Transportation System Sustainability Issues in High-, Middle-, and Low-Income Economies: Case Studies From Georgia

Transportation System Sustainability Issues in High-,
Middle-, and Low-Income Economies: Case Studies

from Georgia „U.S.…, South Korea, Colombia, and Ghana
Christy Mihyeon Jeon1; Adjo A. Amekudzi2; and Jorge Vanegas3
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Abstract: While there is no standard definition for sustainable transportation, several adopted definitions reflect that a sustainable
transportation system should be effective and efficient in providing safe and equitable access to basic economic and social services,
promote economic development and support environmental integrity. Critical priorities, standards, and constraints for attaining sustainable
transportation may be different, however, in different countries depending on prevailing socioeconomic conditions and political and
administrative institutions. This study develops four case studies to characterize some of the major transportation system sustainability
issues in developed and developing economies. The cases demonstrate that while transportation sustainability issues revolve around
similar issues, the actual process of identifying and addressing pertinent issues to promote transportation system sustainability may
involve widely different priorities and constraints that should influence how standards are developed to promote successful movement
toward sustainability in the international community.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-9488共2006兲132:3共172兲
CE Database subject headings: Sustainable development; Economic factors; Transportation systems; Georgia; Korea; Colombia;
Africa.
Introduction access to basic social and economic services, should promote eco-
nomic development, and not be harmful to the environment—and
indicator systems being developed and used reflect this consensus
Background
共Jeon and Amekudzi 2005兲. Major organizations such as the
The fact that sustainability is an increasingly important issue in World Bank, the Organization for Cooperation and Economic De-
transportation system and services provision is evident in con- velopment 共OECD兲, and Transport Canada have adopted defini-
gested metropolitan highway systems, declining air quality and tions for sustainable transportation. The OECD, for example,
respiratory health, the need for improved and more equitable ac- defines sustainable transportation as transportation that does not
cess to basic social and economic services in several areas around endanger public health or ecosystems and meets the needs for
the world, and a growing number of initiatives to address sustain- access consistent with (a) the use of renewable resources at or
ability considerations in transportation planning. Sustainable de- below their rates of regeneration, and (b) the use of nonrenew-
velopment is most commonly defined as development that meets able resources below the rates of development of renewable sub-
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future stitutes 共OECD 1999兲. Table 1 shows several working definitions
generations to meet their own needs 共WCED 1987兲. While there of sustainable transportation and sustainability. In the United
is no standard definition for a sustainable transportation system, States, the mission statements of over 14 state departments of
there is emerging consensus that such a system should be effec- transportation 共DOTs兲 now include sustainability either explicitly
tive and efficient in providing its users with equitable and safe or implicitly 共Jeon and Amekudzi 2005兲. In addition, a growing
number of organizations around the world have begun to develop
1 and use indicator systems to measure their progress toward trans-
Graduate Research Assistant, School of Civil and Environmental
portation system sustainability.
Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0355.
E-mail: [email protected]
2
Associate Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Motivation
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0355. E-mail:
[email protected] While sustainable transportation is a policy objective or issue of
3
Associate Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, concern in high-, middle-, and low-income countries, critical fac-
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0355. E-mail: tors influencing the attainment of a sustainable transportation/land
[email protected] use system, the relative priorities accorded various sustainability
Note. Discussion open until February 1, 2007. Separate discussions objectives, and the constraints to be encountered in moving trans-
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
portation systems toward sustainability, may be different in these
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos- different environments. Discussions on sustainable transportation
sible publication on March 18, 2005; approved on November 17, 2005. that remain at a relatively general level may not shed adequate
This paper is part of the Journal of Urban Planning and Development, light on unique issues and priorities that must be addressed rela-
Vol. 132, No. 3, September 1, 2006. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9488/2006/3- tive to attaining sustainable transportation in different socioeco-
172–186/$25.00. nomic contexts. More-detailed assessments are necessary to
172 / JOURNAL OF URBAN PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT © ASCE / SEPTEMBER 2006
J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

Table 1. Working Definitions of Sustainability 共Transportation and General兲
Organization Definitions of sustainable transportation and sustainability
Ontario Roundtable on Environment and 共1兲 Produce outputs 共emissions兲 at a level capable of being assimilated by the environment.
Economy 1995 共Canada兲
共2兲 Have a low need for inputs of non-renewable resources 共where nonrenewable
are used, their use will be for non-consumptive investments and they will be recycled
when no longer useful or needed兲.
共3兲 Minimize disruption of ecological processes, land 共and water area兲 use is also minimized
as well as uses of sensitive habitats.
Transportation Association of Canada 1999 共1兲 In the natural environment: limit emissions and waste 共that pollute air, soil, and water兲
共Canada兲 within the urban area’s ability to absorb/recycle/cleanse; provide power to vehicles from
renewable or inexhaustible energy sources 共such as solar power in the long run兲; and recycle
natural resources used in vehicles and infrastructure 共such as steel, plastic, etc.兲.
共2兲 In society: provide equity of access for people and their goods, in this generation and in all
future generations; enhance human health; help support the highest quality of life compatible
with available wealth; facilitate urban development at the human scale; limit noise intrusion
below levels accepted by communities; and be safe for people and their property.
共3兲 In the economy: be financially affordable in each generation; be designed and operated to
maximize economic efficiency and minimize economic costs; and help support a strong,
vibrant and diverse economy.
Victoria Transport Policy Institute 2003 共Canada兲 Providing for a secure and satisfying material future for everyone, in a society that is
equitable, caring, and attentive to basic human needs.
The Center for Sustainable Transportation 2002 共1兲 Allows the basic access needs of individuals and societies to be met safely and in a
共Canada兲 manner consistent with human and ecosystem health, and with equity within and between
generations.
共2兲 Is affordable, operates efficiently, offers choice of transport mode, and supports a vibrant
economy.
共3兲 Limits emissions and waste within the planet ability to absorb them, minimizes
consumption of non-renewable resources, reuses and recycles its components, and minimizes
the use of land and the production of noise.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Environmentally sustainable transportation is defined as:
Development 1999
“Transportation that does not endanger public health or ecosystems and that meets needs for
access consistent with 共a兲 use of renewable resources at below their rates of regeneration, and
共b兲 use of nonrenewable resources below the rates of development of renewable substitutes.”
World Bank General operational principles for physically sustainable societies 共not especially for the
transport sector兲 is defined as:
“Their rates of use of renewable resources do not exceed their rates of regeneration. Their
rates of use of nonrenewable resources do not exceed the rate at which substitutes are
developed. Their rates of pollution do not exceed the assimilative capacity of the
environment.”
Procedures for Recommending Optimal A sustainable urban transport and land use system: 共1兲 provides access to goods and services
Sustainable Planning of European City Transport in an efficient way for all inhabitants of the urban area; 共2兲 protects the environment, cultural
Systems 2003 heritage and ecosystems for the present generation, and 共3兲 does not endanger the opportunities
of future generations to reach at least the same welfare level as those living now, including the
welfare they derive from their natural environment and cultural heritage.
Department of Sustainable Development 2003 Sustainable development is about ensuring a better quality of life for everyone, now and for
共United Kingdom兲 generations to come. This requires meeting four key objectives at the same time in the U.K.
and the world as a whole: 共1兲 social progress which recognizes the needs of everyone; 共2兲
effective protection of the environment; 共3兲 prudent use of natural resources, and 共4兲
maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and employment.
Note: Adapted from Jeon and Amekudzi 共2005兲.
understand the drivers of existing transportation systems better, as income economies. This is done through the development of four
well as priorities and constraints for attaining sustainable trans- case studies for selected countries/states with a range of economic
portation across the range of socioeconomic conditions in the conditions: Georgia 共United States, high-income status兲, South
global community. Korea 共East Asia, recently moved from middle- to high-income
status兲, Colombia 共South America, middle-income status兲, and
Objective and Outline Ghana 共West Africa, low-income status兲. The purpose is three-
The objective of this study is to characterize some of the major fold. First, it is to demonstrate that while definitions of sustain-
issues in transportation sustainability in high-, middle-, and low- able transportation seem to revolve around system effectiveness
JOURNAL OF URBAN PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT © ASCE / SEPTEMBER 2006 / 173
J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

