1.10 (15)). In
this case the antiautomorphism is given by

-O(Ea99) _ a99-'
9EG 9EG

We leave it as an exercise to check that : R(G) - R(G) is an

antiautomorphism. Thus any left R(G)-module M is automatically a
right R(G)-module.
(3) Let R be an arbitrary ring and let R°P ("op" for opposite) be the
ring whose elements are the elements of R, whose addition agrees with
that of R, but whose multiplication - is given by a b = ba (where
the multiplication on the right-hand side of this equation is that of
R). Then any left R-module is naturally a right R°P-module (and vice-
versa). In fact, if M is a left R-module, define a right multiplication
of elements of R°P (which are the same as elements of R) on M by
am. As in Remark 1.2 (1), the only axiom that requires checking
is axiom (Cr). But

The theories of left R-modules and right R-modules are entirely par-
allel, and so, to avoid doing everything twice, we must choose to work on
 3.1 Definitions and Examples 109

one side or the other. Thus, we shall work primarily with left R-modules
unless explicitly indicated otherwise and we will define an R-module (or
module over R) to be a left R -module. (Of course, if R is commutative, Re-
mark 1.2 (1) shows there is no difference between left and right R-modules.)
Applications of module theory to the theory of group representations will,
however, necessitate the use of both left and right modules over noncommu-
tative rings. Before presenting a collection of examples some more notation
will be introduced.

(1.3) Definition. Let R be a ring and let M, N be R-module8. A function

f : M -+ N is an R-module homomorpbism if
(1) A MI + m2) = A MO + P M2) for all ml, m2 E M, and
(2) f (am) = a f (m) for all a E R and m E M.

The set of all R-module homomorphisms from M to N will be de-

noted HomR(M, N). In case M = N we will usually write EndR(M) rather
than HomR(M, M); elements of EndR(M) are called endomorphisms. If
f E EndR(M) is invertible, then it is called an automorphism of M. The
group of all R-module automorphisms of M is denoted AutR(M) (Aut(M)
if R is implicit). If f E HomR(M, N) then we define Ker(f) C M and
Im(f) C N to be the kernel and image of f considered as an abelian group
homomorphism.

(1.4) Definition.
(1) Let F be a field. Then an F-module V is called a vector space over F.
(2) If V and W are vector spaces over the field F then a linear transfor-
mation from V to W is an F-module homomorphism from V to W.

(1.5) Examples.
(1) Let G be any abelian group and let g E G. If n E Z then define the
scalar multiplication ng by
(n terms) if n > 0,

ng= 0 ifn=0,
(-g) + + (-g) (-n terms) ifn < 0.
Using this scalar multiplication G is a Z-module. Furthermore, if G
and H are abelian groups and f : G -a H is a group homomorphism,
then f is also a Z-module homomorphism since (if n > 0)

f (ng) = f (9 + ... + 9) = f (9) + ... + f(9) = nf(9)

and f(-g) = -f(g).
110 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(2) Let R be an arbitrary ring. Then R" is both a left and a right R-module
via the scalar multiplications
a(bl, ... b") = (abi, ... ,ab")
and
(bi, ... , b" )a = (bia, ... , b"a).
(3) Let R be an arbitrary ring. Then the set of matrices M,,,,"(R) is both
a left and a right R-module via left and right scalar multiplication of
matrices, i.e.,
ent;j (aA) = a ent,J(A)
and
ent,3(Aa) = (ent,j(A))a.
(4) As a generalization of the above example, the matrix multiplication
maps

Mm(R) x M,,,,"(R) Mm."(R)

(A, B) .-- AB
and
Mm,"(R) x M"(R) Mm,"(R)
(A, B) - AB
make M,,,,"(R) into a left Mm(R)-module and a right M"(R)-module.
(5) If R is a ring then a left ideal I C R is a left R-module, while a right
ideal J C R is a right R-module. In both cases the scalar multiplication
is just the multiplication of the ring R.
(6) If R is a ring and I C R is an ideal then the quotient ring R/I is both
a left R-module and a right R-module via the multiplication maps

(a, b + I) ab + I

and
R/IxR-+R/I
(a+I,b).--sab+l.
(7) M is defined to be an R-algebra if M is both an R-module and a ring,
with the ring addition being the same as the module addition, and the
multiplication on M and the scalar multiplication by R satisfying the
following identity: For every r E R, m1, m2 E M,

(1.1) r(mlm2) = (rmi)m2 = ml(rm2).

 3.1 Definitions and Examples 111

For example, every ring is a Z-algebra, and if R is a commutative ring,

then R is an R-algebra. Let R and S be rings and let 4 : R -+ S
be a ring homomorphism with Im(m) C C(S) = (a E S : ab = ba
for all b E S), the center of S. If M is an S-module, then M is also
an R-module using the scalar multiplication am = (4(a))m for all
a E R and m E M. Since S itself is an S-module, it follows that S
is an R-module, and moreover, since Im(¢) C C(S), we conclude that
S is an R-algebra. As particular cases of this construction, if R is a
commutative ring, then the polynomial ring R[X] and the matrix ring

M are R-modules then HomR(M, N) is an abelian group via

the operation (f + g)(m) = f (m) + g(m). However, if we try to make
HomR(M, N) into an R-module in the natural way by defining of by
the formula (a f)(m) = a(f (m)) we find that the function a f need not
be an R-module homomorphism unless R is a commutative ring. To
see this, note that

(af)(rm) = a(f (rm)) = a(r(f (m))) = ar f (m).

This last expression is equal to r(a f) (m) = ra f (m) if R is a commu-

tative ring, but not necessarily otherwise. Thus, if R is a commutative
ring, then we may consider HomR(M, N) as an R-module for all M,
N, while if R is not commutative then HomR(M, N) is only an abelian
group. Since EndR(M) is also a ring using composition of R-module
homomorphisms as the multiplication, and since there is a ring ho-
momorphism 0 : R - EndR(M) defined by O(a) = a 1M where IM
denotes the identity homomorphism of M, it follows from Example 1.5
(7) that EndR(M) is an R-algebra if R is a commutative ring.
(9) If G is an abelian group, then Homz(Z, G) G. To see this, define
$ : Homz(Z, G) - G by 4i(f) = f (1). We leave it as an exercise to
check that 4) is an isomorphism of Z-modules.
(10) Generalizing Example 1.5 (9), if M is an R-module then

HomR(R,M)^='M
as Z-modules via the map 4) : HomR(R, M) -+ M where 0(f) = f (1).
(11) Let R be a commutative ring, let M be an R-module, and let S C
EndR(M) be a subring. (Recall from Example 1.5 (8) that EndR(M)
is a ring, in fact, an R algebra.) Then M is an S-module by means of
the scalar multiplication map S x M M defined by (f, m) '--' f (m).
(12) As an important special case of Example 1.5 (11), let T E EndR(M)
and define a ring homomorphism 0 : R[X] EndR(M) by sending
X to T and a E R to alM. (See the polynomial substitution theorem
(Theorem 2.4.1).) Thus, if

f (X) =ao+a1X +...+aX"

112 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

then
O(f(X))
We will denote O(f (X)) by the symbol f (T) and we let Im(O) = R[T].
That is, R[T] is the subring of EndR(M) consisting of "polynomials"
in T. Then M is an R[TJ module by means of the multiplication
f (T)m = f (T)(m).
Using the homomorphism 0: R(X) -, R[T] we see that M is an R[X]-
module using the scalar multiplication
f (X)m = f (T)(m).
This example is an extremely important one. It provides the basis for
applying the theory of modules over principal ideal domains to the
study of linear transformations; it will be developed fully in Section
4.4.
(13) We will present a concrete example of the situation presented in Ex-
ample 1.5 (12). Let F be a field and define a linear transformation
T : F2 -+ F2 by T(ul, u2) = (u2, 0). Then T2 = 0, so if f (X) =
ao + a1X + + amXm E F[XJ, it follows that f (T) = ao1Fa + a1T.
Therefore the scalar multiplication f (X )u for u E F2 is given by

f(X) . (U1, U2) = f(T)(u1,u2)

= (ao1F2 +a,T)(u1,u2)
= (aoui +a1u2,aou2)

3.2 Submodules and Quotient Modules

Let R be a ring and M an R-module. A subset N C M is said to be
a submodule (or R-submodule) of M if N is a subgroup of the additive
group of M that is also an R-module using the scalar multiplication on
M. What this means, of course, is that N is a submodule of M if it is a
subgroup of M that is closed under scalar multiplication. These conditions
can be expressed as follows.

(2.1) Lemma. If M is an R-module and N is a nonempty subset of M,

then N is an R-submodule of M if and only if amt + bm2 E N for all
m1, m2 N and a, bE R.
Proof. Exercise.
 3.2 Submodules and Quotient Modules 113

If F is a field and V is a vector space over F, then an F-submodule of

V is called a linear subspace of V.

(2.2) Examples.
If R is any ring then the R-submodules of the R-module R are precisely
the left ideals of the ring R.
If G is any abelian group then G is a Z-module and the Z-submodules
of G are just the subgroups of G.
Let f : M - N be an R-module homomorphism. Then Ker(f) C M
and Im(f) C N are R-submodules (exercise).
Continuing with Example 1.5 (12), let V be a vector space over a
field F and let T E EndF(V) be a fixed linear transformation. Let VT
denote V with the FIX)-module structure determined by the linear
transformation T. Then a subset W C V is an F[X]-submodule of the
module VT if and only if W is a linear subspace of V and T (W) C W,
i.e., W must be a T-invariant subspace of V. To see this, note that
X w = T(w), and if a E F, then a w = aw-that is to say, the
action of the constant polynomial a E F[X] on V is just ordinary
scalar multiplication, while the action of the polynomial X on V is
the action of T on V. Thus, an F[X]-submodule of VT must be a T-
invariant subspace of V. Conversely, if W is a linear subspace of V
such that T(W) C W then Tm(W) C W for all m > 1. Hence, if
f (X) E F[X] and W E W then f (X) w = f (T)(w) E W so that W is
closed under scalar multiplication and thus W is an F[X]-submodule
of V.

(2.3) Lemma. Let M be an R-module and let (NQ}QEA be a family of sub-

modules of M. Then N Z n0EA N. is a submodule of M.
Proof. Exercise. 0
We now consider quotient modules and the noether isomorphism the-
orems. Let M be an R-module and let N C_ M be a submodule. Then N
is a subgroup of the abelian group M, so we can form the quotient group
M/N. Define a scalar multiplication map on the abelian group M/N by
a(m + N) = am + N for all a E R, m + N E M/N. Since N is an R-
submodule of M, this map is well defined. Indeed, if m + N = m' + N then
m-m' E N so that am-am'= a(m-m') E N so that am+N = am'+N.
The resulting R-module M/N is called the quotient module of M with re-
spect to the submodule N. The noether isomorphism theorems, which we
have seen previously for groups and rings, then have direct analogues for
R-modules.

(2.4) Theorem. (First isomorphism theorem) Let M and N be modules

over the ring R and let f : M N be an R-module homomorphism. Then
Im(f).
114 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

Proof. Let K = Ker(f). From Theorem 1.3.10 we know that f : M/K -

Im(f) defined by f (m+K) = f (m) is a well-defined isomorphism of abelian
groups. It only remains to check that f is an R-module homomorphism. But
f(a(m+K)) = f(am+K) = f(am) = af(m) = af(m+K) for all m E M
and a E R, so we are done. 0

(2.5) Theorem. (Second isomorphism theorem) Let M be an R-module and

let N and P be submodules. Then there is an isomorphism of R-modules

(N+P)/PAN/(NnP).
Proof. Let rr : M , M/P be the natural projection map and let rro be
the restriction of rr to N. Then ao is an R-module homomorphism with
Ker(rro) = N n P and Im(iro) = (N + P)/P. The result then follows from
the first isomorphism theorem. 0

(2.6) Theorem. (Third isomorphism theorem) Let M be an R-module and

let N and P be submodules of M with P C N. Then
111/N = (M/P)/(N/P).

Proof. Define f : Al/P -. MIN by f (m+ P) = m+N. This is a well-defined

R-module homomorphism and

Ker(f)={m +P:m+N=N}={m +P:mEN}=NIP.

The result then follows from the first isomorphism theorem (Theorem 2.4).
0

(2.7) Theorem. (Correspondence theorem) Let Al be an R-module, N a

submodule, and A : M - MIN the natural projection map. Then the func-
tion P -- P/N defines a one-to-one correspondence between the set of all
submodules of M that contain N and the set of all submodules of M/N.
Proof. Exercise. 0
(2.8) Definition. If S is a subset of an R-module M then (S) will denote
the intersection of all the submodules of M that contain S. This is called
the submodule of M generated by S, while the elements of S are called
generators of (S).

Thus, (S) is a submodule of M that contains S and it is contained in

every submodule of M that contains S, i.e., (S) is the smallest submodule
of M containing S. If S = {x1, ... ,xn} we will usually write (xi, ... ,xn)
 3.2 Submodules and Quotient Modules 115

rather than ({x1, ... , for the submodule generated by S. There is the
following simple description of (S).

(2.9) Lemma. Let M be an R-module and let S C M. If S = 0 then (S) =

{0},while (S)={E 1a;si:nEN,a;ER, s,ES,1<i<n}ifS#0.
Proof. Exercise.

(2.10) Definition. We say that the R-module M is finitely generated if

M = (S) for some finite subset S of M. M is cyclic if M = (m) for
some element m E M. If M is finitely generated then let µ(M) denote the
minimal number of generators of M. If M is not finitely generated, then let
µ(M) = oo. We will call u(M) the rank of M.

(2.11) Remarks.
(1) We have uc({O}) = 0 by Lemma 2.9 (1), and M # {0} is cyclic if and
only if µ(M) = 1.
(2) The concept of cyclic R-module generalizes the concept of cyclic group.
Thus an abelian group G is cyclic (as an abelian group) if and only if
it is a cyclic Z-module.
(3) If R is a PID, then any R-submodule M of R is an ideal, so µ(M) = 1.
(4) For a general ring R, it is not necessarily the case that if N is a sub-
module of the R-module M, then µ(N) < µ(M). For example, if R is
a polynomial ring over a field F in k variables, M= R, and N C M
is the submodule consisting of polynomials whose constant term is 0,
then u(M) = 1 but µ(N) = k. Note that this holds even if k = oo. We
shall prove in Corollary 6.4 that this phenomenon cannot occur if R is
a PID. Also see Remark 6.5.

If M is a finitely generated R-module and N is any submodule, then

M/N is clearly finitely generated, and in fact, µ(M/N) < µ(M) since
the image in M/N of any generating set of M is a generating set of M/N.
There is also the following result, which is frequently useful for constructing
arguments using induction on µ(M).

(2.12) Proposition. Suppose M is an R-module and N is a submodule. If

N and M/N are finitely generated, then so is M and
µ(M) < µ(N) + µ(M/N).

Proof. Let S = {x1, ... , xk} C N be a minimal generating set for N and if
rr : M -+ M/N is the natural projection map, choose T = {yl, ... , yt} C M
so that {rr(yl), ... ,7r(ye)} is a minimal generating set for M/N. We claim
that S U T generates M so that u(M) < k + I = µ(N) + µ(M/N). To see
this suppose that x E M. Then rr(x) = al7r(y1) + + atrr(yt). Let y =
116 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

alyl+ +atyt E (T). Then ir(x-y) =O so that x-y E Ker(ir) = N = (S).

It follows that x = (x - y) + y E (S U T), and the proof is complete. 0
(2.13) Definition. If {NQ}QEA is a family of R-submodules of M, then the
submodule generated by {NQ}QEA is (UQEA NQ). This is just the set of all
sums nQ, + + n(kk where nQ, E NQ, . Instead of (UQEA N") , we will use
the notation EQEA NQ; if the index set A is finite, e.g., A = {1, ... , m},
we will write N1 + + Nn for the submodule generated by N1, ... , Nn.

(2.14) Definition. If R is a ring, M is an R-module, and X is a subset of

M, then the annihilator of X, denoted Ann(X), is defined by
Ann(X)={aE R:ax=O forallxEX}.

It is easy to check that Ann(X) is a left ideal of R, and furthermore,

if X = N is a submodule of M, then Ann(N) is an ideal of R. If R is
commutative and N = (x) is a cyclic submodule of M with generator x,
then
Ann(N)={aER:ax=O}.
This fact is not true if the ring R is not commutative. As an example, let
R = M,, (R) = M and let x = Ell be the matrix with a 1 in the 11 position
and 0 elsewhere. It is a simple exercise to check that Ann(Ell) consists of
all matrices with first column 0, while Ann((E11)) = (0).
If R is commutative and N is cyclic with generator x then we will
usually write Ann(x) rather than Ann((x)). In this situation, the ideal
Ann(x) is frequently called the order ideal of x. To see why, consider the
example of an abelian group G and an element g E G. Then G is a Z-module
and
Ann(g)={nEZ:ng=0}
_ (p)
where p = o(g) if o(g) < oo and p = 0 if (g) is infinite cyclic.

Example. Let F be a field, V a vector space, T E EndF(V) a linear trans-

formation, and let VT be the F[X] module determined by T (Example 1.5
(12)). If v E V then
Ann(v) = if (X) E F[X] : f (T)(v) = 0}.
Note that this is a principal ideal (g(X)) since F[X] is a PID.

(2.15) Proposition. Let R be a ring and let M = (m) be a cyclic R-module.

Then M R/ Ann(m).
Proof. The function f : R -+ M defined by f (a) = am is a surjective R-
module homomorphism with Ker(f) = Ann(m). The result follows by the
first isomorphism theorem. 0
 3.2 Submodules and Quotient Modules 117

(2.16) Corollary. If F is a field and M is a nonzero cyclic F-module then

Mn-iF.
Proof. A field has only the ideals {0} and F, and 1 m = m t 0 if m 36 0
is a generator for M. Thus, Ann(m) 36 F, so it must be {0}.

If M is an R-module and I C R is an ideal then we can define the

product of I and M by

IM={>aimi:nEN,aiEI,miEM}.
,_ 1 JJJ

The set IM is easily checked to be a submodule of M. The product IM

is a generalization of the concept of product of ideals. If R is commutative
and I C Ann(M) then there is a map
R/IxM -+M
defined by (a + I )m = am. To see that this map is well defined, suppose
that a + I = b + I. Then a - b E I C Ann(M) so that (a - b)m = 0, i.e.,
am = bm. Therefore, whenever an ideal I C Ann(M), M is also an R/I
module. A particular case where this occurs is if N = M/IM where I is any
ideal of R. Then certainly I C Ann(N) so that M/IM is an R/I-module.

(2.17) Definition. Let R be an integral domain and let M be an R-module.

We say that an element x E M is a torsion element if Ann(x) ,-f {0}. Thus
an element x E M is torsion if and only if there is an a # 0 E R such
that ax = 0. Let M, be the set of torsion elements of M. M is said to be
torsion-free if M, = {0}, and M is a torsion module if M = M,.

(2.18) Proposition. Let R be an integral domain and let M be an R-module.

(1) M, is a submodule of M, called the torsion submodule.
(2) M/M, is torsion-free.

