1.

The notion of CLT

Communicative language teaching (CLT) is a basic approach to language teaching. It is based on the

theory that the primary function of language use is communication.

Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to language teaching that

emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of study.

 The Goals of  Communicative Language Teaching

The primary goal of CLT is to develop learners’ communicative competence.

Communicative language  competences  are those which empower a person to act using specifically
linguistic means”

“Communicative language competence  can be considered as comprising several components:

linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic or strategic.  Each of these components is postulated as
comprising, in particular, knowledge and skills and know-how”.

(taken from CEFR)

Communicative competence refers to a learner's ability to use language to communicate successfully.

Communicative competence includes the following aspects of language knowledge:

J Knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes and functions

J Knowing how to vary our use of language according to the setting and the participants (e.g., knowing
when to use formal and informal speech or when to use language appropriately for written as opposed
to spoken communication)

J Knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts (e.g., narratives, reports, interviews,
conversations)

J Knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one’s language knowledge
(e.g., through using different kinds of communication strategies)

Depending on the purpose Communicative Competence consists of:

• linguistic competence

• sociolinguistic competence

• discourse competence
• strategic competence

Canale and Swain (1980) defined CC as composing competence in four areas:

 Words and rules (Accuracy)

 Appropriacy (the degree to which a word, expression,
or grammar pattern is natural or acceptable in a particular situation)
 Cohesion (sticking together) and coherence (is the way in which ideas in a text are linked
logically)
 Use of communication strategies.

2. Principles of CLT

 Principle 1: Use Tasks as an Organizational Principle

 For decades traditional methods of language teaching have used grammar topics or texts (e.g.,
dialogues, short stories) as a basis for organizing a syllabus. With CLT methodologies
this approach has changed; the development of communicative skills is placed at the forefront,
while grammar is now introduced only as much as needed to support the development of these
skills. The best way to learn and teach a language is through social interactions. [. . . they] allow
students to work toward a clear goal, share information and opinions, negotiate meaning, etc.
In other words, it is not the text one reads or the grammar one studies but the tasks that are
presented that provide learners a purpose to use the grammar in a meaningful context.
  Such an approach is known as task-based instruction (TBI).

Principle 2: Promote Learning by Doing
 Learning by doing means that learners need to actively produce language. Only in this way can
they try out new rules and modify them accordingly.
  
 Principle 3: Input Needs to Be Rich
 There are two ways of creating rich input:
 • By using authentic materials that reflect real-life situations and demands : resources (TV, DVDs,
video and audio tapes, radio, online),
  • by using the target language (TL) as a means of instruction.
  
 Input Needs to Be Meaningful, Comprehensible, and Elaborated.
  
 Principle 5: Promote Cooperative and Collaborative Learning
 In such an approach, classrooms are organized so that students work together in small
cooperative teams, such as groups or pairs, to complete activities.
  
 Principle 6: Focus on Form
 Accoding to this principle grammar should be taught within contexts and through
communicative tasks.
  
 Principle 7: Provide Error Corrective Feedback
 In a general sense, feedback can be categorized in two different ways: positive feedback that
confirms the correctness of a student’s response. Teachers demonstrate this behavior by
 agreeing, praising, or showing understanding. Or, negative feedback, generally known
as error correction, which has a corrective function on a student’s faulty language behavior.
  
 Principle 8: Recognize and Respect Affective Factors of Learning
  
 There is a clear negative relationship between anxiety and learning success. Anxiety as a
personal trait must be recognized and kept at a minimal level for learning to be maximized.

3. Classroom activities in CLT  

• Information-Gap Activities

The following exercises make use of the information-gap principle: Students are divided into A-B
pairs. The teacher has copied two sets of pictures. One set (for A students) contains a picture of a
group of people. The other set (for B students) contains a similar picture but it contains a number
of slight differences from the A-picture. Students must sit back to back and ask questions to try to
find out how many differences there are between the two pictures.

  

 Students practice a role play in pairs. One student is given the information she/he needs to play
the part of a clerk in the railway station information booth and has information on train
departures, prices, etc. The other needs to obtain information on departure times, prices, etc.
They role-play the interaction without looking at each other’s cue cards.

  

 • Jigsaw activities

 These are also based on the information-gap principle. Typically, the class is divided into groups
and each group has part of the information needed to complete an activity. The class must fit
the pieces together to complete the whole. In so doing, they must use their language resources
to communicate meaningfully and so take part in meaningful communication practice.

 The following are examples of jigsaw activities: The teacher plays a recording in which three
people with different points of view discuss their opinions on a topic of interest. The teacher
prepares three different listening tasks, one focusing on each of the three speaker’s points of
view. Students are divided into three groups and each group listens and takes notes on one of
the three speaker’s opinions. Students are then rearranged into groups containing a student
from groups A, B, and C. They now role-play the discussion using the information they obtained.

  

 Other activity Types

 Task-completion activities:  puzzles, games, map-reading, and other kinds of classroom tasks
in which the focus is on using one’s language resources to complete a task.

 Information-gathering activities:  student-conducted surveys, interviews, and searches in

which students are required to use their linguistic resources to collect information.
  Opinion-sharing activities:  activities in which students compare values, opinions, or beliefs,
such as a ranking task in which students list six qualities in order of importance that they might
consider in choosing a date or spouse.

 Information-transfer activities:  These require learners to take information that is presented in

one form, and represent it in a different form. For example, they may read instructions on how
to get from A to B, and then draw a map showing the sequence, or they may read information
about a subject and then

 represent it as a graph.

 Reasoning-gap activities:  These involve deriving some new information from given
information through the process of inference, practical reasoning, etc.

 For example, working out a teacher’s timetable on the basis of given class timetables.

 Role plays:  activities in which students are assigned roles and improvise a scene or exchange
based on given information or clues

4. The notion of a task

Learners doing tasks will not just be:

•  speaking to practise a new structure e.g. doing a drill or enacting a dialogue or asking and answering
questions using the ‘new' patterns;

• or writing to display their control of certain language items.

These are primarily form-focused activities, designed to practise language items that have been
presented earlier. There is a place for form-focused activities in task-based learning (TBL), but activities
such as these are not tasks.

Task-based teaching creates opportunities for meaning-focused language use.

Learners doing tasks (i.e. focusing on meanings) will be making free use of whatever English they can
recall to express the things that they really want to say or write in the process of achieving
the task goal.