and efficiency, safe and equitable access, economic development, the particular geographic locations as they considered it important
and environmental integrity, the actual process of addressing sus- to have first-hand knowledge of the systems in each case. The
tainability in transportation system and services provision may state of Georgia was selected rather than the entire United States
involve widely different priorities, standards, and constraints. for comparability with the other cases, based on population and
Second, it is to emphasize that there are no universal drivers and physical size. While the cases are by no means exhaustive, every
so indicator systems for transportation sustainability and that the attempt was made to ensure that the data, obtained from second-
relative effectiveness of any indicator system is a function of how ary sources, adequately represent the systems.
well it monitors progress toward the particular vision and stan-
dards it was intended to support. Third, it is to show that the
development of definitions, visions, and indicator systems are Georgia „United States…
useful starting points yet incomplete endeavors in any formal ap-
proach to consider sustainability in transportation planning. Gud- Background
mundsson emphasizes this need to link indicator systems with Georgia is a state in the southern United States 共U.S.兲, the world’s
actual policies based on a study that evaluates six sustainability fourth largest nation in land area 共after Russia, Canada, and
indicator systems 共Gudmundsson 2003兲. Given the widely differ- China兲, extending from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific Ocean and
ent pressures, socioeconomic conditions, and institutional con- sharing land borders with Canada in the north and Mexico in the
straints that exist in different contexts, adopting visions and south 共About 2004兲. The country has 50 locally autonomous
indicators without explicitly identifying, implementing, and states with a total population of 290 million 共2004兲, and a per
monitoring realistic policies to promote movement toward these capita GNI of U.S.$33,684 共2003兲共Nationmaster.com 2004兲. It
visions would at best have limited effectiveness. has the second largest 共after the European Union兲 and most tech-
The next section presents four case studies for countries/states nologically advanced economy in the world. U.S. firms are at or
with very different socioeconomic, political, and institutional con- near the forefront in technological advances, especially in com-
texts to characterize major issues relative to achieving transporta- puter, medical, aerospace, and military equipment. Although the
tion sustainability, and the local contexts in which progress country has rich mineral resources and various agricultural prod-
toward sustainability must occur. The discussion that follows ucts, the biggest sector is service industries, employing about
highlights the importance of developing specific priorities, poli- 75% of U.S. residents.
cies, and standards to address transportation sustainability based With a land area of 57,906 sq mi 共149,976 km2兲, Georgia is
on a system-level understanding of the socioeconomic, political, the largest state east of the Mississippi River 共24th overall兲. At-
and institutional contexts of the country or other jurisdiction lanta, the state’s capital, is the largest city followed by Savannah,
under consideration. one of the busiest ports in the United States. Based on the 2000
census, the population of Georgia was just over 8 million, making
it the 10th most populous state. Nearly half of the state’s popula-
Transportation Issues in Georgia „United States…, tion lives in the Atlanta metropolitan area, which has experienced
South Korea, Colombia, and Ghana phenomenal growth in the past decade. From 1990–2000, Geor-
gia’s population grew by over 20%, as shown in Table 2. Geor-
Because the quality of transportation affects and is affected by the gia’s 1999 total gross state product of $275 billion placed it at
economy, priorities, standards, and constraints for sustainable 10th in the nation, and its per capita personal income of $28,145
transportation may differ, sometimes significantly, depending on placed it at 23rd in the nation in 2000. Service sector employment
the level of socioeconomic development in a country. The World accounted for about 26% of the state’s jobs, followed by retail
Bank classifies countries as high, middle, or low income based on with about 18%, and government with about 15%. The state’s
their gross national income 共GNI兲 per capita. GNI 共formerly, industrial outputs are textiles and apparel, transportation equip-
gross national product or GNP兲 is the sum of the value added by ment, food processing, paper products, chemical products, electric
all resident producers plus any product taxes 共less subsidies兲 not equipment, and tourism. Agriculture also plays a major role in the
included in the valuation of output plus net receipts of primary state’s economy, contributing about five billion dollars annually
income 共Nationmaster.com 2004兲. According to the World Bank 共Wikipedia 2004兲.
Classification 共The World Bank Group 2002兲, low-income econo-
mies are defined as those having a per capita GNI of less than Transportation System
$735; lower- to middle-income countries: $736–$2,935; upper-to-
middle-income: $2,936–$9,075; and high-income countries: more General Characteristics. As in several metropolitan areas
than $9,076 per capita. Low- and middle-income economies are around the world, the automobile is the dominant mode of trans-
sometimes referred to as developing economies, while high- portation in the Atlanta Metropolitan Area. In 2002, the Atlanta
income economies are referred to as developed economies. While Regional Commission 共ARC兲, the region’s Metropolitan Planning
the GNI, a broad measure, is considered to be the best single Organization, recorded a mode share of home-based work trips at
indicator of economic capacity and progress, it is recognized that 91.78%, with single occupancy vehicle share at 80.72%, carpool
the GNI does not by itself constitute or measure welfare or suc- share at 11.06%, and public transit share at 8.22% 共ARC 2002兲.
cess in development 共The World Bank Group 2002兲. Highways are thus the predominant infrastructure for transporta-
Below, four case studies highlight the status of transportation tion. In 2002, Georgia’s transportation system encompassed
in various economies: the state of Georgia 共United States兲, high 113,655 mi 共182,910 km兲 of public roads, 4,853 mi 共7,810 km兲
income; South Korea 共East Asia兲, high-income/recently middle of railroad, 103 publicly owned airports, and four shipping ports.
income; Colombia 共South America兲, middle income; and Ghana Georgia is also served by 12 urban transit systems including the
共West Africa兲, low income. These cases were selected to cover the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority, which serves At-
range of economic categories given by the World Bank Classifi- lanta, and 82 rural transit systems 共GDOT 2002兲.
cation. The writers’ backgrounds were also relevant in selecting Like several metropolitan areas around the world, Metro At-
J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

Table 2. Population and Vehicle Ownership in Georgia 共United States兲 Table 3. Vehicle Miles Traveled and Motor Vehicle Crashes 共Georgia,
1990-2002 1990–2002兲
Population Vehicle Fatalities and Injuries 共person兲
Annual Annual Annual Fatalities

Number increase Number increase Millions increase 共per 100
Year 共thousands兲共%兲共thousands兲共%兲 VMT rate Crashes million
Year 共VKT兲共%兲共number兲 Fatalities VMT兲 Injuries Total
1930 2,908,506 — NA NA
1940 3,123,723 7.40 NA NA 1990 72,648 228,163 1,564 2.15 98,933 100,497
1950 3,444,578 10.27 NA NA 共116,916兲
1960 3,943,116 14.47 NA NA 1991 72,937 0.4 218,766 1,393 1.91 96,748 98,141
共117,381兲
1970 4,589,575 16.39 NA NA

1992 77,569 6.4 231,122 1,324 1.71 102,951 104,275
1980 5,463,105 19.03 NA NA
共124,835兲
1990 6,478,216 18.58 NA NA
1993 77,886 0.4 242,093 1,407 1.81 109,350 110,757
1991 6,621,279 2.21 NA NA 共125,345兲
1992 6,759,474 2.09 NA NA 1994 82,780 6.3 270,688 1,437 1.74 135,731 137,168
1993 6,894,092 1.99 NA NA 共133,221兲
1994 7,045,900 2.20 NA NA 1995 85,280 3.0 283,639 1,492 1.75 139,857 141,349
1995 7,188,538 2.02 6,192,515 NA 共137,245兲
1996 7,332,225 2.00 6,356,164 2.64 1996 88,888 4.2 298,247 1,582 1.78 142,864 144,446
1997 7,486,094 2.10 6,317,832 −0.60 共143,051兲
1998 7,636,522 2.01 6,979,592 10.47 1997 93,268 5.0 301,767 1,584 1.70 139,386 140,970
1999 7,788,240 1.99 7,059,719 1.15 共150,100兲
2000 8,186,453 5.11 7,243,077 2.60 1998 96,607 3.6 293,251 1,579 1.63 133,034 134,613
共155,474兲
2001 — 21.60 7,396,731 2.12
共1990-2000兲 1999 98,913 2.4 NA 1,514 1.53 NA NA
共159,185兲
Note: NA= not available. Data adapted from the Intermodal
Transportation Database Homepage 共2000兲 and U.S. Census Bureau 2000 104,723 5.9 309,334 1,548 1.48 127,177 128,725
Homepage 共2000兲. 共168,535兲
2001 107,974 3.1 317,851 1,621 1.50 129,431 131,052
共173,767兲
lanta faces severe congestion, with the associated air quality and
2002 108,300 0.3 328,272 1,532 1.41 132,913 134,445
respiratory health issues. Rapid population and a booming 共174,292兲
economy have contributed to increasing traffic congestion and
Note: NA= not available. Data adapted from the Georgia Department of
reduced air quality in the Metro Area. To control traffic conges- Public Safety 共2004兲 and GDOT 共2004兲.
tion and air pollution, Georgia Department of Transportation
共GDOT兲 has developed a high-tech intelligent transportation sys-
tem 共ITS兲: the NAVIGATOR, which monitors more than over tion costs兲 has increased over 26% in the past 8 years and Metro
200 miles of highway through the use of state-of-the-art video Atlanta has the 11th most congested freeway system in the United
cameras, changeable message signs, and data management tech- States 共TTI 2004兲. At the same time, VMT in Georgia has been
nologies to relay real-time traffic conditions 24 h a day to a trans- growing rapidly at an annual rate of 3.4% since 1990 and has
portation management center. Complementing the system is approximately doubled during the past two decades. Accommo-
GDOT’s network of highway emergency response operators dating this rapid growth by maintaining a first class roadway net-
共HERO兲: incident response units with specially trained personnel work and providing transportation choices has been and will
who can deal quickly with accidents and disabled vehicles. continue to be the major challenge facing the State 共GDOT 2004兲.
HEROs are important not only for their emergency services but Rapid population growth and urban sprawl have exacerbated the
for congestion management as well because in Metro Atlanta, congestion problem. Despite Georgia’s growing population and
while slightly under half 共48%兲 of the congestion delay is normal dependence on automobile transportation, the state’s transit sys-
recurring 共volume related兲, slightly over half 共52%兲 is from non- tems have been utilized at a declining rate per capita in the past
recurring 共incident-related兲 delay. Other measures to manage con- 10 years 共ASCE 2004兲. Compared with the rest of the country,
gestion include 90 mi of high-occupancy vehicle 共HOV兲 lanes, 88 Georgia’s per capita transit system usage is below the national
park and ride lots, and 2,943 mi of bicycle and pedestrian routes average. Table 4 depicts the decreases in transit ridership and
共GDOT 2004兲. transit system effectiveness for urban and rural transit systems in
Georgia between 2000 and 2002.
System Effectiveness. Approximately half of Georgia’s popu-
lation, 50% of the vehicle-miles-traveled 共VMT兲 and 75% of the Safety. The safety of Georgia’s roads is average, relative to
congestion in the state occur in Metro Atlanta 共GDOT 2001兲. other U.S. states. There were 1,621 fatalities in 2002, which trans-
Vehicle ownership in the state has continued to rise since the lates to a fatality rate of 1.50 fatalities per 100 million VMT 共the
mid-1990s, as shown in Table 3. The resulting roadway conges- U.S. average is 1.51 fatalities per 100 million VMT兲共GDOT
tion and traffic delay have been estimated to cost Metro Atlantans 2001兲. Trends in VMT and the relative number of crashes, fatali-
101 million person hours of delay every year, equating to $2 ties, and injuries, show that safety has been steadily improving
billion in total delay costs annually. According to the Texas Trans- over the past decade. However, a considerable portion of the
portation Institute, the travel time index 共traffic delay and conges- state’s fatality crashes have occurred on rural roads, especially on
J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