Proof. (1) Let x, y E M, and let c, d E R. There are a 34 0, b 36 0 E R such

that ax = 0 and by = 0. Since R is an integral domain, ab # 0. Therefore,
ab(cx + dy) = bc(ax) + ad(by) = 0 so that cx + dy E M.
(2) Suppose that a 0 0 E R and a(x + M,) = 0 E (M/M,),. Then
ax there is ab00ERwith (ba)x=b(ax)=0.Since ba54 0, it
follows that x E M i.e., x + M, = 0 E M/M,.
(2.19) Examples.
(1) If G is an abelian group then the torsion Z-submodule of G is the
set of all elements of G of finite order. Thus, G = G, means that
every element of 0 is of finite order. In particular, any finite abelian
118 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

group is torsion. The converse is not true. For a concrete example, take
G = Q/Z. Then IGI = oo, but every element of Q/Z has finite order
since q(p/q + Z) = p + Z = 0 E Q/Z. Thus (Q/Z),. = Q/Z.
(2) An abelian group is torsion-free if it has no elements of finite order
other than 0. As an example, take G = Z" for any natural number n.
Another useful example to keep in mind is the additive group Q.
(3) Let V = F2 and consider the linear transformation T : F2 -+ F2
defined by T(ul, u2) = (u2i 0). See Example 1.5 (13). Then the F[X)
module VT determined by T is a torsion module. In fact Ann(VT) =
(X2). To see this, note that T2 = 0, so X2 u = 0 for all u E V. Thus,
(X2) C Ann(VT). The only ideals of F[XI properly containing (X2)
are (X) and the whole ring F[X], but X 0 Ann(VT) since X (0, 1) _
(1, 0) 54 (0, 0). Therefore, Ann(VT) _ (X2).

The following two observations are frequently useful; the proofs are left
as exercises:

(2.20) Proposition. Let R be an integral domain and let M be a finitely gen-

erated torsion R-module. Then Ann(M) 34 (0). In fact, if M = (x1i ... , xn)
then
Ann(M) = Ann(x1) n . . . n Ann(xn) 34 (0).

Proof. Exercise.

(2.21) Proposition. Let F be afield and let V be a vector space over F, i.e.,
an F-module. Then V is torsion-free.
Proof. Exercise.

3.3 Direct Sums, Exact Sequences, and Hom

Let M1, ... , AIn be a finite collection of R-modules. Then the cartesian
product set M1 x . x Mn can be made into an R-module by the operations

(x1, ... , xn) + (y1, ... , yn) _ (xl +Y1, ... , xn +Y.)
a(x1i ... , xn) = (axi, ... , axn)
where the 0 element is, of course, (0, ... , 0). The R-module thus con-
structed is called the direct sum of M1, ... , Mn and is denoted
n
M1 ®...®Mn (or ®M;).

=1
 3.3 Direct Sums, Exact Sequences, and Horn 119

The direct sum has an important homomorphism property, which, in

fact, can be used to characterize direct sums. To describe this, suppose that
fi : Mi -+ N are R-module homomorphisms. Then there is a map
f:Ml®...ED Mn-+N
defined by
n
f(xi, ... ,x,) _ fi(xi)-
i=1
We leave it as an exercise to check that f is an R-module homomorphism.
Now consider the question of when a module M is isomorphic to the
direct sum of finitely many submodules. This result should be compared
with Proposition 1.6.3 concerning internal direct products of groups.

(3.1) Theorem. Let M be an R-module and let Ml, ... , M,, be submodules
of M such that
(1) M=M1+ +Mn, and
(2) for 1 < i < n,

Then
M1®... ®Mn.
Proof. Let fi : Mi -+ M be the inclusion map, that is, fi(x) = x for all
x E Mi and define
f:Ml®...(D MMn-+M
by
f(xl,...,xn) = xl + ... + xn.

f is an R-module homomorphism and it follows from condition (1) that f is

surjective. Now suppose that (x1, ... , xn) E Ker(f ). Then x1 +- +xn = 0
so that for 1 < i < n we have
xi = -(XI + ... + xi_1 + xi+l + ... + xn)-
Therefore,

xi E =0
so that (x1, ... ,xn) = 0 and f is an isomorphism. O

Our primary emphasis will be on the finite direct sums of modules just
constructed, but for the purpose of allowing for potentially infinite rank
free modules, it is convenient to have available the concept of an arbitrary
direct sum of R-modules. This is described as follows. Let {Mj)jEj be
120 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

a family of R-modules indexed by the (possibly infinite) set J. Then the

cartesian product set fl J Mj is the set of all the indexed sets of elements
(xj)jEJ where xj is chosen from Mi. This set is made into an R-module by
the coordinate-wise addition and scalar multiplication of elements. More
precisely, we define

(xj)jEJ'+' (yj)JEJ = (x, +Yj)jE

a(xj)jEJ = (axj)jEJ
For each k E J there is an R-rnodule homomorphism ak : IIjEJ 'V'i - Mk
defined by 7rk((xj)jEJ) = xj, that is, irk picks out the element of the indexed
set (xj)JEJ that is indexed by k. We define the direct sum of the indexed
family { Mj }jEJ of R-modules to be the following submodule ®jEJ Mj of
jEJ Mj:

®Mj = {(xj)jEJ : xj = 0 except for finitely many indices j E J}.

jEJ

It is easy to check that ®jEJMj is a submodule of IIjEJ Mj.

To get a feeling for the difference between direct sums and direct prod-
ucts when the index set is infinite, note that the polynomial ring R[XJ, as an
R-module (ignoring the multiplicative structure), is just a countable direct
sum of copies of R, in fact, the nth copy of R is indexed by the monomial
X". However, the formal power series ring R[[X]], as an R-module, is just a
countable direct product of copies of R. Again, the nth copy of R is indexed
by the monomial X". Each element of the polynomial ring has only finitely
many monomials with nonzero coefficients, while an element of the formal
power series ring may have all coefficients nonzero.
The homomorphism property of the finite direct sum of R-modules
extends in a natural way to arbitrary direct sums. That is, suppose that
N is an arbitrary R-module and that for each j E J there is an R-module
homomorphism fj : Mj N. Then there is a map f : ®jEJMj - N
defined by f ((xj) jE J) = >jE J f j (x j ). Note that this sum can be considered
as a well-defined finite sum since xj = 0 except for finitely many indices j E
J. (Note that this construction does not work for infinite direct products.)
We leave it as an exercise to check that f is an R-module homomorphism.
The characterization of when an R-module M is isomorphic to the
direct sum of submodules is essentially the same as the characterization
provided in Theorem 3.1. We state the result, but the verification is left as
an exercise.

(3.2) Theorem. Let M be an R-module and let {Mj}jEJ be a family of

submodules such that
(1) M = >F,EJ
-,E.,Mj = (UjEJ Mj), and
(2) Mk n Mj = {0} for every k E J.
 3.3 Direct Sums, Exact Sequences, and Hom 121

Then
MMi.
jEJ

Proof. Exercise. 0

(3.3) Definition. If M is an R-module and MI C M is a submodule, we say

that MI is a direct summand of M, or is complemented in M, if there is
a submodule M 2 C M such that M ? 5 MI ®M2.

(3.4) Example. Let R = Z and M = Z e. If MI = (p) then MI is not

complemented since MI is the only subgroup of M of order p, so condition
(2) of Theorem 3.1 is impossible to satisfy.

The concept of exact sequences of R-modules and R-module homo-

morphisms and their relation to direct summands is a useful tool to have
available in the study of modules. We start by defining exact sequences of
R-modules.

(3.5) Definition. Let R be a ring. A sequence of R-modules and R-module

homomorphisms

is said to be exact at Mi if Im(fi) = Ker(fi+I ). The sequence is said to be

exact if it is exact at each Mi.

As particular cases of this definition note that

(1) 0 -+ MI --f-+ M is exact if and only if f is injective,
(2) M -+ M2 - 0 is exact if and only if g is surjective, and
(3) the sequence

(3.1) 0 - . MI _ M 9-+ M2'0

is exact if and only if f is injective, g is surjective, and Im(f) = Ker(g).
Note that the first isomorphism theorem (Theorem 2.4) then shows
that M2 ?t M/ Im(f). M/ Im(f) is called the cokernel of f and it is
denoted Coker(f).

(3.6) Definition.
(1) The sequence (3.1), if exact, is said to be a short exact sequence.
(2) The sequence (3.1) is said to be a split exact sequence (or just split)
if it is exact and if Im(f) = Ker(g) is a direct summand of M.
122 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

In the language of exact sequences, Proposition 2.12 can be stated as

follows:

(3.7) Proposition. Let 0 -. M1 -+ M -i M2 - 0 be a short exact

sequence of R-modules. If Ml and M2 are finitely generated, then so is M,
and moreover,
µ(M) <_ µ(M1) + µ(M2)

Proof 0
(3.8) Example. Let p and q be distinct primes. Then we have short exact
sequences

(3.2) 0 - ZP Zpq Zq 0

and

(3.3) 0,Z,- Zp2-ZP- 0

where 0(m) = qm E Zpg, f (m) = pm E Zp2, and 0 and g are the canonical
projection maps. Exact sequence (3.2) is split exact while exact sequence
(3.3) is not split exact. Both of these observations are easy consequences of
the material on cyclic groups from Chapter 1; details are left as an exercise.

There is the following useful criterion for a short exact sequence to be

split exact.
(3.9) Theorem. If

(3.4) O- M1 -I.M 9M2--_0

is a short exact sequence of R-modules, then the following are equivalent:
(1) Them exists a homomorphism a : M M, such that a o f = 1 s,, .
(2) There exists a homomorphism 3: M2 -. M such that g o R = 1nt,
(3) The sequence (3.4) is split exact.
If these equivalent conditions hold then
M = Im(f) Eli Ker(a)
Ker(g) EH Im(p)
M1 e M2.
The homomorphisms a and ,3 are said to split the exact sequence (3.4)
or be a splitting.
Proof. Suppose that (1) is satisfied and let x E M. Then
a(x - f(a(x))) = a(x) - (a o f)((k(x)) = 0
since a o f Therefore, x - f(a(x)) E Ker(a) so that
Al - Ker(a) + Im(f ).
 3.3 Direct Sums, Exact Sequences, and Hom 123

Now suppose that f (y) = x E Ker(a) fl Im(f). Then

0 = a(x) = a(f(y)) = y,
and therefore, x = f (y) = 0. Theorem 3.1 then shows that
M = Im(f) ® Ker(a).
Define,Q : M2 -- M by
(3.5) /3(u) = v - f(a(v))

where g(v) = u. Since g is surjective, there is such a v E M, but it may

be possible to write u = g(v) for more than one choice of v. Therefore, we
must verify that /3 is well defined. Suppose that g(v) = u = g(v'). Then
V - v' E Ker(g) = Im(f) so that
(v - f(a(v))) - (v' - f(a(v'))) = (v - v') + (f(a(v') - f(a(v)))
E lm(f) n Ker(a)
= {0}.
We conclude that /3 is well defined. Since it is clear from the construction
of /3 that g o /3 = ln! we have verified that (1) implies (2) and that
M Im(f) ® Ker(a), i.e., that (3) holds.
The proof that (2) implies (1) and (3) is similar and is left as an
exercise.
Suppose that (3) holds, that is, M =' M' (D M" where M' = Ker(g) _
Im(f). Let 7r1 : M - M' and 7r2 : M M" be the projections, and
c : M" M be the inclusion. Note that 7r1 o f : M1 M' and g o t :
M" -y M2 are isomorphisms. Define a : M All by a = (7r1 o f)-1 o 7r1
and/3:M2-+Mby/3 to(got)-l. Then aof=1M, and go/=1412,
so (1) and (2) hold. 0
If M and N are R-modules, then the set HomR(M, N) of all R-module
homomorphisms f : M -' N is an abelian group under function addition.
According to Example 1.5 (8), HomR(M, N) is also an R-module provided
that R is a commutative ring. Recall that EndR(M) = HomR(M) denotes
the endomorphism ring of the R-module M, and the ring multiplication is
composition of homomorphisms. Example 1.5 (8) shows that EndR(M) is
an R-algebra if the ring R is commutative. Example 1.5 (10) shows that
HomR(R, M) ^_' M for any R-module M.
Now consider R-modules M, M1, N, and N1, and let : N , N1,
i(i : M -. M1 be R-module homomorphisms. Then there are functions

0.: HomR(M, N) HomR(M, N1)

and
0*: HomR(Ml, N) -' HomR(M, N)
124 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

defined by
0.(f) = 0 of for all f E HomR(M, N)
and
tP* (g) = go 10 for all g E HomR(Ml, N).
It is straightforward to check that 0.(f +g) = 0. (f) +0. (g) and ?P* (f +g) _
Ii' (f) + t/5' (g) for appropriate f and g. That is, 0. and +f are homomor-
phisms of abelian groups, and if R is commutative, then they are also
R-module homomorphisms.
Given a sequence of R-modules and R-module homomorphisms

(3.6) lVij-1 .m`.

A-+: M,+i ...
and an R-module N, then HomR( , N) and HomR(N, ) produce two
sequences of abelian groups (R-modules if R is commutative):
(m.).
(3.7) HomR(N, Mi-1) HomR(N, M:)
HomR(N, M1+1) - .. .
and
(00,
(3.8) Hom M HomR(Mi, N)
i01+i.

HomR(Ms+1, N)
A natural question is to what extent does exactness of sequence (3.6)
imply exactness of sequences (3.7) and (3.8). One result along these lines
is the following.

(3.10) Theorem. Let

(3.9)

be a sequence of R-modules and R-module homomorphisms. Then the se-

quence (3.9) is exact if and only if the sequence

(3.10) 0 -. HomR(N, M1) m'+ HomR(N, M) 1P' HomR(N, M2)

is an exact sequence of Z-modules for all R-modules N.
if
(3.11) M1 0

is a sequence of R-modules and R-module homomorphisms, then the se-

quence (3.11) is exact if and only if the sequence

(3.12) 0 HomR(M2, N) --+ HomR(M, N) m . HomR(Ml, N)

is an exact sequence of Z-modules for all R-modules N.
 3.3 Direct Sums, Exact Sequences, and Hom 125

Proof. Assume that sequence (3.9) is exact and let N be an arbitrary R-

module. Suppose that f E HomR(N, M) and -0.(f) = 0. Then
0 = 0 o f (x) = g5(f (x))

for all x E N. But 0 is injective, so f (x) = 0 for all x E N. That is, f = 0,

and hence, 0. is injective.
Since o 0 = 0 (because sequence (3.9) is exact at M), it follows that

IMO-W) =+G-0.(f) =0000f =0

for all f E HomR(N, M). Thus Im(q.) C Ker(t/'.). It remains to check
the other inclusion. Suppose that g E HomR(N, M) with t1.(g) = 0, i.e.,
0(g(x)) = 0 for all x E N. Since Ker(tP) = Im(¢), for each x E N, we
may write g(x) = 4(y) with y E Ml. Since 0 is injective, y is uniquely
determined by the equation g(x) = 0(y). Thus it is possible to define a
function f : N - Ml by f (x) = y whenever g(x) = ¢(y). We leave it as an
exercise to check that f is an R-module homomorphism. Since 0.(f) = g,
we conclude that Ker(t/'.) = Im(O.) so that sequence (3.10) is exact.
Exactness of sequence (3.12) is a similar argument, which is left as an
exercise.
Conversely, assume that sequence (3.10) is exact for all R-modules
N. Then 0. is injective for all R-modules N. Then letting N = Ker(O)
and t : N - Ml be the inclusion, we see that 0.(t) = 0 o t = 0. Since
0.: HomR(N, Ml) --- HomR(N, M) is injective, we see that t = 0, i.e.,
N = (0). Thus, 0 is injective.
Now letting N = MI we see that

0= (0.00.)(1m.) =V,00.
Thus Im(O) C Ker(O). Now let N = Ker(t(i) and let t : N -+ M be the
inclusion. Since tp. (t) = 7P o t = 0, exactness of Equation (3.10) implies that
t = ¢.(a) for some a E HomR(N, MI). Thus,
Im(O) Im(t) = N = Ker(tP),
and we conclude that sequence (3.9) is exact.
Again, exactness of sequence (3.11) is left as an exercise.

Note that, even if

0--.MI-.M 1P+M2-i0
is a short exact sequence, the sequences (3.10) and (3.12) need not be short
exact, i.e., neither tG. or 0' need be surjective. Following are some examples
to illustrate this.
126 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(3.11) Example. Consider the following short exact sequence of Z-modules:

(3.13) 0- Z--0+ Z_4Z,n--+ 0

where 4(i) = mi and tai is the canonical projection map. If N = Z,, then
sequence (3.12) becomes

0 ---+ Homz(Z,n, Z,,) ----+ Homz(Z, Zn) 0' Homz(Z, Zn),

which, by Example 1.5 (10), becomes

0 --+ Homz(Zm, Zn) ----* Z" ----+ Z"

so that
Homz(Z,n, Zn) = Ker(O*).
Let d = gcd(m, n), and write m = m'd, n = n'd. Let f E Homz(Z, Zn).
Then, clearly, 0* (f) = 0 if and only if 0* (f) (1) = 0. But
0*(f)(1) = f(m 1) = mf(1) = m'df(1).
Since m' is relatively prime to n, we have m'df (1) = 0 if and only if df(1) _
0, and this is true if and only if f (1) E n'Zn. Hence, Ker(O') = n'Zn Zd,
i.e.,

(3.14) Homz(Zm, Zn) = Zd.

This example also shows that even if
0,Af,-+M- M2- 0
is exact, the sequences (3.10) and (3.12) are not, in general, part of short
exact sequences. For simplicity, take m = n. Then sequence (3.12) becomes

(3.15) 0-4 Zn-+ Zn -4Zn

with 0' = 0 so that 0' is not surjective, while sequence (3.10) becomes
V-4
!3.16) 0 -' Homz(Z,,, Z) -+ Homz(Z,,, Z) Homz(Zn, Zn).
Since Homz(Zn, Z) = 0 and Homz(Zn, Zn) Zn, sequence (3.16) becomes

0-+0--a0 ±- +Zn
and ii. is certainly not surjective.

These examples show that Theorem 3.10 is the best statement that
can be made in complete generality concerning preservation of exactness
under application of HomR. There is, however, the following criterion for
the preservation of short exact sequences under Hom:
 3.3 Direct Sums, Exact Sequences, and Horn 127

(3.12) Theorem. Let N be an arbitrary R-module. If

(3.17) 0-4 M1-0- M 0-+ M2

is a split short exact sequence of R-modules, then

(3.18) 0 -. HomR(N, M1) 0.i HomR(N, M) - HomR(N, M2) 0

and

(3.19) 0 HomR(M2, N) HomR(M, N) HorR(M1, N) 0

are split short exact sequences of abelian groups (R-modules if R is com-

mutative).
Proof. We will prove the split exactness of sequence (3.18); (3.19) is similar
and it is left as an exercise. Given Theorem 3.10, it is only necessary to
show that t&, is surjective and that there is a splitting for sequence (3.18).
Let /3 : M2 -+ M split the exact sequence (3.17) and let f E HomR(N, M2).
Then

00f)
= (WOQ)0f
0.aa.(f)=IM,,,

= (1M2) ° f
= (1HomR(N,Ma)) (f)
Thus, r/). o)3. = 1HomR(N,M2) so that r/i. is surjective and /i. is a splitting
of exact sequence (3.18).