The criteria for identifying tasks

Willis and Willis  offer the following criteria for identifying a task in the form of questions.

1. Will the activity engage learners' interest?

2. Is there a primary focus on meaning?
3. Is there a goal or an outcome?
4. Is success judged in terms of outcome?
5. Is completion a priority?
6. Does the activity relate to real world activities?'

The more confidently you can answer “yes” to each of these questions, the more task-like
the activity is.
5. Task types

1. Listing and/or brainstorming
You can list people, places, things, actions, reasons, everyday problems, things to do in various
circumstances etc.

2. Ordering and sorting

This can be sequencing, ranking, or classifying.

3. Matching
You can match captions / texts / recorded extracts to pictures; short notes or headlines to longer texts,
e.g. news items.

4. Comparing: finding similarities and differences

Comparison tasks can be based on two quite similar texts or pictures (a classic example is ‘Spot the
Differences’) or places or events etc that learners have experience of. Learners can also compare their
own work with that of another learner or another pair or group.

5. Problem-solving
Text-books often contain activities based on common problems – pollution, relationships, noisy
neighbours and so on for students to sole.

More complex tasks like comparing and problem solving sometimes involve processes found in simpler
tasks, like listing, comparing and evaluating.

6. Sharing personal experiences and story telling

Activities where learners are asked to recount their personal experiences and tell stories are valuable
because they give learners a chance to speak for longer and in a more sustained way. And it is
something we often do in real-life.

6. Bloom’s Taxonomy 

 is a chart of ideas named after its creator Dr. Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999), an American educational
psychologist.

Bloom's Taxonomy was created in 1956 in order to promote higher forms of thinking in education.

So, it is the classification of thinking.

The levels of thinking

There are six levels of learning according to Dr. Bloom:

o Knowledge
o Comprehension
o Application
o Analysis
 o Synthesis
o Evaluation

The levels build on one another. The six levels all have to do with thinking. Level one is the lowest level
of thinking of thinking. Level six is the highest level of thinking.

The revised taxonomy

A group of psychologists, curriculum theorists and instructional researchers, and testing

and assessment specialists published in 2001 a revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy with the title  A
Taxonomy for Teaching, Learning, and Assessment.

The differences between old and new Bloom’s

 The names of six major categories were changed from noun to verb forms.

 As the taxonomy reflects different forms of thinking and thinking is an active  process verbs
were more accurate.
 The subcategories of the six major categories were also replaced by verbs
 Some subcategories were reorganised.
 The knowledge category was renamed. Knowledge is a product of thinking and was
inappropriate to describe a category of thinking and was replaced with the
word remembering  instead.
 Comprehension became understanding and synthesis was renamed creating in order to better
reflect the nature of the thinking described by each category.

Practical application of Bloom’s taxonomy in the language classroom

Remembering

 Make a story map showing the main events of the story.

 Make a time line of your typical day.
 Make a concept map of the topic.
 Write a list of keywords you know about….
 What characters were in the story?
 Make a chart showing…
 Make an acrostic poem about…
 Recite a poem you have learnt.

Understanding
  Write in your own words…
 Cut out, or draw pictures to illustrate a particular event in the story.
 Report to the class…
 Illustrate what you think the main idea may have been.
 Make a cartoon strip showing the sequence of events in the story.
 Write and perform a play based on the story.
 Write a brief outline to explain this story to someone else
 Explain why the character solved the problem in this particular way
 Write a summary report of the event.
 Prepare a flow chart to illustrate the sequence of events.
 Make a colouring book.
 Paraphrase this chapter in the book.
 Retell in your own words.
 Outline the main points.

Applying

 Construct a model to demonstrate how it looks or works

 Practise a play and perform it for the class
 Make a diorama to illustrate an event
 Write a diary entry
 Make a scrapbook about the area of study.
 Prepare invitations for a character’s birthday party
 Make a topographic map
 Take and display a collection of photographs on a particular topic.
 Make up a puzzle or a game about the topic.
 Write an explanation about this topic for others.
 Dress a doll in national costume.
 Make a clay model…
 Paint a mural using the same materials.
 Continue the story…

Analysing

 Use a Venn Diagram to show how two topics are the same and different
 Design a questionnaire to gather information.
 Survey classmates to find out what they think about a particular topic. Analyse the results.
 Make a flow chart to show the critical stages.
 Classify the actions of the characters in the book
 Create a sociogram from the narrative
 Construct a graph to illustrate selected information.
 Make a family tree showing relationships.
 Devise a roleplay about the study area.
 Write a biography of a person studied.
 Prepare a report about the area of study.
 Conduct an investigation to produce information to support a view.
  Review a work of art in terms of form, colour and texture.
 Draw a graph
 Complete a Decision Making Matrix to help you decide which breakfast cereal to purchase

Evaluating

 Write a letter to the editor

 Prepare and conduct a debate
 Prepare a list of criteria to judge…
 Write a persuasive speech arguing for/against…
 Make a booklet about five rules you see as important. Convince others.
 Form a panel to discuss viewpoints on….
 Write a letter to. ..advising on changes needed.
 Write a half-yearly report.
 Prepare a case to present your view about...
 Complete a PMI on…
 Evaluate the character’s actions in the story

Creating

 Use the SCAMPER strategy to invent a new type of sports shoe

 Invent a machine to do a specific task.
 Design a robot to do your homework.
 Create a new product. Give it a name and plan a marketing campaign.
 Write about your feelings in relation to...
 Write a TV show play, puppet show, role play, song or  pantomime about..
 Design a new monetary system
 Develop a menu for a new restaurant using a variety of healthy foods
 Design a record, book or magazine cover for...
 Sell an idea
 Devise a way to...
 Make up a new language and use it in an example
 Write a jingle to advertise a new product.

Practical  Bloom’s

 Suitable for use with the entire class

 Emphasis on certain levels for different children
 Extend children’s thinking skills through emphasis on higher levels of the taxonomy
(analysis, evaluation, creation)
 Possible approaches with a class could be:

–      All children work through the remembering and understanding stages and then select at least
one activity from each other level
–      All children work through first two levels and then select activities from any other level

–      Some children work at lower level while others work at higher levels

–      All children select activities from any level

–      Some activities are tagged “essential” while others are “optional”

–      A thinking process singled out for particular attention eg. Comparing, (done with all children,
small group or individual)

–      Some children work through the lower levels and then design their own activities at the higher
levels

–      All children write their own activities from the taxonomy

7. Approaches to teaching grammar

There are two main approaches to teaching grammar:

1. the deductive approach
2. the inductive approach.

