Microbiology Master
Microbiology Master
Microbiology Master
Koch’s Postulates
· A microorganism that causes a disease must be found in all
cases.
· The microorganism must be isolated and purified.
· The isolated culture should cause the same disease in a
test subject.
· The microorganism should be recoverable from the test
subject.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis pathway and energy production.
Transcription
Into mRNA
Shapes of Bacteria
Shown are the different shapes that cocci and bacilli can
take.
Shapes are function of replication mechanism.
Clonal Selection
§Clonal selection occurs when an antigen binds with a B-cell
whose membrane bound antibody molecules are specific for
epitopes on that antigen.
§Clonal selection of an antigen activated B-cell leads to a clone
of effector B-cells (plasma cells) and memory B-cells.
§Maturation & Clonal selection of T-cells takes place in similar
fashion as that of the B-cells.
Humoral & Cell-Mediated Immunity
§The responses carried out by B-lymphocytes are termed as
Humoral immune responses. And those carried out by T-
Mechanism of Innate Immunity lymphocytes are termed as cell-mediated immune responses.
· Potential pathogens are encountered routinely, but only §Humoral immune responses are best suited for the
rarely cause disease. The vast majority of microorganisms elimination of exogenous antigens; whereas cell mediated
are destroyed within minutes or hours by innate defenses. immune response is best suited for the elimination of
· Innate immune response includes four barriers anatomical, endogenous antigens.
Physiological, Pagocytic & inflammatory barriers.
Immunological Disorders
· When one or more of its components is missing in the
immune system the result is an immunodeficiency disorder.
· They can be inherited, acquired through infection or
produced unintentionally by drugs such as those used to
treat people with cancer or those who have received
transplants
Examples of Immunological Disorders
· SLE-antibodies made against self antigens.
· Diabetes-antibodies are made against pancreatic cells.
· Rheumatoid arthritis
· AIDS (HIV) that infects immune cells, namely the T cells
and disables the immune system.
· Latent AIDS infection the T cells and makes the person
susceptible to serious life threatening disease like cancer,
TB etc.
Pneumococcal Pneumonia
· Main arteries are vessels that carry blood away from the · Pneumococci sometimes inhaled into the lungs from the
heart. pharynx.
· Pulmonary arteries carry it to the lungs and the aorta to · Phosphorylcholine triggers endocytosis the bacterium is
the body. Arteries connect to veins via capillaries. Veins protected by its unique capsule.
carry blood back to the heart. The major veins are: · This allows the bacteria to live in the lung cells eventually
pulmonary veins which carry blood from the lungs to the killing them.
heart, superior vena cava head neck and arms to heart and · The bacteria multiply in the alveoli damaging them and
inferior vena cava from the rest of the body to the heart. allowing erythrocytes and leukocytes and blood plasma to
· Blood is made up of serum, which is the liquid, and enter.
erythrocytes and platelets. When clotting proteins are · With this added fluid in the alveoli the lung is losses ability
taken out from serum the plasma remains. to transfer oxygen to the blood this causes the pneumonia.
· The atria and ventricles of heart are separated by valves
which prevent backflow of blood. Tuberculosis
· The wall of the heart is made up of an outer, fibrous
pericardium, muscular myocardium and inner endocardium.
· Blood flows in this sequence: venae cavae, right atrium,
atrioventricular valve, right ventricle, pulmonary semilunar
valve, pulmonary arteries, lungs, pulmonary veins, left
atrium, left atrioventricular valve, left ventricle, aortic
semilunar valve, aorta, arteries, capillaries, veins, venae
cavae.
Bacterial Cardiovascular and Systemic
Disease
· Septicemia is the presence of pathogens in the blood.
Lymphangitis is when lymphatic vessels become inflamed
due to septicemia. Bacterial septicemia or bacteremia is
the presence of relatively harmless bacteria in the blood.
Sometimes physicians use bacteremia and septicemia
interchangeably.
· Toxemia or blood poisoning is when bacteria at a specific
location releases toxins and can have systemic effects.
Living microbes release exotoxins which can disrupt or kill
cells of living tissue. Endotoxin is the lipid A part of
lipopolysaccharides, and is released from dying Gram
negative bacteria. It can trigger disseminated intravascular Tubercles: Small, hard lumps that are formed by the immune
coagulation, shock, inflammation, diarrhea, hemorrhaging system encasing the diseased cells. Collagen fibers enclose
and other advanced signs of septic shock. the lung cells. Infected cells in the center of the tubercle die
· Bacterial septicemia can trigger Petechiae and and release more bacteria. This results in caseous necrosis
osteomyelitis. which gives the lung a cheese like consistency.
