Chapter 1

SOLUTION AND COLLOIDS

Q. Define Solution and its components.

Ans: Solution

A homogenous mixture of two or more than two chemical substances is called solution. A
solution is transparent and can exists in any of the three physical states i.e. solid (brass), liquid (HCl in
water) and gaseous (air). If a solution consists of two substances, then it is called a binary solution. For
example a solution of sugar in water.

Component of a solution

There are two components of a solution.

Solute

The component of a solution which is present small quantity is called solute. For example in
10% sugar solution, sugar is solute.

Solvent

The component of a solution which is present in large quantity is called solvent. For example in
10% sugar solution, water is solvent.

Solute + Solvent Solution

Q. Define different Concentration units.

Ans: Concentration units

Concentration Units

There are various types of concentration units which are given below.

(i) Percentage composition

(ii) Molarity

(iii) Molality

(iv) Mole fraction

(v) Parts per million

(vi) Normality

(i) Percentage composition

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It is the number of parts of solute present in 100 parts of solvent or solution. The amount of
solute and solvent can be expressed in percentage composition by four different ways.

1. Weight percentage (W/W)

It is the weight of solute present in 100 g of solution. e.g. 5% w/w solution means that
5g of sugar present in 95g of water to form total solution of 100 g.
2. Volume percentage (V/V)
It is the volume of solute in mL present in 100 volume (100 mL) of solution. e.g. 5% V/V
Ehtanol solution means that 5 mL of Ethanol is present in 95 mL water so that total
volume of solution is 100 mL.
3. Weight volume percentage (W/V)
It is the weight (grams) of solute present in 100 mL solvent to form solution. e.g. 5%
W/V solution of sugar in water means that 5 g of sugar present in 100 mL solvent to
form solution.
4. Volume weight percentage (V/W)
It is the number of parts by volume of solute (mL) present in 100 parts by weight of
solvent to form solution. e.g. 25% Alcohol solution in water means that 25 mL of
alcohol is present in 100 grams of water to form solution.
(ii) Molarity (M)

It is the number of moles of solute dissolved per liter of solution denoted by “M”.
Mathematically,

Number of moles of solute

Molarity=M =
Volume of solution ∈ Liter(dm3)
Where mole is the atomic weight or molecular weight expressed in grams. i.e.
Weight of solute
Mole=
Molecular wight of solute
Putting this value in above equation
Weight of solute 1
Molarity=M = ×
Molecular weight of solute Volume of solution ∈Liter ( dm3 )

A solution obtained by dissolving one mole of solute per liter of solution is called molar
solution. For example when 1 mole of Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH (40g) is dissolved in 1
liter of solution, the solution is 1.0 molar or 1.0 M.
(iii) Molality (m)

It is the number of moles of solute per 1000 grams (1kg) of solvent denoted by “m”.
Mathematically,

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Number of moles of solute

Molality=m=
1 kg ( 1000 g ) of solvent
Weight of solute 1
Molality=m= ×
Molecular weight of solute 1000 grams of solvent

A solution obtained by dissolving one mole of solute per 1kg of solvent is called molal solution.

For example when 1 mole of Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH (40g) is dissolved in 1000g of water, the
solution is 1.0 molal or 1.0 m.

Molality does not change with temperature.

(iv) Mole fraction (X)

It is the ratio of number of moles of a component of a solution to the total number of moles of
all the components present in solution denoted by “X”.i.e.

Number of moles of component

Mole fraction=
Total number of moles of all components

If we have two components in a solution then.

Mole fraction of component-1

n1 n1
X1= =
n 1 + n2 n T

Similarly ,

n2 n
X2= = 2
n 1+ n2 n T

Sum of the mole fraction of all the components of a solution is always unity. There are no units
of mole fraction.

X 1 + X 2=1

Putting the values in the above equation and taking LCM we get

n1 n n1+¿n
+ 2 = 2
=1 ¿
n1 +n2 n1 +n 2 n1 +n 2

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The importance of mole fraction is due to the fact that like molality, this method of expressing
concentration is also independent of temperature and does not change with the change in
temperature, whereas the other methods of expressing concentration.