The deductive approach – rule driven learning

A deductive approach starts with the presentation of a rule and is followed by examples in which the
rule is applied. The grammar rule is presented and the learner engages with it through the study and
manipulation of examples.

The inductive approach – the rule-discovery path

The learners discover the rules by themselves. The following techniques can be used by the teacher:

• Generative situation: The teacher sets up a situation in order to “generate” several example

sentences of a structure.

• The guided discovery approach: The principles of the guided discovery approach were originally

intended for self-instruction as part of the kind of programmes which were used in language
laboratories. They soon adopted for classroom use, and coursebooks promoting an inductive
approach to language learning are now more or less standard.

• Minimal sentence pairs: By presenting two sentences that are only different in one or two
particulars, the teacher is better able to focus the students’attention on exactly how the choice of form
determines a difference in meaning. The sentences should lexically simple and have fairly self-evident
contexts.
8. Techniques for presenting grammar

1.  Using visuals E Using realia I Comparing own language and English

1.  Personalising F Using a timeline J Using a song

1.  Using a chart G Explaining directly K Dictogloss

1.  Guided discovery H Using a reading or listening L Practising and then presenting

1.Using a song.

The teacher finds a song, which has examples of the target language. They do a lead-in and play the
song once for gist. They then do a second listening with a task that focuses on the target language,e.g.
a gap-fill. After feeding back on the gap-fill the teacher then focuses learners on the form and use
through guided discovery, elicitation techniques or by explaining.

2. Using a timeline.

The teacher uses this to show how a tense is related to time, e.g. for the present simple:

I walk to work every day.

PAST NOW FUTURE

Sun      Mon    Tue      Wed    Thu      Sun      Mon    Tue      Wed

3. Using visuals.

The teacher uses a picture(s) to set the context and elicits the target language.

4. Using realia.

The teacher uses things already in the classroom or brings in things that can be used to draw out
the target language. For example, the teacher puts a range of things under a towel, e.g. keys, a pencil,
pens, a mobile phone, etc. They tell the learners they are going to lift the towel for a few seconds and
that learners should remember everything they can. In teams, they brainstorm a list. The teacher elicits
‘pencil’ but models and drills ‘There’s a pencil’ and then does the same for ‘There are some keys’.
Teams then take turns to add to the list of things until everything has been recalled but the teacher
only accepts correct sentences with ‘There is a...’ and ‘There are some…’

5. Personalising

The teacher provides some model sentences related to themselves or their friends/family. For example,
in one lesson, everyone brings in a photo of themselves and their family. The teacher begins by
showing their photo and describes who is the oldest, the youngest, the most intelligent, the funniest,
etc. They then re-elicit the sentences onto the board and elicit and highlight the grammar. Learners
then use their own photos to prepare sentences and then tell each other about their families.

6. Explaining directly

The teacher writes the form of the grammar point onto the board and explains to the class its use. They
add some examples to illustrate the grammar.

7. Practising and then presenting

The teacher gives a very structured exercise such as a substitution table and the learners work together
to produce sentences/questions and answers. The learners are familiar with the vocabulary but not with
the like + noun/gerund structure. They do some open class examples before the learners start.

Do you… like … swimming? Yes, I do.

enjoy … playing tennis? No, I don’t.

… cooking?

… pop music?

… reading magazines?

… taking photos?

… playing computer games?

The teacher then focuses the learners on the structure and elicits the form onto the whiteboard.

They check the use.

8. Guided discovery

The teacher uses a text to highlight the target language. For example, the text includes examples of the
grammar point in context, and the teacher writes true or false questions using the grammar and the
learners write short answers. The teacher then elicits the language from the learners and checks the
form and meaning before moving on to a practice activity.

9. Using a chart

The teacher draws the following on the board:

Name Book/read Book/read Person/call/ Televison Sport/played

Film/see
Mobile programme/

watched
Ahmed         basketball
Maria          
Jose     brother    
 Isobel          
Then ask learners questions with the form ‘What/Who was the last …?’ and write short answers in the
boxes. Once they have asked about five learners, they ask the class what question they were
asking.They elicit it onto the whiteboard and then focus on the form and use. They rub off the answers;
learners copy the empty table and then ask each other questions. After this activity, learners write five
sentences in their notebooks.

10. Comparing own language and English

A bilingual teacher introduces the grammar point, pointing out the differences between the use and
form of the structure in English and in their own language.

11. Using a reading or listening

The learners are asked to look at some examples of the target language in context, such as in a reading
text. The learners answer questions that guide them to discovering the form and/or use of the target
language for themselves.

The following example was designed to introduce ‘was’ and ‘were’ to a group of Egyptian learners:

1. Quickly read these paragraphs about two famous men and write on the line who they are.

A. __________________________________________________________________________

He was born in 1918. His father was a postman and his mother was a housewife. They were a poor
family. After school he went to military college and then he became a general in the army. Then,
together with a group of army officers, he formed the Free Officers, a secret organisation. In 1952, they
overthrew the King and formed a government. From 1954 to 1956, he was the Prime Minister. Then, in
1956, he became the second President of Egypt. He was Egypt’s leader until 1970. He was one of the
most important Arab leaders of the twentieth century and he was very popular with the Egyptian
people. He was only 52 when he died.

B. __________________________________________________________________________

He was born in 1918 in Monafeya. He went to military college and then became an officer in the
Egyptian army. In the 1940s he was also a businessman and a journalist. He was one of the Free
Officers too. He became President in 1971. He was very successful in the 1973 war against Israel, but
after that his peace policies with Israel weren’t very popular in the Arab world. He was killed in 1982.

2. Check with your partner. Do you have the same answers? Now talk about which of these men you
like most and why.

3. Look at the readings again and underline all the examples of the verb ‘to be’ (‘was’ and ‘were’).

4. Do ‘was’ and ‘were’ describe the present time or past time?

5. For which subjects (I, you ...) do we use ‘was’ and ‘were’?

       
   
  was   were
6. What kind of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) come after ‘was’ and ‘were’?