Table 4. Georgia Urban and Rural Transit System Ridership, 2000–2002 Table 6. Exceedances of Federal Air Quality Standards in Georgia 共At-
lanta兲
FY 2000 FY 2002
Ozone Ozone
Transit Ridership Ridership 8 h average 1 h average Sulfur dioxide
system 共population兲 Effectivenessa 共population兲 Effectiveness Year 共O3 ppmv兲共O3 ppmv兲a 共SO2 ppmv兲
Urban 1996 0 7 共7兲 0
All but Marta 12,856,803 5.1 13,006,678 4.9 1997 0 12共11兲 0
共2,535,590兲共2,629,114兲 1998 120共62兲 24共22兲 9
Marta 166,915,560 114.4 159,145,301 109.2 1999 129共69兲 28共23兲 0
共1,458,484兲共1,457,372兲
2000 101共46兲 16共11兲 0
Sub Total 179,772,363 45.0 171,853,917 42.1
2001 40共20兲 5 共3兲 1
共3,994,074兲共4,086,486兲
2002 64共37兲 8 共8兲 0

Rural 1,680,049 0.4 1,642,655 0.3 2003 23共13兲 1 共1兲 0
共4,192,479兲共4,473,824兲
Note: Data adapted from the Georgia Department of Natural Resources
Total 181,452,412 22.2 173,496,572 20.3
共2004兲.
共8,186,453兲共8,560,310兲 a
EPA recently revised the ozone standard for areas of the state that are
Note: Data adapted from the Georgia Department of Transportation outside the Atlanta nonattainment area. For these areas, the 1-h ozone
共2003兲; the Georgia Department of Transportation 共2004兲; and the U.S. standard was replaced with an 8-h average ozone standard.
Census Bureau 共2000兲.
a
Effectiveness of these transit systems is calculated by dividing ridership
by population.
sure, among other things, the benefits and burdens of transporta-
tion projects on low income and racial minority communities
two-way roads, making highway safety in rural areas a major 共GDOT 2004兲.
issue in the state. Based on 2001 statistics, four out of 10 crash
deaths occurred on rural roads, and seven out of 10 fatalities Transportation/Land Use Decision Making. Federal and
occurred on two-way roads without any physical separation or state laws require that the state’s transportation program align
barrier 共Governor’s Office of Highway Safety 2004兲. with a long-range strategy in the statewide transportation plan
developed by the state department of transportation. This plan is
Congestion/Air Quality. Atlanta is currently designated as a updated every 5 years and maintains a minimum 20-year horizon.
nonattainment area for ozone and will be designated as a nonat- As the federally designated Metropolitan Planning Organization
tainment area for particulate matter out of the six pollutants for for the Atlanta region, the Atlanta Regional Commission 共ARC兲 is
which the Clean Air Act establishes standards 共ASCE 2003兲. As responsible for developing a long-range regional transportation
shown in Table 5, Georgia ranks relatively high for statewide plan for the 10-county Metro Atlanta region where nearly half of
anthropogenic emissions. In the past several years, however, there the state’s population resides. The State Department of Commu-
have been reductions in the number of ozone exceedance days in nity Affairs 共DCA兲 develops a regional comprehensive plan and
Atlanta from a high of 23, which occurred in 1999 to a low of 1, land use regulations through a “bottom-up” process that is based
which occurred in 2003, as shown in Table 6. Various measures on the plans of local jurisdictions. DCA’s planning staff is also
have been taken to aid in controlling the precursors to ozone working with ARC staff to assist local governments in meeting
formation, including a strict vehicle inspection program, controls the requirements for a transportation element, which is a required
on emission sources, and the establishment of a voluntary pollu- part of the comprehensive plans of local governments 共Georgia
tion outreach program called the Clean Air Campaign 共AAA and Department of Community Affairs 2004兲. As indicated, efforts are
Georgia Regional Transportation Authority 2002兲. being made in Georgia to integrate land use decisions which
originate in local jurisdictions with state-level transportation plan-
Social Equity/Other Issues. Social equity issues in transpor- ning decisions, with the intent of reducing trips and curbing en-
tation include equitable access to major social and economic cen- vironmental problems. The mission of the Georgia Regional
ters for all Georgia’s residents, as well as equitable levels of Transportation Authority 共GRTA兲 and the Governor’s Develop-
safety on the urban and rural portions of Georgia’s highway sys- ment Council is to improve Georgia’s mobility, air quality, and
tem. Following a federal executive order 共EO 12898兲 in 1994 for land use practices, to enhance the quality of life of Georgia’s
addressing equity 共environmental justice兲 in the decision making citizens, and promote growth that can be sustained by future gen-
process, GDOT has taken several measures to improve capabili- erations. To achieve this mission, land use practices are being
ties for addressing equity in transportation planning. Environmen- identified to promote more efficient use of transportation invest-
tal justice is part of the Department’s planning process and project ments and restrict choices for citizens to live, work, and play with
development considerations. GDOT is in the process of develop- fewer and shorter trips. Key stakeholders including GDOT, ARC,
ing a template for planning and project evaluations that will mea- GRTA, and the State Road and Tollway Authority, have been
asked by the Governor to work together to develop a common
plan 共Georgia Governor Sonny Perdue 2004兲.
Table 5. Georgia Statewide Anthropogenic Emissions and Rank 共1998兲
Emissions CO NOx VOC SO2 PM10 PM2.5 NH3
South Korea „Northeast Asia…
Thousands 共short tons兲 3,998 730 576 660 1,103 320 106
Rank out of the 51 4 12 9 13 7 4 17 Background
states The Republic of Korea, commonly known as South Korea, is a
Note: Data adapted from US EPA 共2000兲. country located in East Asia, covering the southern half of the
J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