Example

A solution contains 1 mole of alcohol and 3 mole of water. What is the mole fraction of alcohol
and that of water?

Moles of alcohol 1 1
Mole fraction of alcohol= = =
moles of alcohol+moles of water 1+3 4

Moles of water 3 3
Mole fraction of water = = =
moles of alcohol+moles of water 1+ 3 4

(v) Parts per million (ppm)

When a solute is present in very small amounts, its concentration is expressed in parts per
million. It is defined as the amount of the solute present in one million parts of the solution. OR

It is the number of parts by weight or volume of the solute dissolved per million parts by
weight or volume of the solution.

weight∨volume of solute
parts per million= ppm= ×106
weight∨volume of solution

(vi) Normality or Normal solution

"It is the number of gram equivalent of solute dissolved per liter of solution is called normality
denoted by “N”. Mathematically,

Gram euqivalent of solute

Normality=
volume of solution∈liter
Where Gram equivalent is the equivalent weight of solute in grams. i.e.

wight of solute
Gram equivalent =
equivalent weight of solute

Putting it in above equation, we get

weight of solute 1
Normality= ×
equivalent weight of soltue volume of solution ∈dm3

Where in case of acid equivalent weight

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Molecular weight of Acid

Equivalent weight =
Number of replaceable H +¿ions ¿
36.5
e.g. Equivalent weight of HCl= =36.5
1
98
For H2SO4= =49
12
In case of base
Molecular weight of Base
Equivalent weight =
Number of replaceable OH −¿ ions ¿
40
Equivalent weight of NaOH= =40
1
74
Equivalent weight of Ca(OH)2= =37
2

For example if 56 g (1.0 g equivalent) of potassium hydroxide are dissolved in 1 liter of solution,
it is 1 N. if 112 g of the same solute are dissolved in 1 liter of the solution, it is 2 N solution.

Example: 8.4 g of NaHCO3 are present in 200 ml, of the solution. Calculate the normality of the
solution. Na =23, H = 1, C =12, O = 16

Equivalent weight of NaHCO3 = 23 + 1 + 12+ 48 = 84

Its equivalent weight is equal to its molecular weight because 1 mole of NaHCO 3 reacts with 1
mole of HCl. Substances react in the ration of their equivalent wiehgts. The equivalent weight
of HCl is equal to its molecular weight.

No. of g equivalent of NaHCO3 present in the solution

wt .∈g 8.40
¿ = =1 g eq .
eq . wt . 84

no of ml 200
volume of solution ∈liters= = =0.2 liters
1000 1000

no of g−equivalents 0.1
Normality of NaHC O 3 soluiton= = =0.5 N
liters of soluiton 0.2

It may be noted that the concentration units like molality, mole fraction etc. are preferred as
they involve the weight of the solute and solvent, which is independent of temperature. But
units like, molarity, Normality etc., involve volume of the solution, hence changes with
temperature.

Q. Define solubility. Explain the factors affecting the solubility.

Ans: Solubility

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Solubility is the number of gram of solute dissolved in 100 mL of the solvent at a given temperature. OR
it is the concentration of the solute in the solution at equilibrium with solid substance at a given
temperature. For example NaCl at 20 oC has a solubility of 37.5 g in 100 g of water.

Factors affecting solubility

Solubility of a solute in a given solvent depends upon the following factors.

(i) Temperature

Solubility of solids generally increases with increase in temperature. However, the solubility of
exothermic substances increases with the decrease in temperature. For example CaO is more
soluble in cold water because it is highly exothermic while KNO 3 is more soluble in hot water
because it is endothermic

(ii) Pressure

The pressure has no affect on the solubility of solids and liquids. However the solubility of gases
increases with the increase in pressure. For example the solubility of CO 2 in water increases
with the increase in pressure.

(iii) Size of the solute

Generally small size solute particles are more readily soluble than large size particles.

