What is Data?

▪ Data is a existing information

/knowledge represented or coded in
some form suitable for better usage
or processing.

▪Data is a set of values of qualitative

or quantitative variables.
Quantitative Vs Qualitative Data

■ Quantitative data are anything that can be

expressed as a number, or quantified. These data
may be represented by ordinal, interval or ratio
scales and lend themselves to most statistical
manipulation.
■ Qualitative data is a categorical measurement
expressed not in terms of numbers, but rather by
means of a natural language description. In
statistics, it is often used interchangeably with
"categorical" data.
For example: favorite color = "blue"
Quantitative Vs Qualitative Data

■ Quantitative and Qualitative data can be gathered

from the same data unit depending on whether the
variable of interest is numerical or categorical. For
example:
Data unit Numeric = Quantitative Categorical = Qualitative data
variable data variable

A person "How 2 children "In which India

many children do country were your
you have?" children born?"

"How much do Rs.60,000 p.m. "What is your Teacher

you earn?" occupation?"

"How many hours 40 hours per "Do you Full-time

do you work?" week work full-time or
part-time?"
Primary and Secondary Data

■ The task of data collection begins after a

research problem has been defined and
research design/plan chalked out.

■ While deciding about the method of data

collection to be used for the study, the
researcher should keep in mind two types of
data viz., primary and secondary.
Primary and Secondary Data

■ Primary Data are collected by the researcher.

■ Secondary data collected by someone else and
have already been passed through the statistical
process.
■ A researcher as per requirement of study may
decide on use of primary data or secondary data
or both.
■ Both primary and secondary data have their own
pros and cons.
Methods of Collecting Data

■ The methods of collecting data mainly

refers to collecting primary data.

■ As secondary data are already

available, we have to carefully choose
the sources , relevancy of data and
reliability.
Collecting Secondary Data

■ Sources of secondary data are existing

literature, Reports of professional agencies,
Departments, Archives, Internet, etc.

■ While collecting secondary data one has to

follow legal procedures required and
maintain the academic ethics.
 Methods of Collecting
Primary Data
There are several methods of collecting
primary data, particularly in surveys and
descriptive research. Important ones are-
■ Observation
■ Interview
■ Questionnaire
■ Schedule
■ Other Methods
Observation

See what is happening

– traffic patterns
– land use patterns
– layout of city and rural areas
– quality of housing
– condition of roads
– conditions of buildings
– who goes to a health clinic
Filtering Observations
 Observation is Helpful
when:
■ Need direct information
■ Trying to understand ongoing behavior
■ There is physical evidence, products,
or outputs than can be observed
■ Need to provide alternative when
other data collection is infeasible or
inappropriate
Types of Observation

■ Participatory and Non Participatory

■ Candid and Covert

■ Structured, Semi-structured and

Unstructured.

■ Controlled and Uncontrolled

Advantages/Disadvantages of
Observation
Advantages:
▪ Subjective bias eliminated
▪ Researcher gets current information
▪ Independent of Respondents
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Expensive, Time consuming
▪ Limited information
▪ Unforeseen factors may influence
observation
Interview
■ The interview method of collecting data
involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli
and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.

■ This method can be used through personal

interviews or telephone interviews.

■ Structured, Semi-Structured or Unstructured

Interview.
Interview Types
■ Personal Interviews: Interviewer asking questions
generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person
or persons. Direct personal investigation or Indirect
oral investigation.
■ Focused Interview is meant to focus attention on the
given experience of the respondent and its effects.
■ Clinical Interview is concerned with broad underlying
feelings or motivations or with the course of
individual’s life experience.
■ Non-directive Interview is that where the interviewer’s
function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk
about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct
questioning.
Skill of Interviewer

The main game in interviewing is to

facilitate an interviewee’s ability to
answer. This involves:
– easing respondents into the interview
– asking strategic questions
– prompting and probing appropriately
– keeping it moving
– winding it down when the time is right
Merits/Demerits of Interview

Merits:
■ More and in depth information obtained
■ Personal Information
■ Greater Flexibility
■ Adaptation as per the respondent
Demerits:
■ Bias of Interviewer
■ Expensive/Time Consuming
■ Need expertise
 Questionnaire Method
■ A questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to
persons concerned with a request to answer
the questions and return the questionnaire.

