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Michelson’s first ether‐drift experiment in Berlin and

Potsdam

Article · December 1988

DOI: 10.1063/1.37840

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 42

MICHELSON'S FIRST E T H E R - D R I F T E X P E R I M E N T
IN BERLIN AND POTSDAM

Barbara Haubold, Hans Joachim Haubold, and Lewis Pyenson

PROLOGUE

More than 100 years ago, in April 1881, Albert A. Michelson (t 852-1931) performed the
first version of his famous experiment to measure the effect of the Earth's motion through
the ether. In Michelson's own words: "the result of the hypothesis of a stationary ether
is [thus] shown to be incorrect, and the necessary conclusion follows that the hypothesis
is erroneous. This conclusion directly contradicts the explanation of the phenomenon of
aberration which has been hitherto generally accepted, and which presupposes that the
earth moves through the ether, the latter remaining at rest." However, as Michelson
discussed in his paper, only the hypothesis of A. J. Fresnel (1788-1827) of a stationary
ether was shown to be wrong. Not called into question was "the existence of a medium
called the ether, whose vibrations produce the phenomenon of heat and light, and which
is supposed to fill all space. "1 The centenary of Michelson's pioneering experiment has
served as an opportunity to recall the context and the outcome of the experiment, which
was prepared at the Physical Institute of the University of Berlin under the guidance of
H. von Helmholtz (1821-1894) and performed at the Astrophysical Observatory in Pots-
dam by arrangement with the observatory director, H. C. Vogel (1841-1907). 2
In 1931, the year Michelson died, the German translation of the 1881 paper appeared,
at the suggestion of A. Berliner. Reprinting the results of Michelson's work in a German
translation was an appreciation of his famous experiment "weil sic zeigt," as M. yon Laue
(1879-1960) wrote in an annotation: "wie Michelson dem von Maxwell erwogenen, aber
mit einem 'Unm6glich' beiseitegeschobenen Gedanken [proof of effects to the order
(v/c) 2] eine Wendung ins Positive gibt, und mit welchem jugendfrischen M u t e r an die
Verwirklichung geht. "s It is beyond any doubt that Michelson's 1881 paper is a classic. It
has frequently been reprinted in its original form or in translations.
Even the centenary of the birth of A. Einstein (1879-1955) was an occasion to refer
extensively to Michelson as the master of light and to his important contributions to
e t h e r - d r i f t problems, which were centrally relevant to Einstein's special theory of relati-
vity. 4 The aim of the present paper is to present lesser-known documents and facts
connected with the experiment that Michelson performed in Berlin and Potsdam.

THE F O R M A T I V E YEARS

Albert Abraham Michelson was born in Strelno (at the time, part of the Kingdom of
Prussia), 19 December 1852, and was brought to the United States in 1855, when his
parents immigrated. He spent most of his childhood in the world of California's gold
miners, s He graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1873 and returned as an
instructor in physics and chemistry from 1875 to 1879. During that time, in accordance
with his personal interests, Michelson started early measurements of the speed of light.
More generally, he did work in several areas of physical optics, particularly on methods for
measuring the speed of light established by A. H. L. Fizeau (1819-1896) and L. Foucault
(1819-1868), respectively. Fizeau (1849) had measured the velocity of light in air and
water using a machined gear wheel and found that it was greater in air, a crucial experi-
ment in favor of the wave theory of light and against the corpuscular theory. In 1850,
Foucault had determined the absolute value of the velocity of light by adopting a rotating
mirror, an experiment that later was important in establishing the electromagnetic theory

(e9 1988 American Institute of Physics

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 B. Haubold, H. J. Haubold, and L. Pyenson 43

of light and the special theory of relativity. Foucault's technique attracted the interest
of Michelson. S. Newcomb (1835-1909), Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac Office

Figure I
Albert A. Michelson, about 1887
(Courtesy of Dorothy Michelson Livingston)

at the Washington Naval Academy, had taken measurements of the speed of light using
Foueault's method. Michelson was aware of Newcomb's results. 6 In 1877 he modified and
improved Foucault's method by using a still longer light path and larger light intensity;
thus he was able to get much more precise measurements of the speed of light. The
results appeared in the American Journal o f Science. r Michelson received the good news
that Newcomb was interested in his experiments, and in 1878 the two researchers began
a long correspondence. 8 In 1879 Michelson became a member of the staff of the Nautical
Almanac Office and began collaborating with Newcomb in his scientific work.

