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Adaptation by Natural Selection

 WHAT IS NATURAL SELECTION?
 The process whereby organisms
better adapted to their environment
tend to survive and produce more
offspring. The theory of its action
was first fully expounded by
Charles Darwin and is now
believed to be the main process that
brings about EVOLUTION.
ADAPTATION BY NATURAL SELECTION
Each species can be considered as a unique integration of
adaptations. Adaptations can be categorized into five general
types:
1. Adaptations for coping with abiotic factors
2. Adaptations for obtaining water and food or In case of plants,
energy and nutrients
3. Adaptations for escaping from or protection against predators
4. Adaptations for finding or attracting mates or pollinators in
plants and accomplishing reproduction
5. Adaptations for migration or dispersal
Even the earliest naturalists noted the “marvellous”
adaptations of each species, which exactly suit it to its
particular place in nature. However, the question of how
species became so adapted remained open until the mid
19th century. There are people who believe that adaptations
of each species represented God’s wisdom and artfulness in
the divine creation and that adaptation is the result of the
natural process.
CHANGE THROUGH NATURAL SELECTION
In 1858, Charles Darwin in his book The Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection, presented massive evidence that
adaptations are the result of a process that he called natural
selection. Since Darwin’s time, evidence in support to his basic
ideas has continued to accumulate until now his theory of
evolution by natural selection is one of the best documented
theories in all science.
In brief, Darwin observed that there is excess reproduction in
every species-that is, every species produces far more offspring
than are necessary to just replace the parents when they die.
Even a slowly reproducing species such as the elephant would
flood the earth over the course of time if all offspring survive
reproduced to their full capacity. Insect species reproduced
more rapidly: a pair of fruit flies can produce some 200
offspring in about 15 days. If all these offspring and the
successive generations survived and reproduced in turn, a mass
of flies the size of the earth would be produced in about 7
months. Since this obviously does not and cannot happen we
must conclude that not all offspring survive and reproduced.
Many, in fact, most of the offspring fall victim to
predators, competitors, adverse environmental conditions,
starvation, disease, and so on.
The question is: Which offspring perish and which survive
to reproduced? Is it simply a matter of change or there ¡s
something more?
Here, Darwin made a second crucial observation: there is
variation among individual members of all species. This is obvious
in humans. We come in a wide range of different sizes, shapes,
and colors and these variations may occur in any combinations; it
is what permits us to recognize each other. Similar variation
exists among rabbits, elephant, oak trees, houseflies, and all other
species. We tend to think that all houseflies, for example, are
identical. However as Darwin pointed out, this is only because
we do not examine them closely.
If we did, we would soon begin to see differences between
individuals, slight differences in size, color, number of
bristles, and so forth. Further, the differences that are
visible are only part of the picture. As in humans,
individual organisms exhibit different levels of physical
ability. These differences, Darwin noted, inevitably mean
that some individuals are better adapted for survival in a
given environment than others.
Combining these two concepts, we see that organisms produce
more offspring than can possibly survive and among these
offspring some are better adapted for survival than others. As
Darwin pointed out, one can hardly escape the conclusion that
those least well adapted for the given environment are most
likely to perish, and those best adapted are those most likely to
survive and reproduce. Consequently, there is a natural
selection for those individuals whose variations make them
better adapted for survival and reproduction.
Darwin described natural selection as "survival of the fittest".
The fittest is the organism best adapted to survive and
reproduce.
Reproduction is as significant as survival itself. The genes carried