Normal microbiota can become pathogenicBiology24.com © Rapid Learning Inc. All Rights Reserved
opportunists
21: Digestive system Infections 22: Urogenital and
· Gastrointestinal tract: A mucus lined tube extending Sexually Transmitted Disease
from the mouth to the anus. Includes the: mouth, · Kidney: The renal arteries and veins supply and drain blood
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, from the kidney respectively. The urine is produced in the
rectum and anus. cortex, medulla, renal column, and pyramid. The functional
· Accessory digestive organs: Grind food or inject unit of the kidney that produces urine is called the nephron.
digestive secretions. Include the: tongue, teeth, liver, · Nephron: Within the Glomerular capsule the cellular
gallbladder and pancreas. compnents of the blood are separated from the non-cellular
· Peritoneum: The membrane that covers and surrounds components of the blood, most of which are returned to the
most of the organs of the GI tract. blood. Besides removing waste, the nephrons help regulate
· Intestinal peristalsis: Is a series of coordinated blood pressure and ion concentrations within the blood.
contractions by the smooth muscles of the intestine that · Ureter: The ureter is a tube that drains the urine from the
move undigested material into the large intestine. kidney to the bladder.
· Gingivitis: inflammation of the gums it is a form of · Bladder: Urine collects in the until 300 ml accumulates.
periodontal disease. Upon mitriculation, the sphincters relax, the detrusor muscle
· Caries: Second only to the common cold in the frequency contracts, and urine streams through the internal urethral
of this bacteria caused affliction. They usually look like orifice, prostate gland, through the external urethral orifice
holes or pits in the teeth. and to ultimately out of the penile urethra.
· Microbial antagonism: Microbiota that whose presence · Prostate: Trouble with the prostate gland often involves
prevents other bacteria from growing in the same place. swelling. Swelling causes small amounts of urine to be
An example is in the intestine where the presence of retained, which leads to further inflammation.
normal microbes protects the body from pathogens by out · Urethra: Only the upper portion of the urinary tract is
competing them. sterile; the urethra has a normal complement of microbiota
· Prophage: A virus that infects bacteria and can insert its that prevent the colonization by harmful organisms.
genome into the host’s chromosome or exist as a plasmid. (Lactobacillus, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus)
The prophage can upon proper stimulus begin replication · Vagina: The vagina leads from outside the body to the
and production of virions. cervix. At times other than ovulation the vagina has an
· Shigatoxin: A toxin that binds specific target cells and acidic pH created by resident lactobacilli that feed on
destroys the ability of ribosomes to synthesize proteins. glycogen secreted by the walls of the vagina. This
· Enteropathic bacteria: “Entero” refers to the intestine discourages infections.
(or gut). In naming bacteria that inhabit or cause disease · Cervix: The cervix leads from the vagina to the uterus, and
of the gut the naming conventions: enterohemorrhagic at times other than ovulation, is occluded by a plug of
bacteria cause bleeding in or of the intestine. mucus that prevent infections from entering the body cavity.
· Dysentery: infectious disease of the colon. Symptoms · Uterus: The uterus is the site of implantation of the
include bloody, mucus-filled diarrhea and loss of fluids from fertilized egg.
the body. · Uterine Tubes: The fallopian tubes lead from ovaries to the
Digestive System uterus. Note that the fallopian tubes are NOT connected to
the ovaries but rather are open to the entire body cavity. It
is therefore possible for an infection to enter abdomen cavity
directly from the vagina.
Reproductive System Structure
·
· The digestive system is divided into two segments.
Gastrointestinal Tract (GI) and Accessory Digestive Organs.
In this schematic the GI organs are in the blue the other in
green. GI tract is lined with a peritoneum. The Accessory
Organs are primary defined by function which is to grind
nutrients or inject digestive secretions like bile, salivary
amylase and others to help in the breakdown of food.
Bacterial Diseases of the Mouth
Microbes in Food
· In the home and in industry, microbes are used in the
production of fermented foods.
· Yeasts are used in the manufacture of beer and wine and for
the leavening of breads,
· Lactic acid bacteria are used to make yogurt, cheese, sour
cream, buttermilk and other fermented milk products.
· Vinegars are acetic acid fermentation.
· Other fermented foods include soy sauce, sauerkraut, dill
pickles, olives, salami, cocoa and black teas.
Nitrogen Cycle
Vaccines
· Vaccines are substances derived from microorganisms used
to immunize against disease.
· The microbes that are the cause of infectious disease are
usually the ultimate source of vaccines. Thus, a version of
the diphtheria toxin (called toxoid) is used to immunize
against diphtheria, and parts of B. pertussis cells are used to
vaccinate against pertussis (whooping cough).
· The use of vaccines such as smallpox, polio, diphtheria,
tetanus and whooping cough has led to virtual elimination of
these diseases in regions of the world where the vaccines
have been deployed.
Bioremediation
· Micro organisms are responsible for getting rid of the waste
generated by industry and households. They detoxify acid
Phosphorus Cycle mine drainage and other toxins that we dump into the soil
and water
· Micro organisms help in waste water treatment
Microbes in Medicine
· Antibiotics are substances produced by microorganisms that
kill or inhibit other microbes which are used in the treatment
of infectious disease.
· Antibiotics are produced in nature by molds such as
Penicillium and bacteria such as Streptomyces and Bacillus
Microbes in Recovery of Oils
· Microbes like pseudomonas have been manipulated to
harbour plasmids containing genes which can degrade
hydrocarbons.
· Some microbes have the inherent capacity to degrade
hydrocarbons.
· Such organisms can degrade wide variety of aromatic,
polycyclic and aliphatic compounds in most petroleums.Thus
oil spill degradations work better.