Korean peninsula, which spans 98,480 sq km, about two-thirds Table 7. Population and Vehicle Ownership 共Korea, 1990–2002兲
the size of Georgia. To the north, the peninsula borders China and Population Vehicle
Russia through the Democratic Republic of Korea 共often called
North Korea兲, while Japan lies across East Sea to the southeast. Number Annual Number Annual
South Korea’s population, estimated at 47.6 million 共2002兲, is one Year 共thousands兲 Increase 共%兲共thousands兲 Increase 共%兲
of the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous in the 1990 42,869 — 3,395 —
world. Korea has a population density of 479 people per sq km. 1991 43,296 1.0 4,248 25.1
This is more than six times the population of Georgia distributed 1992 43,748 1.0 5,231 23.1
on a land mass two-thirds the size of Georgia. Seoul, the capital, 1993 44,195 1.0 6,273 19.9
is a burgeoning megacity 共i.e., a city with over 10 million people兲.
1994 44,642 1.0 7,404 18.0
As one of the four East Asian Tigers, South Korea has achieved
1995 45,093 1.0 8,469 14.4
an incredible record of growth and integration into the high-tech
1996 45,525 1.0 9,553 12.8

modern world economy over the past 30 years. The per capita
1997 45,954 0.9 10,413 9.0
GNP, only $100 in 1963, exceeded $9,800 in 2002 共i.e., per capita
GNI of U.S.$9,930 in 2002兲 and is equal to that of the lesser 1998 46,287 0.7 10,470 0.5
economies of European Union, ranking South Korea as the 12th 1999 46,617 0.7 11,164 6.6
largest economy in the world. Korea has been a major world steel 2000 47,008 0.8 12,059 8.0
producer since 1990. Also, the nation’s shipbuilding and automo- 2001 47,343 0.7 12,914 7.1
bile manufacturing industries have reached their peak while its 2002 47,640 0.6 13,949 8.0
electronics industry is the leading growth sector and an increas- Average annual 0.9 12.7
ingly important foreign exchange generator. With a significant increase rate
investment in information technology 共IT兲, Korea’s IT industry Note: Data adapted from the Ministry of Construction and Transportation
has recorded astonishing growth since the 90s, further augment- 共2004兲.
ing the health of the Korean economy 共Wikipedia 2004; Korea.net
2004兲.
being smoothed while vehicle ownership has increased dramati-
Transportation System cally more than three times in a little over a decade from 3.4
million 共1990兲 to 14 million 共2002兲, owing to the steady rise in
General Characteristics. Roads, handling over 90% of the income and living standards, expansion of suburbs, and the de-
country’s traffic, are the most important type of transportation velopment of the country’s automobile manufacturing industry.
infrastructure in Korea as well. The total length of the roads has Transit system improvements are being made to ameliorate exist-
tripled in the past 40 years and measured a total 96,928 km in ing conditions.
2003. Twenty-four expressways measuring 2,778 km in all con-
nect Seoul with provincial cities and towns, covering all parts of Congestion/Air Quality. The phenomenal increases in ve-
the country and placing any destination in Korea within a day’s hicular ownership and transport demand create typical urban
travel. As of 2003, there were 56 routes of national highways transportation problems such as severe traffic congestion, air and
measuring 14,234 km in total, making up Korea’s trunk road net- noise pollution, and serious parking difficulties. Urban transpor-
work, together with expressways, providing connections among tation policies in Korea are, therefore, in a transitional stage from
major cities, ports, airports, and industrial areas. As of 2002, the a supply-oriented to demand-management focus. In addition to
railway system of Korea encompassed 64 routes spanning 3,129 continued investment in urban highway networks, city govern-
operational kilometers. The Gyeongbu high speed rail, linking ments are implementing transportation demand management
Seoul and Busan, the second largest city on the southeast coast, 共TDM兲 plans to control automobile traffic. First, congestion pric-
began service in Korea in April 2004 with the operation of its first ing was introduced at the Namsan Tunnel leading to the central
high speed train. The subway system network, composed of 12 business district; second, the traffic impact tax was reduced by
subway lines 共411.5 km兲, operates in Seoul and three other major 50% for employers who implemented TDM programs, such as
cities, and six new lines extending 134.7 km are under construc- carpools; third, higher parking fees have been instituted in con-
tion. Buses and taxis play a vital role in supplementing the gested areas; and fourth, exclusive bus lanes and smart-card fare
subway networks in medium and small cities and meeting trans- collection systems have been implemented 共Ministry of Construc-
portation needs in the larger cities 共Ministry of Construction and tion and Transportation 2004兲.
Transportation 2004兲. The problem of air pollution in Korea is still not very severe
To increase the efficiency of transportation operations and im- relative to the allowable limits set by the Ministry of Environ-
prove safety using information technology, the Korean government, as shown in Table 8. However, the levels of particulate
ment initiated a high-tech Intelligent Transportation System 共ITS兲 matter and nitrogen dioxide have gradually increased because of
in 1992. Korea has implemented a Freeway Traffic Management the high growth rate of automobile ownership. Table 9 depicts the
System, covering 320 km of expressways, and launched a real- undesirable trends for carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, non-
time control system in Seoul. The country is also making efforts methane volatile organic compounds 共VOCs兲, and sulfur dioxide
to establish an integrated logistics information system for the emissions. All the emission levels increased from 1990 to 1995,
commercial vehicle operations component of the system. and are assumed to still be on the rise owing to continuing growth
in vehicle ownership.
System Effectiveness. As a result of rapid industrialization,
urbanization, and economic growth, South Korea is facing serious Safety. The high rate of road traffic crashes, in conjunction
transportation problems in its cities. Table 7 shows trends of with the absence of order on the road, has long been considered a
population and vehicle ownership in Korea. Population growth is critical social problem in Korea. Road traffic fatalities were the
J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

Table 8. Air Pollution Trends and Standards 共Korea, 1998–2002兲 Table 10. Motor Vehicle Crashes, Fatalities, and Injuries 共South Korea兲
Pollutant 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Crashes Fatalities 共person兲 Injuries 共person兲
SO2 共ppm兲 0.009 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.006 Crashes Fatalities Injuries
共0.050兲共0.050兲共0.050兲共0.020兲共0.020兲共per 共per 共per
NO2 共ppm兲 0.020 0.023 0.024 0.025 0.023 million million million
共0.050兲共0.050兲共0.050兲共0.050兲共0.050兲 Crashes vehicle vehicle vehicle
Year 共number兲 km兲 Fatalities km兲 Injuries km兲
O3 共ppm兲 0.020 0.021 0.020 0.021 0.021
1992 257,194 11,640 325,943
CO 共ppm兲 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7
1993 260,921 10,402 337,679
PM10 共␮g / m3兲 55 51 53 58 61
1994 266,107 10,087 350,892
共80兲共80兲共80兲共70兲共70兲
1995 248,865 105.3 16,744 4.4 747,095 140.4

Pb 共␮g / m2兲 0.0959 0.0785 0.0934 0.0669 0.0732 1996 265,052 83.1 12,653 4.0 355,962 111.6
共0.5兲共0.5兲
1997 246,452 67.0 11,603 3.2 343,159 93.4
Note: Data adapted from the Ministry of Environment 共2003兲. Values in
1998 239,721 75.3 9,057 2.8 340,564 107.0
parentheses represent the average annual limits for each pollutant.
1999 551,060 77.0 18,333 2.6 813,523 112.4
2000 290,481 76.5 10,236 2.7 426,984 112.4
leading cause of death for people under 29 in 2003 共Yang and 2001 260,579 8,097 386,539
Kim 2003兲. The safety level of South Korea’s roads is much 2002 230,953 7,090 348,184
lower than the average level of safety in OECD countries. As 2003 240,734 7,185 376,398
shown in Tables 10 and 11, the country saw 7,185 fatalities in
Note: Data adapted from the Ministry of Construction and Transportation
2003, a fatality rate of 4.4 per 10,000 vehicles compared with the
共2004兲 and Yang et al. 共2003兲.
OECD average of 1.9 fatalities per 10,000 vehicles. The major
causes of traffic crashes are 共1兲 reckless driving 共64%兲, including
drunk driving, speeding, and nonuse of seatbelts; 共2兲 violation of Development Policy Bureau, affiliated with the Ministry of Con-
traffic signals 共8%兲; 共3兲 intrusion of median strip 共7%兲; and 共4兲 struction and Transportation, and the Korea Research Institute for
improper driving at intersections 共7%兲. Compared with the 1995 Human Settlements are jointly responsible for working together
levels, all three indices 共crashes, fatalities, and injuries兲 show im- to develop the Comprehensive National Territorial Plan. The
provements within a relatively short time period through multiple Comprehensive National Territorial Plan 共2000–2020兲 articulates
policy interventions including enforcement of penalties for seven five major strategies including sustaining a healthy and pleasant
risky driving behaviors such as drunk driving and speeding; in- environment by applying the concept of sustainable development
stallation of traffic-monitoring cameras; financial rewards for citi- to create a national environment management system wherein en-
zens who reported traffic violations; and the introduction of road vironment and development are integrated 共Ministry of Construc-
safety evaluation and education programs 共Yang and Kim 2003兲. tion and Transportation 1999兲. In addition, a comprehensive Na-
tional Transport Network Plan is developed by the Transportation
Social Equity/Other Issues. South Korea needs to address se- Policy Office of the Ministry, whose main responsibility is coor-
rious social problems caused by population overconcentration in dinating national transport policies. The most recent is the 2000–
Seoul and inter-regional disparities relative to access to transpor- 2019 plan.
tation and other services, alleviate continuing environmental dam-
age due to disorderly development, and address supply shortages Colombia „South America…
and deterioration problems associated with the national infrastruc-
tures including highway, railway, seaport, airport, and freight dis- Background
tribution systems 共Ministry of Construction and Transportation The Republic of Colombia is a country in northwestern South
1999兲. America which spans 1,138,910 sq km, about seven times the size
of Georgia. It is bound to the north by Panama and the Caribbean
Transportation/Land Use Decision Making. The Ministry of Sea, to the east by Venezuela and Brazil, to the south by Ecuador
Construction and Transportation formulates South Korea’s con- and Peru, and to the west by the Pacific Ocean. As of the 2002
struction and transportation development policies to advance the Census, the population of Colombia was 43.7 million, just over
national economic interest and monitors, guides, and manages
multiple functions and tasks including the following: transporta-
tion policy, the Comprehensive National Territorial Plan, the land Table 11. Population Trends 共Colombia, 1964-2000兲
policy and management system, housing supply and construction
共Ministry of Construction and Transportation 2004兲. The National Population
Number Increase rate