by a healthy robust individual who does not reproduce are
eliminated from the population as surely as if the individual did
not survive at all.
Many examples of natural selection at work can be cited.
Treatment of disease with penicillin killed those organisms that
were sensitive to penicillin, while those organisms that are
resistance survived and reproduced.
Gradually populations of disease organisms have become
more and more resistant to penicillin.
Although Darwin was unable to generalize that variation
was present in all species, he could explain neither its
origin nor why it persisted even under continued
selection. However, modem research has shown that both
chemical and physical aspects of organisms are dependent
upon genes, which are composed of the genetic material
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
EVOLUTION
 The process by which different kinds of living organisms are
thought to have developed and diversified from earlier forms
during the history of the earth.
 The gradual development of something(Mainly a living creature)
, especially from a simple to a more complex form.
EVOLUTION
ADAPTATION OR EXTINCTION
Natural selection results in each species becoming adapted
both to abiotic factors and to other organisms with which it
interacts. In response to changing conditions, species must
do one of three things:
1. They migrate to similar conditions in another area.
2. They may undergo readaptation by natural selection to the
new conditions
3. Failing both to (1) and (2), they will become extinct.
The fossil record is also replete of examples of species that have
faded into extinction, apparently unable to cope with changing
factors in their environment. We presently see on earth many rare
species that are highly adapted and hence restricted to a very specific
niche in a localized area. Such species, in evolutionary terms of
millions of years, are headed towards extinction because their
specialized nature will make readaptation in response to change
extremely difficult. Almost any change in local area where they exist
will result in their extinction. By contrast, widespread species with a
high degree of variation, and hence tolerance for different
conditions, are the most likely to survive.
 The central ideas of evolution are:
 that life has a history
 it has changed over time
 And that different species share common ancestors.
 The Family Tree
 The process of evolution produces a pattern of relationships
between species. As lineages evolve and split and
modifications are inherited, their evolutionary paths
diverge. This produces a branching pattern of evolutionary
relationships.
 By studying inherited species' characteristics and other
historical evidence, we can reconstruct evolutionary
relationships and represent them on a "family tree," called
a PHYLOGENY.
A PHYLOGENY
 This tree, like all phylogenetic trees, is
a hypothesis about the relationships
among organisms. It illustrates the idea
that all of life is related and can be
divided into three major clades, often
referred to as the three domains.
❑Eukaryota
❑Archaea
❑Bacteria
Animalia
Vertebrata
 SPECIATION
 The formation of new species as a result of geographic,
physiological,anatomical, or behavioral factors that prevent
previously interbreeding
populations from breeding with each other.
 The evolutionary development of a biological species, as
by
geographical isolation of a group of individuals from the
main stock
SPECIATION
Where do species come from? Adaptations benefiting survival
and reproduction of a population are always related to the
particular environment in which the population exists. For
instance, adaptations for obtaining food depend upon the kinds
of food available; adaptations for defence or escape from natural
enemies depend upon the kinds of natural enemies present;
adaptations for abiotic factors depend upon the range of abiotic
factors that exists. The process of natural selection favours those
variations that adapt the species to a particular niche.
Ex. Why is the cock so handsome (evolve to attract mate)
If populations continue to interbreed, the resulting genetic
mixing will preserve them as one species. However, if they
are separated in such a way that interbreeding does not
occur, natural selection may eventually produce differences
great enough that the populations become different species.
This is the process of speciation.
Ex horns of herbivores (adopted for self-protection and
defense)
Sample of Speciation