Look at the paragraphs above for examples.

was/ were +   e.g.

  e.g.
  e.g.
  e.g.
  e.g.
12. Dictogloss

This is a classroom dictation activity where learners are required to reconstruct a short text by listening
and noting down keywords, which are then used as a base for reconstruction. In the classroom,
dictoglossis often regarded as a multiple skills and systems activity. Learners practise listening, writing
and speaking (by working in groups) and use vocabulary, grammar and discourse systems in order to
complete the task.

Example:

The teacher writes or selects a short passage that includes one or more examples of the new grammar.
The first time they read it they may only give a gist task. They then tells the learners they will read it
again and the learners’ task is to write down keywords and then work in groups to reconstruct the text.
The teacher dictates the text but reads at normal speed. Learners have to focus on both meaning and
form to do these tasks. After they have reconstructed the text, the teacher focuses on the target
language.

9. Stages of a grammar lesson

1. Pre-grammar

The teacher should bring grammar instruction to life, stimulate interest in the topic, and raise
awareness by providing a reason for learning.

2. While-grammar

The teacher should facilitate noticing of the new grammar point, and provide
meaningful input through contextual examples, pictures, and texts.

3. Post-grammar

The teacher should provide an opportunity to put grammar to use, and relate grammar instruction to
real life situations.
10. MAIN STAGES IN TEACHING VOCABULARY

1) Presentation of new lexical items and conveying the meaning of them.

2) Vocabulary Practice

 I. At the 1st stage vocabulary items are presented to listeners. There are numerous techniques
concerning vocabulary presentation. Gairns and Redman (1986) suggest the following options for
vocabulary presentation.

11. Techniques for presenting vocabulary

Visual Techniques (relia, pictures, and mime or gestures)

Relia means using a variety of real object brought by the students in the classroom. It can be also
applied to remember written material.

Mime or gestures Students can act out what they read, or associate physical sensation with specific
words found in reading passages. Mime or gesture is useful if it emphasizes the importance of gestures
and facial expression on communication.

Verbal Techniques are devided into 4 parts:

• Definition and illustration sentences (or example), this technique the English teachers are

expected to introduce a word in English through the use of other word in the same language.

• Synonyms and antonyms;

Synonyms and antonyms are especially important in building new vocabulary because learners are able
to know vocabulary. Synonyms are words that have the same meaning as the unknown in a given
sentence. There may be signals that identify the presence of synonym for the readers.

Synonyms indicators: They could be or, commas, dashes,  and colons.

Meanwhile, antonyms are words that have the opposite meaning of the unknown word in a given
sentence.  Signals which  identify the presence of the antonyms for readers are instead,
although,but, yet, and however.

• Scale: This technique is the presentation of related words in scales that include the combination of
both verbal and visual techniques, for example, in term 32° Celsius, the degree sign is the visual.

• Explanation; This technique explains the meaning and the use of a foreign word in the foreign
language itself.

Working with the context (dialogues, role play, drama, stories, songs, rhymes & poems, videos), a
student can come across the unknown word. In this case the verbal techniques can serve
as context clues that help to figure out what the new word means.

2.2. Context clues for identifying words

Context clue Signal Example
Definition/rewordin Comma Jenny was standing agape, standing there with her
g mouth hanging open.

 
synonym The unknown word is There are 200 different species, or kinds of reptile
followed that live in the forest
by commas,dashes,  colons. an
d the word “or”,
antonyms But, not, although, however, I love amusing movies, but I also love sad movies.
on the other hand, in contrast,
instead Outside the air was frigid, but inside it was warm
and comfortable.

Brian is usually gregarious, although sometimes

he likes to be alone.
explanation The explanation may be in a The village seemed to be completely uninhabited.
different sentence before or Victor looked in every home, but he couldn’t find a
after the sentence with the person anywhere.
unknown word.
example Such as, and other, like, for After the storm people needed provisions like
example medicines, clothes, water, and food.

The wizard waved his hands, and suddenly the

table was full of cakes, cookies and
other delicacies.
 

12. Vocabulary Practice.

The second stage deals with checking comprehension of newly introduced items and
communicative practice.

This stage helps students to remember the words. According to Thornbury vocabulary practice tasks
are divided into decision-making tasks and production tasks.

 Decision-making tasks are principally receptive: learners make judgement about the words, but don’t
necessarily produce them.

Production tasks are those in which the learners are required to incorporate the newly studied words
into some kind of speaking or writing activity.

Decision-making tasks are used on this stage. Most of the tasks involve:

• Matching words. A matching pair is the easiest one. In one column target words are placed, in the
other we may put pictures, synonyms, antonyms, definitions, associations in a free order.
   Grouping words/ classifying words The students are supposed to group the words according
to the certain characteristic. (Animals domestic/wild).
 labeling words
 searching words
 sequencing words
 guessing words
 eliminating words

We use a lot of traditional exercises on this stage in the level of the word, combination, sentence
– filling the gaps, completing the sentence, etc. These exercises can be done with the help of words
given in boxes or using multiple choice or without any support.

Grading exercises are non-traditional exercises. The teacher takes a word, that belongs to a
continuum, than brainstorms the related items and asks the students to grade them according to a
certain principle.  

Collocation greed (table). It helps students to choose a partner to the word to see the combinability
of target items. In upper line we place nouns, in column adjectives, that can collocate with them. For
more advanced learners discussion over a greed is more useful than producing it, because it should
lead students to context.

Componential analysis. It presuppose splitting the word into its constituencies. Filling in the  table
helps the learners to differentiate between confusing words.  At the 2nd stage all exercises are
responsible for sub skill formation through understanding, selecting, grouping, combining the word of
the target language.

Review games     are of great use on this stage

 wordsearch games
 picture labeling
 crosswords
 Bingo
 dominoes
 puzzles
 charts or survey for their peers

Students deepen their understanding through use/creating problem – solving activities. The

work on vocabulary at this stage is based on production tasks (discussions, debades, story completion,
creating stories/poems, etc.).

13. Different purposes for Listening

 
Listening for gist - This refers to the general idea of what is being said, as well as who is speaking to
whom and why, and how successful they are in communicating their point.

Listening for specific information - When we do not need to understand everything, but only a very
specific part.

Listening for detail - When we cannot afford to ignore anything because we don’t know what kind of
information we need.

