CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge.

Calculating Charge
You can calculate the size of electric charge using this equation:

Q=It
 I is the current in amperes, A
 Q is the charge in coulombs, C
 t is the time in seconds, s

How much charge passes when a current of 10A What is the current if 20 C of charge passes in 5 s ?
flows for 1 minute?

Conductors and Insulators

A conductor allows the easy movement or flow of electrical charge through it. Insulators inhibit or
reduce the flow of electrical charge through them.

Experiment : Electrical conductivity

Aim: To investigate the electrical conductivity of a number of substances

Apparatus:
 two or three cells
 light bulb
 crocodile clips
 wire leads
 a selection of test substances (e.g. a piece of plastic, aluminium
can, metal pencil sharpener, magnet, wood, chalk).

Method:
1. Set up the circuit as shown above, so that the test substance is held between the two crocodile clips.
The wire leads should be connected to the cells and the light bulb should also be connected into the
circuit.
2. Place the test substances one by one between the crocodile clips and see what happens to the light
bulb.
Electric Current in a Metal
 Conventional current flows around a circuit from the
positive (+) side of the cell to the negative (-).
 However the electrons are flowing around the circuit in the
opposite direction from the negative (-) side of the cell to
the positive (+).
 No current can flow if the circuit is broken, for example,
when a switch is open.

Current in an Electrolyte
An electrolyte conducts electricity due to ions present in it. It can carry current in its molten state or in a
solution form. In an electrolyte, the cations (+) and anions (-) go in opposite directions and get neutralized at
the negative and positive electrodes respectively. The chemical change produced is irreversible.

Current in a Semiconductor
 Holes are positions in the semiconductor atoms
that can be but are not occupied by electrons.
 Free electrons from broken covalent bonds 'hop'
from one hole to the next.
 Holes (+) appear to move in the opposite
direction as electrons (-).

Measuring current
Current is measured in amperes (A). The current flowing through a
component in a circuit is measured using an ammeter connected in
series with the component.

 This is necessary because objects in series experience the same

current.
 Ammeters have very low resistance to minimize the potential
drop through it, and avoid significant alteration of the current it is
to measure.
 VOLTAGE
A voltage across an electrical component is needed to make a current flow through it.

Potential Difference
 Potential difference is defined as the amount of electrical energy dissipated by a unit charge when it
moves between two points in a circuit.
 A p.d. of 1 volt between two points means that a charge of 1 coulomb will dissipate 1 joule of energy
when it moves between them.

V is the potential difference in

E
V= volts, V
Q
E is the energy transferred in
joules, J
What is the potential difference if 48 J of energy is transferred when 4 C of charge passes?

Electromotive Force
This is the voltage developed by any source of electrical energy such as a battery or dynamo.
EMF is defined as the work done by a source in driving a unit charge around a complete circuit.

The following equation is not on the CSEC syllabus, but

helps to show the relationship between EMF and p.d. o E- electromotive force
o I -current
E=V + Ir=IR + Ir o V- potential difference
o R - external resistance
o r - internal resistance (within the cell)

Measuring potential difference

Potential difference is measured in volts (V). The potential
difference across a component in a circuit is measured using a
voltmeter connected in parallel with the component.
 This is necessary because objects in parallel experience the
same potential difference.
 Voltmeters have a very high resistance to minimize the
current flow through it. Thus, it does not significantly alter
the measured circuit.
 AC and DC
Alternating current
If the current constantly changes direction it is called
alternating current, or AC.

Mains electricity is an AC supply. A typical mains supply is

about 230 V with a frequency of 50 Hz.

For a sine wave, the average (root mean square) output is

given by:

Direct current
If the current flows in only one direction it is called direct current, or
DC.

Batteries and solar cells supply DC electricity. A typical battery may

supply 1.5 V.

200
150 In the graph, the voltage for a wall socket is
100 plotted as a function of time.
voltage (V)

50
0
a. What is the maximum voltage?
b.
-50 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
b.
-100
b.
-150
b.
-200
b.
time (s)
b.
What is the root-mean square voltage?
c.Estimate the period for the oscillating voltage.
d.Estimate the frequency for the oscillating voltage.
 ENERGY
One important property of energy is its ability to change from one form to another form.

For example, chemical energy from fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) can be converted into heat energy
when burned. The heat energy may be converted into kinetic energy in a gas turbine and finally into
electrical energy by a generator. The electric energy may subsequently be converted into light, sound or
kinetic energy in our homes through various household appliances.

During any energy conversion, the amount of energy input is the same as the energy output. The law of
conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed but can be transformed from
one form to another.

POWER
Power is a measure of how quickly energy is transferred. The unit of power is the watt (W). You can work
out power using the equations:

E
P= P=VI
t

An electric lamp transforms 500 J in 5 s. What is its power?

If the current is 5 A and the potential difference is 12 V, what is its power?

 CONSERVING ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Why Conserve Energy?

One reason people have for conserving electricity in their homes is the accumulated savings in their energy
bills, but there are other reasons why conserving electricity is important.