EVOLUTION
ADAPTATION
EXTINCTION
EVOLUTION OF ECOSYSTEM
It is important to recognize that all the species in an ecosystem
are simultaneously undergoing natural selection and adaptation
with respect to both each other and the biotic environment.
The principles of balance that occur in predator-prey
relationships are similar in all ecosystems. However, ecosystems
that have developed in isolation from one another, as on separate
continents or on remote islands, are very different even the
abiotic factors may be similar.
This is because the ecosystem started with different species and
the variations in the genes of each species are random,
Examples:
1 The kangaroos are the native herbivores of the Australian
grasslands.
2. The Bison (American Buffalo) are the native herbivores of the
North American grasslands.
3. A variety of animals fill the African grasslands.
4. The most important herbivores of the Galapagos Islands are
giant tortoises.
Balanced relationships between organisms are not automatic. It
should be clear now that the balanced relationships develop
through mutual adaptations occurring over millions of years.
Thus, when an organism is transferred from one ecosystem to
another, it is most unlikely that its adaptations developed in the
old ecosystem will be suitable with respect to species in the new
ecosystem. Frequently the introduced species cannot survive in
the new ecosystem and no harm is done.
However, in too many cases, the introduced species
survives too well; there is nothing in the new ecosystem
to keep it balance and the result is that it proliferates at
the expense of the other species. The evolutionary
process will lead to new balances, but massive change
and extinction may occur in the process. Extinction
could occur far more rapidly than speciation.
HUMANKIND IN RELATION TO BIOSPHERE
From the viewpoint of evolutionary succession, humankind
spreading over the earth can be looked at as a natural process, the
latest of many wave of change that have occurred throughout
evolutionary history, In our positions as humans, however, we
would like to see this latest wave as permanent or at least long
lasting. Unfortunately, there ¡s nothing in ecological or
evolutionary theory to support an assumption that humans will be
the last or even a long lasting wave. In fact, there are many
indications that the human wave, at least that of humans, in a
technological society, may be relatively short lived.
Why is this so?
1. The rate and degree of many changes being brought about by
humans are extreme. The rapidity of change we are causing leaves
no time for development of new species to fill the places left
vacant. Changes in the biosphere are occurring so rapidly that we
have no way of accurately predicting the outcome.
2. There is danger in the simplicity of the human ecosystem. A
stable human ecosystem will require and depend upon
harmonious relationships and balances with numerous other
species in the biosphere.
3. There are many indications that present human expansion is
occurring at the expense of overgrazing. Overgrazing of livestock
around the world is converting millions of hectares of rangeland into
worthless deserts. Also, growth and sustenance of our technological
society is based on increasing used of oil and natural gas, which,
clearly are limited non-renewable resources. This is the overgrazing
in the figurative sense.
There is no way that humans can avoid facing ultimate checks and
balances that apply to other species. Ignoring this reality can only
lead to technological humankind’s being a Passing phenomenon in
the evolutionary sense of planet Earth. The importance of preserving
other species and ecosystems should be seen in this light.
EVOLUTIONARY SUCCESSION
The process of adaptive change, extinction, and speciation together
constitute the process of evolutionary succession.
Philippine Endangered Species
Philippine Eagle : Pag-asa turns 25 years old
Natural Resources
1. What are the Earth’s Natural
Resources?
• Mineral Resources
• Energy Resources
• Living Resources
• Air
• Water
• Sunlight
• Soil
2. Resources are limited and are either
Renewable or Non renewable
 3. What are Renewable Resources?
• Renewable Resources
can be replaced by nature
at a rate close to the rate at
which they are used.
 What are examples of
Renewable Resources?
• Vegetation
(Crops & Forests)
• Sunlight
• Air
• Soil
• Geothermal
• Water
• Ice
 4. What are Nonrenewable
Resources?