ENCOUNTER WITH GERMANY IN 1880-1881

Trials with the "interferential refractor" in Helmholtz's Physical Institute in Berlin

In the 1870s and 1880s, research work leading to a German-style Ph.D. could be conducted
at only a small number of American universities. The federal government, accordingly,
offered scientists a leave of absence for specialized education in Europe. Michelson bene-
fitted from this common procedure for two years, when he studied in France and Germany
under the great masters of optics. 9
Miehelson arrived in Europe in 1880 at the Coll6ge de France and studied under the
guidance of A. Cornu (1841-1902). Cornu had refined Fizeau's gear-wheel method for
measuring the speed of light. Most probably through discussions with Cornu and in-
fluenced by Cornu's measurements of the speed of light, Michelson came to the idea for

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 44 T h e M i c h e l s o n E r a i n A m e r i c a n S c i e n c e : 1870-1930

measuring the ether drift. Thereby he also became aware of Fizeau's paper about technical
problems relating to measurement of the speed of light. Particularly important for Michel-
son's interferometer (still in the future) was the semitransparent mirror arrangement used
by Fizeau. Fizeau refined the technical detail of a plane-parallel plate glass by silvering
the front surface and utilizing only the half of the beam reflected from that front surface.
The technique had already been developed by J. C. Jamin (1856) and E. E. Mascart (1872)
in France.
Michelson's research under Cornu's guidance notwithstanding, the sources for the
invention of the apparatus later known as the Michelson interferometer are open questions.
In Michelson's classic paper of 1881, he refers to a letter 1° of J. C. Maxwelrs (1831-
1879), written just before he died, to D. P. Todd (1855-1939), at that time a colleague of
Neweomb's. In this letter Maxwell discussed whether observations on the satellites of
Jupiter could be made with such a high precision that speed of light determinations could
be carried out to reveal changes in the speed of light caused by the Earth's motion
through the luminiferous ether. 11 However, Maxwell stated that no apparatus existed
capable of measuring effects of the order (v2/c2), the square of the ratio of the Earth's
speed to that of the light. In an earlier discussion, 12 in the ninth edition of the En-
cyclopedia Britannica in 1878, Maxwell had considered the possibility of measuring varia-
tions of the velocity of light in different directions due to the motion of the Earth
through the ether. However, Maxwell considered terrestrial experiments to be hopeless.
This announced hopelessness may have been a challenge for the energetic and enthusiastic
Michelson. TM
Michelson arrived in Berlin in September 1880. Fortunately, his stay in Germany can
be followed by his correspondence with Newcomb and A. G. Bell (1847-1922).14 Michel-
son started his work in the Physical Institute of the Royal Friedrich-Wilhelms University
of Berlin (today the Humboldt University of Berlin) is and particularly in Helmhoitz's
laboratory for optical research; both centers had the very best technical equipment for
optical studies. In 1880, Helmholtz himself was already world famous for his principle of
energy conservation, his hydrodynamics of vortex motion, his investigations of electrody-
namic potentials, and for his contributions to physiological optics and acoustics. 16 In the
area of physical optics Helmholtz had created a theory of microscopes and had founded
the theoretical study of the anomalous dispersion of light. Just in the center of his re-
search work at that time was the influence of motion on electromagnetic forces.