2. Listening Strategies

Top-down strategy - This strategy is based on the knowledge the listener brings - background
knowledge of the topic, the situation, the speaker, and the language. This prior knowledge helps the
listener activate a set of expectations, interpret what is heard, and anticipate what will come next. Top-
down strategies include: predicting, summarizing, distinguishing fact from opinion, interpreting tone,
drawing inferences.

Bottom-up strategy - This strategy is based on the information coming from the message itself. The
listener relies on the language in the message - the combination of sounds, words, and grammar that
helps the listener create meaning. It includes: listening for specific words; recognizing cognates;
recognizing word-order patterns; recognizing prefixes, roots, and suffixes.

1. Stages of a lesson with focus on listening

 warmer/ warm-up
 pre-listening
 listening (1st listening, 2nd listening)
 post-listening
 corrections / reflections

14.Listening Activities

Pre-Listening

1. Simplify passages to three sentences with a civil question for each of them.

2. Explain difficult vocabulary and cultural allusions in the passage before listening.

3. Give simple clear explanation of what to listen to by asking pre-listening questions.

4. Divide a passage into manageable pieces.

5. Have learners make notes about what they expect to hear (based on the title).

6. Make learners aware of redundancy clues (the multiple signals in sentences for plurality, possession,
gender, verb aspect, etc.).

While-Listening

1. Give learners a list of facts and items they can check as they are listening (people, dates, plans,
forms, pictures, etc.).

2. Give them maps on which they can chart a route being discussed.

3. Tell them to jot down only the key-words as they listen.

4. Have them draw something simple that the passage suggests

Post-Listening

Depending on their ability the learners may be asked to:

1. Think of suitable title of a passage.

2. Make up a plan of the story.

3. Take a dictation of the passage.

4. Fill in a cloze-test.

5. Answer multiple choice questions.

6. Answer open-ended question.

7. Write a two- or three-line summary.

8. Tell who the speakers are (when listening to a tape), what their attitudes are, what their roles are,
where they are, what they are speaking about.

9. Tell what can be inferred from the passage heard.

10. Listen to the story and think of a suitable end.

11. Describe the characters.

12. Heuristics (problem solving) – students hear all the information relevant to a particular problem and
then set themselves to solve it.

13. Debate, interview, discussion, role-play, dramatisation, etc. associated with the passage heard.
1. Speaking as a Skill

Speaking is "the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal
symbols, in a variety of contexts" (Chaney, 1998, p. 13). Speaking is a crucial part of second language
learning and teaching. Despite its importance, for many years, teaching speaking has been
undervalued and English language teachers have continued to teach speaking just as a repetition of
drills or memorization of dialogues. However, today's world requires that the goal of teaching speaking
should improve students' communicative skills, because, only in that way, students can express
themselves and learn how to follow the social and cultural rules appropriate in each communicative
circumstance. In order to teach second language learners how to speak in the best way possible, some
speaking activities are provided below, that can be applied to ESL and EFL classroom settings, together
with suggestions for teachers who teach oral language.

What is meant by "teaching speaking" is to teach ESL learners to:

 Produce the English speech sounds and sound patterns

 Use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the second language.
 Select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social setting, audience,
situation and subject matter.
 Organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence.
 Use language as a means of expressing values and judgments.
 Use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called as fluency.
(Nunan, 2003)

15.Activities to Promote Speaking

Discussions

After a content-based lesson, a discussion can be held for various reasons. The students may aim to
arrive at a conclusion, share ideas about an event, or find solutions in their discussion groups. Before
the discussion, it is essential that the purpose of the discussion activity is set by the teacher. In this way,
the discussion points are relevant to this purpose, so that students do not spend their time chatting
with each other about irrelevant things. For example, students can become involved in agree/disagree
discussions. In this type of discussions, the teacher can form groups of students, preferably 4 or 5
in each group, and provide controversial sentences like “people learn best when they read vs. people
learn best when they travel”. Then each group works on their topic for a given time period, and
presents their opinions to the class. It is essential that the speaking should be equally divided among
group members. At the end, the class decides on the winning group who defended the idea in the best
way. This activity fosters critical thinking and quick decision making, and students learn how to express
and justify themselves in polite ways while disagreeing with the others. For efficient group discussions,
it is always better not to form large groups, because quiet students may avoid contributing in large
groups. The group members can be either assigned by the teacher or the students may determine it by
themselves, but groups should be rearranged in every discussion activity so that students can work
with various people and learn to be open to different ideas. Lastly, in class or group discussions,
whatever the aim is, the students should always be encouraged to ask questions, paraphrase ideas,
express support, check for clarification, and so on.

Role Play
One other way of getting students to speak is role-playing. Students pretend they are in various social
contexts and have a variety of social roles. In role-play activities, the teacher gives information to the
learners such as who they are and what they think or feel. Thus, the teacher can tell the student that
"You are David, you go to the doctor and tell him what happened last night, and…" (Harmer, 1984)

Simulations

Simulations are very similar to role-plays but what makes simulations different than role plays is that
they are more elaborate. In simulations, students can bring items to the class to create a realistic
environment. For instance, if a student is acting as a singer, she brings a microphone to sing and so on.
Role plays and simulations have many advantages. First, since they are entertaining, they motivate the
students. Second, as Harmer (1984) suggests, they increase the self-confidence of hesitant students,
because in role play and simulation activities, they will have a different role and do not have to speak
for themselves, which means they do not have to take the same responsibility.

Information Gap

In this activity, students are supposed to be working in pairs. One student will have the information
that other partner does not have and the partners will share their information. Information gap
activities serve many purposes such as solving a problem or collecting information.  Also, each partner
plays an important role because the task cannot be completed if the partners do not provide the
information the others need. These activities are effective because everybody has the opportunity to
talk extensively in the target language.

Brainstorming

On a given topic, students can produce ideas in a limited time. Depending on the context, either
individual or group brainstorming is effective and learners generate ideas quickly and freely. The good
characteristics of brainstorming is that the students are not criticized for their ideas so students will be
open to sharing new ideas.

Storytelling

Students can briefly summarize a tale or story they heard from somebody beforehand, or they may
create their own stories to tell their classmates. Story telling fosters creative thinking. It also helps
students express ideas in the format of beginning, development, and ending, including the characters
and setting a story has to have. Students also can tell riddles or jokes. For instance, at the very
beginning of each class session, the teacher may call a few students to tell short riddles or jokes as an
opening. In this way, not only will the teacher address students’ speaking ability, but also get the
attention of the class.