• Resources that
exist in a fixed
amount
• Nonrenewable are
renewed very
slowly or not at all.
 What are examples of
Nonrenewable Resources?
•Graphite
• Coal
•Sulphur
• Oil •Gypsum
• Natural Gas •Uranium
• Petroleum •Phosphate
• Sand, Stone, Rock,
& Gravel Potash, &
• Salt Nitrates
• Talc •And other
Minerals
Examples of Nonrenewable
Natural Resources
• Talc

• Graphite
 What is an Ore Mineral?
• The metallic element or valuable
mineral part of the rock is known as
the Ore Mineral
• The remaining part of the rock is
called the Gangue
Natural Resources

• Copper ore

• Iron ore
What is a Mineral Reserve?
• The known deposits of a mineral
in ores that are worth mining
Natural Resources
5. Nonrenewable Energy Resources
• A. Fossil Fuels are nonrenewable and may
cause pollution
• They are relatively cheap and easy to
extract and use. (Examples include: Coal,
Oil, Petroleum, and Natural Gas)
• B. Nuclear power: energy is created by
atomic fission. It produces very little air
pollution, but it does produce toxic waste
that takes millions of years to decompose.
It uses the radioactive mineral Uranium,
which is nonrenewable.
 6. Renewable Energy Resources
Have less of an impact on • Water
the environment and • Wind
promote sustainability • Sun
(the ability for future
• Geothermal
generations to have the Energy
same resources that we do)
How does the way in which some
resources are extracted and used affect
the Earth’s environment?
• Can lead to pollution of land, water,
and air
• May contribute to global warming
• Destruction of landscape may occur
Resources
 • A resource is anything that is used to satisfy human
needs. Typically resources are materials, energy,
services, staff, knowledge, or other assets that are
transformed to produce benefit and in the process
may be consumed or made unavailable.
RESOURCES
A resource is any material which is needed or used to
sustain life and livelihood.
Examples:
1. Air to breathe
2. Water to drink
3. Land to live on
4. Forests for timber, paper, and wood
5. Ores for iron, aluminum, copper, and other metals
6. Oil, natural gas, and coal for energy
There is nothing humans used or touch which does not
draw upon resources. The human population is making
ever-increasing demands upon the Earth’s resources.
Basic reasons to use the Earth’s resources:
1. Increasing population
2. Change in the standard of living
• In biology and ecology a resource is defined as a
substance that is required by a living organism for normal
growth, maintenance, and reproduction. Resources, such
as food, water, or nesting sites, can be consumed by an
organism and, as a result, become unavailable to other
organisms.
QUESTION:
“How long can the Earth’s resources sustain
the growing demand?”
ANSWER: ????????????
The Club of Rome and sustainable development

The first report of the Club of

Rome was the famous The limits
to growth, brought out in 1972 by
an MIT research team
coordinated by Dennis and
Donella Meadows. It caused a
great sensation because of its
clear message.
The club developed computer models to portray various
aspects of resource consumption. Their conclusion presented
in “The Limits to Growth”, is that if present trends continue,
we will not only run out of resources but will do so with
extreme suddenness in the next 20 years (from now). Thus,
our entire technological society could collapse in the
relatively near future, starved as it were, for critical resources.
There is no guarantee that past trends will continue in the
future. There is no question that we are using up resources,
and since the earth is a finite sphere with finite amounts of
resources, limits will be reached.
• At the time it was published the international
monetary system was shaky, the economy was in
a depression, the new environmental movement
was gaining ground, and society was being
stirred up by student protests. The conclusions of
the report were dramatic.
• Briefly these were that in a basically closed
system like the Earth it is impossible for the
population, food production, industrialization,
the exploitation of natural resources and
pollution of the environment to continue to
experience exponential growth without
sooner or later collapsing.
OBJECTION TO LIMITS TO GROWTH (optimist)
The Club of Rome does not give adequate credit to
the potential of technological development. In a
sense, resources depend on technology as much as
technology depends on resources. Other advances
in technology have permitted the exploitation of
lower grade ores, and so on. Over the course of
history, technology, far from exhausting resources,
has actually served to expand the resource base.
And so the argument continues. Much of the problems
in deciding between these alternatives lies ¡n the fact
that resources are many different things and the
answers differ depending on which resource is being
discussed. Our objective is to examine various types of
resources and the factors which govern their availability.
We shall be in better position to understand what, if
any, accommodations and/or restraints need to be
applied in order to avoid a future collapse due to
resource shortages.
• The report forecast this to occur around the
second half of the twenty-first century. The
report concluded that to prevent this disaster, a
collective commitment would be needed to curb
the indiscriminate growth of the economy and
achieve global equilibrium.
• A year and a half after the report came out, the
first oil crisis exploded in concomitance with the
Yom Kippur war between Egypt and Israel in
October 1973. This seemed to confirm that the
excessive exploitation of non-renewable sources
was triggering serious problems.
• There was considerable anxiety from 1973 to the
early 1980s (later proved to be excessive) about the
inadequate supply of energy, mineral and food
resources. But around the middle of the 1980s it
became clear that the real limit to growth was not
the imminent depletion of natural resources, it was
the risk that production, consumption and pollution
would reach the threshold of Earth’s inherent
resilience.
• Sustainable development,
therefore, means reconciling the
need to extract resources from the
environment with the equally
important need to preserve a rich
environment that can continue to
supply what is required without
sacrificing future generations.
MAXIMUM SUSTAINABLE YIELD (MSY)