(iv) Nature of the solute and solvent

Polar solutes like NaCl, KCl etc are soluble in polar solvent like water and non-polar solutes like
naphthalene, anthracene etc are soluble in non-polar solvent like ether and benzene.

Q. What are Colloids? Discuss types of colloids and their preparation.

Ans: Colloids

The term colloid (Greek: kola-glue; and eidos-like) was coined by Graham. The term colloid is
derived from the Greek word Kolla (means glue) and eidos (means like) because of their glue
like nature. A heterogeneous mixture of two or more chemical substances is called colloids or
colloidal solution.

If clay is mixed with water, the result is a suspension, in which the smaller particles will settle down
slowly whereas the large particles of clay settle more rapidly.

Between true solution and suspension, there may exist mixture of two substances, the particles of
which are so smaller that they do not settle and cannot be filtered by ordinary means. The particles in
such a mixture are smaller than those in a suspension but larger than those in a true solution. These
mixtures are called colloidal dispersions or colloidal systems. Ink, the milky dispersion of sulphur, starch,
gum in water and blood are examples of colloids.

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Phases of colloidal solutions

There are two phases of colloidal solutions.

i. Dispersion medium

It is also known as outer phase or dispersion phase. A continuous homogenous medium is

known as dispersion medium or the phase in which colloidal particles are to be dispersed is called
dispersion medium.

ii. Dispersed medium

It is also known as inner phase or dispersed phase. A discontinuous homogenous medium is

known as dispersed medium or the phase in which colloidal particles are dispersed is called
dispersed medium.

Particle size of colloids

The size of the particles of the colloids is in between true solution and coarse suspension. The size of
particles in colloids is 10 – 104 Ao while in true solution it is 1 – 10 Ao and that in coarse suspension is >
104Ao.

Types of colloidal solutions

On the basis of dispersed and dispersion media the colloidal solutions are of following types.

i. Emulsion

A colloidal solution in which the liquid dispersed medium is dispersed in a liquid dispersion
medium is called emulsion. For example milk and water in oil etc.

ii. Foam

A colloidal solution in which a gas dispersed medium is dispersed in a liquid dispersion medium
is called foam. For example soap lather, whipped cream and beer foam etc.

iii. Smoke

A colloidal solution in which solid dispersed medium is dispersed in a liquid dispersion medium
is called smoke. For example tobacco smoke etc.

iv. Sol

A colloidal solution in which a solid dispersed medium is dispersed in a liquid dispersion

medium is called sol. For example ferric hydroxide and milk etc.

v. Gel

A colloidal solution in which a liquid dispersed medium is dispersed in a solid dispersion

medium is called gel. For example jellies and gelatin etc.

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vi. Aerosol

A colloidal solution in which a liquid dispersed medium is dispersed in a gas dispersion medium
is called aerosol. For example clouds, fog, mist and aerosol sprays etc

On the basis of physical state of matter both in dispersed and dispersion media colloids can be classified
as

Types of Colloidal Solutions

Dispersed Dispersion Special name Typical examples

medium media
Gas Gas ------ Cannot exist, they diffuse into a single phase
Liquid Foam Soap lather, beer foam, whipped cream
Solid Solid foam Air dispersed in solids such as metals, glass etc.
Liquid Gas Fog aerosol Clouds, fog, mist, aerosol sprays
Liquid Emulsion Milk, water in oil, water in benzene
Solid Gel Jellies, gelatin, silicic acid gel
Solid Gas Smoke Tobacco or coal smoke
Liquid Sol Ferric hydroxide sol, lassi, milk
Solid Coloured glasses and minerals, gems, alloys

Preparation of colloidal solutions

Lyophilic colloidal solutions are prepared by simply dissolving dispersed medium in water like gelain,
gum Arabic and starch colloids. They have no special methods of preparations. However, Lyophobic
colloidal solutions are prepared by the two general methods.

1. Condensation method

2. Dispersion method

1. Condensation method

In this method the particles present in the true solution as ions or molecules are allowed to
grow in size to particles of colloidal dimensions by the following methods.