Year 共thousands兲共%兲
Table 9. Air Pollution Trends 共Korea, 1990–1995兲
1964 17,484,510 NA
Pollutant 共1,000 kg兲 1990 1995
1973 20,666,920 18.20
CO 5234.9 6208.0 1985 27,853,436 34.77
NOx 914.8 1514.9 1993 33,109,840 18.87
Nonmethane VOC 871.1 1402.6 2000 39,685,655 19.86
SO2 2429.9 3290.7 Note: NA= not available. Data adapted from Department of National Sta-
Note: Data adapted from Earth Trend 共2004兲. tistics 共2004兲.
J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

Table 12. Road Traffic 关Motor Vehicles in Use 共Colombia, 1997–1999兲兴
Passenger cars Buses Goods vehicles Motorcycles
Year Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

1997 1,694,323 NA 126,362 NA 179,530 NA 385,378 NA
1998 1,776,100 4.83 131,987 4.45 183,335 2.12 450,283 16.84
1999 1,803,201 1.53 134,799 2.13 184,495 0.63 479,073 6.39
Note: NA= not available. Data adapted from the International Road Federation 共2004兲.
five times the population of Georgia, making it the third-most Infrastructure. The irregular terrain of Colombia makes the
populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico. The construction of roads and railroads costly. Urban and rural road
country has experienced significant population growth in the past conditions and maintenance are considered poor 共Onursal and
few decades, as depicted by Table 11. The per capita GNI was Guatam 1997; U.S. Department of State Bureau and Consular
U.S.$1,820 in 2002. About 20 million people are considered to Affairs 2004兲. Basic infrastructure is deteriorating in most major
live in poverty and 10 million in extreme poverty. Movement cities in Colombia, and the numerous construction projects initi-
from rural to urban areas has been heavy as has been the growth ated to improve this situation contribute significantly to conges-
in automobiles as shown in Table 12. The urban population in- tion 共World Resources Institute 2004兲.
creased from 57% of the total population in 1951 to about 74% in
1994. Bogotá, the capital city of Colombia, is one of the densest Safety. Traffic laws are sporadically followed and rarely en-
cities in the world, with 7.7 million people living on 35,000 ha forced, and a traffic accident is estimated to occur every ten min-
共350 sq km兲. Ethnic diversity in Colombia is a result of the inter- utes in Colombia 共U.S. Department of State Bureau and Consular
mingling of indigenous Indians, Spanish colonists, and Africans. Affairs 2004兲. Road traffic fatalities are ranked as the second
Colombia is a free market economy with major commercial and leading cause of morbidity and mortality from external causes,
investment ties to the United States. The country is poised for exceeded only by homicides. Approximately 20.2% 共34,547兲 of
moderate growth in the next several years, after recovering from a all deaths recorded between 1995 and 1999 were due to road
severe recession in 1999 when the gross domestic product 共the traffic injuries. Pedestrians constitute the largest category of these
GDP the total market value of all goods and services produced traffic-related casualties accounting for close to 32% of all inju-
within the borders of a nation during a specified period兲 fell by ries and 40% of the deaths from traffic crashes. The problem of
about 5%. The economy suffered from weak domestic demand, road traffic crashes has existed predominantly in the urban areas
austere government budgets, and a difficult security situation. The of Bogotá, Medellin, and Cali. In these main urban centers, pe-
current government faces economic challenges ranging from pen- destrians constituted nearly 68% of road traffic crash victims. As
sion reform to reduction of unemployment that reached a record shown in Table 13, over 200,000 road traffic crashes were re-
20% in 1999 and may remain high, contributing to extreme in- ported in 2000, representing a fourfold increase from the crashes
equalities in income distribution. In 1999, the share of agricultural reported in 1986. Injuries increased fourfold from the mid-
industries stood at 19% in the overall industrial structure; manu- 13,000s in 1986 to the mid-51,000s in 2000, while fatalities al-
facturing industries stood at 26%; and service industries at 55%. most doubled from 3,535 in 1986 to 6,551 in 2000. This corre-
Two of Colombia’s leading exports, oil and coffee, face an uncer- sponds to one person dying every 80 min and a mortality rate of
tain future; new exploration is needed to offset declining oil pro-
duction, while coffee harvests and prices are depressed. Besides,
the lack of public security is a key concern for investors who are Table 13. Trends on Road Traffic Crashes, Fatalities, and Injuries
calling for progress in the government’s peace negotiations with 共Colombia, 1986–2000兲
insurgent groups 共The World Bank Group 2002; Wikipedia 2004兲.
Year Fatalities Injuries Crashes
Transportation System 1986 3,535 13,449 64,289
1987 3,833 15,008 91,723
General Characteristics. Transportation mode share data in- 1988 5,039 19,772 117,933
dicates that about half of all trips 共46%兲 are made by bus, 16% by 1989 4,032 18,085 108,506
taxi, 15% by automobile, 8% by pedestrian, 8% by bicycle, and 1990 3,704 16,086 122,112
7% by motorcycle 共TGI Colombia 2004兲. Colombia’s transporta- 1991 4,119 18,182 111,462
tion inventory shows that the railway system of the country 1992 4,620 21,280 130,304
spanned 3,340 operational km in 2002, and highway system tra- 1993 5,628 33,083 149,940
versed 110,000 km 共including paved and unpaved roadways兲 in
1994 6,989 45,940 164,202
2000. Trains serve the densely populated areas of Colombia al-
1995 7,874 52,547 179,820
though service is undependable. Buses provide service between
1996 7,445 50,630 187,966
cities on the major routes while taxis offer the most reliable pub-
lic transportation in cities. The country has 1,050 airports 共includ- 1997 7,607 49,312 195,442
ing airports with paved and unpaved runways兲; the main 1998 7,595 52,965 206,283
international airports are El Dorado Airport 共Bogotá兲 and Rafael 1999 7,026 52,346 220,225
Nunez Airport. A ferry and a boat service operate between some 2000 6,551 51,458 231,974
of the ports and cays in Colombia 共World Resources Institute Total 85,597 510,143 2,282,181
2004兲. Note: Data adapted from Rodriguez et al. 共2003兲.
J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

Table 14. Air Pollution Trends 共Colombia, 1990–1995兲 Table 15. Population and Population Growth Rates 共Ghana, 1950–2000兲.
Pollutant 共1,000 kg兲 1990 1995 Year
CO 7052.7 7006.8 Demography 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
NOx 420.8 481.2
Total population 12,838 15,018 17,338 19,928 22,818
Nonmethane VOC 1022.3 906.1
共hundreds兲
SO2 207.4 246.3
Total population NA 3.14 2.87 2.79 2.71
Note: Data adapted from Earth Trends 共2004兲. growth rate 共%兲
Note: NA= not available. Data adapted from United Nations Habitat
共2004兲.
15.2 deaths per 100,000 population 共Rodriguez et al. 2003兲. Law
enforcement is lacking in some areas resulting in the prevalence
of bad driving habits and parked cars occupying public spaces