"How many trees, or

lobsters, or sardines, or
salmons, should we
'harvest' each year for a
maximum yield?"
“What’s the maximum
sustainable yield for this
population?"
 The tragedy of the commons
• an economic problem in which
every individual tries to reap the
greatest benefit from a given
resource. As the demand for the
resource overwhelms the supply,
every individual who consumes an
additional unit directly harms
others who can no longer enjoy
the benefits.
 POPULATION GROWTH AND ISSUES

Engr. Joseph Kitma III, BSCHE,MSME,SLUBoys’high’89

POPULATION
• all the inhabitants of a particular town, area, or
country: world

POPULATION GROWTH
• the increase in the number of individuals in
a population

POPULATION GROWTH RATE

• It is the rate at which the number of individuals in a
population increases in a given time period,
expressed as a fraction of the initial population.
 POPULATION GROWTH
CHARACTERISTICS
• Natality – the birthrate, which is the ratio of the total
live births to total population in a particular area over a
specified period of time; expressed as childbirths per
1000 people (or population) per year. It may also refer
to the inherent ability of the population to increase.
• Mortality- the ratio of deaths in an area to the
population of that area; express per 1000 per year.

*Morbidity- an incidence of ill health. It is measured in

various ways, often by the probability that a randomly
selected individual in a population at some date and
location would become seriously ill in some period of
time.
 POPULATION GROWTH
CHARACTERISTICS
• Sex ratio- the ratio of males to
females in a population. The sex ratio
varies according to the age profile of
the population. It is generally divided
into four:
*Primary sex ratio- ratio at fertilization
*Secondary sex ratio- ratio at birth
*Tertiary sex ratio- ratio in sexually
active organisms
*Quaternary sex ratio- ratio in post-
reproductive organisms
(Measuring these is a problem since
there are no clear boundaries between
them)

• Age distribution- the proportionate

numbers of persons in a successive
age categories in a given population.
 POPULATION ISSUES

• New characteristics because of immigration

• Spread of diseases
• Poverty
• Environmental stress
• Security issues
• Health and nutrition
• Overexploitation of resources
• "Go Forth And Multiply!" That's what the
human population has successfully been doing
for thousands and thousands of years,
expanding, exploring, migrating, conquering,
utilizing, evolving, civilizing, industrializing,
and now, destroying the very land upon which
we live.
 What is Organism
Interaction?
• Organism may positively or negatively affect
the existence of one another in the
community

• Categorize into: positive-positive, negative-

negative, positive-negative, positive-zero or
negative-zero

• No organism exists in absolute isolation

 ORGANISM
INTERACTON

PREDATION COMPETITON SYMBIOSIS

PARASITISM
INTERSPECIFIC INTRASPECIFIC

COMMENSALISM

MUTUALISM
 What is Predation?
• It is a positive-negative interaction wherein
the predator eats the prey.
 What is Competition?

• In this interaction, one is benefited and the

other one is negatively affected.

• It is a positive-negative interaction where

organisms strive to obtain the same limited
resource.
 Classifications of Competition
• INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION
 Classifications of Competition
• INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION
 What is Symbiosis?

• Greek word: “syn”=together + “bios”=life

• Close relationship between two or more living

organisms where at least one receive some
sort of benefit.
 Parasitism?

• One organism benefits and the other is

harmed.