Interviews

Students can conduct interviews on selected topics with various people. It is a good idea that the
teacher provides a rubric to students so that they know what type of questions they can ask or what
path to follow, but students should prepare their own interview questions. Conducting interviews with
people gives students a chance to practice their speaking ability not only in class but also outside and
helps them becoming socialized. After interviews, each student can present his or her study to the
class. Moreover, students can interview each other and "introduce" his or her partner to the class.

Story Completion
This is a very enjoyable, whole-class, free-speaking activity for which students sit in a circle. For
this activity, a teacher starts to tell a story, but after a few sentences he or she stops narrating. Then,
each student starts to narrate from the point where the previous one stopped. Each student is
supposed to add from four to ten sentences. Students can add new characters, events, descriptions
and so on.

Reporting

Before coming to class, students are asked to read a newspaper or magazine and, in class, they report
to their friends what they find as the most interesting news. Students can also talk about whether they
have experienced anything worth telling their friends in their daily lives before class.

Playing Cards

In this game, students should form groups of four. Each suit will represent a topic. For instance:

 Diamonds: Earning money

 Hearts: Love and relationships
 Spades: An unforgettable memory
 Clubs: Best teacher

Each student in a group will choose a card. Then, each student will write 4-5 questions about that topic
to ask the other people in the group. For example:

If the topic "Diamonds: Earning Money" is selected, here are some possible questions:

 Is money important in your life? Why?

 What is the easiest way of earning money?
 What do you think about lottery? Etc.

However, the teacher should state at the very beginning of the activity that students are not allowed to
prepare yes-no questions, because by saying yes or no students get little practice in spoken language
production.  Rather, students ask open-ended questions to each other so that they reply in complete
sentences.

Picture Narrating

This activity is based on several sequential pictures. Students are asked to tell the story taking place in
the sequential pictures by paying attention to the criteria provided by the teacher as a rubric. Rubrics
can include the vocabulary or structures they need to use while narrating.

Picture Describing

Another way to make use of pictures in a speaking activity is to give students just one picture and
having them describe what it is in the picture. For this activity students can form groups and each
group is given a different picture. Students discuss the picture with their groups, then a spokesperson
for each group describes the picture to the whole class. This activity fosters the creativity and
imagination of the learners as well as their public speaking skills.

Find the Difference

For this activity students can work in pairs and each couple is given two different pictures, for example,
picture of boys playing football and another picture of girls playing tennis. Students in pairs discuss the
similarities and/or differences in the pictures.

1. Activity procedure and requirements

Requirements

1. What skills does the activity practice? (listening, speaking, thinking, negotiating, fluency)

2. Is it practical? Consider how easy the activity is to set up and manage. For example, does it need any
materials? Do the learners need time to prepare?

3.  Is it purposeful? Do the learners have a purpose for doing the activity? Is there an outcome?

4. Is it productive? How much speaking will it generate? How many students are involved in speking?

5. Is it predictable? How easy is it to predict the language that the learners will need in order to

do the activity? For example, what vocabulary and grammar are they likely to need?

6.  Is it adaptable? How versatile (has many different skills or uses) is the activity type? For

example,'could you adapt it for higher or lower level.

7. What is the teacher’s role? (to organize, to give clear instructions.

16.Task cycle

Task-Based Learning Framework

 Components of a TBL Framework

PRE-TASK PHASE
 INTRODUCTION TO TOPIC AND TASK

Teacher explores the topic with the class, highlights useful words and phrases, and helps learners
understand taskinstructions and prepare. Learners may hear a recording of others doing a similar task,
or read part of a text as a lead in to a task.
 
  TASK CYCLE  
TASK PLANNING REPORT

Students do the task, in pairs or Students prepare to report to the Some groups present their
small groups. Teacher monitors whole class (orally or in writing) reports to the class, or exchange
from a distance, encouraging all how they did the task, what they written reports, and compare
attempts at communication, not decided or discovered. Since the results. Teacher acts as a
correcting. Since this situation has report stage is public, students chairperson, and then comments
a "private" feel, students feel free will naturally want to be accurate, on the content of the reports.
to experiment.Mistakes don't so the teacher stands by to give
matter. language advice.
  
Learners may now hear a recording of others doing a similar task and compare how they all did it. Or
they may read a text similar in some way to the one they have written themselves, or related in topic to
the task they have done.

LANGUAGE FOCUS
ANALYSIS PRACTICE

Students examine and then discuss specific features Teacher conducts practice of new words, phrases,
of the text or transcript of the recording. They can and patterns occurring in the data, either during
enter new words, phrases and patterns in or after the Analysis
vocabulary books.
Sometime after completing this sequence, learners may benefit from doing a similar task with a
different partner

17. Sources and Ways of Reading

Reading is a vital skill required to develop students understanding of the English language. It's really
important that you get your students reading as soon as possible because this is a skill that will prove
integral to their everyday lives should they ever choose to live in an English speaking environment. For
example, if a student is travelling in another country they may need to be able to read a timetable, a
road sign or even the instructions for their new bicycle. Students will need to develop a plethora of
skills including understanding the key concepts of a piece of literature and effectively scanning their
text (finding appropriate information without in-depth reading). When choosing practice texts try to
choose topics which students are already interested in.

Reasons for reading:

 Pleasure
 Information

Ways of reading:

 Skimming – to get the general idea of the text

 Scanning – to search quickly for particular information:  a name, a date or an event
 Close reading – to read for overall understanding

2. Reading Tasks and Activities

General reading activities:

When teaching students to read English you will still need to ensure that student talk time is high.
Activities are a great way to do this and they will help you to work out how much students have
understood from the text they have been reading.
  Do-it-yourself question - can be done in groups or pairs. Students write comprehension
questions for other students to answer.
 Come up with a title for a story.
 Summarise a story.
 Continue the story - students offer suggestions as to what happens next.
 Preface to the story - students offer suggestions as to what happened before the story began.
 Revision - students are given the pictures from a storyboard of the text and have to put them in
order.
 Fill in the gap - students are given a text with certain words missing and have to fill them in
appropriately.
 Correct mistakes - students are given two texts and through asking each other questions they
identify and correct any mistakes.
 Discussion about themes present in the text.

Additional pre-reading activities:

When reading a text with your class it's usually a good idea to do one or more pre-reading activities to
get their attention and raise their interest. This will ensure that your students are interested in the
reading exercise and it will also give you the opportunity to introduce them to new vocabulary that will
help them understand the text better.