Figure 2
Physical Institute of H. v. Helmholtz, Berlin, destroyed during the Second
World War (Courtesy of the Humboldt University Archives, Berlin)

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 B. H a u b o l d , H. J. H a u b o l d , a n d L. P y e n s o n 45

Starting his training in Berlin, Michelson enrolled at the University of Berlin (see
Fig. 3) to hear the lectures of Helmholtz. We have his certificate (see Fig. 4) and an
assessment for him (see Fig. 5) as well as a written note 17 by the administration of the
university that states that Michelson attended classes in theoretical physics, theory of
light, and physical laboratory work in the fall semester of 1880 (see Fig. 6). Other evidence
for Michelson's studies at the University of Berlin are some documents concerning his
work in the Royal Library of the university. TM

Residence
Date of Michelgon Archival Document

26 June 1880 Washington Letter of Michetson to A. M. Meyer; c i t e d in n. 8,

p. 286.

16 October 1880 Berlin Matriculation at the Kgnigtiche Friedrich Wiihetms

UniversitEt, B e r l i n ; see Fig. 4.

19 October 1880 Berlin Letter of Michetson to S. Mewcomb; c i t e d i n n. 8,

p. 287.

22 November 1880 Berlin Letter of Michetson to S. Newcomb -- elementary

work in the laboratory of H. 14etmholtz; lectures by
Dr. Hsirnhottz; q u i t e a long conversation with Dr.
fletn~oltz; c i t e d i n n. 8, p. 287.

Berlin Letter of Michelson to A. G. B e l l , not found; c i t e d

in n. 8, p. 289, note 35.

9 March 1881 Berlin Proposal for g e t t i n g the leaving c e r t i f i c a t e , see Fig.

4; handing of books to the u n i v e r s i t y l i b r a r y , cf.
Haubo[d and John, 1982; cited in n. 2, Figs. 310, 6a
and 6b.

11 March 1881 ger[in Date of the proposal for g e t t i n g the leaving c e r t i f i -

cate, cf. Haubold and John, 1982; cited in n. 2, Fig.
3b.

13 March 1881 Berlin Remark on classes attended by Nicheison; see Fig.

6.
23 March 1881 Berlin Confidential report fOP Micheison; see Fig. 5.

5-15(?) A p r i l 1 8 8 1 Potsdam Richelson performed his e t h e r - d r i f t experiment;

cited i n Wempe, n. 2.

17 A p r i l 1881 Heidatberg Letter of Micheison to A. g. Belt -- i n t e n t i o n

to attend lectures given by guincke and Bunsen;
review of the experiments made in B e r l i n and
Potsdam; c i t e d in n. 8, p. 288.

17 A p r i l 1881 Heidelberg Letter of Michetson to S. Newcomb, not found,

c i t e d in n. 8, p. 290, note 38.

2 July 1881 Heidelberg Letter of Michetson to S. Newcomb, c i t e d in n. 8,

p. 249.

8 July 1881 Heidelberg Letter of Michetson to S. Newcomb° cited in n. 8,

p. 295

29 August 1 8 8 1 Schtuchsee/ Letter of Micheison to S. Newcomb, c i t e d in n. 8,

Schwar zwa[d p. 298.

23 October 1881 Paris Letter of l i c h e l s o n to S. Newcomb, cited in n. 8,

p. 300.

Figure 3
Summary of A. A. Michelson's postgraduate studies in Germany, 1880-81
using documents still available.

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 46 The Michelson Era in American Science: 1870-1930

Figure 4 Figure 5
A.A. Michelson's leaving certificate from Confidential report for A.A. Michelson
the KSnigliche Friedriehs-Wilhelms Uni- when he finished his courses at the Berlin
versit~t zu Berlin (Courtesy of the Hum- University (Courtesy of the Humboldt
boldt University Archives, Berlin) University Archives, Berlin)

Figure 6
Administrative remark on classes attended by A.A.
Michelson at the Berlin University (Courtesy of the
Humboldt University Archives, Berlin)

On 22 November 1880, already fully engaged by his research work, Michelson wrote in a
letter to Newcomb:
I . . . had quite a long conversation with Dr. Helmholtz concerning
my proposed method for finding the motion of the earth relative to
the ether, and he said he could see no objection to it, except the
difficulty of keeping a constant temperature. He said, however, that
I had better wait till my return to the U.S. before attempting it, as
he doubted if they had the facilities for carrying out such experi-