(3.13) Corollary. Let M1, M2, and N be R-modules. Then

(3.20) HomR(N, M1 ® M2) 25 HomR(N, M1) ® HomR(N, M2)
and
(3.21) HomR(Ml (B M2, N) 25 HomR(M1, N) ED HorR(M2, N).
The isomorphisms are Z-module isomorphisms (R-module isomorphisms if
R is commutative).
Proof. Both isomorphisms follow by applying Theorems 3.12 and 3.9 to the
split exact sequence
0-+ M1 `+ 0

where c(m) = (m, 0) is the canonical injection and rr(ml, m2) = m2 is the
canonical projection.
128 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(3.14) Remarks.
(1) Notice that isomorphism (3.20) is given explicitly by

't(f)=(r1of,7rzof)
where f E HomR(N, M1 ® M2) and Jri(ml, m2) = mi (for i = 1, 2);
while isomorphism (3.21) is given explicitly by

4'(f)=(fo4,foL2)
where f E HomR(Ml ® M2, N), Li : M1 - M1 ® M2 is given by
G1(m)=(m,0)andi2:M2- M1®M2is given by t2(m)=(0,m).
(2) Corollary 3.13 actually has a natural extension to arbitrary (not nec-
essarily finite) direct sums. We conclude this section by stating this
extension. The proof is left as an exercise for the reader.

(3.15) Proposition. Let {Mi},EI and {Nj}jEJ be indexed families (not

necessarily finite) of R-modules, and let M = ®,EIMi, N = ®jEJNj. Then

HomR(M, N) = [I(®HomR(Mi, Nj)).

iEI jEJ

Proof. Exercise. 0

3.4 Free Modules

(4.1) Definition. Let R be a ring and let M be an R-module. A subset S C M

is said to be R-linearly dependent if there exist distinct x1, ... , xn in S and
elements a1, ... , an of R, not all of which are 0, such that

A set that is not R-linearly dependent is said to be R-linearly independent.

When the ring R is implicit from the context, we will sometimes write
linearly dependent (or just dependent) and linearly independent (or just
independent) in place of the more cumbersome R-linearly dependent or
R-linearly independent. In case S contains only finitely many elements
x1, x2i ... , xn, we will sometimes say that x1, x2, ... , x, are R-linearly de-
pendent or R-linearly independent instead of saying that S = {x1, ... , xn}
is R-linearly dependent or R-linearly independent.
 3.4 Flee Modules 129

(4.2) Remarks.
(1) To say that S C M is R-linearly independent means that whenever
there is an equation
=0
where x1 i ... , xn are distinct elements of S and a1, ... , an are in R,
then
a1 = =an =0.
(2) Any set S that contains a linearly dependent set is linearly dependent.
(3) Any subset of a linearly independent set S is linearly independent.
(4) Any set that contains 0 is linearly dependent since 1 -0 = 0.
(5) A set S C M is linearly independent if and only if every finite subset
of S is linearly independent.

(4.3) Definition. Let M be an R-module. A subset S of M is a basis of M

if S generates M as an R-module and if S is R-linearly independent. That
is, S C M is a basis if and only if M = {0}, in which case S = 0 is a basis,
or M 0 {0} and
(1) every x E M can be written as

x = a1x1 + ... + anxn

for some x1i ... , xn E S and a1, ... , an E R, and
(2) whenever there is an equation
a1x1 + ... + anxn = 0
where x1i ... , xn are distinct elements of S and a1, ... , an are in R,
then
a1 = ... = an = 0.

It is clear that conditions (1) and (2) in the definition of basis can be
replaced by the single condition:
(1') S C M is a basis of M 36 {0} if and only if every x E M can be written
uniquely as
x=alxl+...+anxn
foral,...,anERandx1,...,xnES.
(4.4) Definition. An R-module M is a free R-module if it has a basis.

(4.5) Remark. According to Theorem 3.2, to say that S = {xj }jE J is a

basis of M is equivalent to M being the direct sum of the family {Rx,)jEJ
130 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

of submodules of M, where Ann(xj) = {0} for all j E J. Moreover, if J is

any index set, then N = (DjE JRj, where Rj = R for all j E J, is a free R-
module with basis S = {ej}jEJ, where ej E N is defined by ej = (bjk)kEJ.
Here, bjk is the kronecker delta function, i.e., bjk = 1 E R whenever j = k
and bjk = 0 E R otherwise. N is said to be fine on the index set J.

(4.6) Examples.
(1) If R is a field then R-linear independence and R-linear dependence in
a vector space V over R are the same concepts used in linear algebra.
(2) R' is a free module with basis S = {el, ... , en} where

e; = (0,...,0,1,0,...,0)

with a 1 in the ith position.

(3) Mm,n(R) is a free R-module with basis

S={E,j:1<i<m,I<j<n}.
(4) The ring R[X] is a free R-module with basis {X" : n E Z+}. As in
Example 4.6 (2), R[XJ is also a free R[X]-module with basis {1}.
(5) If C is a finite abelian group then G is a Z-module, but no nonempty
subset of G is Z-linearly independent. Indeed, if g E G then IGI g = 0
but Cl I34 0. Therefore, finite abelian groups can never be free Z-
modules, except in the trivial case G = {0} when 0 is a basis.
(6) If R is a commutative ring and I C R is an ideal, then I is an R-
module. However, if I is not a principal ideal, then I is not free as an
R-module. Indeed, no generating set of I can be linearly independent
since the equation (-a2)al +ala2 = 0 is valid for any al, a2 E R.
(7) If M1 and M2 are free R-modules with bases Sl and S2 respectively,
then Ml ® M2 is a free R-module with basis S; U S2, where

Sj ={(x,0):iES1} and S2={(0,y):yeS2}.

(8) More generally, if {Mj}jEJ is a family of free R-modules and Sj C ltlj
is a basis of Mj for each j E J, then M = ®jEJMj is a free R-module
and S = UjEJS is a basis of M, where S' C M is defined by

Sj = {Sjo = (bjksjt)kEJ Sj, E Sj}.

Informally, Si consists of all elements of M that contain an element of

Sj in the jth component and 0 in all other components. This example
incorporates both Example 4.6 (7) and Example 4.6 (2).

Example 4.6 (5) can be generalized to the following fact.

 3.4 Free Modules 131

(4.7) Lemma. Let M be an R-module where R is a commutative ring. Then

an element x E M is R-independent if and only if Ann(x) = {0}. In par-
ticular, an element a E R is an R-independent subset of the R-module R if
and only if a is not a zero divisor.
Proof. Exercise.

(4.8) Proposition. Let R be an integral domain and let M be a free R-

module. Then M is torsion-free.
Proof. Let M have a basis S = {x) }jEJ and let x E M,. Then ax = 0 for
some a 96 0 E R. Write x = /jEJ ajxj. Then

0 = ax = 1:(aaj)xj.
jEJ

Since S is a basis of M, it follows that aaj = 0 for all j E J, and since

a 34 0 and R is an integral domain, we conclude that aj = 0 for all j E J.
Therefore, x = 0, and hence, M, = (0) so that M is torsion-free.

The existence of a basis for an R-module M greatly facilitates the

construction of R-module homomorphisms from M to another R-module
N. In fact, there is the following important observation.

(4.9) Proposition. Let M be a free R-module with basis S, let N be any

R-module, and let h : S - N be any function. Then there is a unique
f E HomR(M, N) such that f Is = h.
Proof. Let S = {xj}jEJ. Then any x E M can be written uniquely as
x= jEJ ajxj where at most finitely many aj are not 0. Define f : M - N
by

f (x) = > ajh(xj)

jEJ
It is straightforward to check that f E HomR(M, N) and that f is = h.

Remark. The content of Proposition 4.9 is usually expressed as saying that

the value of a homomorphism can be arbitrarily assigned on a basis.

(4.10) Corollary. Suppose that M is a free R-module with basis S = {xj}jEJ.

Then
HomR(M, N) II Nj
jEJ

where N. = N for all j E J.

Proof. Define 4i : HomR(M, N) rjjEJ Nj by 4i(f) = (f(xj)),EJ. Then 4?
is an isomorphism of abelian groups (R-modules if R is commutative).
132 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(4.11) Theorem. Let R be a commutative ring and let M and N be finitely

generated free R-modules. Then HomR(M, N) is a finitely generated free
R-module.
Proof. Let B = {v1, ... , v,, } be a basis of M and C = {w1, ... , wn} a basis
of N. Define f1 E HomR(M, N) for is 15 m and 1< j n by
_ fw, if k = i,
f',(vk) - 0 if k 76 i.

fij is a uniquely defined element of HomR(M, N) by Proposition 4.9.

We claim that { fij : 1 < i < m; 1 < j < n} is a basis of HomR(M, N).
To see this suppose that f E HomR(M, N) and for 1 < i < m write
f(vi) = ai1w1 + ... + ainwn.
Let
rm n

g = L, E aij fij.
i=1 j=1
Then
g(vk) = ak1wl + ... +aknwn = f(vk)
for 1 < k < m, so g = f since the two homomorphisms agree on a basis
of M. Thus, {fij 1 < i < m; I < j < n} generates HomR(M, N), and
:

we leave it as an exercise to check that this set is linearly independent and,

hence, a basis.

(4.12) Remarks.
(1) A second (essentially equivalent) way to see the same thing is to write
M ®;" 1R and N L" ®j=1R. Then, Corollary 3.13 shows that
m n
HomR(M, N) = ®®HomR(R, R).
i=1 j=1
But any f E HomR(R, R) can be written as f = f(1) . 1R. Thus
HomR(R, R) R so that
m n
HomR(M, N) L R.
i=1 j=1

(2) The hypothesis of finite generation of M and N is crucial for the va-
lidity of Theorem 4.11. For example, if R = Z and M = ®i°Z is the
free Z-module on the index set N, then Corollary 4.10 shows that
00
HomR(M, Z) L fl Z.
 3.4 Free Modules 133

But the Z-module r IT Z is not a free Z-module. (For a proof of this fact
(which uses cardinality arguments), see I. Kaplansky, Infinite Abelian
Groups, University of Michigan Press, (1968) p. 48.)

(4.13) Proposition. Let M be a free R-module with basis S = {xj}jEJ. If

I is an ideal of R, then IM is a submodule of M and the quotient module
M/IM is an R/I-module. Let it : M --+ M/IM be the projection map.
Then M/IM is a free R/I-module with basis tr(S) = {Tr(xj)}jEJ.
Proof. Exercise. 0

(4.14) Proposition. Every R-module M is the quotient of a free module and

if M is finitely generated, then M is the quotient of a finitely generated free
R-module. In fact, we may take µ(F) = u(M).
Proof. Let S = {xj}jEJ be a generating set for the R-module M and let
F = ®jEJRj where Rj = R be the free R-module on the index set J. Define
the homomorphism TG : F -+ M by

,P((aj)jEJ) = Eajx3.
jEJ

Since S is a generating set for M, 0 is surjective and hence M LY F/ Ker(tp).

Note that if ISI < oo then F is finitely generated. (Note that every module
has a generating set S since we may take S = M.) Since M is a quotient of
F, we have µ(M) < µ(F). But F is free on the index set J (Remark 4.5),
so µ(F) < IJI, and since J indexes a generating set of M, it follows that
µ(F) < µ(M) if S is a minimal generating set of M. Hence we may take F
with µ(F) = µ(M). 0

(4.15) Definition. If M is an R-module then a short exact sequence

0---+ O

where F is a free R-module is called a free presentation of M.

Thus, Proposition 4.14 states that every module has a free presenta-
tion.

(4.16) Proposition. If F is a free R-module then every short exact sequence

0-+Ml -+M-f+F--i0
of R-modules is split exact.
Proof. Let S = {xj }jEJ be a basis of the free module F. Since f is surjective,
for each j E J there is an element yj E M such that f (yj) = x j . Define
h:S M by h(xj) = yj. By Proposition 4.9, there is a unique 6 E
134 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

HomR(F, M) such that f3ls = h. Since f o Q(xl) = xj = 1F(x,) for all

j E J, it follows that f o O = IF, and the result follows from Theorem
3.9. 0
(4.17) Corollary.
(1) Let M be an R-module and N C M a submodule with M/N free. Then
MAN®(M/N).
(2) If M is an R-module and F is a free R-module, then ML, Ker(f) ® F
for every surjective homomorphism f : M - F.
Proof. (1) Since M/N is free, the short exact sequence
0 --y N -- ' M M/N ---. 0
is split exact by Proposition 4.16 Therefore, M N ® (M/N) by Theorem
3.9.
(2) Take N = Ker(f) in part (1).

(4.18) Corollary. Let N be an arbitrary R-module and F a free R-module.

If

(4.1)

is a short exact sequence of R-modules, then

0 -. HomR(N, Ml) - HomR(N, M) -V1. HomR(N, F) -- 0

is a (split) short exact sequence of abelian groups (R-modules if R is com-
mutative).
Proof. By Proposition 4.16, the sequence (4.1) is split exact, so the corollary
follows immediately from Theorem 3.12.

(4.19) Remark. It is a theorem that any two bases of a free module over
a commutative ring R have the same cardinality. This result is proved
for finite-dimensional vector spaces by showing that any set of vectors of
cardinality larger than that of a basis must be linearly dependent. The
same procedure works for free modules over any commutative ring R, but
it does require the theory of solvability of homogeneous linear equations
over a commutative ring. However, the result can be proved for R a PID
without the theory of solvability of homogeneous linear equations over R;
we prove this result in Section 3.6. The result for general commutative rings
then follows by an application of Proposition 4.13.

The question of existence of a basis of a module, that is, to ask if a

given module is free, is a delicate question for a general commutative ring R.
We have seen examples of Z-modules, namely, finite abelian groups, which
 3.4 Free Modules 135

are not free. We will conclude this section with the fact that all modules
over division rings, in particular, vector spaces, are free modules. In Section
3.6 we will study in detail the theory of free modules over a PID.

(4.20) Theorem. Let D be a division ring and let V be a D-module. Then

V is a free D-module. In particular, every vector space V has a basis.
Proof. The proof is an application of Zorn's lemma.
Let S be a generating set for V and let Bo C S be any linearly in-
dependent subset of S (we allow Bo = 0). Let T be the set of all linearly
independent subsets of S containing Bo and partially order T by inclusion.
If {Bi} is a chain in T, then UBi is a linearly independent subset of S
that contains Bo; thus, every chain in T has an upper bound. By Zorn's
lemma, there is a maximal element in T, so let B be a maximal linearly
independent subset of S containing Bo. We claim that S C (B) so that
V = (S) C (B). Let v E S. Then the maximality of B implies that V U {v}
is linearly dependent so that there is an equation
m
Eaivi+bv=0
i=i
where v1, ... , v,,, are distinct elements of B and al, ... , am, b E D are not
all 0. If b = 0 it would follow that Ei"_1 aivi = 0 with not all the scalars
ai = 0. But this contradicts the linear independence of B. Therefore, b 0 0
and we conclude
m
v = b-'(bv) = E(-b-lai)vi E (B).
i=i
Therefore, S C (B), and as observed above, this implies that B is a basis
of V.

The proof of Theorem 4.20 actually proved more than the existence of
a basis of V. Specifically, the following more precise result was proved.

(4.21) Theorem. Let D be a division ring and let V be a D-module. If S

spans V and Bo C S is a linearly independent subset, then there is a basis
BofVsuch that BOCBCS.
Proof.

(4.22) Corollary. Let D be a division ring, and let V be a D-module.

(1) Any linearly independent subset of V can be extended to a basis of V.
(2) A maximal linearly independent subset of V is a basis.
(3) A minimal generating set of V is a basis.

Proof. Exercise.
136 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

Notice that the above proof used the existence of inverses in the division
ring D in a crucial way. We will return in Section 3.6 to study criteria that
ensure that a module is free if the ring R is assumed to be a PID. Even
when R is a PID, e.g., R = Z, we have seen examples of R modules that
are not free, so we will still be required to put restrictions on the module
M to ensure that it is free.

3.5 Projective Modules

The property of free modules given in Proposition 4.16 is a very useful one,
and it is worth investigating the class of those modules that satisfy this
condition. Such modules are characterized in the following theorem.

(5.1) Theorem. The following conditions on an R-module P are equivalent.

(1) Every short exact sequence of R-modules

0- M, -+M-'P-.0
splits.
(2) There is an R-module P' such that P ® P is a free R-module.
(3) For any R-module N and any surjective R-module homomorphism ?p :
M - P, the homomorphism
tb.: HomR(N, M) -' HomR(N, P)
is surjective.
(4) For any surjective R-module homomorphism ¢ : M N, the homo-
morphism
0.: HomR(P, M) HomR(P, N)
is surjective.

Proof. (1) = (2). Let 0 -i K ---* F ---I P - 0 be a free presentation of

P. Then this short exact sequence splits so that F P ® K by Theorem
3.9.
(2) . (3). Suppose that F = P ® P' is free. Given a surjective R-
module homomorphism t : M P, let ?i' = V) ®1 P' : M ® P P ® P' _
F; this is also a surjective homomorphism, so there is an exact sequence

0--+Ker(V"') -i M®P' - F-+0.

Since F is free, Proposition 4.16 implies that this sequence is split exact;
Theorem 3.12 then shows that
?i; : HomR(N, M ® P) HomR(N, P 9 P')
 3.5 Projective Modules 137

is a surjective homomorphism. Now let f E HomR(N, P) be arbitrary and

let f = i o f , where c : P -+ P ® P is the inclusion map. Then there
is an f E HomR(N, M ® P') with 10' (f) = f'. Let 7r : M ® P M
and 7r' : P ® P' P be the projection maps. Note that 7r' o c = lp and
0 o 7r = r' o V. Then
(7ro f) =V1o(?ro f)
=7r'o,'o f
=7r'0 f'
= (7rI oi.) o f
= f.
Therefore, j'. is surjective.
(3) (4). Let 0 --- K -. F "' P -+ 0 be a free presentation of
P. By property (3), there is a g E HomR(P, F) such that t',(Q) = 1p, i.e.,
loof3 = lp. Let 46: M -+ N be any surjective R-module homomorphism and
let f E HomR(P, N). Then there is a commutative diagram of R-module
homomorphisms
F - P -+ 0
If
M --' N -+ 0
with exact rows. Let S = {x,}jEJ be a basis of F. Since 0 is surjective,
we may choose yj E M such that 0(yj) = f o v/i(xj) for all j E J. By
Proposition 4.9, there is an R-module homomorphism g : F -+ M such
that g(xi) = y, for all j E J. Since 0 o g(x,) = 0(yy) = f o v/1(x, ), it follows
that D o g f o 0. Define f E HomR(P, M) by f= g -,3 and observe that

0.(f)=0o(go0)
=fo'YOQ
=folF
= f.
Hence, O.: HomR(P, M) - HomR(P, N) is surjective.
(4) => (1). A short exact sequence

0 - MI M -'p s P -+ 0,
in particular, includes a surjection V : M -i P. Now take N = P in part
(4). Thus,
ii.: HomR(P, M) -+ HomR(P, P)
is surjective. Choose /3 : P -+ M with t/i.(,0) = lp. Then /3 splits the short
exact sequence and the result is proved. 0
138 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(5.2) Definition. An R-module P satisfying any of the equivalent conditions

of Theorem 5.1 is called projective.

