Southern Methodist University

On the Nature of Myth

Author(s): MODY C. BOATRIGHT
Source: Southwest Review, Vol. 39, No. 2 (SPRING 1954), pp. 131-136
Published by: Southern Methodist University
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43463966
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 On the Nature of Myth

MODY C. BOATRIGHT

the concept of myth has been myth greatly

in nineteenth-century terms, as "a
extended in our generation. It used to be
story presented as having actually oc-
assumed that myth-making was acurred
charac-
in a previous age, explaining the
teristic of the primitive mind cosmological
and was and supernatural traditions
of of
therefore confined to early stages a people,
cul- their gods, heroes, cultural
ture. But the more we have learned about
traits, religious beliefs, etc." In purport
the so-called primitive mind and the more
this corresponds to the primary definition
in the second edition of the New Interna-
we have learned about the sophisticated
mind, the less they have seemed to differ.
tional Dictionary .
If human beings made myths in the Thuspast,
in one context it is implied that
it is safe to assume that they aremyth-making
making belongs to primitive cul-
them in the present and will make them
ture, or at least to primitive groups within
in the future. a culture, while in another context it is
The trend toward a general recognition implied that myth-making continues in
of this assumption is evidenced by the in- our own times, even among the scientists.
creasing frequency with which the term Of course one may say that myth has dif-
"myth" is encountered in general reading. ferent meanings in the two contexts, but
In the book review section of one issue of if the myths of the past administered to
the Nation , for example, the word occurs the felt needs of human beings, I see no
in three separate reviews, not one of compelling reason for assuming that all
which is concerned with a work specifi- these needs (except those of sex) are met
cally on mythology. In one we are warned by contemporary civilization. If myth
against the danger that "brilliant nuances functions in primitive cultures, it should
may be built up into a scientific mythol- also flourish in ours.
ogy by the process of pyramiding quota- Trends toward a recognition of this
tions." In another, mention is made of thesis are discernible in certain anthropol-
the white collar class "celebrated in our ogical writings of this century. Edmond
mythology as the backbone of the na-
Doutté's study of the culture of North
tion," and in a third, myth is identified Africa led him to define, in a work pub-
with an archetypical story, this one of lished in 1909, myth as "le désir collectif
incest. personnifié," and he assumed that primi-
The new Dictionary of Folklore definestive man resorted to myth and ritual be-

southwest Review

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cause of his inability to reason, a judg- group which is both cause and result of
ment from which leading contemporary the acceptance of the myth. A myth is
anthropologists dissent. Clyde Kluckhohn not necessarily false. It may exhibit any
begins his "Myth and Ritual: A General degree of probability short of certainty,
Theory" by following Durkheim in de- which is possible only in extremely limited
fining myth as a "sacred tale," and in the fields of discourse. The belief is held to
course of his discussion refers to the be of social importance and to demand an
mythology of Nazi Germany. He does appropriate pattern of behavior. It is
not specify in what respect the Nazi sacred or religious not in the sense that
it must be concerned with spirits and
mythology is made up of tales nor in what
deities, but in the sense that it is held with
sense it is sacred. Nazi mythology is re-
a warm conviction and is associated with
ferred to also by Josef Rysan, who makes
a distinction between religious myth, the most cherished values of the believers.
characteristic of the past, and social myth,The more these values are threatened,
typical of the present. Finally, there the
is more vigorously will the myth be de-
Bronisław Malinowski, who accepts the fended. When a myth is no longer be-
Durkheim definition of myth, but whose lieved, it ceases to be a social force and
work is especially significant because of
becomes literature of the past, an item of
history.
his insistence that myth must be studied
in its social context and because of his If myth is to be defined in these terms,
suggestion that "the science of myththenin it cannot be restricted to narrative
forms. There is good reason, however, for
living cultures, such as the present civili-
zations of India, Japan, China, and lastcalling the great archetypical stories, those
but not least, our own, might well be on such themes as redemption, atonement,
inspired by the comparative studyattempted
of flight from a god, incest, and
the like, myths. They are often embodied
primitive folklore," a study he has not yet
undertaken. in fiction and biography. But the specific
These various meanings of myth may narrative embodiment is not the myth
be synthesized and the diverse materials per se, and it is possible to believe the
denominated myth may be unified under myth without believing in the historicity
the general definition that a myth is a of a single specific narrative embodiment
belief held by some cultural group about of it. In content myths are descriptions
the relations between man and superhu- of processes, accounts not merely of what
man powers, whether these powers are has taken place, but of what now takes
conceived of as spirits or as impersonal place and of what will take place in the
forces - natural, economic, or what not. future; the process is assumed to be time-
The belief must have social acceptance, less. Myths of racial superiority, for ex-
though not necessarily of the dominant ample, have been based on (1) special
group. A belief held only by a single in- creation of the superior race, (2) a cove-
dividual or several random individuals is nant entered into by an ancestor of the
not a myth. There is some cohesion in the race and a god, (3) descent from super-