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 B. Haubold, H. J. Haubold, and L. Pyenson 47

ments, on account of the necessity of keeping a room at a constant

temperature. TM

Indeed, it is quite interesting to note that the same objection was made many years later
by Einstein in a letter to P. Ehrenfest (1880-1930) concerning the analysis of the observa-
tions of D. C. Miller (1866-194 I) of a slight positive result for ether drift that he obtained
in his Mount Wilson experiments in the early 1920s. 2° Miller, one of the many ex-
perimenters who repeated the Michelson experiment in a modified form, had measured a
strong shift of the interference fringes in 1921 that he explained as a consequence of a
relative motion of the Earth against the ether. It was R. S. Shankland 2t (1905-1982) and
his collaborators who made an exhaustive statistical analysis of Miller's observations and
concluded that Miller's positive signal originated in temperature changes.
During the preparations for the e t h e r - d r i f t experiment Michelson continued his
experiments with light passing through a very narrow slit, which he also discussed with
Helmholtz. Both areas were no doubt stimulated by the great interest of Helmholtz, and
the discussions between Helmholtz and Michelson surely led to concrete plans for con-
structing the "interferential refractor" that Michelson intended to use for the determination
of the relative motion of the Earth against the ether.
Obtaining funds from A. G. Bell, the founder of the telephone, Michelson had an
interferometer made to his design by a well-known German instrument firm, Schmidt &
Haensch, 22 which also provided instruments to other scientists, including Helmholtz.

"¢ /t

Figure 7
This drawing depicts the original "interferential refractor" that was
constructed for Michelson's experiment in Berlin and Potsdam by Schmidt
and Haensch, Berlin. (American Journal of Science, July 1881)

Michelson located his interferometer (see Fig. 7) in the basement of the Physical Institute
of the University of Berlin, as his measurements had shown that the interferometer was
so sensitive that the slightest motion would cause an immediate shift of the fringes. ~
Traffic on the street adjacent to the Physical Institute made it impossible to make meas-
urements during the day and even disturbed the measurements taken during the night.
Helmholtz was acquainted with the director of the Royal Astrophysical Observatory at

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 48 The Michelson Era in American Science: 1870-1930

Potsdam, H. C. Vogel, and through mutual accord Michelson moved his apparatus to Pots-
dam. 24

THE ALMOST C R U C I A L E X P E R I M E N T

Only the main building of the Astrophysical Observatory, begun in 1878, was available for
use for experiments when Michelson arrived in Potsdam. 25 He arranged his apparatus on
a stone pier in the basement under the eastern dome of the main building (see Fig. 8). In
this windowless cellar the measuring equipment was screened from vibrations and kept at
a relative constant temperature (see Figs. 9 and 10). 26 But, as Michelson wrote in his
1881 paper, 2~ the interferometer was so extraordinarily sensitive that even the stamping
of the pavement at a distance of 100 meters could cause a shifting of the interference
fringes. Michelson was able to observe the fringes undisturbed, however, and he was
himself astonished at the beauty of the interferometer performance.

Figure 8
The K6nigliehe Astrophysikalische Observatorium bei Potsdam, about
1890. Michelson performed his experiment in a cellar that is in the base-
ment of the dome seen on the far left. (Copy of a drawing; courtesy of
M. Strohusch)

Michelson could measure distances in units o f wavelength of light with his interferometer
(see Fig. 7): The light coming from a source of light [Laterne]; (a) will be split at a
partial transparent mirror (b) into a reflected (d) and a transmitted (c) part. These two
light beams will be reflected at the mirrors (d) and (c), respectively, and are reunited at
(b) and transmitted to (e), where the fringes may be observed in the eyepiece to see if
the waves are in interference. The compensating plate of glass (g) was inserted between
(b) and (c) to equalize the optical path.