As noted before Theorem 5.1, projective modules are introduced as the

class of modules possessing the property that free modules were shown to
possess in Proposition 4.16. Therefore, we have the following fact:

(5.3) Proposition. Free R-modules are projective.

Proof.

(5.4) Corollary. Let R be an integral domain. If P is a projective R-module,

then P is torsion-free.
Proof. By Theorem 5.1 (2), P is a submodule of a free module F over R.
According to Proposition 4.8, every free module over an integral domain is
torsion-free, and every submodule of a torsion-free module is torsion-free.

(5.5) Corollary. An R-module P is a finitely generated projective R-module

if and only if P is a direct summand of a finitely generated free R-module.
Proof. Suppose that P is finitely generated and projective. By Proposition
4.14, there is a free presentation
0- K - F , P - 0
such that F is free and p(F) = µ(P) < oo. By Theorem 5.1, P is a direct
summand of F.
Conversely, assume that P is a direct summand of a finitely generated
free R-module F. Then P is projective, and moreover, if P ® P - F then
F/P - P so that P is finitely generated.
(5.6) Examples.
(1) Every free module is projective.
(2) Suppose that m and n are relatively prime natural numbers. Then
as abelian groups Z,,,,, ?5 Z,,, ® Z,,. It is easy to check that this iso-
morphism is also an isomorphism of Z,,,,,-modules. Therefore, Z,,, is
a direct summand of a free Z,,,,,-module, and hence it is a projective
Z,,,,,-module. However, Z,,, is not a free Z,,,,, module since it has fewer
than mn elements.
(3) Example 5.6 (2) shows that projective modules need not be free. We
will present another example of this phenomenon in which the ring R is
an integral domain so that simple cardinality arguments do not suffice.
Let R = Z(v5] and let I be the ideal I = (2, 1 + = (al, a2). It
is easily shown that I is not a principal ideal, and hence by Example
4.6 (6), we see that I cannot be free as an R-module. We claim that I
 3.5 Projective Modules 139

is a projective R-module. To see this, let b = 1 - E R, let F be a

free R-module with basis Is,, 82}, and let 0: F - I be the R-module
homomorphism defined by
c(rjs1 + r2s2) = r1al + r2a2.

Now define an R-module homomorphism a : 1 -+ F by

a(a) = -as, + ((ab)/2)s2.
Note that this makes sense because 2 divides ab for every a E I. Now
for a E I,
0 o a(a) = b(-asl + ((ab)/2)s2)

= -aal + ((ab)/2)a2
= -aal + aa2b/2
= -2a + 3a
=a
so that a is a splitting of the surjective map 0. Hence, F Ker(O) ® I
and by Theorem 5.1, I is a projective R-module.

Concerning the construction of new projective modules from old ones,

there are the following two simple facts:

(5.7) Proposition. Let { Pj }jEJ be a family of R-modules, and let P =

®jEJ Pi. Then P is projective if and only if Pj is projective for each j E J.
Proof. Suppose that P is projective. Then by Theorem 5.1, there is an
R-module P' such that P ® P = F is a free R-module. Then

F=P®P'=(®Pj)ED P',
jEJ
and hence, each Pj is also a direct summand of the free R-module F. Thus,
Pj is projective.
Conversely, suppose that Pj is projective for every j E J and let P,' be
an R-module such that Pj ® Pj' = F, is free. Then

P®((DPj')(P,®P;)
jEJ jEJ

® Fj.
jEJ

Since the direct sum of free modules is free (Example 4.6 (8)), it follows
that P is a direct summand of a free module, and hence P is projective.
140 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(5.8) Proposition. Let R be a commutative ring and let P and Q be finitely

generated projective R-modules. Then HomR(P, Q) is a finitely generated
projective R-module.
Proof. Since P and Q are finitely generated projective R-modules, there are
R-modules P and Q' such that P®P' and Q®Q' are finitely generated free
modules. Therefore, by Theorem 4.11, HomR(P ® P, Q (D Q') is a finitely
generated free R-module. But
HomR(P (D P', Q ® Q') ?' HomR(P, Q) ® HomR(P, Q')
® HomR(P', Q) ® HomR(P, Q')
so that HomR(P, Q) is a direct summand of a finitely generated free R-
module, and therefore, it is projective and finitely generated by Corollary
5.5. 0
Example 5.6 (3) was an example of an ideal in a ring R that was
projective as an R-module, but not free. According to Example 4.6 (6), an
ideal I in a ring R is free as an R-module if and only if the ideal is principal.
It is a natural question to ask which ideals in a ring R are projective as
R-modules. Since this turns out to be an important question in number
theory, we will conclude our brief introduction to the theory of projective
modules by answering this question for integral domains R.

(5.9) Definition. Let R be an integral domain and let K be the quotient

field of R. An ideal I C R is said to be invertible if there are elements
a1, ... , an E I and bl, ... , bn E K such that
(5.1) b=I C_ R for 1 < i < n, and
(5.2) albs + + anbn = 1.

(5.10) Examples.
(1) If I C R is the principal ideal I = (a) where a 0 0, then I is an
invertible ideal. Indeed, let b = 1/a E K. Then any x E I is divisible
by a in R so that bx = (1/a)x E R, while a(l/a) = 1.
(2) Let R = Z[vr---5] and let I = (2, 1 + ). Then it is easily checked
that I is not principal, but I is an invertible ideal. To see this, let
a1 =2,a2=1+-,,/--5,b1 =-1, and b2 = (1 - -,/--5)/2. Then
albs + a2b2 = -2 + 3 = 1.
Furthermore, a1b2 and a2b2 are in R, so it follows that b2I C R, and
we conclude that I is an invertible ideal.

The following result characterizes which ideals in an integral domain

R are projective modules. Note that the theorem is a generalization of
Example 5.6 (3):
 3.5 Projective Modules 141

(5.11) Theorem. Let R be an integral domain and let I C R be an ideal.

Then I is a projective R-module if and only if I is an invertible ideal.
Proof. Suppose that 1 is invertible and choose al, ... , an E I and b1, ... , bn
in the quotient field K of R so that Equations (5.1) and (5.2) are satisfied.
Let 0: Rn -' I be defined by
O(xi, ... , xn) = alxl + ... + anxn,
and define 6 : I -+ Rn by
/3(a) = (abl, ... , abn).
Note that abi E R for all i by Equation (5.1). Equation (5.2) shows that
n
O o /3(a) = E ai(abi) = a t aibi =a
i_1 i=1

for every a E I. Therefore 0 o /j = 1 p and Theorem 3.9 implies that I is a

direct summand of the free R-module Rn, so I is a projective R-module.
Conversely, assume that the ideal 19 R is projective as an R-module.
Then I is a direct summand of a free R-module F, so there are R-module
homomorphisms 0 : F -+ I and 3 : I -' F such that 0 o /3 = 11. Let
S = {xj}jEJ be a basis of F. Given x E 1, /3(x) E F can be written
uniquely as

(5.3) /3(x) _ cjxj.

jEJ
For each j E J, let tlj(x) = cj. This gives a function Oj : I R, which is
easily checked to be an R-module homomorphism. If aj = O(xj) E I, note
that
(5.4) for each x E I, Oj(x) = 0 except for at most finitely many j E J;
(5.5) for each x E I, Equation (5.3) shows that

x = -0(0(x)) = 1: 'pj(x)aj
jEJ

Given x j4 0 E I and j E J, define b, E K (K is the quotient field of

R) by

(5.6) bj = Oj(x)
X
The element bj E K depends on j E J but not on the element x 54 0 E I.
To see this, suppose that x' 54 0 E I is another element of I. Then
X'pj(x) = Oj(x'x) =''j(xx) = x1pj(x )
142 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

so that >' 1(x)/x = 1(ii(x')/x'. Therefore, for each j E J we get a uniquely

defined bi E K. By property (5.4), at most finitely many of the bi are not
0. Label the nonzero bi by b1, ... , bn. By property (5.5), if x $ 0 E I then

n n n
x= E V)i(x)a.i =>(bix)ai =x (bia)).
.i=1 .i=1 i=1

Cancelling x $ 0 from this equation gives

a1b1 + ... + anbn = 1

where a1, ... , an E I and b1 , bn E K. It remains to check that b,I C R

for 1 < j < n. But if x $ 0 E I then bi = tki(x)/x so that bix = V)j(x) E R.
Therefore, I is an invertible ideal and the theorem is proved. 0
(5.12) Remark. Integral domains in which every ideal is invertible are known
as Dedekind domains, and they are important in number theory. For ex-
ample, the ring of integers in any algebraic number field is a Dedekind
domain.

3.6 Free Modules over a PID

In this section we will continue the study of free modules started in Sec-
tion 3.4, with special emphasis upon theorems relating to conditions which
ensure that a module over a PID R is free. As examples of the types of
theorems to be considered, we will prove that all submodules of a free R-
module are free and all finitely generated torsion-free R-modules are free,
provided that the ring R is a PID. Both of these results are false without
the assumption that R is a PID, as one can see very easily by consider-
ing an integral domain R that is not a PID, e.g., R = Z[X], and an ideal
I C R that is not principal, e.g., (2, X) C Z[XJ. Then I is a torsion-free
submodule of R that is not free (see Example 4.6 (6)).
Our analysis of free modules over PIDs will also include an analysis of
which elements in a free module M can be included in a basis and a criterion
for when a linearly independent subset can be included in a basis. Again,
these are basic results in the theory of finite-dimensional vector spaces, but
the case of free modules over a PID provides extra subtleties that must be
carefully analyzed.
We will conclude our treatment of free modules over PIDs with a fun-
damental result known as the invariant factor theorem for finite rank sub-
modules of free modules over a PID R. This result is a far-reaching gener-
alization of the freeness of submodules of free modules, and it is the basis
 3.6 Free Modules over a PID 143

for the fundamental structure theorem for finitely generated modules over
PIDs which will be developed in Section 3.7.
We start with the following definition:

(6.1) Definition. Let M be a free R-module. Then the free rank of M,

denoted free-rankR(M), is the minimal cardinality of a basis of M.

Since we will not be concerned with the fine points of cardinal arith-
metic, we shall not distinguish among infinite cardinals so that
free-rankR(M) E Z+ U {oo}.
Since a basis is a generating set of M, we have the inequality u(M) <
free-rankR(M). We will see in Corollary 6.18 that for an arbitrary commu-
tative ring R and for every free R-module, free-rankR(M) = p(M) and all
bases of M have this cardinality.

(6.2) Theorem. Let R be a PID, and let M be a free R-module. If N C M

is a submodule, then N is a free R-module, and

free-rankR(N) < free-rankR(M).

Proof. We will first present a proof for the case where free-rankR(M) < 00.
This case will then be used in the proof of the general case. For those who
are only interested in the case of finitely generated modules, the proof of
the second case can be safely omitted.
Case 1. free-rankR(M) < 00.
We will argue by induction on k = free-rankR(M). If k = 0 then
M = (0) so N = (0) is free of free-rank 0. If k = 1, then M is cyclic so
M = (x) for some nonzero x E M. If N = (0) we are done. Otherwise, let
I = {a ER: ax EN). Since! is an ideal ofRandRisaPID,I=(d);
since N j4 (0), d 54 0. If Y E N then y = ax = rdx E (dx) so that N = (dx)
is a free cyclic R-module. Thus free-rankR(N) = 1 and the result is true
for k = 1.
Assume by induction that the result is true for all M with free-rank k,
and let M be a module with free-rankR(M) = k+l. Let S = {x1, ... xk+l }
be a basis of M and let Mk = (xl, ... ,xk). If N C Mk we are done by
induction. Otherwise N n Mk is a submodule of Mk which, by induction, is
free of free-rank e < k. Let {yl, ... , ye} be a basis of N n Mk. By Theorem
2.5
N/(N n Mk) 25 (N + Mk)/Mk C M/Mk = (xk+I + Mk)-
By the k = 1 case of the theorem, (N + Mk)/Mk is a free cyclic submodule
of M/Mk with basis dxk+1 + Mk where d 54 0. Choose ye+l E N so that
ye+i = dxk+i + x' for some x' E Mk. Then (N + Mk) lMk = (ye+i + Mk).
144 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

We claim that S' = {yl, ... , ye, yt+1 } is a basis of N. To see this, let y E N.
Then y + Mk = ae+i(ye+i + Mk) so that y - at+lyt+1 E N n Mk, which
implies that y - at+Iyt+1 = a1y1 + aeye. Thus S' generates N. Suppose
that aly, + +ae+lyt+1 = 0. Then at+1(dxk+1 +x')+aIy1 + +aeye = 0
so that ae+ldxk+l E Mk. But S is a basis of M so we must have ae+ld = 0;
since d 34 0 this forces at+1 = 0. Thus a1y1 + + aeye = 0 which implies
that a1 = = at = 0 since {y1, . . , yt} is linearly independent. Therefore
S' is linearly independent and hence a basis of N, so that N is free with
free-rankR(N) < e + 1 < k + I. This proves the theorem in Case 1.
Case 2. free-rankn(M) = oo.
Since (0) is free with basis 0, we may assume that N # (0). Let S =
{xj}jEJ be a basis of M. For any subset K C J let MK = ({xk}kEK)
and let NK = N n MK. Let T be the set of all triples (K, K', f) where
K' C K C J and f : K' -+ NK is a function such that (f (k)}kEK' is a
basis of NK We claim that T # 0.
.

Since N $ (0) there is an x j4 0 E N, so we may write x = aixj, + +

akxjk. Hence X E NK where K = {{ j 1 ,---, }. But MK is a free R-module
with free-rankR(MK) < k < oo and NK is a nonzero submodule. By Case
1, NK is free with free-rankR(NK) = e < k. Let {y1, ... yt} be a basis of
NK, and let K' = (j 1, ... , jt}, and define f : K' NK by f (j;) = y, for
1 < i < e. Then (K, K', f) E T so that T A 0, as claimed.
Now define a partial order on T by setting (K, K', f) < (L, L', g) if
K C L, K' C L', and 9IK' = f. If {(KQ, KQ, fQ)}QEA C T is a chain, then
(UQEA KQ, UQEA KQ, F) where FIK' = fQ is an upper bound in T for
the chain. Therefore, Zorn's lemma applies and there is a maximal element
(K, K', f) of T.

Claim. K = J.
Assuming the claim is true, it follows that MK = M, NK = N n MK =
N, and {f(k)}kEK' is a basis of N. Thus, N is a free module (since it has
a basis), and since S was an arbitrary basis of M, we conclude that N has
a basis of cardinality < free-rankR(M), which is what we wished to prove.
It remains to verify the claim. Suppose that K j4 J and choose j E
J \ K. Let L = K U {j}. If NK = NL then (K, K', f) (L, K', f),
contradicting the maximality of (K, K', f) in T. If NK 36 NL, then
NL/(NL n MK) (NL + MK)/MK C ML/MK = (x3 + MK)-
By Case 1, (NL + 1MIK)/MK is a free cyclic submodule with basis dxj + MK
where d # 0. Choose z E NL so that z = dxj + w for some w E MK.
Then (NL + MK)/MK = (z + MK). Now let L' = K' U {j} and define
L' -+NL by
f,(k) = J f (k) if k E K',
Z ifk=j.
 3.6 Free Modules over a PID 145

We need to show that { f'(k)}kEL' is a basis of NL. But if x E NL then

x + MK = cz + MK for some c E R. Thus x - cz E MK n N = NK so that
x - cz = bkf(k)
kE K'

where bk E R. Therefore, { f (k)}kEL' generates NL.

Now suppose EkEL' bkf'(k) = 0. Then

b,z+1: bkf(k)=0
kE K'

so that
db,x,+b,w+ E bkf(k) =0.
kEK'
That is, db,x, E MK n (x,) = (0), and since S = {xt}tEJ is a basis
of M, we must have db, = 0. But d j4 0, so b, = 0. This implies that
EkE K, bk f (k) = 0. But { f (k) }kE K' is a basis of NK, so we must have
bk = 0 for all k E K'. Thus { f'(k)}kEL' is a basis of NL. We conclude that
(K, K', f) (L, L', f'), which contradicts the maximality of (K, K', f).
Therefore, the claim is verified, and the proof of the theorem is complete.

(6.3) Corollary. Let R be a PID and let P be a projective R-module. Then

P is free.
Proof. By Proposition 4.14, P has a free presentation
0--+K-+F--+P-+0.
Since P is projective, this exact sequence splits and hence F P ® K.
Therefore, P is isomorphic to a submodule of F, and Theorem 6.2 then
shows that P is free.

(6.4) Corollary. Let M be a finitely generated module over the PID R and
let N C M be a submodule. Then N is finitely generated and
µ(N) < µ(M).

Proof. Let
0- K- F 0+M-y0
be a free presentation of M such that free-rank(F) = p(M) < oo, and let
NI = 0-1(N). By Theorem 6.2, N1 is free with
µ(N1) < free-rank(NI) < free-rank(F) = µ(M).
Since N = O(NI ), we have µ(N) < µ(N1), and the result is proved.
146 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(6.5) Remark. The hypothesis that R be a PID in Theorem 6.2 and Corol-
laries 6.3 and 6.4 is crucial. For example, consider the ring R = Z[X] and
let M = R and N = (2, X). Then M is a free R-module and N is a sub-
module of M that is not free (Example 4.6 (6)). Moreover, R = Z[V/-5],
P = (2, 1 + /) gives an example of a projective R-module P that is
not free (Example 5.6 (3)). Also note that 2 = µ(N) > µ(M) = 1 and
2 = µ(P) > I = u(R).
Recall that if M is a free module over an integral domain R, then M is
torsion-free (Proposition 4.8). The converse of this statement is false even
under the restriction that R be a PID. As an example, consider the Z-
module Q. It is clear that Q is a torsion-free Z-module, and it is a simple
exercise to show that it is not free. There is, however, a converse if the
module is assumed to be finitely generated (and the ring R is a PID).

(6.6) Theorem. If R is a PID and M is a finitely generated torsion-free

R-module, then M is free and
free-rankR(M) = µ(M).

Proof. The proof is by induction on µ(M). If µ(M) = 1 then M is cyclic

with generator {x}. Since M is torsion-free, Ann(x) = {0}, so the set {x}
is linearly independent and, hence, is a basis of M.
Now suppose that µ(M) = k > 0 and assume that the result is true
for all finitely generated torsion-free R-modules M' with µ(M') < k. Let
{x1, ... , xk } be a minimal generating set for M, and let

M1={xERI:axE(x1) for some a0OER}.