■ A questionnaire consists of a number of

questions printed in a definite order.

■ The respondents have to answer the questions

on their own.
 Steps in questionnaire
construction
■ Preparation
■ Constructing the first draft
■ Self-evaluation
■ External evaluation
■ Revision
■ Pre-test or Pilot study
■ Revision
■ Second pre-testing
■ Preparing final draft
 Essentials of a Good
Questionnaire
■ Questionnaire should be short and simple
■ Question arranged in from simple to difficult.
■ Personal and intimate questions should be left
to the end.
■ Technical term and vague expression should
be avoided.
■ Questions should be answered in yes or no ;
multiple choice.
■ Control question to cross check the
information of the responded.
Advantages of Questionnaire

■ Lower cost
■ Time saving
■ Accessibility to widespread respondents
■ No interviewer’s bias
■ Greater anonymity
■ Respondent’s convenience
■ Standard wordings
■ No Variation
Disadvantages of questionnaire

■ Questionnaires can be used only for educated people.

■ Sometimes different respondent’s interpreted questions
differently
■ Questionnaires do not provide an opportunity to collect
additional information
■ Researchers are not sure whether the person to whom the
questionnaire was mailed has himself answered the
questions.
■ Many questions remain unanswered
■ The respondent can consult other persons before filling
in the questionnaire.
Collection of Data Through Schedule

■ Schedules like questionnaires contain a

set of questions.
■ Researcher /Enumerators appointed
collect data through schedules.
■ Enumerators go to the field, put
questions to the respondents and fill
the schedules.
■ Enumerators need to be trained.
 Questionnaire Vs. Schedule

Questionnaire Schedule
■ Mailed, filled by ■ Direct contact , filled by
Respondent Researcher or Enumerator
■ Economical ■ Expensive
■ Non-Response high ■ Non-Response low
■ Time Consuming ■ Time bound
■ Literate, co-operative ■ No such pre condition
respondents
■ Success depends on ■ Success depends on
quality of quality of enumerator
questionnaire
 Some Other Methods

■ Warranty Cards Post card size cards sent to

customers and feedback collected through asking
questions.
■ Distributor or Store Audits are performed by
manufacturer/distributor through salesmen.
Information so obtained are used to estimate
market size, market share, seasonal sales pattern,
etc.
■ Pantry Audits From the observation of pantry of
customer to know purchase habit of people ( of
which product, what brand, etc.). Questions may be
asked at the time of audit.
 Some Other Methods

■ Consumer Panels Pantry audit approach on a

regular basis is known as ‘consumer panel’, where a
set of consumers are arranged to come to an
understanding to maintain detailed daily records of
their consumption and the same is made available
to investigator on demands.
■ Projective techniques developed by psychologists
to use projections of respondents for inferring
about underlying motives, urges, or intentions
which are such that the respondent either resists to
reveal them or is unable to figure out himself.
 Some Other Methods

■ Use of Mechanical Devices Eye Camera is used to

record the focus of eyes of a respondent on a
specific portion of a sketch or diagram or written
material. Psychogalvanometer is used for
measuring the extent of body excitement as a
result of the visual stimulus. Motion picture camera
is used to record movement of consumer at time of
purchase. Audiometer is used to know the
preferences to TV channels, programmes.
 Some Other Methods

■ Depth interviews are those interviews that are

designed to discover underlying motives and
desires and are often used in motivational research.
Indirect question or projective technique are used
to know the behaviour of respondents.

■ Content Analysis Analyzing the contents of

documentary materials such as books, magazines,
newspapers and the contents of all other verbal
materials which can be either spoken or printed.
Selection of Appropriate Method
of Data Collection

▪ Nature, Scope and Object of enquiry

▪ Availability of Fund
▪ Availability of Time
▪ Degree of Precision Required
Precautions in Data Collection

■ The data must be relevant to the research

problem.
■ It should be collected through formal or
standardized research tools.
■ The data should be such as these can be
subjected to statistical treatment easily.
■ The data should have minimum
measurement error.
Precautions in Data Collection

■ The data must be tenable for the

verification of the hypotheses.
■ The data should be collected through
objective procedure.
■ The data should be accurate and precise.
■ The data should be reliable and valid
■ The data should be complete in itself and
also comprehensive in nature.
THANK YOU