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 B. H a u b o l d , H . J . H a u b o l d , a n d L. P y e n s o n 49

Figure 9
The "Michelson cellar," which enclosed the "interferential refractor" for
Michelson's experiment in 1881, as it looked in about 1965. In the middle
of the room is the original sandstone pier. (Courtesy of H. Strohbusch)

Figure 10
The Michelson cellar as prepared for the Michelson exhibition on the
occasion of the Centennial Symposium at the Central Institute for Astro-
physics of the Academy of Sciences of the GDR to celebrate the achieve-
ments of Albert Einstein, 28 February-2 March 1979. (Courtesy of H.
Strohbusch)

Early in April 1881,2s Michelson successfully carried out his measurments for the relative
motion of the Earth against the luminiferous ether. At this time of the year the Earth's

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 50 The Michelson Era in American Science: 1870-1930

motion in its orbit coincided roughly in longitude with the estimated direction of the
motion of the solar system, namely, toward the constellation Hercules. The interferometer
was arranged in such a way on the stone pier that the arms of the intrument showed to
the north and east (see Figs. 7 and 9). The arm directed to the east coincided with the
resulting motion. The arm directed to the north was thus oriented perpendicular to the
resulting motion. If the arms were revolved through 90 degrees so that the "parallel" arm
and the "perpendicular" one now interchanged direction, the interference fringes would be
shifted a definite amount, following Fresners theory of the stationary ether. But Michel-
son discovered, in his experiments with the interferometer, that the interference fringes
did not shift. He suggested that the hypothesis of a stationary ether was not correct and
that Fresnel's ether hypothesis was erroneous.
Michelson reported his results to Bell in a letter of 17 April 1881: 2~

• . . The experiments concerning the relative motion of the earth with

respect to the ether have just been brought to a successful termina-
tion. The result was however negative . . . . Thus the question is
solved in the negative, showing that the ether in the vicinity of the
earth is moving with the earth, a result in direct variance with the
generally received theory of aberration . . . .

In 1882, shortly after Michelson's results were published, s° M. A. Potier called

Michelson's attention to a slight error in the calculations he had made in the 1881 paper:
he had neglected the effect of the Earth's motion on light traveling in the arm of the
interferometer at right angles to that motion, sl In 1886, the same comment was made by
H. A. Lorentz a2 (1853-1928), who pointed out that the displacement of the fringes would
be reduced by half. After that correction the measured displacement of the fringes in
1881 was identical to the expected theoretical value. Michelson was naturally very disap-
pointed.
In 1887 the Potsdam experiment was repeated by Michelson and E. W. Morley (1838-
1923) but the interferometer in the Cleveland experiment had several major improvements
over the one used in Potsdam. The result of the Cleveland experiment was a confirmation
of the Potsdam experiment, as
A f t e r finishing the experiment in Potsdam, Michelson moved to Heidelberg to attend
the lectures of G. H. Quincke (1834-1924) and R. H. Bunsen (1811-1899). 34 He had
finished the winter semester at the University of Berlin and received his certificates (see
Figs. 4 and 5). Letters of Michelson to Bell and Newcomb, respectively, show that he
occupied himself with problems of further improvement of his interferometer, a5 In that
connection the experience of Quincke with the production of partial silvered mirrors was
quite useful for Michelson's studies in Heidelberg. At that time Michelson also planned
some experiments for further precision measurements of distances in units of wavelength
of the light and again for determinations of the velocity of light.
A f t e r a short trip through the Black Forest and vacation in Schluchsee, Michelson
went again to Paris for consultations with French colleagues and there he met Cornu and
informed him about the results of the Potsdam experiment, s6

STILL ON THE F O R E F R O N T OF BASIC RESEARCH

The "negative" result of the Michelson experiment was a cornerstone for the development
of the special theory of relativity, a7 The Michelson experiment is still frequently repeated,
with ever-increasing precision, using electromagnetic waves from different ranges of the
s p e c t r u m - - e v e r y time confirming the result of the early Miehelson experiments.