Then M/M1 is generated by {x2 + M1, ... , xk + M1 } so that µ(M/Ml) _
j < k - 1. If ax E M1 for some a 54 0 E R, then from the definition of M1,
b(ax) E (xl) for some b 0 0. Hence x E M1 and we conclude that M/Ml
is torsion-free. By the induction hypothesis, M/M1 is free of free-rank j.
Then Corollary 4.17 shows that ML, M1® (M/Ml ). We will show that M1
is free of free-rank 1. It will then follow that
k=µ(l41)<p(Mi)+µ(MIMI)=1+j,
and since j < k - 1, it will follow that j = k -1 and M is free of free-rank =
k.
It remains to show that M1 is free of rank 1. Note that if R is a field
then M1 = R xl and we are done. In the general case, M1 is a submodule
of M, so it is finitely generated by t < k elements. Let {y', ... , yt} be
a generating set for M1 and suppose that a;y; = bix1 with a, # 0 for
1 < i < t. Let qo = a1 ... at.
Claim. If ax = bxl with a 34 0 then a I bqo
 3.6 Free Modules over a PID 147

To see this note that x = Ei=1 ciyi so that

qox = cjgoy;
;=1

_ ci(go/ai)aiyi
i=1

_ G(qo/a;)b;xi
;=1
I
Ec;(go/a;)b; x1
i=1

Therefore.
I
bgox, = agox = (c(o/ai)bi)
aE X1.
i=1

Since M1 is torsion-free, it follows that

t
bqo = a (ci(o/a)bi)
i=1

and the claim is proved.

Using this claim we can define a function : M1 --- R by t(x) _
(bqo)/a whenever ax = bx1 for a 36 0. We must show that 0 is well defined.
That is, if ax = bx1 and a'x = b'x, then (bqo)/a = (b'qo)/a'. But ax = bx1
and a'x = b'x1 implies that a'bx1 = a'ax = ab'x1 so that alb = all because
M is torsion-free. Thus a'bqo = ab'qo so that (bqo)/a = (b'qo)/a' and 0 is
well defined. Furthermore, it is easy to see that 0 is an R-module homo-
morphism so that Im(O) is an R-submodule of R, i.e., an ideal. Suppose
that O(x) = 0. Then ax = bx1 with a 0 0 and O(x) = (bqo)/a = 0 E R.
Since R is an integral domain, it follows that b = 0 and hence ax = 0. Since
M is torsion-free we conclude that x = 0. Therefore, Ker(O) = {0} and
M1 = Im(O) = Rc.
Hence, M1 is free of rank 1, and the proof is complete.

(6.7) Corollary. If M is a finitely generated module over a field F, then M

is free.
Proof. Every module over a field is torsion-free (Proposition 2.20).

(6.8) Remark. We have already given an independent proof (based on Zorn's

lemma) for Corollary 6.7, even without the finitely generated assumption
(Theorem 4.20). We have included Corollary 6.7 here as an observation that
148 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

it follows as a special case of the general theory developed for torsion-free

finitely generated modules over a PID.

(6.9) Corollary. If M is a finitely generated module over a PID R, then

(M/M,).
Proof. There is an exact sequence of R-modules

0-+M,--iM-'M/M, 0.

Hence, M/M, is finitely generated and by Proposition 2.18, it is torsion-

free, so Theorem 6.6 shows that M/M, is free. Then Corollary 4.17 shows
that M M, ® (M/M,).
The main point of Corollary 6.9 is that any finitely generated module
over a PID can be written as a direct sum of its torsion submodule and
a free submodule. Thus an analysis of these modules is reduced to study-
ing the torsion submodule, once we have completed our analysis of free
modules. We will now continue the analysis of free modules over a PID R
by studying when an element in a free module can be included in a basis.
As a corollary of this result we will be able to show that any two bases
of a finitely generated free R-module (R a PID) have the same number of
elements.

(6.10) Example. Let R be a PID and view R as an R-module. Then an

element a E R forms a basis of R if and only if a is a unit. Thus if R is
a field, then every nonzero element is a basis of the R-module R, while if
R = Z then the only elements of Z that form a basis of Z are 1 and -1.
As a somewhat more substantial example, consider the Z-module Z2. Then
the element u = (2, 0) E Z2 cannot be extended to a basis of Z2 since if v
is any element of Z2 with {u, v} linearly independent, the equation
au+f3v=(1,0)
is easily seen to have no solution a, 0 E Z. Therefore, some restriction on
elements of an R-module that can be included in a basis is necessary. The
above examples suggest the following definition.

(6.11) Definition. Let M be an R-module. A torsion-free element x # 0 E M

is said to be primitive if x = ay for some y E M and a E R implies that a
is a unit of R.

(6.12) Remarks.
(1) If R is a field, then every nonzero x E M is primitive.
(2) The element x E R is a primitive element of the R-module R if and
only if x is a unit.
 3.6 Free Modules over a PID 149

(3) The element (2, 0) E Z2 is not primitive since (2, 0) = 2 (1, 0).
(4) If R = Z and M = Q, then no element of M is primitive.

(6.15) Lemma. Let R be a PID and let M be a free R-module with basis
S = {xj}jEJ. If X = E,EJajxj E M, then x is primitive if and only if
gcd(jai }jEJ) = 1.
Proof. Let d = gcd({aj}jEJ). Then x = d(>2jEJ(aj/d)xj), so if d is not a
unit then x is not primitive. Conversely, if d = 1 and x = ay then

E ajxj = x
jEJ
= ay(

=
l
a(Ebjxj)

jEJ
_ E abjxj.
jEJ

Since S = {xj}jEJ is a basis, it follows that aj = abj for all j E J. That

is, a is a common divisor of the set {aj}jEJ so that a I d = 1. Hence a is a
unit and x is primitive.

(6.14) Lemma. Let R be a PID and let M be a finitely generated R-module.

If x E M has Ann(x) = (0), then we may write x = ax' where a E R and
x' is primitive. (In particular, if M is not a torsion module, then M has a
primitive element.)
Proof. Let xo = x. If xo is primitive we are done. Otherwise, write xo = alxl
where al E R is not a unit. Then (xo) 5 (x1). To see this, it is certainly
true that (xo) C (xi). If the two submodules are equal then we may write
xl = bxo so that xo = aixl = albxo, i.e., (1 - alb) E Ann(xo) = (0).
Therefore, 1 = alb and al is a unit, which contradicts the choice of al.
Now consider xl. If xl is primitive, we are done. Otherwise xl =
a2x2 where a2 is not a unit, and as above we conclude that (xl) (x2).
Continuing in this way we obtain a chain of submodules

(6.1) (xo) 5 (xi) 5 (x2) 5 ...

Either this chain stops at some i, which means that xi is primitive, or (6.1)
is an infinite properly ascending chain of submodules of M. We claim that
the latter possibility cannot occur. To see this, let N = Ui_° I (xi). Then N
is a submodule of the finitely generated module M over the PID R so that
N is also finitely generated by {yl,... , yk } (Corollary 6.4). Since (xo) C
(xl) C , there is an i such that {yi,...,yk} C (xi). Thus N = (xi) and
hence (x,) = (xi+i) = , which contradicts having an infinite properly
150 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

ascending chain. Therefore, xi is primitive for some i, and if we let x' = xi

we conclude that x = ax' where a = ala2 . ai. 0
(6.15) Remark. Suppose that M is a free R-module, where R is a PID, and
x E M. Then Ann(x) = (0), so x = ax' where x' is a primitive element of
M. If S = {xj }jEJ is a basis of M, then we may write x' = E,E J bjxj so
that
x = ax=Eabjxj= cjxj.
jEJ jEJ
Since gcd({bj}jEJ) = 1 (by Lemma 6.13) we see that a = gcd({cj}jEJ).
The element a E R, which is uniquely determined by x up to multiplication
by a unit of R, is called the content of x E M and is denoted c(x). (Compare
with the concept of content of polynomials (Definition 2.6.3).) Thus, any
x E M can be written
(6.2) x = c(x) i
where x' is primitive.

(6.16) Theorem. Let R be a PID and let M be a fee R-module with

rank(M) = k = µ(M) = free-rank(M).
If x E M is primitive, then M has a basis of k elements containing x.
Proof. Assume first that k < oo and proceed by induction on k. Suppose
k = 1 and let M have a basis {x1 }. Then x = ax1 for some a E R. Since x
is primitive, it follows that a is a unit so that (x) = (x1) = M, hence {x}
is a basis of M.
The case k = 2 will be needed in the general induction step, so we
present it separately. Thus suppose that M has a basis {x1, x2} and let
x = rx1 + sx2 where r, s E R. Since x is primitive, gcd{r, s} = 1, so we
may write ru + sv = 1. Let x2 = -vxl + ux2. Then
x1 =ux-sx2
and
x2 = vx + rx2.
Hence, (x, x2) = M. It remains to show that {x, x2} is linearly indepen-
dent. Suppose that ax + bx2 = 0. Then
a(rx1 + sx2) + b(-vx1 + UX2) = 0.
Since {x1i x2} is a basis of M, it follows that
ar-bv=0
and
 3.6 Free Modules over a PID 151

as+bu=0.
Multiplying the first equation by u, multiplying the second by v, and adding
shows that a = 0, while multiplying the first by -s, multiplying the second
by r, and adding shows that b = 0. Hence, {x, x2} is linearly independent
and, therefore, a basis of M.
Now suppose that u(M) = k > 2 and that the result is true for all free
R-modules of rank < k. By Theorem 6.6 there is a basis {x1, ... , xk } of M.
Letx=Ekla;x;.Ifak=0then xEM1=(x1,...,xk_1),sobyinduc-
tion there is a basis {x, x2, ... ,xk_1} of M1. Then {x,x2, ... ,xk_1, xk} is
a basis of M containing x. Now suppose that ak # 0 and let y = Ei=1 a;x;.
If y = 0 then x = akxk, and since x is primitive, it follows that ak is a unit
of R and {x1, ... ,xk_1, x} is a basis of M containing x in this case. If
y 0 then there is a primitive y' such that y = by' for some b E R. In
particular, y' E M1 so that M1 has a basis {y', x2, ... , x'ti-11 and hence
M has a basis {y', x2, ... , xk_1, xk}. But x =akxk + y = akxk + by' and
gcd(ak, b) = 1 since x is primitive. By the previous case (k = 2) we conclude
that the submodule (xk, y') has a basis {x, y"}. Therefore, M has a basis
{x, x2, ... , xk_1, y"} and the argument is complete when k = µ(M) < oo.
If k = oo let {x, }jE J be a basis of M and let x = 1 aixj, for
some finite subset I = 01, ... , j } c J. If N = (xj...... xi,,) then x is
a primitive element in the finitely generated module N, so the previous
argument applies to show that there is a basis {x, x2, ... , x' } of N. Then
{x, x2, ... ,xn} U {x,}iEJ\I is a basis of M containing x. 0
(6.17) Corollary. If M is a free module over a PID R, then every basis of
M contains µ(M) elements.
Proof. In case µ(M) < oo, the proof is by induction on µ(M). If µ(M) = 1
then M = (x). If {x1, x2} C M then x1 = a1x and and x2 = a2x so that
a2x1 -a, X2 = 0, and we conclude that no subset of M with more than one
element is linearly independent.
Now suppose that p(M) = k > 1 and assume the result is true for all
free R-modules N with µ(N) < k. Let S = {x) }JE J c M be any basis of
M and choose x E S. Since x is primitive (being an element of a basis),
Theorem 6.16 applies to give a basis {x, y2i ... , yk } of M with precisely
µ(M) = k elements. Let N = M/(x) and let it : M - N be the projection
map. It is clear that N is a free R-module with basis 7r(S) \ {ar(x)}. By
Proposition 2.12 it follows that µ(N) > k -1, and since {7r(y2), ... , ir(yk)}
generates N, we conclude that µ(N) = k - 1. By induction, it follows that
ISI - 1 < oo and ISO - 1 = k - 1, i.e., ISI = k, and the proof is complete in
case µ(M) < oo.
In case µ(M) = oo, we are claiming that no basis of M can contain a
finite number k E Z+ of elements. This is proved by induction on k, the
proof being similar to the case µ(M) finite, which we have just done. We
leave the details to the reader. 0
152 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(6.18) Corollary. Let R be any commutative ring with identity and let M be
a free R-module. Then every basis of M contains µ(M) elements.
Proof. Let I be any maximal ideal of R (recall that maximal ideals exist
by Theorem 2.2.16). Since R is commutative, the quotient ring R/I = K
is a field (Theorem 2.2.18), and hence it is a P1D. By Proposition 4.13,
the quotient module M/IM is a finitely generated free K-module so that
Corollary 6.17 applies to show that every basis of M/IM has µ(M/IM)
elements. Let S = {xj}JEJ be an arbitrary basis of the free R-module M
and let it : M - M/IM be the projection map. According to Proposition
4.13, the set 7r(S) = {7r(xJ)}3EJ is a basis of M/IM over K, and therefore,

14(m)< V1 = µ(M/IM) 5 AM.

Thus, µ(M) = IJI, and the corollary is proved. 0

(6.19) Remarks.
(1) If M is a free R-module over a commutative ring R, then we have
proved that free-rank(M) = µ(M) = the number of elements in any
basis of M. This common number we shall refer to simply as the rank
of M, denoted rankR(M) or rank(M) if the ring R is implicit. If R is
a field we shall sometimes write dimR(M) (the dimension of M over
R) in place of rankR(M). Thus, a vector space M (over R) is finite
dimensional if and only if dimR(M) = rankR(M) < oo.
(2) Corollary 6.18 is the invariance of rank theorem for finitely generated
free modules over an arbitrary commutative ring R. The invariance of
rank theorem is not valid for an arbitrary (possibly noncommutative)
ring R. As an example, consider the Z-module M = ®nENZ, which
is the direct sum of countably many copies of Z. It is simple to check
that M M ® M. Thus, if we define R = Endz(M), then R is a
noncommutative ring, and Corollary 3.13 shows that

R = Endz(M)
= Homz(M, M)
Homz(M, M (D M)
Homz(M, M) ® Homz(M, M)
R®R.
The isomorphisms are isomorphisms of Z-modules. We leave it as an
exercise to check that the isomorphisms are also isomorphisms of R-
modules, so that R a, R2, and hence, the invariance of rank does
not hold for the ring R. There is, however, one important class of
noncommutative rings for which the invariance of rank theorem holds,
namely, division rings. This will be proved in Proposition 7.1.14.
 3.6 Free Modules over a PID 153

(6.20) Corollary. If M and N are free modules over a PID R, at least one of
which is finitely generated, then M N if and only if rank(M) -= rank(N).
Proof. If M and N are isomorphic, then p(M) = µ(N) so that rank(M) =
rank(N). Conversely, if rank(M) = rank(N), then Proposition 4.9 gives a
homomorphism f : M - N, which takes a basis of M to a basis of N. It is
easy to see that f must be an isomorphism.

(6.21) Remark. One of the standard results concerning bases of finite-

dimensional vector spaces is the statement that a subset S = {x1, ... , x")
of a vector space V of dimension n is a basis provided that S is either a
spanning set or linearly independent. Half of this result is valid in the cur-
rent context of finitely generated free modules over a PID. The set (2) C Z
is linearly independent, but it is not a basis of the rank 1 Z-module Z.
There is, however, the following result.

(6.22) Proposition. Let M be a finitely generated free R-module of rank = k

where R is a PID. If S = {x1, ... ,xk} generates M, then S is a basis.
Proof. Let T = {e1}?-1 be the standard basis of Rk. Then there is a homo-
morphism 0: Rk - M determined by 4,(e,) = xj. Since (S) = M, there is
a short exact sequence

RkM ---+ O
where K = Ker(¢). Since M is free, Corollary 4.16 gives Rk -- M ®K, and
according to Theorem 6.2, K is also free of finite rank. Therefore,

k = rank(M) + rank(K) = k + rank(K)

and we conclude that rank(K) = 0. Hence 0 is an isomorphism and S is a
basis.

We will conclude this section with a substantial generalization of The-

orem 6.2. This result is the crucial result needed for the structure theorem
for finitely generated modules over a PID.

(6.23) Theorem. (Invariant factor theorem for submodules) Let R be a

PID, let M be a free R-module, and let N C M be a submodule (which is
automatically free by Theorem 6.2) of rank n < oo. Then there is a basis
S of M, a subset {x1, ... , xn} C S, and nonzero elements ,, ..., sn E R
such that

(6.3) {s1x1, ... ,snx,a} is a basis of N

and
(6.4) si I si+1 for 1 < i < n - 1.
154 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

Proof. If N = (0), there is nothing to prove, so we may assume that N 96 (0)

and proceed by induction on n = rank(N). If n = 1, then N = (y) and {y}
is a basis of N. By Lemma 6.14, we may write y = c(y)x where x E M is a
primitive element and c(y) E R is the content of y. By Theorem 6.16, there
is a basis S of M containing the primitive element x. If we let x1 = x and
Si = c(y), then slxl = y is a basis of N, so condition (6.3) is satisfied; (6.4)
is vacuous for n = 1. Therefore, the theorem is proved for n = 1.
Now assume that n > 1. By Lemma 6.14, each y E N can be written as
y = c(y) y' where c(y) E R is the content of y (Remark 6.15) and y' E M
is primitive. Let
S = {(c(y)) : y E N}.
This is a nonempty collection of ideals of R. Since R is Noetherian, Propo-
sition 2.5.10 implies that there is a maximal element of S. Let (c(y)) be
such a maximal element. Thus, y E N and y = c(y) x, where x E M is
primitive. Let s1 = c(y). Choose any basis T of M that contains x. This is
possible by Theorem 6.16 since x E M is primitive. Let xl = x and write
T = {x1}UT' = {xl}U{x'j}jEJ'. Let M1 = ({x'j}jEJ') and let N1 = M1f1N.

Claim. N = (slxl) ®N1.

To see this, note that (six,) fl Nl C (x1) fl M1 = (0) because T is a

basis of M. Let z E N. Then, with respect to the basis T, we may write
z = alx1 + b
jEJ'
Let d = (Si, al) = gcd{s1, al}. Then we may write d = us1 +val where u,
V E R. If w = uy + vz, then Equation (6.5) shows that
w=uy+vz
= (us1 + val)xl + E vbjx'j
jEJ'
= dx1 + = vbjxj.
jEJ'
Writing w = c(w) w' where c(w) is the content of w and w' E M is
primitive, it follows from Lemma 6.13 that c(w) I d (because c(w) is the
greatest common divisor of all coefficients of w when expressed as a linear
combination of any basis of M). Thus we have a chain of ideals
(Si) C (d) C (c(w)),

and the maximality of (sl) in S shows that (Si) = (c(w)) = (d). In partic-
ular, (Si) = (d) so that s1 I a1, and we conclude that
z = b1(slxl) + E bjij
jEJ'
 3.6 Free Modules over a PID 155

That is, z E (s1x1) + N1. Theorem 3.1 then shows that

N = (six,) ® Ni,
and the claim is proved.
By Theorem 6.2, N1 is a free R-module since it is a submodule of the
free R-module M. Furthermore, by the claim we see that
rank(N1) = rank(N) - 1 = n - 1.
Applying the induction hypothesis to the pair N1 C M1, we conclude that
there is a basis S' of M1 and a subset {x2, ... xn} of S', together with
nonzero elements 82, ... , 8n of R, such that
(6.6) {82x2, ... , snxn } is a basis of N1
and
(6.7) si I s;+1 for 2 < i < n - 1.
Let S = S' U {x,}. Then the theorem is proved once we have shown tha
Si 132.
To verify that s1 $2, consider the element 82x2 E Ni C N and
1

let z = 81x1 + 32x2 E N. When we write z = c(z) z' where z' E M

is primitive and c(z) E R is the content of z, Remark 6.15 shows that
c(z) = (s1, 82). Thus, (Si) C (c(z)) and the maximality of (s1) in S shows
that (c(z)) = (s1), i.e., s1 I s2i and the proof of the theorem is complete. 0

(6.24) Example. Let N C Z2 be the submodule generated by y1 = (2, 4),

y2 = (2, -2), and y3 = (2, 10). Then c(y1) = c(y2) = c(y3) = 2. Further-
more, 2 divides every component of any linear combination of y1, y2, and
y3, so s1 = 2 in the notation of Theorem 6.23. Let v1 = (1, 2). Then
y1 = 2v1. Extend v1 to a basis of Z2 by taking v2 = (0,1). Then
(6.8) Ni = N n ((0, 1)) = ((0, 6)).
To see this note that every z E Ni can be written as
z = a1y1 + a2y2 + a3y3
where a1, a3, a3 E Z satisfy the equation
2a1 + 2a2 + 2a3 = 0.