Ghana’s population is ethnically diverse with at least 75 distin-
such as sidewalks 共Onursal and Guatam 1997兲.
guishable languages 共Encyclopedia Britannica Online 2004兲.
About 31% of the population is below the poverty line 共Nation-
Congestion/Air Quality. Bogotá, the capital of Colombia, is a
master.com 2004兲. The country has a relatively high population
highly congested city: the average peak-period speed on the main
growth rate. As shown in Table 15, the population has increased
roads had declined to 10 km/ h or lower by 1995. Vehicle owner-
steadily over the last 25 years with 2.9% of average quinquennial
ship is low, at one car per nine inhabitants, as is the number of
共5-year兲 growth rate in the period from 1985 to 2000. About 36%
cars relative to the length of the road network. About 71% of
of the population was urbanized in 2001, up from 30% in 1975.
motorized trips are by bus. In addition to the high population
The country has an abundance of natural resources, primarily
density, congestion is to some extent due to the increasing reli-
gold, timber, industrial diamonds, bauxite, manganese, fish, rub-
ance on the automobile for personal movement. Innovative poli-
ber, and hydropower. Agriculture accounts for 45% of the GDP
cies have been implemented in Bogotá to transform a car-centered
and cocoa and timber account for 35% of the country’s exports.
transportation system into a people-oriented one. The goal of
The GNP growth has increased steadily from 2.0% in the early
TransMilenio, the country’s busway project, is to overcome the
1990s to a per annum rate of 4.7% 共1995–1997兲, with a projected
city’s serious transportation problems that were the result of very
growth of 4.4% through 2010. Inflation has been high in recent
rapid growth along with very rapid increase in ownership and use
years with rates such as 23.6% in 2003 共U.S. Department of State
of automobiles. This project is based on a strategy to promote
2004兲; unemployment rates have also been high 共20% in 1997兲
non-motorized transport, reduce car use, and increase the use of
共IndexMundi 2004兲. Accra is both the administrative and com-
public transit 共Ardila and Menckhoff 2002兲. Air pollution caused
mercial center of Ghana. Its population of 1.8 million is growing
by motor vehicles is a major environmental problem in some
at a rate of 4%, and occupies around 2% of Ghana’s total area.
parts of Colombia just like in many Latin American urban centers.
Accra’s economy contributes between 15 and 20% of the coun-
As shown in Table 14, the emission levels of carbon monoxide,
try’s GDP, and accounts for 10% of employment in Ghana
nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide increased significantly from
共NRTEE 2004兲.
1990 to 1995 with growth rates between 15 and 20%.
Transportation System
Transportation/Land Use Decision Making. The Ministry of
Transportation is responsible for formulating the policies of the
General Characteristics. Among the major modes of trans-
Colombian National Government in matters of transit, transporta-
port in the country, the road sector is of considerable importance
tion and infrastructure. The Ministry periodically works collabo-
and accounts for 94% of freight and 97% percent of passenger
ratively with the Institute of Urban Development 共IDU兲, whose
traffic 共Sesime Adanu, unpublished兲. The country’s transportation
mission is to execute infrastructure maintenance and improve-
system consists of a 40,000 km road network consisting of
ment projects to achieve sustainable development. The IDU
13,433 km of trunk roads, 24,000 km feeder roads, and over
monitors a transportation subsystem within an institutional frame-
22,000 km of urban roads; two large deep water ports, which
work regulated and controlled by the Ministry of Transportation.
handle about 7 million tons of import and export traffic; and a
The Ministry of Transportation has also enacted Plan 2500. The
944 km railway system serving the southern part of the country.
most ambitious road project in the history of Colombia, Plan 2500
Ghana has one international airport, and 8 regional airports and
will pave 2,500 km of routes in different regions in Colombia.
airstrips spread throughout the country 共The World Bank Group
The Ministry has gained the participation of the Ministry of Prop-
2002兲. Transportation is a major source of sustenance for the Gha-
erty, the National Department of Planning, and the private sector
naian economy. Despite its importance, however, the sector is
economic and industrial groups led by CAMACOL, Colombia’s
faced with several problems, such as deplorable road conditions,
union for industrial construction.
poor vehicular maintenance, and poor law enforcement, all of
which have contributed to very high crash rates in Ghana.
Ghana „West Africa…
Infrastructure/Equity. The poor road network is mostly seen
Background in the disparity between rural and urban areas, where almost all
The Republic of Ghana commonly known as Ghana is located in the regional capitals and most of the district capitals have acces-
West Africa bordered to the south by the Gulf of Guinea 共Atlantic sible roads while most rural areas have deplorable road condi-
Ocean兲, the north by Burkina Faso, the west by Cote d’Ivoire and tions. The end result is that the produce, in particular, major
the east by Togo. About 1 1 / 2 times the size of Georgia, Ghana exportable perishable commodities on which the country’s
has a total area of 239,460 sq km and had a population of about economy depends, can be subject to decay in the inaccessible
20.5 million in 2003. The per capita GNI was $270 in 2002. areas, and create disincentives for farmers to produce. Not only
J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

Table 16. Trends in Road Traffic Crashes, Casualties, and Vehicles Table 18. Air pollution Trends 共Ghana, 1990–1995兲
Involved 共Ghanna, 1994–1998兲
Pollutant 共1 , 000 kg兲 1990 1995
Number of
CO 2227.1 2319.7
Year Crashes Fatalities Injuries vehicles involved
NOx 105.9 112.9
1994 6,580 824 7,663 9,995 Nonmethane VOC 204.2 218.7
1995 8,314 1,026 9,105 12,916 SO2 29.7 32.4
1996 8,489 1,050 9,903 13,368 Note: Data adapted from Earth Trends 共2004兲.
1997 9,914 1,014 10,431 15,619
1998 10,715 1,362 11,405 16,892
Total 44,012 5,276 48,507 68,790
deteriorated roads, coupled with the lack of emergency medical
Percent change 62.8% 65.3% 52.8% 69%
services, have combined to increase fatalities on rural roads 共Afu-
Note: Data adapted from Afukaar et al. 共2003兲. kaar et al. 2003兲.
Congestion/Air Quality. Air quality is deteriorating in urban

are the roads bad, but there also exist inequalities in motorable areas, particularly in the capital city of Accra and the surrounding
and accessible roads in the country, attributable mainly to eco- metropolitan area. Ghana’s urban population, especially in Accra,
nomic resource availability in the different areas. Lack of acces- has burgeoned, with annual growth rates estimated as high as 4%.
sibility for vital destinations such as jobs, schools, markets, and The corresponding rise in vehicle transport has caused major traf-
health care has affected development activities in inaccessible fic congestion and excessive wear and tear on the road network.
areas 共Sesime Adanu, unpublished兲. Besides, many of the roads Road travel, whether motorized or nonmotorized, poses difficul-
have inadequate signs or pavement that is not equipped to handle ties that place considerable hardship on the urban poor 共The
the traffic. The country also lacks an effective public transporta- OPEC Fund for International Development 2004兲. Rapid in-
tion system. creases in car ownership coupled with poor land use planning,
inadequate road space, lack of regulated parking systems, unedu-
Safety. One of the main problems facing Ghana is increasing cated use of the road by pedestrians, and bad driving behavior of
road traffic fatalities reflected in the number of lives lost every motorists have also combined to produce serious congestion, es-
month. The Public Agenda newspaper 共2003兲 revealed that 150 pecially in Accra 共Abane 1993兲. Sprawl is evident in several parts
people die in the country every month through road accidents of the expanding Accra metropolitan area. As shown in Table 18,
alone 共Sesime Adanu, unpublished兲. According to 1994–1998 po- the total emissions of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, non-
lice data, road traffic crashes were a leading cause of death and methane VOCs, and sulfur dioxide increased at relatively high
injuries in Ghana, beside occupational injuries which involve rates from 1990 to 1995, and are expected to be on the rise owing
non-mechanized farming and ethnic conflicts. Table 16 shows re- to continuing growth in the Accra metropolitan area.
cent trends in road traffic crashes, deaths, and injuries and Table
17 shows crash and injury rates per 100,000 inhabitants. The ma- Land Use/Transportation Decision Making. The Ministry of
jority of road traffic fatalities 共61%兲 and injuries 共53%兲 occurred Roads and Transport is responsible for the development and
on roads in rural areas. About 58% more people died on roads in maintenance of transport infrastructure and the provision of trans-
rural areas than in urban areas, and generally more severe crashes port services for all modes of transport in Ghana. The Ghana
occurred on rural roads compared with urban roads. The number Roads Sector Development Program aims at achieving sustain-
of reported crashes increased by 63 percent between 1994 and able improvement in the supply and performance of roads as well
1998. Road traffic injuries increased by 49% and deaths by 65%. as road transport services in a regionally equitable manner. The
In the same period, the number of vehicles involved in crashes goal is to increase Ghana’s competitiveness in foreign trade and
increased by 69%. promote linkages in domestic markets which are crucial for rapid
The nature of transport-related deaths and injuries in both and sustained growth 共The World Bank Group 2002兲. Ghana has
urban and rural areas is fundamentally different from that in de- undertaken three transportation projects that have contributed to
veloped countries: in developed countries, crashes involving oc- the success of the country’s economic recovery program. The
cupants of private vehicles predominate and pedestrian injuries projects, implemented from 1987 to 1998, rehabilitated economi-
make up a smaller percentage of all transport-related injuries cally important roads and instituted maintenance programs to pre-
共Afukaar et al. 2003兲. In Ghana, pedestrian deaths constitute the vent road deterioration 共Graduate School of Architecture and
largest category 共46%兲 of fatalities among all road users, followed Preservation 2004兲. There is, however, the need to integrate land
by occupants of buses and minibuses. High driving speeds of use and transportation decisions better to gain better control over
poorly maintained passenger-ferrying vehicles on generally badly congestion, sprawl, and the associated air quality problems in the
Accra metropolitan area. Vision 2020 is Ghana’s road map to
achieving middle-income country status by the year 2020. The
basic objectives of Vision 2020 are to reduce poverty, increase
Table 17. Crash and Injury Rates per 100,000 Population 共Ghana,
employment opportunities and average incomes, and reduce ineq-
1994–1998兲 uities in order to improve the general welfare and the material
well being of all Ghanaians. In the Vision 2020 framework, the
All fundamental policy objective of the transport sector is to establish
Injury Fatal Serious Slight casualties
an efficient, modally complementary, and integrated transporta-
Region crash rate injury rate injury rate injury rate rate
tion network for the movement of people and goods at the least
Whole country 139.9 28.7 102.1 161.3 292.1 possible cost within the country. This policy is meant to support
Note: Data adapted from Ghana Statistical Service 共2004兲. Ghana’s Gateway Program, a program intended to attract foreign
J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