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 B. Haubold, H. J. Haubold, and L. Pyenson 51

The expected coincidence of the experimental result with consequences of the special
theory of relativity is valid as long as one does not go beyond the bounds of theory
itself: The space in which the experiment is carried out has to be free of fields. Matter
and external fields can strongly influence the path of light as well as the interferometer
as a whole. It is possible to screen the experiment from such influences, with one impor-
tant exception: the gravitational field. The effect of gravitation as a universal, long-
range interaction cannot be eliminated globally. Following the principle of equivalence,
there can be only local compensation for gravity. A good example of the physical situation
is the movement of a terrestrial interferometer in the gravitational field of the Sun.
More precisely, the interferometer is exposed to the influence of a gravitational field
changing in space and in time due to the rotation of the Earth. This leads to a very
small change of the optical path of the light of both arms of the interferometer.
There are many applications of the Michelson interferometer in physics and technical
sciences, especially the technique of using the principles of splitting the electromagnetic
wave into partial waves through reflection and refraction and uniting these partial waves
after the two beams have passed equal paths. We mention only some examples concerning
astrophysical research.
Michelson himself brought his interferometer to the first application in astrophys-
ics. s8 In 1890 he showed how the diameter of a star may be measured from the visibility
of the interference fringes in a two-element interferometer. Until the 1920s, he measured
stellar diameters, making an important contribution to classical astrophysics. Today,
measurements of angular size of several types of stars are under way using an intensity
interferometer that is not limited by atmospheric scintillation effects.
One of the well-known consequences of the general theory of relativity is the deflec-
tion of light by a gravitational field. Measurements of the deflection of starlight by the
solar gravitational field are considered a crucial experimental test of this theory. Recently
experiments have been undertaken to measure nonlinear-order effects of the deflection of
starlight by the Sun using two interferometers arranged in a geosatellite. 39 Several pro-
posals of optical interferometers with baselines ranging from 10 meters to several kilo-
meters have been advanced for optical interferometry in space, again with an eye to
astrophysics and relativity.
The cosmic microwave background radiation is considered to be a relic of the big-
bang fireball phase in the evolution of the universe. The discovery of granularity in the
microwave background radiation will lead to important progress in the understanding of
inhomogeneities formed in the early evolution of the universe that eventually became
galaxies. The measurements of anisotropies of the background radiation are best made
from space; and one piece of technical equipment for such measurements is a Michelson
interferometer for the analysis of the atmospheric spectrum.
From "photon-astronomy" to "neutrino-astronomy," the Michelson interferometer is
the ultimate guide to the "gravitational-wave astronomy. ''4° Einstein showed more than
sixty years ago that gravitational waves should exist as "ripples" in the metric. This
prediction is true of a certain class of gravitational theories in which, by analogy with
electromagnetic waves, one would expect moving masses to produce gravitational waves.
Attempts to detect such gravitational waves are under way using a laser interferometer
with an arm length of several kilometers in order to measure relative changes of length
of about 10 -21 4x Again the interferometer is based on the principle found by Albert A.
Michelson.

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 52 The Michelson Era in American Science: 1870-1930

NOTES

I. A. A. Michelson, "The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether,"
American Journal of Science, 1881, 22:120-129. The article appeared in German fifty
years later: "Die Relativbewegung der Erde gegen den Licht~ither," Die Naturwissenschaf-
ten, 1931, 19: 779-784. A short note of commentary was added by Max yon Laue. Cf. L. S.
Swenson, Jr., The Ethereal Aether -- A History of the Michelson-Morley-Miller Ether-
Drift Experiments, 1880-1930 (Austin, Texas, and London: Univ. Texas Press, 1972); V. J.
Rodi'~ev and J. I. Frankfurt (Hrsg.), Tvorcy fizic"eskoj optiki, (Sbornik state j, Nauka
Moskva 1973); H. Paul (Hrsg.), Die Sch6pfer der physikalischen Optik (Wissenschaftliche
Taschenbiacher, Bd. 195, Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 1977).