132 spring 1954

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men, or often demigods, (4) superior plurality of persons, subject to much the
physical characteristics, (5) empirical evi- same emotions that influence human be-
dence of superior achievement. In each havior. Security is obtained by keeping
case it is assumed that the superiority is these persons in a good humor, largely
permanent. There are myths in all realms through prayer and ritual. In modern
of opinion where man is considered in civilization increasing reliance is placed on
relation to the world. And to these realms, impersonal forces, thought to be uniform
as I. A. Richards has observed, belongs in their operation.
"everything about which civilized man Complete security would result from a
cares most . . . ethics, metaphysics, morals, power that automatically met all the
religion, aesthetics, and the discussions needs of men. Yet no mythology presup-
surrounding liberty, nationality, justice, poses such a condition on earth. Perhaps
love, truth, faith and knowledge." the empirical evidence is too strong. Suf-
This list of values, of course, is not fering and death cannot be ignored. But
intended to be complete. It omits entirely important also is the loss of human dig-
material things like food and shelter, nity such an arrangement would entail. It
values which myth also serves. The schol- would deny man any freedom and reduce
arship of mythology has in the main been all his acts to insignificance. Thus some
too much concerned with theme and not element of uncertainty must remain. A
enough with function, and such defini- second basic assumption, therefore, is that
tions of the psychological functions of evil is a part of the world order. The devil
myth as have been made have failed in is as important as the angels.
being too specific, in explaining all myth The universal myth further assumes
in terms of one or a few specific motiva- that men and the institutions they create
tions such as promotion of fertility in may choose between good and evil. The
plants and animals, curiosity about the amount of human freedom varies with
moon, or sexual desire. An examination of different mythologies, but even the most
specific myths and analyses made of them rigidly deterministic religions and philos-
point to two basic desires under which ophies hold men accountable for their
specific wants may be integrated. They acts. Another tenet in the universal myth
are security and dignity. The relative em- is that while the good will ultimately
phasis on the one or the other will vary triumph, if not here then in a future
from culture to culture and from group world, the choices men make here are of
to group within a culture.
cosmic importance. Thus in the mythol-
since man cannot feel secure in an ogy of Social Darwinism the law of prog-
ress was irreversible, yet man had a veto
utterly capricious world, the first assump-
tion of the universal myth is that therepower over it. By philanthropy and social
is order in the universe, physical and legislation he could interfère with the op-
eration of the immutable law.
moral. In primitive societies the world is
conceived of in terms of personality. It isSecurity, then, came in part from man's
limited
controlled by a person or more often by a power to control natural and so-