 Give the students the title of the text you are going to be looking at and let them suggest ideas
as to what will happen in the story.
 Rearrange the words in the title of a text for your students to put back into the correct order.
 Pre-teach necessary vocabulary, if you are working with new or particularly difficult language, to
help students understand the text.

Additional activities to be carried out during the reading of text:

Asking students to simply read the text is often much less effective than working through the text with
your students. In some cultures when faced with something they don't know, be it a word or a tense,
they will just stop and it's important that you pick up on this as quickly as possible so you don't waste
any time. Using activities as you read through the text is a good way of doing this.

 Rearrange paragraphs or sentences of the text for students to put back in the correct order.
 Give the students pictures of events in the story which students put in order as they read the
text.
 Give the students a text containing deliberate mistakes for the students to identify.
 Omit words in a text, giving the students a list of words with which to fill in the gaps.
 Replace certain words with a picture to help students work out what the missing word is.

Additional post-reading activities:

You should always follow up your reading activities with a post-reading activity. This will give students
the opportunity to practice their reading and will reiterate what you have taught them in the lesson.
Most importantly, however, it will give the exercise a sense of meaning so that your students feel they
have achieved something.

 Students create tasks such as filling in the gaps, for other students.
 Students write a letter from, or a conversation between characters in the text.
 Students each assume a role of a character in the text and act out all or part of the text.
18.Reading Lesson Stages

Pre-reading

 • Use a picture to generate interest in the topic.

 • Use the title of the text to encourage learners to predict the content of the text.

 • Teach essential vocabulary that learners may be unfamiliar with.

While-reading

• Ask learners to read the text quickly in order to answer gist questions, such as: What's it about? Who
wrote it? Why?

• Check detailed understanding by asking multiple choice questions.

Post-reading

• Focus on vocabulary in the text by asking learners to find words that mean X, Y, Z. • Focus on a
grammar structure in the text by, for example, asking learners to underline each instance of it.

• Ask learners to talk about their personal response to the text and its topic.

19. Writing as a Skill

Writing skills are an important part of communication.  Good writing skills allow you to communicate
your message with clarity and ease to a far larger audience than through face-to-face or telephone
conversations.You might be called upon to write a report, plan or strategy at work; write a grant
application or press release within a volunteering role; or you may fancy communicating your ideas
online via a blog.  And, of course, a well written CV or résumé with no spelling or grammatical mistakes
is essential if you want a new job. Correct grammar, punctuation and spelling are key in written
communications.  The reader will form an opinion of you, the author, based on both the content and
presentation, and errors are likely to lead them to form a negative impression.

20.A product approach

This is a traditional approach, in which students are encouraged to mimic a model text, which is usually
presented and analysed at an early stage. A model for such an approach is outlined below:

Stage 1

Model texts are read, and then features of the genre are highlighted. For example, if studying a formal
letter, students' attention may be drawn to the importance of paragraphing and the language used to
make formal requests. If studying a story, the focus may be on the techniques used to make the story
interesting, and students focus on where and how the writer employs these techniques.

Stage 2

This consists of controlled practice of the highlighted features, usually in isolation. So if students are
studying a formal letter, they may be asked to practise the language used to make formal requests,
practising the 'I would be grateful if you would…' structure.

Stage 3 

Organisation of ideas. This stage is very important. Those who favour this approach believe that the
organisation of ideas is more important than the ideas themselves and as important as the control of
language.

Stage 4

The end result of the learning process. Students choose from a choice of comparable writing tasks.
Individually, they use the skills, structures and vocabulary they have been taught to produce the
product; to show what they can do as fluent and competent users of the language.

21.A process approach

Process approaches to writing tend to focus more on the varied classroom activities which promote the
development of language use: brainstorming, group discussion, re-writing. Such an approach can have
any number of stages, though a typical sequence of activities could proceed as follows;

Stage 1

Generating ideas by brainstorming and discussion. Students could be discussing qualities needed to do

a certain job, or giving reasons as to why people take drugs or gamble. The teacher remains in the
background during this phase, only providing language support if required, so as not to inhibit
students in the production of ideas.

Stage 2

Students extend ideas into note form, and judge quality and usefulness of ideas.

Stage 3

Students organise ideas into a mind map, spidergram, or linear form. This stage helps to make the
(hierarchical) relationship of ideas more immediately obvious, which helps students with the structure
of their texts.
Stage 4

Students write the first draft. This is done in class and frequently in pairs or groups.

Stage 5

Drafts are exchanged, so that students become the readers of each other's work. By responding as
readers, students develop an awareness of the fact that a writer is producing something to be read by
someone else, and thus can improve their own drafts.

Stage 6

Drafts are returned and improvements are made based upon peer feedback. 
Stage 7

A final draft is written.

Stage 8

Students once again exchange and read each other's work and perhaps even write a response or reply.

1. Criteria for Analysing Writing Activities

 Purpose: is there a communicative purpose to the task?

 Integration: do the learners produce whole texts?
 Authenticity: is the task a real-life one?
 Readership: does the writer have a specific reader (s) in mind?
 What level could it be used for?

22.Lesson plan components

 COVER PAGE

Heading Definition
1 Topic a subject for discussion or conversation
2 Anticipated problems and solutions Problems anticipated in these areas: meaning,
form, phonology, level of skill, classroom
management, difficult learners, etc. and
suggested ways of dealing with them
3 Learning objectives Specific, measurable statements saying what
we want the learners to know.
4 Description of learners This includes age, level, nationality,
strengths/weaknesses, difficult learners,
atmosphere
5 Materials and references Any coursebooks, references, tapes/CDs,
pictures, board drawings, handouts, realia, etc.
6 Context, location and time Size of classroom, facilities/resources available,
time of day, lesson length.
7 Timetable fit What comes before and what comes after the
lesson
   

 PROCEDURE PAGE

Heading Definition
1 Stage aim State your aims to make it clear why you are
doing something and make sure you don’t
confuse aims and activities. Presenting new
language/highlighting pronunciation/less
controlled practice/ personalisation are some
of the stages you could use.
2 Interaction pattern Teacher–learner, learner–learner, group work,
pair work, individual. This ensures variety of
focus.
3 Materials Aids and materials (i.e. coursebook, cut-ups,
overhead projectors, etc.) used in that stage.
4 Timing Give approximate timings for each stage. Build
in a flexible slot that can be used or dropped if
time is there.
5 Procedure A breakdown of what the teachers and the
learners actually do.
6 Instructions Note brief but clear instructions, especially for
complex activities.
7 Homework Include details of a suitable homework task.
  