2. H.J. Haubold and R. W. John, "100 Jahre Michelsonsche .~therdrift-Experiment," Wis-

senschaft und Fortschritt, 1981,31:410-412; H. J. Haubold and R. W. John, NTM-Schrift-
enreihe (Leipzig), 1982, 19:31; Michelson Colloquium of the Central Institute for Astro-
physics and of the Einstein Laboratory for Theoretical Physics of the Academy of Sciences
of the GDR, 27-30 April 1981, in Potsdam and Caputh. Proceedings published in Astron-
omische Nachrichten, 1982, 303: Part 1, and NTM-Schriftenreihe fuer Geschichte der
Naturwissenschaften Technik und Medizin (Leipzig), 1982, 19: Part 1. In a paper by U.
Bleyer, S. Gottl6ber, H.J. Haubold, and J. P. Mt~eket, "Michelson und seine Experiment,"
Wissenschaft und Fortschritt, 1979, 29:74, the Institute of Physics of H. v. Helmholtz,
where A. A. Michelson performed the first trials with his interferometer, was incorrectly
identified with the building of Magnus. This error was pointed out by Professor Dr. J.
Wempe (1906-1980) in Die Sterne, 1975, 51: 199, who also gave the correct reference to
A. Guttstadt (Hrsg.): Die naturwissenschaftlichen und medicinischen Staatsanstalten
Berlins: Festschrift /fir die 59. Fersammlung deutscher Naturforscher und .4rzte (Berlin:
1886).

3. M. v. Laue's annotation to the German translation of Michelson's 1881 paper, Die

Naturwissenschaften, 1931, •9:779-784.

4. Bleyer et al, "Michelson und seine Experiment;" U. Bleyer and H. J. Haubold, Katalog
der Michelson-Ausstellung des Zentralinstituts fiir Astrophysik der Akademie der Wis-
senschaften der DDR anliisslich des I00. Geburtstages Albert Einsteins, 1979, pp. 9; Mi-
chelson Exhibition of the Central Institute for Astrophysics of the Academy of Sciences of
the GDR, 28 February to 2 March t979, in Potsdam.

5. D. Michelson Livingston, The Master of Light--A Biography of Albert A. Michelson

(New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973).

6. Swenson, The Ethereal Aether.

7. A.A. Michelson, "On a Method of Measuring the Velocity of Light," Am. J. Sci., 1878,
15:394-395; "Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light," Am. J. Sci., 1879,
17: 324-325; "Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light," Am. J. Sci., 1879,
18: 390-393.

8. N. Reingold, ed., Science in Nineteenth Century America -- A Documentary History

(American Century Series) (New York: Hill and Wang, 1964).

9. Livingston, The Master of Light; Swenson, The Ethereal Aether.

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 B. Haubold, H. J. Haubold, and L. P y e n s o n 53

10. J.C. Maxwell, "On a Possible Mode of Detecting a Motion of the Solar System through
the Luminiferous Ether," Nature, 1879-80, 21:314-315. The posthumous note consists of a
lettcx written by Maxwell to D. P. Todd, director of the Nautical Almanac office in Wash-
ington on 19 March 1879. The letter is commented on by Todd and the editor of Nature
and is reprinted in Rodicev and Frankfurt, Tvorcy fizi[eskoj optiki.

11. H.A. Lorentz, "Over den invloed dien de beweging der aarde op de lichtverschijnselen
uitoefent," Amsterdam, Koninkijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Verslagen en med-
edeelingen, Afdeeling natuurkunde, 1886, 2: 297-372.

12. J. C. Maxwell, "Ether," Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th ed., Vol. III, 1878.

13. R. S. Shankland, Michelson's Role in the Development of Relativity, Naval Academy

Lecture, Annapolis, 11 May 1973, Preprint.

14. Reingold, ed., Science in Nineteenth Century America.

15. K. H. Wirzberger (Hrsg.), Die Humboldt-Universitaet zu Berlin, Bilder aus Vergangen-

heir und Gegenwart (Berlin, 1973); Guttstadt (Hrsg.), Die naturwissenschaftlichen und
medicinischen Staatsanstalten Berlins . . .