• It is negative-positive interaction wherein the

host provides nourishment to the parasite.
 Kinds of Parasites

ECTOPARASITES

ENDOPARASITES
 Commensalism
• It is a form of positive-zero interaction
wherein the commensal(hitchhiker) attaches
itself to the host while the host is neither
helped nor harmed by the interaction.
 Mutualism
• Interaction between both partners of different
species are benefitted without harming each
other.
 What is BIOGEOCHEMICAL
CYCLE?
• “BIO”=living organism
“GEO”=inorganic molecules
“CHEMICAL”=interactions of elements between
them

• The interaction between the organisms and the

environment in an ecosystem

• The cycles show how nutrients are conserved as

they are used over and over again
NITROGEN
 What is Nitrogen?
• Nitrogen is a naturally occurring element that
is essential for growth and reproduction in
both plants and animals.
• It is found in amino acids that make up
proteins, in nucleic acids, that comprise the
hereditary material and life’s blueprint for all
cells, and in many other organic and inorganic
compounds.
 What is Nitrogen cycle?

• It represents one of the most important nutrient

cycles found in terrestrial ecosystems.

• The movement of nitrogen between the

atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere in
different forms.
 Nitrogen cycle

The nitrogen cycle. Yellow arrows indicate human sources of nitrogen to the environment.
Red arrows indicate processes in which microorganisms participate in the transformation
of nitrogen. Blue arrows indicate physical forces acting on nitrogen. And green arrows
indicate natural processes affecting the form and fate of nitrogen that do not involve
microbes.
 PROCESS IN THE
NITROGEN CYCLE
1. NITROGEN FIXATION
• Nitrogen fixation is
the process wherein
N2 is converted to
ammonium, or NH4+.
• Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria often form
symbiotic relationships
with host plants.
 2. NITROGEN UPTAKE
• NH4+ → Organic N
• The ammonium (NH4+)
produced by nitrogen-
fixing bacteria is usually
quickly taken up by a host
plant, the bacteria itself, or
another soil organism and
incorporated
into proteins and
other organic nitrogen
compounds, like DNA.
3. NITROGEN MINERALIZATION
• Organic N → NH4+
• After nitrogen is
incorporated
into organic matter, it
is often converted
back
into inorganic nitrogen
.
• Otherwise known as
decay.
 4. NITRIFICATION
• 1st step: NH4+ → NO2-
• 2nd step: NO2- → NO3-
• Nitrification requires the
presence of oxygen, so
nitrification can happen
only in oxygen-
rich environments like
circulating or flowing
waters and
the surface layers
of soils and sediments.
 5. DENITRIFICATION

• Oxidized forms of nitrogen such as nitrate

(NO3-) and nitrite (NO2-) are converted to
dinitrogen (N2) and, to a lesser extent, nitrous
oxide gas (NO2).
• Denitrification is an anaerobic process that is
carried out by denitrifying bacteria.
• Once converted to dinitrogen, nitrogen is
unlikely to be reconverted to a biologically
available form because it is a gas and is rapidly
lost to the atmosphere.
The activities of humans have severely altered
the nitrogen cycle. Some of the major processes
involved in this alteration include:

• The application of nitrogen fertilizers to crops

has caused increased rates of denitrification
and leaching of nitrate into groundwater.
• Increased deposition of nitrogen from
atmospheric sources
• Livestock ranching
• Sewage waste and septic tank leaching
CARBON CYCLE
• Carbon moves from the
atmosphere to plants.
• Carbon moves from
plants to animals.
• Carbon moves from
plants and animals to the
ground.
• Carbon moves from living
things to the
atmosphere.
• Carbon moves from fossil
fuels to the atmosphere
when fuels are burned.
• Carbon moves from the
atmosphere to the
oceans.
 PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
• Phosphorus moves in a cycle through rocks,
water, soil and sediments and organisms.
1. Over time, rain and weathering cause rocks to release
phosphate ions and other minerals. This inorganic phosphate is
then distributed in soils and water.

2. Plants take up inorganic phosphate from the soil. The plants

may then be consumed by animals. Once in the plant or animal,
the phosphate is incorporated into organic molecules such as DNA.
When the plant or animal dies, it decays, and the organic
phosphate is returned to the soil.

3. Within the soil, organic forms of phosphate can be made

available to plants by bacteria that break down organic matter to
inorganic forms of phosphorus. This process is known as
mineralization.

4. Phosphorus in soil can end up in waterways and eventually

oceans. Once there, it can be incorporated into sediments over
time