investment and establish Accra as West Africa’s regional distribu- board standards may be necessary to promote movement toward
tion and transshipment center 共The Official Ghana Education transportation system sustainability in the international commu-
Homepage 2004兲. nity, it may also be difficult to gain consensus for such standards
on various important issues given the wide variation in the
present status and trends for various transportation sustainability
Synthesis of Findings indicators. The fact that crash rates were generally caused or ex-
acerbated by the behaviors of system users indicates that mea-
A summary of key transportation and sustainability issues for sures for changing behaviors also ought to play an increasingly
Georgia, South Korea, Colombia, and Ghana is shown in Table important role in improving the safety of highway systems around
19, and potential areas for improving transportation sustainability the world. Korea’s recent successes with using behavioral-related
for the four cases are presented in Table 20. The cases point to policies to reverse the trends in highway fatality crashes point to
the potential effectiveness of coupling behavior-related policies
some of the similarities and differences in transportation sustain-

ability issues in countries at different levels of socioeconomic with infrastructure, operational and information technology im-
development. The sections below draw out some of these simi- provements, as well as other measures to address transportation
larities and differences. system safety.
All the four areas studied were characterized by rapid popula- In all the cases, equitable access to adequate transportation
tion growth in their major metropolitan areas, resulting largely was considered an issue as social equity is one of the most im-
from rapid urbanization 共in the developing countries兲 or popula- portant elements in moving toward sustainability. It is important
tion influxes from other urban and nonurban areas, or other coun- that sustainability indicators explicitly capture equity given that
tries, to metropolitan areas with booming economies 共in the several economic indicators 共e.g., GDP兲 reflect only the “average”
developed countries兲. All four cases were also characterized by of conditions but not the variance or discrepancies among popu-
rapid growth in the demand for vehicular travel and the actual lations. It is possible for example that continuing economic de-
vehicle kilometers traveled. Thus, congestion, with its debilitating velopment in various countries may tend to increase the gap
effects, was shown to be a problem independent of the socioeco- between higher-income and lower-income populations, which
nomic status of the areas studied; however, it was also a sign of would not be captured by the use of average indicators. Equity-
booming economies in the metropolitan areas of the higher-GNI related indicators such as access to basic social and economic
countries 共Atlanta, Seoul兲. The higher-GNI areas had begun to services for those without cars, affordability of public transit ser-
address congestion using ITS 共Atlanta, Seoul兲 and by shifting vices especially for lower income groups, and the quality of tran-
from supply-oriented to demand management policies 共Seoul兲. sit with respect to the mobility impaired, can capture social equity
Air quality, like congestion, was a major issue independent of across different income levels, age and other demographic catego-
socioeconomic status. While regulatory standards for managing ries. Equity issues have arisen along the lines of socioeconomic
air quality were found in the developed countries, no standards class 共Georgia, South Korea, and Ghana兲, race 共Georgia兲, or
were found for the developing countries. In addition to the debili- urban/rural status 共Georgia, Colombia, and Ghana兲. Georgia’s fa-
tating effects of congestion, the lower-GNI countries faced prob- talities on rural two-lane roads have been significantly higher than
lems with poor and inadequate physical infrastructure, and the fatalities in all other categories. In South Korea, regional dispari-
need for infrastructure expansion and maintenance were also con- ties were found relative to access to transportation and other
sidered to be important issues in South Korea. socioeconomic resources. Both Colombia and Ghana have expe-
Safety was a major issue in all the four cases. Roadway rienced relatively high pedestrian fatality rates. In Colombia,
crashes were found to be a major cause of death in South Korea, Bogotá, Medellin, and Cali 共major cities兲 have experienced high
Colombia, and Ghana. The cases indicated that roadway safety pedestrian fatality rates. In Ghana, pedestrian deaths constituted
issues tended to be automobile-centered in developed countries the largest category of fatalities among all road users, followed by
and pedestrian-centered in developing countries. In addition, occupants of buses and minibuses; and the majority of road traffic
while crash fatalities were decreasing in Georgia and South fatalities and injuries occurred on roads in rural areas.
Korea, they were increasing in Colombia and Ghana. The devel- While no mandates were found for integrated land use and
oping countries also seemed to have some issues with law transportation planning in all the cases, Georgia was making some
enforcement exacerbating their safety problems. The lack of efforts toward integrating land use and transportation planning,
emergency medical services in Ghana also compounded the coun- South Korea had developed a comprehensive land use/
try’s safety problem. The fact that safety is a priority for all coun- transportation plan, and Colombia’s Ministry of Transportation
tries, independent of economic status, levels and trends in high- had taken the initiative to work with other agencies, including
way crash fatalities, indicates that safety standards are likely to agencies with control over land use decisions, in order to make
vary widely in the quest for sustainable transportation depending more effective decisions.
on the present status of transportation safety in a particular coun- While several data were found on the physical extent of trans-
try or state. A significant part of the causes of crashes was found portation infrastructure assets in all cases, little was found to in-
to be behavior-related, e.g., bad driving habits, poor vehicle main- dicate how effectively and efficiently the existing transportation
tenance, lack of appropriate laws, and inadequate law enforce- system was serving the country or state’s residents by providing
ment. The fact that roadway crashes were considered to be a them with access to their basic needs. Such measures would
major cause of death in three out of the four areas studied, and the strengthen our understanding of the overall effectiveness of the
trend in roadway fatalities was on the rise in the two developing transportation/land use system.
countries studied, is an indication that roadway safety is or ought South Korea’s remarkable transition from low-income to high-
to be a priority in initiatives to address transportation sustainabil- income status in the past three decades offers an excellent ex-
ity. The opposite trends in highway crash fatalities in the devel- ample for low-income economies that such transitions are feasible
oping and developed economies, and the different levels of activ- and involve significant and sustained investments in infrastructure
ity relative to regulating air quality indicate that while across-the- and information technology, as well as the political will to imple-
J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

Table 19. Summary of Key Transportation and Sustainability Issues
System attributes case
Issue Georgia 共United States兲 South Korea Colombia Ghana

Effectiveness/ Severe traffic congestion in Severe traffic congestion in Bogotá capital city is highly Severe congestion in Accra
efficiency metropolitan Atlanta Seoul congested metropolitan area
Demand management through Demand management through Bus is the predominant mode Lack of effective public
ITS technologies, HOV lanes, ITS technologies, congestion of transportation, and taxis transportation system
public education initiatives to pricing, traffic impact taxation; provide the most reliable
promote carpooling, higher parking fees in congested service in the cities
telecommuting, etc. areas; exclusive bus lanes
Train service is undependable Poor infrastructure
Transmilenio Busway Project

implemented to transform
car-centered Bogots to
pedestrian-centered city
Poor infrastructure conditions
Safety Downward trend for fatality Downward trend for fatality and Upward trend in highway Upward trend in highway crash
and injury crashes injury crashes crash fatalities fatalities
Highest fatalities occur on Road traffic fatalities leading Road traffic fatalities second Road crashes are a leading cause
rural two-lane road cause of death for people under leading cause of death next to of death in the country; the
20 共2003兲 homicides: one traffic crash majority of which occur on roads
occurs every 10 min inn rural areas
Urban pedestrian fatalities Pedestrain deaths constitute the
constitute highest category of largest category of road traffic
traffic fatalities deaths followed by buses and
minibuses
Economic High income status High income status Middle-income status Low-income status
Commercial transportation Remarkable growth in GNI over High poverty rate is positively Significant percentage of
positively impacts agricultural the past 30 years is positively associated with poor agricultural exportable produce
industry associated with transportation infrastructure conditions decay due to poor road access:
development made over the past disincentive for farmers to
decades produce
High rate of urban pedestrian
deaths
Social equity High fatality rates on rural Inter-regional disparities in High rate of urban pedestrian Wide disparities in road access
two-lane highways accessibility and mobility deaths and infrastructure condition in
urban and rural areas
Environmental Poor air quality in Air pollution in Seoul: Increasing trends in nitrogen Rapidly increasing trends in
metropolitan Atlanta with increasing trends in particulate oxides and sulfur dioxide carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
associated respiratory health matter and nitrogen dioxide emissions and nonmethane VOCs in Accra
effects emissions
Noise pollution in Seoul
Decision No formal mandate found for No formal mandate found for No formal mandate found for No formal mandate found for
making integrated land use/ integrated land/use integrated land use/ integrated land use/transportation
transportation decision transportation decision making; transportation decision Planning
making; however, efforts have however, there has been the making; however, the Ministry
been made to coordinate the development of the National of Transportation is involving
planning activities of land use comprehensive Plan including several agencies in its decision
and transportation agencies land use and transportation making
elements
Other related Sprawl and its impact on poor Disorderly development High level of poverty High level of poverty
issues air quality resulting in environmental
damage
Opportunities for integrating Rapid urbanization Poor infrastructure conditions
land use and transportation
planning better in metro
Atlanta
Poor enforcement of traffic Poor law enforcement
laws
Public security issues Lack of emergency medical
services
Extreme inequality in income Poor land use planning in
distribution metropolitan areas
Leading exports facing
uncertain future
J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