Electricity can be obtained from solar or wind power, but most electricity used in homes comes from the
burning of fossil fuels such as oil or coal. These fuels are needed to power the turbines that produce
electricity. These resources are not unlimited or renewable; the faster they are used and the more electricity
that is consumed, the quicker they will be depleted.

Burning fossil fuels for producing electricity releases enormous amounts of pollution into the atmosphere.
Acid rain, soot, carbon dioxide, and toxic gases are just a few of the ways electricity production poisons the
environment.

Methods of Conserving Energy

Lighting
 In your home or office, arrange furniture so that activities that require good lighting can take place
near a window in the daytime without the need for electric lights.
 When leaving a room empty, leave the lights switched off.
 Replacing light bulbs is a big energy saver. Incandescent bulbs release most of their energy through
heat, while fluorescent and LED bulbs are more energy efficient and last much longer.

Heating
 Taking shorter, cooler showers reduces the amount of water your water heater needs to heat on a
daily basis. Washing your clothes on the cold setting is another way to avoid using too much energy.
 Solar water heaters may be used rather than electrical or gas water heaters, as they use a
renewable source of energy.

Appliances
 Reduce the use of appliances whenever possible. If you have access to outside space, hang a
clothesline and start drying clothes outside. If you have time, wash dishes by hand instead of using
a dishwasher. Sweep whenever you can instead of using a vacuum.
 Switch to energy efficient appliances. When older appliances were manufactured, companies
weren't as concerned with saving electricity. Newer models are designed to conserve energy.
Examples of this are high efficiency refrigeration and air condition units.
 Unplug appliances when they aren't in use. Appliances that are plugged in keep using energy, even
when they're switched off
LIST OF GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS AS USED IN CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Circuit diagrams are used to represent electrical circuits. Using standard symbols shows the various electrical
components.

Series and parallel circuits

You should know the difference between series and parallel connections in circuits.

Series connections
Components that are connected one after another on the same loop of the circuit are connected
in series. The current that flows across each component connected in series is the same.

Two lamps connected in series

The circuit diagram shows a circuit with two lamps connected in series. If one lamp breaks, the
other lamp will not light.

Parallel connections
Components that are connected on separate loops are connected in parallel. The current is
shared between each component connected in parallel. The total amount of current flowing into
the junction, or split, is equal to the total current flowing out. The current is described as being
conserved.

Two lamps connected in parallel

The circuit diagram shows a circuit with two lamps connected in parallel. If one lamp breaks,
the other lamp will still light.

Structure of a Dry Cell

Close-up of carbon batteries
A dry cell is an electrochemical cell that uses a low-moisture electrolyte instead of a liquid electrolyte as a
wet cell does. This feature makes the dry cell much less prone to leaking and is therefore more suitable for
portable applications. The zinc-carbon battery is one of the most common examples of a dry cell battery.

Carbon Rod
The center of a zinc-carbon battery is a rod of pure carbon in the form of graphite. The carbon rod is covered
in a mixture of carbon powder and manganese dioxide. It’s important to note that the carbon won’t play any
role in the electrochemical reaction that will produce the current. The purpose of the carbon rod is simply to
allow the flow of electrons. The carbon powder will increase the electrical conductivity of the Mn02 and
retain the moisture of the electrolyte.

Electrolyte
The carbon rod is surrounded by an electrolytic paste of ammonium chloride and zinc chloride. This paste is
not completely dry, since some liquid is needed for the chemical reactions to occur readily. The ammonium
ion will react with the manganese dioxide to carry electrons to the carbon rod. This reaction will produce
dimanganese trioxide, water and ammonia as byproducts.

Zinc Sleeve
The electrolytic paste is encased in a sleeve of zinc metal. The zinc metal will oxidize, causing it to donate
two electrons for each zinc atom. These electrons will flow through the electrolyte into the carbon rod to
produce an electrical current. This sleeve will get thinner as the zinc oxidizes and the battery will no longer
be able to conduct electricity once the zinc sleeve is completely gone.

Additional Components
The top of the battery is covered by a conductive plate so that the carbon rod can make contact with the
positive terminal on the outside of the battery. A non-conductive tube forms the sides of the battery and
ensures that there is no direct electrical contact between the carbon rod and the zinc sleeve.

Operation
The electrons flow from the zinc sleeve to the carbon rod, so the zinc sleeve is the anode and the carbon rod
is the cathode. This type of dry cell initially produces about 1.5 volts, which decreases as the battery is used.
It deteriorates rapidly in cold weather and will begin leaking its contents -- primarily ammonium chloride
--when the zinc sleeve is consumed.
In contrast with primary cells there is another class of cells called secondary cells.  These can be
recharged after they have run down by passing a current through them from a dynamo or other source
of current. They are also known as storage cells or accumulators, and the two most important types are
the lead-acid cell and the nickel-cadmium alkaline cell. Lead cells are extensively used for ignition and
lighting on motor cars. Their main advantage is that they have a very low internal resistance, and hence
can give a large current with very little drop in terminal potential difference (page 413).