 2.The differences between aims, purposes, objectives and outcomes

  

 Aims are written in terms of teaching intention and indicate what it is that the teacher intends
to cover in the block of learning (curriculum coverage).

 Purpose is the reason for which the activity is done.

 Objectives are clear and concise statements that describe what you intend your students to
learn by the end of the lesson/session.

 Learning outcomes are descriptions of what the learner is expected to learn in the period of
learning defined.

 Aims/purposes are:

 -       in the teaching domain (what I am teaching)

 -       general

 -       like strategy

 -       process-oriented
   

 Objectives/Outcomes are:

 -       in the learning domain (what the learners will learn)

 -       specific

 -       like tactics

 -       result-oriented.

23. Lesson Stages and their aims

According to Jack Richards lesson consists of the following parts: opening, istruction, closure.  

The opening of the lesson consists of the procedures teacher uses to focus the students’ attention on
the learning aims of the lessons. Openings generally occupy the first five minutes of the lesson and can
have an important influence on how much students learn from a lesson. It can serve a variety of
purposes:

 To focus learners’ attention on the learning aims of the lesson

 To help learners relate the content of the new lesson to that of the last lesson
 To assess relevant knowledge
 To establish an appropriate “set” in learners: i.e. to prepare them for what is to follow
 To allow tuning-in time – which may be especially important in situations where  have come
directly from a very different environment (e.g. a sports class)
 To reduce disruption caused by late-arriving students

Instruction

This refers to the sequence of activities that constitute the body of the lesson. In language lessons, the
lesson sequence or lesson structure may reflect general learning principles, the type of lesson content
(e.g. a reading lesson or a writing lesson) or the method the teacher is using, such as communicative
language teaching, a text-based  approach, or task-based approach, etc. The aims of  this stage:

 To introduce new information

 To check learners’ comprehension of the new material
 To model the tasks that the learners will do in the practice stage
 To provide opportunities to practice and apply the new language skills or information.
 

The general principles  to be observed at this stage:

 Receptive skills should precede productive skills.

 Language awareness activities should precede task-work.
 Model texts should be analyzed before students create their own texts.
 Accuracy-focused activities should come before fluency activities.
 Activities should prepare students for personalized language use.
 Listening and reading lessons should have a pre- and post-comprehension phase.
 Guided practice should be followed by freer  practice. 

Closure

Another important phase of the lesson is the way the teacher brings the lesson to the close. Closure
refers to those concluding parts of a lesson which serve:

 To reinforce what have been learnt in a lesson

 To integrate and review the content of the lesson
 To prepare the students for further learning

 24. Approaches to lesson planning

A. Present - Practice - Produce (PPP)

 PPP is recommended when introducing new grammar or vocabulary

 1. Present

Teacher introduces a new grammar point or vocabulary set. There are many ways of doing this.

2. Practice

Students do some exercises to familiarise themselves with new language. This will probably be
'controlled' exercises, where students are just adding relevant language to an exercise provided by the
teacher or the course book. Typical exercises include: matching words and pictures, filling in gaps in
sentences, or drilling sentences around the class.

 3. Produce

Here, students do more 'free' practice, so use the grammar or words in their own sentences or
dialogues. For example, they write a short story using new words, they talk about what they did the
night before, they say what they will do in the school holiday.

 A key feature of PPP is the movement from controlled and structured language to less-controlled and
more freely used and created language.  Another important feature of PPP is the reduction of teacher
talk time and the increase in student talk time as the lesson progresses.

 Engage- Study – Activate (ESA)

Engage. This is the point in the teaching sequence where teachers try to arouse the students’ interest,
thus involving their emotions. Students who are involved often perform better and are better behaved.
Some activities that engage students include games, dramatic stories, amusing anecdotes, music,
stimulating pictures, life experience, predictions. These activities can be used to lead into the language
content targeted for that lesson.

Study. During this part of the lesson, the focus is on the language and how it is constructed. New
information or the revision of previously learnt information can be included during this time The
teacher can use a variety of styles to present the information focusing on grammar, vocabulary or
pronunciation. Styles include the teacher presenting the material and students learning by working in
groups. Written and oral English are included in this segment of the class and individual learning styles
are of major consideration. On this stage the following formats can be followed: PPP procedure,
discovery (students figure out the rules themselves), or after reading a passage students ask about
language units they want to focus on.

Activate. This phase of the ESA refers to the use and practice of the language focus in the Study
segment of the lesson. Exercises and activities are designed for students to use English for
communication, rehearsing what they have learnt. Without the activate element, students will have
trouble taking their classroom experience into real-world communication. Some activate activities
include role-playing, advertisement design, debates and discussions, story or poem writing, email
exchange, writing in groups.

25. Test Teach Test (TTT)

 TTT is a great way to strengthen and extend existing grammar or vocabulary

 It goes like this

1. Test

Find out from the students what they already know or can remember about a certain area of grammar
or vocabulary. This could be done by brainstorming, setting a short quiz, or asking the students some
questions focusing on the target language.

 2. Teach

Now you have an idea of what they can remember and what they can do with the language, you can
teach what they have forgotten, and introduce new material to build their understanding and
knowledge.

 3. Test

Now test the students again on similar material to the first test, as well as on any extension work you
have done. This will enable you to see if they are any better. Hopefully they will be!

Lead-In, Main Activity, Follow-Up (LMF)

 LMF is a great way to practise skills work, so reading, writing, speaking and listening.
 Lead-In

This should be an exercise to raise student interest in upcoming activity. This could be a discussion on
a relevant picture, some questions about their own experiences, or a story from you with some relevant
language. You may also want to introduce some language which the students will need to understand
a text you're going to give them ('pre-teaching').

 Main Activity

Ask the students to do the skills work you have planned. For example, they might read or listen to a
text and answer some questions, write a short letter, or do a speaking activity in which small groups of
students have to solve a problem.

 Follow- Up

Now focus on the language the students were using, and look at where they can improve. For example,
you could look at what extra vocabulary could have helped, or reflect on some grammatical errors
students made in their discussion and correct them together.