Thus, 4a1 = -4a2 - 4a3, and considering the second coordinate of z, we

see that z = (z1, z2) where
z2 = 4a1 - 2a2 + 10a3 = -6a2 4. 6a3 = 6(a3 - a2).

Therefore, {v1i V2} is a basis of Z2, while {2v1, 6v2} is a basis of N. To

check, note that y1 = 2v1, y2 = 2v1 - 6v2, and y3 = 2v1 + 6v2.
156 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(6.25) Remark. In Section 3.7, we will prove that the elements {s1, ... , sn}
are determined just by the rank n submodule N and not by the particular
choice of a basis S of M. These elements are called the invariant factors of
the submodule N in the free module M.

3.7 Finitely Generated Modules over PIDs

The invariant factor theorem for submodules (Theorem 6.23) gives a com-
plete description of a submodule N of a finitely generated free R-module
M over a PID R. Specifically, it states that a basis of M can be chosen so
that the first n = rank(N) elements of the basis, multiplied by elements
of R, provide a basis of N. Note that this result is a substantial general-
ization of the result from vector space theory, which states that any basis
of a subspace of a vector space can be extended to a basis of the ambient
space. We will now complete the analysis of finitely generated R-modules
(R a PID) by considering modules that need not be free. If the module M
is not free, then, of course, it is not possible to find a basis, but we will
still be able to express M as a finite direct sum of cyclic submodules; the
cyclic submodules may, however, have nontrivial annihilator. The following
result constitutes the fundamental structure theorem for finitely generated
modules over principal ideal domains.

(7.1) Theorem. Let M # 0 be a finitely generated module over the PID R.

If u(M) = n, then M is isomorphic to a direct sum of cyclic submodules
M-Rw1ED .®Rwn
such that
(7.1) R # Ann(wl) J Ann(w2) D . . . D Ann(wn) = Ann(M).
Moreover, for 1 < i < n
X7.2) Ann(wi) = Ann (M/(Rwi}1 + + Rwn)) .

Proof. Since µ(M) = n, let {vi, ... vn} be a generating set of M and
,

define an R-module homomorphism 0: Rn -+ M by

n
O(a1,

... , an) _ E aivi.

i=1

Let K = Ker(0). Since K is a submodule of Rn, it follows from Theorem

6.2 that K is a free R-module of rank in < n. By Theorem 6.23, there is a
basis {yl, ... , yn} of Rn and nonzero elements sl, ... , s,n E R such that
 3.7 Finitely Generated Modules over PIDs 157

(7.3) {81y,, ... , smym} is a basis for K

and
(7.4) si I si+l for 1 < i < m - 1.
Let w; = ¢(yi) E M for 1 < i < n. Then {w1, ... ,wn} generates M
since 0 is surjective and {yl, ... , yn } is a basis of Rn. We claim that

By the characterization of direct sum modules (Theorem 3.1), it is sufficient

to check that if
(7.5) aiwi +.... + anwn = 0
where ai E R, then aiwi = 0 for all i. Thus suppose that Equation (7.5) is
satisfied. Then

ai (yl) + ... + anO(yn)

= -O(alyl + ... + anyn)
so that
a1y1 + ... +anyn E Ker(O) = K = (sly,, ... , smym)
Therefore,
aly, b1sly1
for some bl, ... , b,n E R. But {yl, ... , yn} is a basis of Rn, so we conclude
that a; = bisi for 1 < i < m while ai =0 form + 1 < i < n. Thus,
aiwi = bisiO(yi) = biO(siyi) = 0
for 1 < i < m because siyi E K = Ker(O), while aiwi = 0 for m+1 < i < n
since ai = 0 in this case. Hence
M-Rw1®...®Rwn.
Note that Ann(wi) _ (si) for 1 < i < m, and since si I si+,, it follows
that
Ann(wl) 2 Ann(w2) Ann(w,n),
while for i > m, since (yi) fl Ker(O) = (0), it follows that Ann(wi) = (0).
Since si I sn for all i and since Ann(wi) = (si), we conclude that s,,M = 0.
Hence, Ann(wn) = (sn) = Ann(M) and Equation (7.1) is satisfied. Since

Equation (7.2) follows from Equation (7.1). The proof is now completed
by observing that Ann(wi) 54 R for any i since, if Ann(wi) = R, then
158 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

Rwi = (0), and hence, M could be generated by fewer than n elements.

But n = µ(M), so this is impossible because µ(M) is the minimal number
of generators of M.

A natural question to ask is to what extent is the cyclic decomposition

provided by Theorem 7.1 unique. Certainly, the factors themselves are not
unique as one can see from the example

Z2
Z.(1,0)ED
More generally, if M is a free R-module of rank n, then any choice of basis
{v1, ... ,v,a} provides a cyclic decomposition

Rv
with Ann(vi) = 0 for all i. Therefore, there is no hope that the cyclic factors
themselves are uniquely determined. What does turn out to be unique,
however, is the chain of annihilator ideals

Ann(wl) 2 ...
where we require that Ann(w;) # R, which simply means that we do not
allow copies of (0) in our direct sums of cyclic submodules. We reduce the
uniqueness of the annihilator ideals to the case of finitely generated torsion
R-modules by means of the following result. If M is an R-module, recall
that the torsion submodule M, of M is defined by
M, = {x E M : Ann(x) 34 (0)}-

(7.2) Proposition. If M and N are finitely generated modules over a PID

R, then Ma, N if and only if M, N, and rank M/M, = rank N/N,.
Proof. Let 0 : M -. N be an isomorphism. Then if x E M there is
an a 94 0 E R with ax = 0. Then aO(x) = O(ax) = 0(0) = 0 so that
O(x) E N,. Therefore, 0(M,) C N,. Applying the same observation to 0'
chows that O(M,) = N,. Thus, OIM, : M, -' N, is an isomorphism; if n :
N -. N/N, is the natural projection, it follows that Ker(ao0) = M,. The
first isomorphism theorem then gives an isomorphism M/M, = N/N,.
Since M/M, and N/N, are free R-modules of finite rank, they are isomor-
phic if and only if they have the same rank.
The converse follows from Corollary 6.20.

Therefore, our analysis of finitely generated R-modules over a PID R is

reduced to studying finitely generated torsion modules M; the uniqueness
of the cyclic submodule decomposition of finitely generated torsion modules
is the following result.
 3.7 Finitely Generated Modules over PIDs 159

(7.3) Theorem. Let M be a finitely generated torsion module over a PID R,

and suppose that there are cyclic submodule decompositions
(7.6) MRwi
and
(7.7)
where
(7.8) Ann(wl) D Ann(wk) (0) with Ann(wl) 0 R
an d
(7.9) Ann(zl) D Ann(zr.) # (0) with Ann(zi) # R.
Then k = r and Ann(wi) = Ann(zi) for 1 < i < k.
Proof. Note that Ann(M) = Ann(wk) = Ann(zr). Indeed,
Ann(M) = Ann(Rwi + + Rwk)
= Ann(wi) fl fl Ann(wk)
= Ann(wk)
since Ann(wi) D Ann(wk). The equality Ann(M) = Ann(zr) is the
same argument.
We will first show that k = r. Suppose without loss of generality that
k > r. Choose a prime p E R such that (p) Ann(wi), i.e., p divides the
generator of Ann(wi). Then (p) D Ann(wi) for all i. Since p E Ann(M/pM),
it follows that M/pM is an R/pR-module and Equations (7.6) and (7.7)
imply
(7.10) MIpM Rwi/(pRwi) ®... Rwk/(pRwk)
and
(7.11) M/pM = Rzi/(pRzi) ® ... ® Rz,./(pRz,.).
Suppose that pRwi = Rwi. Then we can write apwi = wi for some a E R.
Hence, ap - 1 E Ann(wi) C (p) by our choice of p, so 1 E (p), which
contradicts the fact that p is a prime. Therefore, pRwi # Rwi for all i
and Equation (7.10) expresses the R/pR-module M/pM as a direct sum of
cyclic R/pR-modules, none of which is (0). Since R/pR is a field (in a PID
prime ideals are maximal), all R/pR-modules are free, so we conclude that
M/pM is free of rank k. Moreover, Equation (7.11) expresses M/pM as a
direct sum of r cyclic submodules, so it follows that k = µ(M/pM) < r.
Thus, r = k, and in particular, Rzi/(pRzi) 0 0 since, otherwise, M/pM
could be generated by fewer than k elements. Thus, (p) 2 Ann(i) for all
i; if not, then (p) + Ann(zi) = R, so there are a E R and c E Ann(zi) such
that ap + c = 1. Then zi = apzi + czi = apzi E pRzi, so Rzi/(pRzi) = 0,
and we just observed that Rzi/(pRzi) 54 0.
160 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

We are now ready to complete the proof. We will work by induction

on t(Ann(M)) where, if I = (a) is an ideal of R, then t(I) is the number
of elements (counted with multiplicity) in a prime factorization of a. This
number is well defined by the fundamental theorem of arithmetic for PIDs.
Suppose that t(Ann(M)) = 1. Then Ann(M) = (p) where p E R is prime.
Since Ann(M) = Ann(wk) = Ann(zk) = (p) and since (p) is a maximal
ideal, Equations (7.8) and (7.9) imply that Ann(wi) = (p) = Ann(zi) for
all i, and the theorem is proved in the case t(Ann(M)) = 1.
Now suppose the theorem is true for all finitely generated torsion R-
modules N with t(Ann(N)) < t(Ann(M)), and consider the isomorphisms
(7.12) pM'5 pRwl ® ... ® pRwk pRw,+i ® ... ® pRwk
and
(7.13) pM L' pRzl ® ... ® pRzk =' pRzt+i ® ... ® pRzk
where Ann(wj) = ... = Ann(w,) = Ann(zi) = ... = Ann(zi) = (p) and
Ann(w,+i) g6 (p), Ann(zt+i) 0 (p) (s and t may be 0). Then Ann(pM) =
(a/p) where Ann(M) = (a), so t(Ann(pM)) = t(Ann(M))-1. By induction
we conclude that k - s = k - t, i.e., s = t, and Ann(pwi) = Ann(pzi) for
s < i < k. But Ann(pwi) = (ai/p) where Ann(wi) = (ai). Thus Ann(wi) _
Ann(zi) for all i and we are done. 0
Since Rwi R/ Ann(wi) and since R/I and R/J are isomorphic R-
modules if and only if I = J (Exercise 10), we may rephrase our results as
follows.

(7.4) Corollary. Finitely generated modules over a PID R are in one-to-one

correspondence with finite nonincreasing chains of ideals
R#I,212_J...2In.
Such a chain of ideals corresponds to the module
M=R/Il®...®R/In.
Note that µ(M) = n and if Ik+i In = (0) but Ik 96 (0), then
M^_'R/II®...®R/Ik®R"-k
We will use the convention that the empty sequence of ideals (n = 0) cor-
responds to M = (0).
Proof 0

(7.5) Definition. If M is a finitely generated torsion module over a PID R

and M Rwi ® ®Rwn with Ann(wi) Ann(wi+i) (1 < i < n - 1)
and Ann(wi) 0 R, then the chain of ideals Ii = Ann(wi) is called the chain
of invariant ideals of M.
 3.7 Finitely Generated Modules over PII)s 161

Using this language, we can express our results as follows:

(7.6) Corollary. Two finitely generated torsion modules over a PID are iso-
morphic if and only if they have the same chain of invariant ideals.
Proof. 0
(7.7) Remark. In some cases the principal ideals Ann(w3) have a preferred
generator aj. In this case the generators {ajIj=1 are called the invariant
factors of M.

The common examples are R = Z, in which case we choose aj > 0 so

that aj = IZ/Ann(w,)I, and R = F[X], where we take monic polynomials
as the preferred generators of ideals.

(7.8) Definition. Let R be a PID, and let M be a finitely generated torsion

R-module with chain of invariant ideals

(31) ? (92) ? ... D (3n)-

We define me(M) = sn and co(M) = 81 sn.

Note that me(M) and co(M) are only defined up to multiplication by a

unit, but in some cases (R = Z or R = F[X]) we have a preferred choice of
generators of ideals. In these cases me(M) and co(M) are uniquely defined.
Concerning the invariants me(M) and co(M), there is the following trivial
but useful corollary of our structure theorems.

(7.9) Corollary. Let M be a finitely generated torsion module over a PID

R.
(1) If a E R with aM = 0, then me(M) I a.
(2) me(M) divides co(M).
(3) If p E R is a prime dividing co(M), then p divides me(M).

Proof. (1) Since Ann(M) = (sn) = (me(M)) by Theorem 7.1 and the
defintion of me(M), it follows that if aM = 0, i.e., a E Ann(M), then
me(M) I a.
(2) Clearly s,, divides s1 ... sn.
(3) Suppose that p I 31 sn = co(M). Then p divides some si, but
(si) 2 (sn), so si I sn. Hence, p I sn = me(M). 0
(7.10) Remark. There are, unfortunately, no standard names for these in-
variants. The notation we have chosen reflects the common terminology in
the two cases R = Z and R = F[X]. In the case R = Z, me(M) is the
exponent and co(M) is the order of the finitely generated torsion Z-module
162 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(= finite abelian group) M. In the case R = FIX] of applications to lin-

ear algebra to be considered in Chapter 4, me(VT) will be the minimal
polynomial and co(VT) will be the characteristic polynomial of the linear
transformation T E HomF (V) where V is a finite-dimensional vector space
over the field F and VT is the FIX]-module determined by T (see Example
1.5 (12)).

There is another decomposition of a torsion R-module M into a direct

sum of cyclic submodules which takes advantage of the prime factorization
of any generator of Ann(M). To describe this decomposition we need the
following definition.

(7.11) Definition. Let M be a module over the PID R and let p E R be a

prime. Define the p-component Mp of M by
M p = {x E M : Ann(x) = (p") for some n E Z+}.
If M = Mp, then M is said to be p-primary, and M is primary if it is
p-primary for some prime p E R.

It is a simple exercise to check that submodules, quotient modules, and

direct sums of p-primary modules are p-primary (Exercise 54).

(7.12) Theorem. If M is a finitely generated torsion module over a PID R,

then M is a direct sum of primary submodules.
Proof. Since M is a direct sum of cyclic submodules by Theorem 7.1, it
is sufficient to assume that M is cyclic. Thus suppose that M = (x) and
suppose that
Ann(x) = (a) = (pr' ... pr,,)
where pl, ... , pn are the distinct prime divisors of a. Let qi = a/p;'. Then
1 = (ql, ... , qn) = gcd{ql, ... , q,,}, so there are bl, ... , bn E R such that
(7.14) 1 = bigi + ... + bngn
Let xi = bigix. Then Equation (7.14) implies that
x=xl +...+ xn
so that
Al = (x) (XI) + ... + (xn)
Suppose that y E (x1) fl ((x2) + + (x,)). Then
C2x2+...+Cnxn
y=Clx1
and hence, p 'y = clb1Pi'gix = c1blax = 0 and
qly = C2g2P23x2 + +CngnPn"xn = 0,
 3.7 Finitely Generated Modules over PIDs 163

where q = ql Therefore, {pl' , ql } C Ann(y), but (pi' , ql) = 1 so that

Ann(y) = R. Therefore, y = 0. A similar calculation shows that

(xi) n ((xl) + ... + (xi) + ... + (xn)) = (0),

so by Theorem C

Combining Theorems 7.1 and 7.12, we obtain the following result:

(7.13) Theorem. Any finitely generated torsion module M over a PID R is

a direct sum of primary cyclic submodules.
Proof. Suppose M Rwl® . ®Rwn as in Theorem 7.1. Then if Ann(wi) _
(si), we have si I si+1 for 1 < i < n - 1 with sl 54 1 and sn # 0 (since M
is torsion). Let p', ... pk be the set of distinct nonassociate primes that
occur as a prime divisor of some invariant factor of M. Then

Si = ulpil, ... peklk

pknk
sn = unplnl ...
where the divisibility conditions imply that
0 < elf < e2j < ... < eni for 1<j<k.
Then the proof of Theorem 7.12 shows that M is the direct sum of cyclic
submodules with annihilators eij > 0}, and the theorem is proved.
0

(7.14) Definition. The prime powers eij > 0, 1 < j < k} are called
the elementary divisors of M.

(7.15) Theorem. If M and N are finitely generated torsion modules over a

PID R, then M N if and only if M and N have the same elementary
divisors.
Proof. Since M is uniquely determined up to isomorphism from the invari-
ant factors, it is sufficient to show that the invariant factors of M can be
recovered from a knowledge of the elementary divisors. Thus suppose that
... (sn)
(sl) (32)

is the chain of invariant ideals of the finitely generated torsion module M.

This means that si ( si+1 for 1 < i < n. Let pl, ... ,pk be the set of distinct
nonassociate primes that occur as a prime divisor of some invariant factor
of M. Then
164 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

$1 = U1P11" ... Pkik

(7.15)
P`"k
sn = unP1"' ... k

where the divisibility conditions imply that

(7.16) 0 < e1j < e2j < < enj for 1 < j < k.

Thus, the elementary divisors of M are

(7.17)

We show that the set of invariant factors (Equation (7.15)) can be recon-
structed from the set of prime powers in Equation (7.17). Indeed, if
ej= maxe;j,
1<.<n
1<j<k,
then the inequalities (7.16) imply that sn is an associate of pi' pkk. Delete

(Pi' , ... , Pkk }

from the set of prime powers in set (7.17), and repeat the process with
the set of remaining elementary divisors to obtain sn_1. Continue until all
prime powers have been used. At this point, all invariant factors have been
recovered. Notice that the number n of invariant factors is easily recovered
from the set of elementary divisors of M. Since s1 divides every si, it follows
that every prime dividing 81 must also be a prime divisor of every s,.
Therefore, in the set of elementary divisors, n is the maximum number of
occurrences of p"i for a single prime p. 0

(7.16) Example. Suppose that M is the Z-module

M = Z22 X Z22 X Z3 X Z32 X Z5 X Z7 X Z7a .