16. E. Du Bois-Reymond, "Wohlvorschlag ftir H. v. Helmholtz (1821-1894) zum AM

[Akademiemitglied] (1870)," in Physiker iiber Physiker: Zur Geschichte der Physik an der
Berliner Akademie yon 1870 bis 1929 (2 Vols.; Berlin Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 1975),
VoI.I, pp. 63-65.

17. This remark was written by a fellow of the administration of the "Koenigliche Fried-
rich Wilhelms Universitaet zu Berlin" and not--as misinterpreted in the paper by Haubold
and John, NTM-Schriftenreihe--by Helmholtz himself.
18. See note 2.

19. Reingold, ed., Science in Nineteenth Century America.

20. R.S. Shankland, "Conversations with Albert Einstein," Am. J. Phys., 1963, 31: 47-57;
"Conversations with Albert Einstein, II," ibid., 1973, 41: 895-901.

21. R. S. Shankland, S. W. McCuskey, F. C. Leone, and C. Kuerti, "New Analysis of the

Interferometer Observations of Dayton C. Miller," Rev. Mod. Phys., 1955, 27: 167-178.
Miller's measurements are discussed in J. M. Crelinsten, The Reception of Einstein's
General Theory of Relativity among American Astronomers, 1910-1930 (Ph.D. diss., Univ.
Montreal, 1982), pp. 398-410.

22. F. Schmidt and H/insch, 75 Jahre, Festschrift, Berlin, 1939; E. LOblich, Deutsche
Mechaniker-Zeitung, 1914, Heft 8, 95; 1914, Heft 9, 97; Swenson, The Ethereal Aether;
Shankland, Michelson's Role in the Development of Relativity.

23. A. A. Michelson, Am. J. Sci., 1881; Swenson, The Ethereal Aether; Rodi~eev and Frank-
furt, Tvorcy fizi~eskoj optiki; Paul (Hrsg.), Die Schdpfer der physikalischen Optik.

24. E. Du Bois-Reymond, "Wohlvorschlag fiir H. v. Helmholtz (1821-1894) zum AM

[Akademiemitglied] (1870)."

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 54 The Michelson Era in American Science: 1870-1930

25. Das Koenigliche Astrophysikalische Observatorium bei Potsdam, Mayer & Mueller,
Berlin 1890; J. Wempe, Die Sterne, 1975, 51: 199.

26. According to Professor Dr. J. Wempe, only this cellar could have been used by Mi-
chelson for his experiment in 1881.

27. A. A. Michelson, Am. J. Sci.

28. As realized by Professor Dr. J. Wempe, it follows from the original series of observa-
tions given in Michelson's paper of 1881 (Am. J. Sci.) that he performed his measurements
in the period between 5 and 15 April 1881.

29. Reingold, ed., Science in Nineteenth Century America.

30. Michelson, Am. J. Sci.

31. A. A. Michelson, Comptes Rendus, 1882, 94:520.

32. Lorentz, "Over den invloed."

33. A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley, Am. J. Sci., 1887, 34:333.

34. Livingston, The Master of Light.

35. Reingold, ed., Science in Nineteenth Century America.

36. Livingston, The Master of Light; Swenson, The Ethereal Aether.

37. G. Holton, "Einstein, Michelson, and the Crucial Experiment," Isis, 1969, 60:133-197;
H. J. Treder, Astronomische Nachrichten, 1982, 303:91.

38. D. H. De Vorkin, "Michelson and the Problem of Stellar Diameters," Journal for the
History of Astronomy, 1975, 6: 1-18.

39. I. I. Shapiro,"Experimental Challenges Posed by the General Theory of Relativity," in

H. Woolf, ed., Some Strangeness in the Proportion: A Centennial Symposium to Celebrate
the Achievements of Albert Einstein, (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Com-
pany, Inc., 1980), p. 115.

40. A. De Rf~jula, S. L. Glashow, R. R. Wilson, and G. Charpak, "Neutrino Exploration of

the Earth," Physics Reports. 1983, 99:341-396.

41. P. Kafka, "Wie wichtig ist die Gravitationswellen-Astronomie?" Die Naturwissen-

schaften, 1986, 73: 248-257.

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