(i) Reduction

This is a general method for preparing colloidal solutions of metals. For example the
preparation of colloidal gold or silver by the reduction of dilute solution of a salt of the
metal with some organic reducing agent.

50  60 C
 


Ag2O + H2 Ag – Sol

(ii) Oxidation

Colloidal sulphur is prepared by the oxidation of hydrogen sulphide with SO 2.

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
2H2S + SO2 2H2O + 3S

(iii) Double decomposition

Colloidal arsenious sulphide is obtained by the action of hydrogen sulphide on

arsenious oxide.


As2O3 + 3H2S As2S3 + 3H2O

(iv) Hydrolysis

The sol of ferric hydroxide (hydrated ferric oxide, Fe 2O3.XH2O) is prepared by the
addition of concentrated ferric chloride solution to boiling water with constant stirring.


FeCl3 + 3H2O Fe(OH)3 + 3HCl

(v) Exchange of solvent

As sulphur is insoluble in water but is sparingly soluble in alcohol. So Sulphur sol is

prepared by adding a saturated alcoholic solution of sulphur to water.

2. Dispersion method

This method is contrary to the condensation method. In this method the large size particles of
coarse suspension are broken down to colloidal particles by the following methods.

(i) Electro-dispersion method (Bredig’s Arc process)

Colloidal solutions of metals like gold, silver and iron are prepared by this method. In
this method the metallic electrodes are converted into vapours which are cooled and
condensed by the ice-cold water bath to form colloidal solution.

(ii) Mechanical dispersion

A coarse suspension is prepared and is passed through a colloidal mill. The two discs of
the colloidal mill rotate at the speed of 7000 rpm in opposite directions which converts
the coarse particles to colloidal size. For example graphite and printing inks can be
prepared by this method.

(iii) Peptization

Peptization is the reverse process of coagulation. Peptiztion is the breaking or

dispersion of a substance into particles of colloidal size by another substance, known as
the peptizing agent. For example glue, gum and gelatin are peptized by the water
(peptizing agent) to give colloidal solutions.

Q. Write down the uses of colloidal solutions.

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Ans: Uses of colloidal solution

Uses of colloidal solutions

Following are the important uses of colloidal solutions.

1. The formation of deltas in the rivers and sea is due to coagulation of colloidal size particles by
the salt in sea water.

2. The purification of water by alum which provides Aℓ 3+ ions is the useful application of colloidal
solution.

3. The disposal of sewage water is done by the coagulation of its coarse particles into rubbish
matter.

4. To stop the smoke nuisance from the smelters and factories in form of smoke precipitation is
done by colloidal solution.

5. Lather tanning is a process which uses the colloidal properties for thickness and hardness of
lather.

6. In chemical warfare, smoke and mist screens are formed by the explosion of bombs which are
colloidal in nature.

7. The formation of curds from milk is due to coagulation of milk sugar with the help of colloidal
solutions.

8. The stoppage of blood from the body is due to formation of colloids by coagulation of
aluminum or ferric ions.

9. Good soils are colloidal in nature. The fertility of soil depends on the relative amount of colloids
in the soil.

10. Colloids are important in rubber industry.

11. Photographic plates are coated with gelatin containing a fine suspension of silver bromide
which is a colloidal solution.

12. Milk is an emulsion of fat dispersed in water. Milk is easily digestible food because emulsified
fat offers large surface area to the action of enzymes in the secretions of the digestive system.

13. Rain drops are formed in the air due to condensation of colloidal particles of water. Sometimes
oppositely charged clouds meet each other and it rains due to mutual coagulation.

14. Colloidal medicines are very effective due to their easy absorption and assimilation.

15. The cleaning action of soap and detergents is due to its emulsifying properties. The dirt itself is
emulsified by the soap and carried away by the moving water.

16. In drilling deep well or tube-wells, a colloidal solution is used to prevent the rock chips cut.

17. The blue colour of the sky is due to scattering of light by the colloidal particles of dust in air.

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18. Industrial goods like paints, gums, glues etc are colloidal in nature.