Then the elementary divisors of M are 22, 22, 3,3 2 , 5, 7,7 2. Using the
algorithm from Theorem 7.15, we can recover the invariant factor descrip-
tion of M as follows. The largest invariant factor is the product of the
highest power of each prime occurring in the set of elementary divisors,
i.e., the least common multiple of the set of elementary divisors. That is,
32 = 72 5 32 22 = 8820. Note that the number of invariant factors of
M is 2 since powers of the primes 2, 3, and 7 occur twice in the set of ele-
mentary divisors, while no prime has three powers among this set. Deleting
72, 5,3 2 , 22 from the set of elementary divisors, we obtain s1 = 7.3.22 = 84.
This uses all the elementary divisors, so we obtain
Al Z&4 X Zs82o
 3.7 Finitely Generated Modules over PIDs 165

We now present some useful observations concerning the invariants

me(M) and co(M) where M is a torsion R-module (R a PID). See Definition
7.8 for the definition of these invariants. The verification of the results that
we wish to prove require some preliminary results on torsion R-modules,
which are of interest in their own right. We start with the following lemmas.

(7.17) Lemma. Let M be a module over a PID R and suppose that x E MT.
If Ann(x) = (r) and a E R with (a, r) = d (recall that (a, r) = gcd{a, r}),
then Ann(ax) = (r/d).
Proof. Since (r/d)(ax) = (a/d)(rx) = 0, it follows that (r/d) C Ann(ax).
If b(ax) = 0, then r I (ba), so ba = rc for some c E R. But (a, r) = d, so
there are s, t E R with rs + at = d. Then rct = bat = b(d - rs) and we see
that bd = r(ct + bs). Therefore, b E (r/d) and hence Ann(ax) = (r/d). 0

(7.18) Lemma Let M be a module over a PID R, and let x1, ... , xn E Mr
with Ann(xi) = (ri) for 1 < i < n. If {rl, ... , rn} is a pairwise relatively
prime subset of R and x = x1 + + xn, then Ann(x) _ (a) _ (f 1 ri).
Conversely, if y E M, is an element such that Ann(y) _ (b) si)
where {s1, . . . , s, } is a pairwise relatively prime subset of R, then we may
write y = yl + + yn where Ann(yi) _ (si) for all i.
Let x = x1 + - + xn. Then a = rj 1 ri E Ann(x) so that (a) C
P r o o f.
Ann(x). It remains to check that Ann(x) C (a). Thus, suppose that bx = 0.
By the Chinese remainder theorem (Theorem 2.2.24), there are c1, ... , cn E
R such that
1 (mod (ri)),
ci = 0 (mod (r3)), if j 0 i.
Then, since (rj) = Ann(xj), we conclude that cixj = 0 if i 96 j, so for each
iwith 1<i<n

Therefore, bci E Ann(xi) = (ri), and since ci - 1 (mod (ri)), it follows that
ri I b for 1 < i < n. But {ri, ... , rn } is pairwise relatively prime and thus

Conversely, suppose that y E M satisfies Ann(y) = (b) = (i=1 f)

a is the least common multiple of the set {r1, ... ,rn}. We conclude that
a I b, and hence, Ann(x) = (a).

where the set {s1, ... , sn } is pairwise relatively prime. As in the above
paragraph, apply the Chinese remainder theorem to get c1, ... , en E R
such that
(I (mod (si)),
c' = 0 (mod (sj)), if j , i.
Since b is the least common multiple of {s1i ... , sn}, it follows that
1 - c1 (mod (b)),
166 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

and hence, if we set yi = cjy, we have

y1+...+yn=(c1+...+cn)y=y
Since (b, c1) sj), Lemma 7.17 shows that Ann(yi) = Ann(ciy) _
(se). 0
(7.19) Proposition. Let R be a PID and suppose that M is a torsion R-
module such that
M Rw1 ®... Rwn
with Ann(wi) = (ti). Then the prime power factors of the t; (1 < i < n)
are the elementary divisors of M.
Proof. Let pi, ... pk be the set of distinct nonassociate primes that occur
as a prime divisor of some ti. Then we may write
pklk
t1 = ulpi" ...
(7.18)
to = unpl. ...
where u1i ... , un are units in R and some of the exponents eij may be 0.
The proof of Theorem 7.12 shows that
Rwi Rzi1 ® ... Rzik
where Ann(zij) For notational convenience we are allowing zij = 0
for those (i, j) with eij = 0. Therefore,

(7.19) Al f___ (3) Rzjj

is
where Ann(zij) = Let S = {pe'' } where we allow multiple occur-
rences of a prime power pe, and let
S = {Zij}.
Let m be the maximum number of occurrences of positive powers of a single
prime in S. If
(7.20) fnj = max eij for 1 < j < k,
1 <i <n

we define
(7.21) sm = Pi m' ... Pkmk
Note that fmj > 0 for 1 < j < k.
Delete {pf-1, ... , pf-* } from the set S and repeat the above process
with the remaining prime powers until no further positive prime powers are
 3.7 Finitely Generated Modules over PIDs 167

available. Since a prime power for a particular prime p is used only once at
each step, this will produce elements al, ... , sm E R. From the inductive
description of the construction of si, it is clear that every prime dividing s;
also divides s;+1 to at least as high a power (because of Equation (7.21)).
Thus,
s; s;+1 for 1 < i < m.
Therefore, we may write
Pk1k
Si = uipi" ...
(7.22)
am = UmPlm' ... Pk'"`
where
(7.23) f, >0}={pWs:eo,6 > 0}
where repetitions of prime powers are allowed and where
(7.24) 0:5 for 1<j<k
by Equation (7.20).
For each (1 < i < m), choose w;j E S with Ann(w;j) =
and let xi = wit + + wik. Lemma 7.18 shows that Ann(x;) = (si) for
1 < i < m, and thus,
k k
Rx; Rl (si) °-` ®Rl (Pf ") ®Rw:j
j=1 j=1

Equation (7.19) then shows that

M ®RzaQ
0.0
m k

?® Rw;j
i=1 j=1
! Rxl®...0Rzm
where Ann(x;) = (s;). Since si s;+1 for 1 < i < m, it follows that
I

{Si, ... , am} are the invariant factors of M, and since the set of prime
power factors of {Si, ... , sm} (counting multiplicities) is the same as the
set of prime power factors of {t1i ... , t,,} (see Equation (7.23)), the proof
is complete.

(7.20) Corollary. Let R be a PID, let M1, ... , Mk be finitely generated

torsion R-modules, and let M = ®k ,M;- If {d;1, ... , die;} } is the set of
elementary divisors of Mi, then
168 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

S={d,,:1<i<k;I<j<ti}
is the set of elementary divisors of M.
Proof. By Theorem 7.1,

Mi ?' Rwi1 ®... ® Rwi,.,

where Ann(wi1) = (sib) and si, si,j+l for 1 < j < ri. The elementary
I

divisors of Mi are the prime power factors of {sit, ... , si,., }. Then
k
M=®MiL, ®Rwij
i=1 i,j
where Ann(wij) = (sjj). The result now follows from Proposition 7.19. O

(7.21) Proposition. Let R be a PID, let M1, ... , Mk be finitely generated

torsion R-modules, and let M = ®;` 1Mi. Then
(7.25) me(M) = lcm{me(M1), ... ,me(Mk))

k
(7.26) co(M) _ [Ico(Ms).
i=1

Proof. Since Ann(M) = Ik 1 Ann(MM), Equation (7.25) follows since

I

(me(Mi)) = Ann(M5). Since co(M) is the product of all invariant factors of

M, which is also the product of all the elementary divisors of M, Equation
(7.26) follows from Corollary 7.20. 0

The special case R = Z is important enough to emphasize what the

results mean in this case. Suppose that M is an abelian group, i.e., a Z-
module. Then an element x E M is torsion if and only if nx = 0 for
some n > 0. That is to say, x E MT if and only if o(x) < oo. Moreover,
Ann(x) = (n) means that o(x) = n. Thus the torsion submodule of M
consists of the set of elements of finite order. Furthermore, M is finitely
generated and torsion if and only if M is a finite abelian group. Indeed, if
M = (x1, ... , xk) then any x E M can be written x = nix1 + + nkxk
where 0 < ni < o(xi) < oo f o r 1 < i < k. Therefore, IMI < n 1 o(xi).
Hence, the fundamental structure theorem for finitely generated abelian
groups takes the following form.

(7.22) Theorem. Any finitely generated abelian group M is isomorphic to

Zr ®M1 where IMi I < oo. The integer r is an invariant of M. Any finite
abelian group is a direct sum of cyclic groups of prime power order and
these prime power orders, counted with multiplicity, completely characterize
 3.7 Finitely Generated Modules over PIDs 169

the finite abelian group up to isomorpism. Also any finite abelian group is
uniquely isomorphic to a group
Z,, X . . X Z,k

where 8i 1 si+i for all i.

Proof.

Given a natural number n it is possible to give a complete list of all

abelian groups of order n, up to isomorphism, by writing n = pi' Pkk
where pl, ... ,pk are the distinct prime divisors of n. Let M be an abelian
group of order n. Then we may write M as a direct sum of its primary
components
M^='MM ED ...ED Mpk
where IMp, I Then each primary component Mp, can be written as a
direct sum
Mp,?'Zp'-,,® ®Zp:u
where
1<ej,:5 e;t<ri
and

Furthermore, the main structure theorems state that M is determined up

to isomorphism by the primes pl, ... , pk and the partitions ei1, ... , eit of
the exponents r;. This is simply the statement that M is determined up to
isomorphism by its elementary divisors. Therefore, to identify all abelian
groups of order n, it is sufficient to identify all partitions of ri, i.e., all ways
to write r; = e;1 + + e;t as a sum of natural numbers.

(7.23) Example. We will carry out the above procedure for n = 600 =
23 3.52. There are three primes, namely, 2, 3, and 5. The exponent of 2
is3andwecanwrite 3=1+1+1,3=1+2,and3=3.Thus there are
three partitions of 3. The exponent of 3 is 1, so there is only one partition,
while the exponent of 5 is 2, which has two partitions, namely, 2 = 1 + 1
and 2 = 2. Thus there are 3.1.2 = 6 distinct, abelian groups of order 600.
They are
Z2 X Z2 X Z2 X Z3 X Z5 X Z5 L Z2 X Z10 X Z30

Z2 X Z2 X Z2 X Z3 X Z25 = Z2 X Z2 X Z150

Z2XZ4XZ3XZ5XZ5~Z10XZ60
170 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

Z2 X Z4 X Z3 X Z25 = Z2 X Z300

z8xZ3xZ5xZ5Z5XZ120

z8xZ3XZ25Z600
where the groups on the right are expressed in invariant factor form and
those on the left are decomposed following the elementary divisors.

We will conclude this section with the following result concerning the
structure of finite subgroups of the multiplicative group of a field. This
is an important result, which combines the structure theorem for finite
abelian groups with a bound on the number of roots of a polynomial with
coefficients in a field.

(7.24) Theorem. Let F be a field and let G C F' = F \ {0} be a finite

subgroup of the multiplicative group F. Then G is a cyclic group.
Proof. According to Theorem 7.1, G is isomorphic to a direct sum
G(z1)ED ...ED (zn)
where, if we let ki = o(zi) = order of z,, then ki I ki+1 for 1 < i 5 n - 1
and
Ann(G) = Ann(zn) _ (kn)Z.
In the language of Definition 7.8, me(G) = kn. This means that zk.. =I
for all z E G. Now consider the polynomial
(7.27) P(X) = Xk^ - 1.
Since F is a field, the polynomial P(X) has at most kn roots, because degree
P(X) = kn (Corollary 2.4.7). But, as we have observed, every element of
G is a root of P(X), and
JGJ = k1k2 ... kn.

Thus, we must have n = 1 and G = (z1) is cyclic.

(7.25) Corollary. Suppose that F is a finite field with q elements. Then F'
is a cyclic group with q - 1 elements, and every element of F is a root of
the polynomial X9 - X.
Proof. Exercise.

(7.28) Corollary. Let

Gn = {e2xi(k/n) : 0 < k < n- 1} C C.
Then Gn is the only subgroup of C' of order n.
 3.8 Complemented Submodules 171

Proof. Let H be a finite subgroup of C' with IHJ = n. Then every element
z of H has the property that z" = 1. In other words, z is a root of the
equation X" = 1. Since this equation has at most n roots in C and since
every element of G,, is a root of this equation, we have z E G". Thus, we
conclude that H C G" and hence H = G" because n = IHI = IG"I. 0

3.8 Complemented Submodules

We will now consider the problem of extending a linearly independent sub-
set of a free R-module to a basis. The example {2} C Z shows that some
restrictions on the subset are needed, while Theorem 6.16 shows that any
primitive element of a finitely generated free R-module (R a PID) can be
extended to a basis.

(8.1) Definition. Let M be an R-module and S C M a submodule. Then

S is said to be complemented if there exists a submodule T C M with

M be a finitely generated free R-module with basis {v1, ... , v,,)

and let S = (v1, ... , v,). Then S is complemented by T = (v,+1, ... , v").
This example shows that if W = {w1, ... wk} is a linearly independent
subset of M, then a necessary condition for W to extend to a basis of M is
that the submodule (W) be complemented. If R is a PID, then the converse
is also true. Indeed, let T be a complement of (W) in M. Since R is a PID,
T is free, so let {x1, ... , x,.} be a basis of T. Then it is easy to check that
{w1,...,wk,x1,...,x,.}is a basis of M.

(8.2) Proposition. Let R be a PID, let M be a free R-module, and let S be

a submodule. Consider the following conditions on S.
(1) S is complemented.
(2) MIS is free.
(3) IfxESandx=ayforsomeyEM,aO0ER,thenyES.
Then (1) s (2) and (2) (3), while if M is finitely generated, then
(3) = (1).

Proof. (1) (2). If S is complemented, then there exists T C M such that

S E T Q5 M. Thus, M/S se T. But T is a submodule of a free module over
a PID R, so T is free (Theorem 6.2).
(2) =: (3). Suppose MIS is free. If x E S satisfies x = ay for some
y E M, a 0 0 E R, then a(y + S) = S in MIS. Since free modules are
torsion-free, it follows that y + S = S, i.e., y E S.
172 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(3) = (1). Let M be a finite rank free R-module and let S C M be a

submodule satisfying condition (3). Then there is a short exact sequence
(8.1) O-S- M M/S- O
where n is the projection map. Condition (3) is equivalent to the statement
that MIS is torsion-free, so M/S is free by Theorem 6.6. But free modules
are projective, so sequence (8.1) has a splitting or : MIS -. M and Theorem
3.9 shows that M - S ® Im(a), i.e., S is complemented.

(8.3) Remarks.
(1) A submodule S of M that satisfies condition (3) of Proposition 8.2
is called a pure submodule of M. Thus, a submodule of a finitely
generated module over a PID is pure if and only if it is complemented.
(2) If R is a field, then every subspace S C M satisfies condition (3) so that
every subspace of a finite-dimensional vector space is complemented.
Actually, this is true without the finite dimensionality assumption, but
our argument has only been presented in the more restricted case. The
fact that arbitrary subspaces of vector spaces are complemented follows
from Corollary 4.21.
(3) The implication (3) (1) is false without the hypothesis that M be
finitely generated. As an example, consider a free presentation of the
Z-module Q:
O-*S-M-+Q-0.
Since MIS - Q and Q is torsion-free, it follows that S satisfies con-
dition (3) of Proposition 8.1. However, if S is complemented, then a
complement T - Q; so Q is a submodule of a free Z-module M, and
hence Q would be free, but Q is not a free Z-module.

(8.4) Corollary. If S is a complemented submodule of a finitely generated

R-module (R a PID), then any basis for S extends to a basis for M.
Proof. This was observed prior to Proposition 8.2.

(8.5) Corollary. If S is a complemented submodule of M, then rank S =

rank M if and only if S = M.
Proof. A basis {vl, ... , v,n} of S extends to a basis {vl, ... , vn} of M. But
n=m,soS=(vl,...,vn)=M.
If AI = Z and S = (2), then rank S = rank M but M 0 S. Of course,
S is not complemented.

(8.6) Corollary. If S is a complemented submodule of M, then

rank M = rank S + rank(M/S).
 3.8 Complemented Submodules 173

Proof. Let S = (v1, ... , v,,,) where m = rank S. Extend this to a basis
{v1, ... , of M. Then T = (v,,,+i, ... , v,,) is a complement of S in M
and T '_5 M/S. Thus,
rank M=n=m+(n-m)=rank S+rank(M/S).
(8.7) Proposition. Let R be a PID and let f : M -. N be an R-module
homomorphism of finite-rank free R-modules. Then
(1) Ker(f) is a pure submodule, but
(2) Im(f) need not be pure.

Proof. (1) Suppose X E Ker(f), a # 0 E R, and y E M with x = ay. Then

0 = f (x) = f (ay) = a f (y). But N is free and, hence, torsion-free so that
f (y) = 0. Hence, condition (3) of Proposition 8.2 is satisfied, so Ker(f) is
complemented.
(2) If f : Z -. Z is defined by f (x) = 2x, then Im(f) = 2Z is not a
complemented submodule of Z.

(8.8) Proposition. Let R be a PID and let f : M - N be an R-module

homomorphism of finite-rank free R-modules. Then
rank M = rank(Ker(f )) + rank(Im(f )).

Proof. By the first isomorphism theorem, Im(f) M/ Ker(f ). But Ker(f)

is a complemented submodule of M, so the result follows from Corollary
8.6.

(8.9) Corollary. Let R be a PID and let M and N be finite-rank free

R-modules with rank(M) = rank(N). Let f E HomR(M, N).
(1) If f is a surjection, then f is an isomorphism.
(2) If f is an injection and Im(f) is complemented, then f is an isomor-
phism.

Proof. (1) By Proposition 8.8, rank(Ker(f)) = 0, i.e., Ker(f) = (0), so f is

an injection.
(2) By Proposition 8.8, rank N = rank M = rank(Im(f )). Since Im(f)
is complemented by hypothesis, f is a surjection by Corollary 8.5.

(8.10) Proposition. Let R be a field and let M and N be R-modules with

rank(M) = rank(N) finite. Let f E HomR(M, N). Then the following are
equivalent.
(1) f is an isomorphism.

(8.11) Proposition. Let M be a finite-rank free R-module (R a PID). If

S and T are pure submodules, then
174 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(2) f is an injection.
(3) f is a surjection.

Proof. Since R is a field, Im(f) is complemented (by Remark 8.3 (2)), so

this is an immediate consequence of Corollary 8.9. 0
(8.11) Proposition. Let M be a finite-rank free R-module (R a PID). If S
and T are pure submodules, then
rank(S + T) + rank(S n T) = rank S + rank T.