Table 20. Example of Potential Areas for Transportation Sustainability Improvements 关Georgia 共United states兲, South Korea, Colombia, and Ghana兴
Georgia 共United States兲 South Korea Colombia Ghana
Implement more effective and Improve road safety by Improve pedestrian safety Improve roadway and pedestrian
efficient public transportation effectively ordering the road and especially in urban areas safety
systems changing driver behavior
Improve law enforcement Improve emergency medical
Decrease automobile demand by Focus more on effective service
more actively promoting congestion management, e.g., Implement more reliable public
carpooling, telecommuting, etc immediate incident management transportation systems Improve law enforcement
Improve safety measures Minimize inter-regional disparities Improve infrastructure condition Implement effective public
especially on rural two-lane roads in accessibility and mobility transportation system
Enforce traffic and environmental
Integrate land use and Implement more advanced laws more adequately Improve road accessibility
transportation planning better in environmental policy pertaining to especially for agricultural
metro Atlanta air noise pollution incentives
Integrate land use and Improve infrastructure condition

transportation planning more particularly in rural areas
effectively Improve land use and planning in
metropolitan areas
ment behavioral-related policies that improve the quality of the achieving transportation sustainability within the international
transportation environment. It also indicates that the drivers for community. First, the data available on different aspects of trans-
congestion and associated air quality issues in metropolitan areas portation systems vary widely in adequacy and completeness. No
共e.g., high population growth rates, rapid urbanization, and pres- data were found for any of the cases capturing the relative levels
sures to relocate to areas with booming economies兲 do not auto- of accessibility that the population had to basic services and
matically disappear with successful economic growth, and must amenities, indicating that it would be difficult to measure gains in
be proactively managed simultaneously as economic growth is accessibility that occur without improvements in mobility, which
pursued, in order to preserve regional quality-of-life gains. is a major area of opportunity for progress toward sustainability.
Colombia’s example with the Transmilenio Project in Bogotá The data on the adequacy of the transportation system were
is demonstrating the feasibility of transforming a city from an largely mobility focused. In addition, metrics for data on particu-
auto-centered to a pedestrian-oriented city and the importance of lar attributes, e.g., safety, were different for the different cases.
effective public transportation systems for addressing some of the For example, while crash fatalities were being measured as a
congestion and air quality problems in metropolitan areas, par- function of vehicle kilometers traveled in Georgia they were
ticularly in areas with adequate population densities to support being measured as a function of the number of vehicles in South
effective public transportation. As rapid urbanization occurs in Korea, in Ghana as the total number of injuries or fatalities per a
developing countries, and rapid metropolitan population growth standard number of people, and in Colombia by the total number
continues to occur in developed economies, both of which con- of fatalities or injuries per year. Thus, safety gains or losses would
tinue to create increased population densities to support public be more difficult to capture using the data of the low/medium-
transportation, the development of effective public transportation income countries. Data standards to facilitate comparability
共less-developed economies兲 and improvement of the convenience would support progress toward sustainability.
of existing public transportation systems 共more-developed econo- The widely different socioeconomic conditions represented by
mies兲 grow to be more feasible options for transforming neigh- the four case studies indicate why it would be difficult to develop
borhoods from auto-centered to public transportation-centered uniform standards for attaining sustainability within the interna-
systems. tional community and seem to suggest that “movement toward
All four cases indicate that there is a serious need to consider sustainability” may be a more realistic objective than “achieving
taking formal steps to integrate the transportation and land deci- sustainability.” In practice, therefore, the fact that there are few
sion making processes better, in order to address more effectively widely accepted standards for what would constitute sustainabil-
such issues as sprawl 共Atlanta, Accra兲, disorderly development ity should not be a major obstacle for entities interested in taking
共Seoul兲, and the effective organization of highly populated urban steps to move toward sustainability because different policy, plan,
areas 共Bogotá兲. Rapid population growth in the Atlanta and Seoul program and project actions can be classified objectively as sus-
metropolitan areas, and rapid urbanization in Bogotá and Accra, tainability gains or losses along the lines of the commonly ac-
as well as the increasing rate of vehicle ownership in these areas, cepted criteria for sustainability 共e.g., effective/efficient/safe
all point to an urgent need for institutions or institutional mecha- access, economic growth, environmental, and social equity, for
nisms that are better equipped to plan more comprehensively in- transportation兲. At the same time, the commitment of various en-
cluding using land use controls to gain a better handle on a tities 共local jurisdictions, states, countries, nations, and the global
broader range of influences on metropolitan quality of life. community兲 to sustainability is partially dependent on the com-
mitment of their neighboring entities to move toward sustainabil-
ity, because of the existing threat of “tragedy of the commons”
Implications and Conclusions inclinations.
First, this would seem to suggest that certain groupings of
The findings of this study have important implications for the entities may provide better forums for achieving consensus on
development of priorities and standards for progress toward standards to move toward sustainability: entities that have similar
J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

socioeconomic conditions, and thus share feasible goals, priori- standards that may fail to acknowledge the needs and constraints
ties, and constraints. For example, while stabilizing or reversing of various entities while catering to others 共from the very nature
the trends in roadway fatalities may be plausible interim targets of the wide scope of conditions present in different socioeco-
for Colombia and Ghana, such targets are not relevant for South nomic contexts兲. A model where standards are crafted as movable
Korea and Georgia, and thus lumping these four entities together targets based on mutually agreed upon time frames and where
in the development of safety standards for sustainability may not entities’ memberships in regions can change, depending on the
be a very worthwhile endeavor. Success in building consensus for changes in their sustainability status, may offer more appropriate
standards would entail a convergence of minds, which may more incentives for accelerated movement toward sustainability among
likely occur among entities that have similar issues to contend a broader scope of entities with widely different socioeconomic
with. Second, it would also seem to suggest that, for practical conditions and constraints.
purposes, standards may be movable targets with associated time Several issues worth considering, while beyond the scope of
frames rather than fixed endpoints anchored at some infinite this paper, remain important subject material to advance progress
points in time. A plausible objective may be to move “regions of toward sustainability. Particularly important are the effects of
similar status and constraints” toward sustainability through population densities on achieving and measuring transportation
consensus-based interim targets that are subject to change over sustainability 共in particular, megacities such as Seoul, Los Ange-
time. The term region is used in this context to capture entities les, and Lagos may offer a unique set of challenges for the devel-
with similar existing socioeconomic conditions with respect to opment of sustainable transportation systems兲; understanding
achieving sustainability in a particular domain, e.g., transporta- causes and drivers of sustainability and nonsustainability in trans-
tion. Thus, such regions may be geographically contiguous but portation systems, understanding the relationships between imple-
not necessarily so. For example, entities with vehicle fatalities on mented economic/infrastructure policies and the resulting system
the rise are natural members of a region that would be interested outcomes 共e.g., safety, congestion, air quality兲; and appropriate
in reversing trends in roadway fatalities. Thus, the levels of com- indicator sets for measuring progress toward sustainability at vari-
parability among a particular group of entities would have a direct ous levels of socioeconomic development.
impact on their ability to reach consensus on particular targets for
sustainability in agreed-upon time frames.
These ideas suggest potential differences in the types of fo- Acknowledgments
rums that could be successfully adopted to develop intra-regional
standards in contradistinction with inter-regional standards. It This material is based upon work supported by the National Sci-
would seem that the successful development of intra-regional ence Foundation under Grant No. 0219607. Any opinions, find-
standards 共interim targets兲 would need to be more sensitive to the ings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this
needs of members of a particular region. Inter-regional agree- material are those of the writers and do not necessarily reflect the
ments, on the other hand, could be negotiated among regional views of the National Science Foundation. The writers are grate-
representatives on issues or “bundles of issues” that are not nec- ful for contributions made by Alexandria McBride and Craig
essarily similar but offer opportunities for give-and-take, taking Miller 共NASA SHARP apprentices兲 to the case studies.
into consideration the different needs and interim goals of the
participating regions. Under such a framework, standards that cut
across regions would not necessarily be similar for all regional
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Middle-, and Low-Income Economies: Case Studies

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Annual Annual Annual Fatalities

1970 4,589,575 16.39 NA NA

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2002 64共37兲 8 共8兲 0

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1996 45,525 1.0 9,553 12.8

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1995 248,865 105.3 16,744 4.4 747,095 140.4

Number Increase rate

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Year Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

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of bad driving habits and parked cars occupying public spaces

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Congestion/Air Quality. Air quality is deteriorating in urban

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some of the similarities and differences in transportation sustain-

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Issue Georgia 共United States兲 South Korea Colombia Ghana

Transmilenio Busway Project

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Integrate land use and Improve infrastructure condition

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J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

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J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

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J. Urban Plann. Dev., 2006, 132(3): 172-186

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