19. Colloidal antimony (kajal) has been found effective in treating eye diseases.

20. Blood and protoplasm are complex colloidal solutions.

Q. Discuss different types of solutions.

Ans: Types of Solutions

Following are the different types of solutions

S.No Solute Solvent Examples

1. Gas Gas Air
2. Gas Liquid Oxygen in water, carbon dioxide in water
3. Gas Solid H2 absorbed on Palladium
4. Liquid Gas Mist, fog, liquid air pollutants
5. Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water, benzene in water
6. Liquid Solid Butter, cheese
7. Solid Gas Dust particles or smoke in air
8. Solid Liquid Sugar in water
9. Solid Solid Metal alloys (brass, bronze), opals

Q. Define the following terms.

1. Ans: Molar solution

A solution which contains one mole of solute dissolved per litre of solvent is called molar
solution. For example 1 molar solution of NaOH contains 1 mole (40 g) of NaOH dissolved in 1 L
of water.

2. Molal solution

A solution which contains one mole of solute dissolved per kilogram of solvent is called molal
solution. For example 1 molal solution of glucose contains 1 mole (180 g) of glucose in 1 Kg of
water.

3. Dilute solution

A solution which contains a relatively small amount of solute dissolved in the solvent is
called a dilute solution. For example 5% sugar solution is dilute solution.

4. Concentrated solution

A solution which contains a relatively large amount of solute dissolved in a solvent is

called a concentrated solution. For example 60% sugar solution is a concentrated
solution.

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5. Saturated solution

A solution in which no more amount of a solute can be dissolved at a given temperature is

called saturated solution.

6. Unsaturated solution

A solution in which more amount of solute can be dissolved at a given temperature is called
unsaturated solution.

7. Supersaturated solution

A solution in which more amount of solute can be dissolved by the increase in temperature is
called supersaturated solution.

8. Aqueous solution

A solution in which the solvent is water is called aqueous solution.

9. Standard solution

A solution whose strength is known is called standard solution.

10. Original solution

A transparent or clear solution prepared in water or any other solvent is called original solution.

11. Ideal solution

A solution which obeys Raoults’ law at all conditions of temperature and pressure is called ideal
solution. For example benzene ether solution, benzene toluene solution

12. Non-ideal solution

A solution which does not obey Raoult’s law at all conditions of temperature and pressure is
called non-ideal solution. For example alcohol in water and HCl in water etc

13. Lyophilic colloids

Lyophilic means “liking a liquid”. In lyophilic colloids there is interaction between the dispersed
particles and the dispersion medium. The lyophilic colloids are more stable than the lyophobic
sols. They are also called reversible colloids. For example albumin, glycogen, rubber and silicic
acid etc

14. Lyophobic colloids

Lyophobic means “disliking or fearing a liquid”. In lyophobic colloids there is no interaction

between the dispersed particles and the dispersion medium. The lyophobic sols are not very
stable. They are also called irreversible colloids. For example Au, Ag and AgCl etc

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Q. What are the differences between true solutions and colloidal solutions?

Ans: Differences between true solutions and colloidal solutions

True solutions Colloidal solutions

1. A true solution is a homogenous 1. A colloidal solution is a
mixture. heterogeneous mixture.
2. Size of particle range from 1- 10 Ao. 2. Size of particle range from 10- 104 Ao.
3. Molecules contain 2-103 atoms. 3. Particles composed of 103-109 atoms.
4. Particles can pass through ordinary 3. Particles can pass through ordinary
as well as ultra filter paper. filter paper but cannot through ultra
filter paper.
5. A true solution cannot scatter light. 5. A colloidal solution scatter light.
6. They have high osmotic pressure. 6. They have low osmotic pressure.
7. They do not show Brownian 7. They show Brownian movement.
movement.
8. A true solution is transparent. 8. A colloidal solution is non-
transparent.
9. For examples sugar, urea and salt 9. For example mist, Fog, rubber etc.
solutions etc.

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