Proof Note that if S and T are pure submodules of M, then S n T is also

pure. Indeed, if ay E S n T with a 0 0 E R, then y E S and y E T since
these submodules are pure. Thus, y E S n T, so S n T is complemented by
Proposition 8.2. Then
(S + T)/T S/(S n T).
By Corollary 8.6, we conclude
rank(S + T) - rank(T) = rank(S) - rank(S n T).
0
(8.12) Remark. It need not be true that S + T is pure, even if S and T are
both pure. For example, let S = ((1, 1)) C Z2 and let T = ((1, -1)) C Z2.
Then S and T are both pure, but S+T 76 Z2, so it cannot be pure. In fact,
2.(1,0)=(2,0)=(1, 1)+(1, -1) ES+T,

3.9 Exercises
1. If M is an abelian group, then Endz(M), the set of abelian group endomor-
phisms of M, is a ring under addition and composition of functions.
(a) If M is a left R-module, show that the function 0 : R -+ Endz(M)
defined by 0(r)(m) = rm is a ring homomorphism. Conversely, show
that any ring homomorphism 0 : R -. Endz(M) determines a left R-
module structure on M.
(b) Show that giving a right R-module structure on M is the same as giving
a ring homomorphism 0: R°' -+ Endz(M).
2. Show that an abelian group G admits the structure of a if and
only if nG = (0).
3. Show that the subring Z(4 ] of Q is not finitely generated as a Z-module if
9 ¢ Z.
4. Let M be an S module and suppose that R C S is a subring. Then 1Li is also
an R-module by Example 1.5 10). Suppose Chat N C M is an R-submodule.
LetSN=(sn:sES, nEN .
(a) If S = and R = Z, show that SN is the S-submodule of M generated
by N.
(b) Show that the conclusion of part (a) need not hold if S = R and R = Q.
 3.9 Exercises 175

5. Let M be an R-module and let A, B, and C be submodules. If C C A, prove

that
An(B+C)=(AnB)+C.
This equality is known as the modular law. Show, by example, that this
formula need not hold if C is not contained in A.
6. Let R be a commutative ring and let S C R\ {0} be a multiplicatively closed
subset of R containing no zero divisors. Let M be an R-module. Mimicking
the construction of RS (Theorem 2.3.5), we define MS as follows. Define a
relation - on M x S by setting (x, s) - (y, t) if and only if utx = usy
for some u E S. Verify that this is an equivalence relation (see the proof
of Theorem 2.3.5). We will denote the equivalence class of (x, s) by the
suggestive symbol x/s.
a Prove that MS is an Rs-module via the operation (a/s)(x/t) = (ax)/(st).
(b) If f : M -* N is an R-module homomorhism, show that Is : Ms NS
defined by fs(x/s) = f(x)/s is an RS-module homomorphism.
(c) If x E M, show that x/I = 0 in MS if and only if Ann(x) n S 76 0.

7. Let R C FIX] be the subring

R = {f(X) E FIX] : f(X) =ao+a2X2+...+anX"}.
Thus, f (X) E R if and only if the coefficient of X is 0. Show that FIX] is a
finitely generated R-module that is torsion-free but not free.
8. Show that Q is a torsion-free Z-module that is not free.
9. (a) Let R be an integral domain, let M be a torsion R-module, and let N
be a torsion-free R-module. Show that HomR M, N) = (0).
(b) According to part (a), Homz(Z,n, Z) = (0). If n = km, then Z,n is a
Zn-module. Show that
Zn) °-` Zm-

10. Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and let I and J be ideals of R. Prove
that R/I °_° R/J as R-modules if and only if I = J. Suppose ask
X
that R/I and /J be isomorphic rings. Is the same conclusion valid?
id? (Hint:
Consider F[X]/(X - a) where a E F and show that F[X]/(X - a) °_° F as
rings.)
11. Prove Theorem 2.7.
12. Prove Lemma 2.9.
13. Let M be an R-module and let f E EndR(M) be an idempotent endomor-
phism of M, i.e., f o f = f. (That is, f is an idempotent element of the ring
EndR(M).) Show that
M °- (Ker(f)) ® (Im(f)).
14. Prove the remaining cases in Theorem 3.10.
15. Let R be a PID and let a and b E R be nonzero elements. Then show
that HomR(R/Ra, R/Rb) ?f R/Rd where d = (a, b) is the greatest common
divisor of a and b.
16. Compute Homz(Q, Z).
17. Give examples of short exact sequences of R-modules
176 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

and
O-.N1 -.N
such that
a) Mi'`N1, M2tN, M2 N2;
b) Mi° NI,M N,M22.N2;
c) M1 N1, M °__ N, M2 °5 N2
18. Show that there is a split exact sequence
0 - . mZmn - Zmn -+ nZmn - 0
of Zmn-modules if and only if (m, n) = 1.
19. Let N1 and N2 be submodules of an R-module M. Show that there is an
exact sequence

O-.N1nN2!N1®N2-N1+N2-+0
where p(x) = (x, x) and m(x, y) = x - y.
20. Let R be an integral domain and let a and b be nonzero elements of R. Let
M = R/R(ab) and let N = Ra/R(ab). Then M is an R-module and N is a
subm ule. Show that N is a complemented submodule in M if and only if
there are u, v E R such that ua + vb = I.
21. Let R be a ring, M a finitely generated R-module, and 4 : M -+ R" a
surjective R-module homomorphism. Show that Ker ¢) is finitely generated.
(Note that this is valid even when M has submodules that are not finitely
generated.) (Hint: Consider the short exact sequence:

0 -+ K -. M m-+ R" -+ 0. )
22. Suppose that
0 , M1 m M - M2 -+ 0
0 -. Ni1' 19
N
1h
N2 -0
is a commutative diagram of R-modules and R-module homomorphisms.
Assume that the rows are exact and that f and h are isomorphisms. Then
prove that g is an isomorphism.
23. Let R be a commutative ring and S a multiplicatively closed subset of R
containing no zero divisors. If M is an R-module, then Ms was defined in
Exercise 6. Prove that the operation of forming quotients with elements of
S is exact. Precisely:
(a) Suppose that M' f M 9+ M" is a sequence of R-modules and homo-
morphisms which is exact at M. Show that the sequence

Ms Is Ms gs MS
is an exact sequence of Rs-modules and homomorphisms.
(b) As a consequence of part (a), show that if M' is a submodule of M, then
Ms can be identified with an Rs-submodule of Ms.
(c) If N and P are R-submodules of M, show (under the identification
of part (b)) that (N + P)s = Ns + Ps and (N n P)s = Ns n Ps.
(That is, formation of fractions commutes with finite sums and finite
intersections.)
(d) If N is a submodule of M show that
 3.9 Exercises 177

(M/N)s'-` (Ms)/(Ns)-(That

is, formation of fractions commutes with quotients.)

24. Let F be a field and let {f;(X)},:o be any subset of F[X] such that
degf;(X) = i for each i. Show that {f;(X)} o is a basis of FIX) as an
F-module.
25. Let R be a commutative ring and consider M = R[X] as an R-module. Then
N = R[X21 is an R-submodule. Show that M/N is isomorphic to R[X] as
an R-module.
26. Let G be a group and H a subgroup. If F is a field, then we may form the
group ring F(G) (Example 2.1.9 (15)). Since F(G) is a ring and F(H) is
a subring, we may consider F(G) as either a left F(H)-module or a right
F(H)-module. As either a left or right F( H)-module, show that F(G) is free
of rank [G : H]. (Use a complete set {g; of coset representatives of H as a
basis.)
27. Let R and S be integral domains and let 01, ... , ¢, be n distinct ring
homomorphisms from R to S. Show that are S-linearly indepen-
dent in the S-module F(R, S) of all functions from R to S. (Hint: Argue by
induction on n, using the property O;(ax) = O;(a)O;(x), to reduce from a
dependence relation with n entries to one with n - 1 entries.)
28. Let G be a group, let F be a field, and let O; : G -. F' for 1 < i < n
be n distinct group homomorphisms from G into the multiplicative group
F' of F. Show that 01, ..., 0n are linearly independent over F (viewed as
elements of the F-module of all functions from G to F). (Hint: Argue by
induction on n, as in Exercise 27.)
29. Let R = Z3o and let A E M2,3(R) be the matrix

A= 1 1 -11 .
0 2 3

Show that the two rows of A are linearly independent over R, but that any
two of the three columns are linearly dependent over R.
30. Let V be a finite-dimensional complex vector space. Then V is also a vector
space over R. Show that dime, V = 2dimc V. (Hint: If
B={vi,...,vn}
is a basis of V over C, show that
i3' = {vl, ... vn, ivl, ... ivn)
is a basis of V over R.)
31. Extend Exercise 30 as follows. Let L be a field and let K be a subfield of L.
If V is a vector space over L, then it is also a vector space over K. Prove
that
dimK V = [L: K] dim,. V
where [L : K] = dimK L is the dimension of L as a vector space over K.
(Note that we are not assuming that dimK L < oo.)
32. Let K C L be fields and let V be a vector space over L. Suppose that
B = {ua },Er is a basis of V as an L-module, and let W be the K-submodule
of V generated by B. Let U C W be any K-submodule, and let U,. be the
L-submodule of V generated by U. Prove that
U,.nW=U.
That is, taking L-linear combinations of elements of U does not produce any
new elements of W.
178 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

That is, taking L-linear combinations of elements of U does not produce any
new elements of W.
33. Let K C L be fields and let A E A, (K), b E M.,1(K). Show that the matrix
equation AX = b has a solution X E M,,,1(K) if and only if it has a solution
X E M,,,I(L).
34. Prove that the Lagrange interpolation polynomials (Proposition 2.4.10) and
the Newton interpolation polynomials (Remark 2.4.11) each form a basis of
the vector space of polynomials of degree < n with coefficients from
F.
35. Let F denote the set of all functions from Z+ to Z+, and let M be the
free Q-module with basis F. Define a multiplication on M by the formula
(f g)(n) = f (n) + g(n) for all f, g E F and extend this multiplication by
linearity to all of M. Let fm be the function f,,, n) = 6.,,,,, for all m, n > 0.
Show that each fm is irreducible in fact, prime) as an element of the ring
onsider the function f (n) = 1 for all it > 0. Show that f does not
Al. Now consider'
have a factorization into irreducible elements in Al. (Hint: It may help to
think of f as the "infinite monomial"
Xo ro)Xi (1) ... Xm(-) ....
(Compare this exercise with Example 2.5.15.)
36. Let F be a field, and let
2 = {p,(X) : pa(X) is an irreducible monic polynomial in FIXJ}.
We will say that a rational function h(X) = f (X)/g(X) E F(X) is proper
if deg(f (X)) < deg(g(X)). Let F(X)pr denote the set of all proper rational
functions in F[XJ.
(a) Prove that F(X) FIX] tD F(X)pr as F-modules.
(b) Prove that

B=
X' E Z; 0 < j < deg(pa(X)), k > 1 }
(p. (X))'
is a basis of F(X)pr as an F-module. The expansion of a proper rational
function with respect to the basis B is known as the partial fraction
expansion; it should be familiar front elementary calculus.
37. Prove that Q is not a projective Z-module.
38. Let
R = { f : [0, 1] - R : f is continuous and f (0) = f (1) }
and let
M = {f : 10, 11 R: f is continuous and f (0) = - f (1)}.
Then R is a ring under addition and multiplication of functions, and M is
an R-module. Show that M is a projective R-module that is not free. (Hint:
Show that M ®M ? -, R (D R.)
39. Show that submodules of projective modules need not be projective. (Hint:
Consider pZP2 C Z,2 as ZD2-modules.) Over a PID, show that submodules
of projective modules are projective.
40. (a) If R is a Dedekind domain, prove that R is Noetherian.
b If R is an integral domain that is a local ring (i.e., R has a unique
maximal ideal), show that any invertible ideal I of R is principal.
(c) Let R be an integral domain and S C R \ {0} a multiplicatively closed
subset. If I is an invertible ideal of R, show that Is is an invertible ideal
of Rs.
 3.9 Exercises 179

(d) Show that in a Dedekind domain R, every nonzero prime ideal is maxi-
mal. (Hint: Let M be a maximal ideal of R containing a prime ideal P,
and let S = R \ M. Apply parts (b) and (c).)
41. Show that Z[f-3] is not a Dedekind domain.
42. Show that Z[XJ is not a Dedekind domain. More generally, let R be any
integral domain that is not a field. Show that RIX] is not a Dedekind domain.
43. Suppose R is a PID and M = R(x) is a cyclic R-module with Ann M = (a) 9
(0). Show that if N is a submodule of M, then N is cyclic with Ann N = (b)
where b is a divisor of a. Conversely, show that M has a unique submodule
N with annihilator (b) for each divisor b of a.
44. Let R be a PID, M an R-module, x E M with Ann(x) = (a) 96 (0). Factor
a = upi' ... pk" with u a unit and pi, ..., pi, distinct primes. Let Y E M
with Ann(y) = (b) 0- (0), where b = ti p1`' . . .pk ' with 0 < rn; < n; for
1 < i < k. Show that Ann(x + y) = (a).
45. Let R be a PID, let M be a free R-module of finite rank, and let N C M be a
submodule. If M/N is a torsion R-module, prove that rank(M) = rank(N).
46. Let R be a PID and let M and N be free R-modules of the same finite rank.
Then an R-module homomorphism f : M - N is an injection if and only if
N/ Im(f) is a torsion R-module.
47. Let u = (a, b) E Z2.
(a) Show that there is a basis of Z2 containing u if and only if a and b are
relatively prime.
(b) Suppose that u = (5,12). Find a v E Z2 such that {u, v} is a basis of
V.
48. Let M be a torsion module over a PID R and assume Ann(M) = (a) 0 (0).
If a = pi' pk'' where pi, ... , pk are the distinct prime factors of a, then
show that MD, = qiM where q; = a/p;'. Recall that if p E R is a prime,
then M9 denotes the p-primary component of M.
49. Let M be a torsion-free R-module over a PID R, and assume that x E M is
a primitive element. If px = qx' show that q I p.
50. Find a basis and the invariant factors for the submodule of Z3 generated by
x1 _ (1,0,-1), x2 = (4,3, -1), x3 = (0,9,3), and x4 = (3, 12,3).
51. Find a basis for the submodule of Q(XJ3 generated by

f, = (2X-1,X,X2+3), f2 = (X,X,X2), f3 = (X + 1, 2X, 2X2 -3).

52. Determine the structure of Z3/K where K is generated by xl = (2,1, -3)

and x2 = (1,-1,2).
53. Let R = RIXJ and suppose that M is a direct sum of cyclic R-modules with
annihilators (X - 1)3, (X2 + 1)2, (X - 1)(X2 + 1)4, and (X + 2)(X2 + 1)2.
Determine the elementary divisors and invariant factors of M.
54. Let R be a PID and let p E R be a prime. Show that submodules, quotient
modules, and direct sums of p-primary modules are p-primary.
55. An R-module M is said to be irreducible if (0) and M are the only sub-
modules of M. Show that a torsion module M over a PID R is irreducible
if and only if M = R(x) where Ann(x) = (p) where p is prime. Show that
if M is finitely generated, then M is indecomposable in the sense that M is
not a direct sum of two nonzero submodules if and only if M = R(x) where
Ann(x) = (0) or Ann(z) = (p°) where p is a prime.
56. Let M be an R-module where R is a PID. We say that M is divisible if for
each nonzero a E R, aM = M.
(a) Show that Q is a divisible Z-module.
180 Chapter 3. Modules and Vector Spaces

(b) Show that any quotient of a divisible R-module is divisible. It follows

for example that Q /Z is a divisible Z-module.
(c) If R is not a field, show that no finitely generated R-module is divisible.
57. Determine all nonisomorphic abelian groups of order 360.
58. Use elementary divisors to describe all abelian groups of order 144 and 168.
59. Use invariant factors to describe all abelian groups of orders 144 and 168.
60. If p and q are distinct primes, use invariant factors to describe all abelian
groups of order
(a) p2g2,
(b) p" q,
(c) P5.
61. If p and q are distinct primes, use elementary divisors to describe all abelian
groups of order p3q2.

62. Let G, H, and K be finitely generated abelian groups. If G x K °_° H x K,

show that G I H. Show by example that this need not be true if we do not
assume that the groups are finitely generated.
63. Determine all integers for which there exists a unique abelian group of order
n.
64. Show that two finite abelian groups are isomorphic if and only if they have
the same number of elements of each order.
65. Let p be a prime and assume that a finite abelian group G has exactly k
elements of order p. Find all possible values of k
66. Find a generator for the cyclic group F' where F is each of the following
fields (see Example 2.5.15 (3)):
(a) F2(XJ/(X2 + X + 1).
(b) F3[X]/(X2 + 1).
67. Let
0 M1
-
M2
/s+ ... "- Mn+l -+ 0
be an exact sequence of finite rank free modules and homomorphisms over a
PID R. That is, fl is injective, fn is surjective, and Im(f1) = Ker(f;+l) for
1 <i<n-1. Show that
n+l
(-1)'}1 rank(M.) = 0.

68. If f(XI, ... Xn) E R[X1, ... X 1 , , the degree off is the highest degree of
a monomial in f with nonzero coe cient, where

deg(X" ...X'") = it +...+in.

Let F be a field. Given any five points {v1, ... ,v5} C F2, show that there
is a quadratic polynomial f (Xl, X2) E F[X1, X21 such that f (v;) = 0 for
1<i<5.
69. Let M and N be finite-rank free R-modules over a PID R and let f E
HomR(M, N). If S C N is a complemented submodule of N, show that
f '(S) is a complemented submodule of M.
70. Let R be a PID, and let f : M -. N be an R-module homomorphism of
finite rank free R-modules. If S C N is a submodule, prove that
rank(f -1(S)) = rank(S fl Im(f )) + rank(Ker(f)).
 3.9 Exercises 181

71. Let M1 f M L M2 be a sequence of finite-rank R-modules and R-

module homomorphisms, where R is a PID, and assume that Im(f) is a
complemented submodule of M.
(a) Show that
rank(Im(g o f)) = rank(lm(f)) - rank(Im(f) fl Ker(g)).
(b) Show that
rank(lm(g o f)) = rank(Im(f) + Ker(g)) - rank(Ker(g)).
If R is a field, then all submodules of R-modules are complemented, so
these formulas are always valid in the case of vector spaces and linear
transformations. Show, by example, that they need not be valid if Im(f)
is not complemented.
72. Let R be a PID, and let M, N, and P be finite rank free R -modules. Let
M - N and g : M - P be homomorphisms. Suppose that Ker(f) C Ker(g)
and Im(f) is a complemented submodule of N. Then show that there is a
homomorphism h: N -+ P such that g = h o f.
73. Let F be a field and let V be a vector space over F. Suppose that f, g E
V' = HomF(V, F) such that Ker(f) C Ker(g). Show that there is a E F
such that g = a f . this same result true if F is replaced by a PID?
74. Let R be a PID and let M be a finite rank free R-module. Let Ck(M) denote
the set of complemented submodules of M of rank k. Let G be the group of
units of the ri EndR(M).
(a) Show that-710, N) -. b(N) determines an action of the group C on the
set Ck(M).
(b) Show that the action defined in part (a) is transitive, i.e., given N1,
N2 E Ck(M) there is 0 E G that sends N1 to N2.