southwest Review 133

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ciai phenomena. When the universe is con- happiness. He prescribed also a ceremo-
ceived of as being governed by supernat- nial which, along with the myth, was ac-
ural spirits, control is largely through cepted by neighboring tribes. But this
ritual, in the narrow sense of the word, acceptance depended upon prevailing so-
though even the most primitive people cial conditions. The Indians had been de-
have a considerable body of practical prived of their food supply, many were
knowledge. As knowledge advances, tech- starving, and their old tribal life had dis-
niques of control become increasingly integrated. An individual does not found
scientific. But control is never complete, a myth in an unfavorable climate of opin-
so that one source of security is resigna- ion. Another example may be taken from
tion, even destruction of the individual American history. Four years after Wov-
will. Paradoxically this may be also a oka's revelation, Frederick Jackson Turner
source of dignity. The individual takes propounded his thesis about the signifi-
his importance from the world soul into cance of the Frontier in American history,
which he is absorbed or from the master and founded a school of history. But the
race of which he is a member. Turner thesis, somewhat distorted, did
Thus, as twentieth-century scholarship not become a part of the American
is unanimous in agreeing, myths arise mythology until the political conserva-
from the deep needs of human beings. tives seized upon it as a weapon against
There is no such unanimity as to the rela- the rising liberalism of the 192 O's and
tive importance of the individual and so- 1930's.
ciety in the creation of myths; and in the Moreover, both Wovoka and Turner
crude form in which the question is often had predecessors. New mystic cults began
put, it is meaningless. No individual in- appearing among the Plains Indians as
ventor is likely to be found for the story early as 1800, and Turner had been in
of Prometheus or for the Navaho story of part anticipated by Samuel Adams Ham-
Spider Woman. The unity of the style mett, Woodrow Wilson, and Hamlin
often found in narratives may be that of Garland, to mention only a few of his
the scribe or oral informant, and is not forerunners. Both men also had disciples,
significant in the argument. and the role of the disciple is important
Many myths are associated with in- in elaborating the myth and expanding it
dividual men. Thus the Ghost Dance cults into a mythology.
of the North American Plains Indians When Doutté defined myth as collec-
that arose at the end of the nineteenth tive desire personified, he implied that
century were based on the dreams or reve-
personification was an essential part of the
lations of known men. Among them wasmythological process. And Henry Nash
Jack Wilson (or Wovoka, to use hisSmith uses myth and symbol "to designate
Paiute name) who, during an illness withlarger or smaller units of the same kind
a fever and an eclipse of the sun, had ofa thing, namely an intellectual construc-
tion that fuses concept and emotion into
revelation concerning the rejuvenation of
an image." That myth and symbol should
the earth and the restoration of primeval

134 spring 1954

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be thus equated is doubtful, but it should clearly comes after the myth. And it can
be observed that every myth will find its be shown further that not all myths have
symbols and that some of the symbols will their accompanying ritual. There is none,
be personalities. Thus personification is the so far as I know, based on the Oedipus
usual result of the popular acceptance of a myth. There would seem to be no neces-
belief; that is, of its becoming a myth. To sary connection then between myth and
take examples from our own culture, it is ceremonial when defined in these narrow
not merely that certain persons become terms.

mythological symbols: Boone and Carson But as I have tried to indicate, these
of manifest destiny, Theodore Roosevelt of terms are too narrow: in our analyses of
red-blooded and aggressive nationalism, complex living cultures we must extend
Franklin Roosevelt of courage in the face the concept of myths to beliefs other than
of economic disaster, Eisenhower of fa- those about gods. We should also inquire
therly solicitude for his bewildered chil- into the contemporary meaning of ritual.
dren; it is that institutions and ideas - the It has long been recognized that ritualism
Pentagon, the Kremlin, free enterprise, is not confined to appeals to spirits. An-
and creeping socialism - are talked about thropologists like Herskovits, for exam-
and written about as persons. They are en- ple, have not hesitated to speak of secu-
dowed with wills and emotions, a way of lar rites, though Hortense Powdermaker
thinking to which the United States Su- is clearly talking nonsense when she speaks
preme Court once gave the highest judi- of profits as rituals. A ritual is not a thing,
cial sanction when it declared that the not even a bank account but it need not
Southern Pacific Railroad and all other be concerned with supernatural beings.
corporations were persons within the Nor does it necessarily involve the
meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment. paraphernalia of pageantry such as masks,
robes, and musical instruments, though
all students of primitive culture have the wearing of badges, uniforms, and the
noted a relation between myth and ritual. like no doubt does enhance the emotion
Where myth is thought of as sacred tales of the participants. Black shirts have
of gods and spirits and ritual as pageantry played no insignificant role in recent his-
featured by masks , costumes, dancing, tory. Rituals do not always involve group
and the like, the ceremonial is often a activity. Even within the most restricted
dramatization of the myth. In such cases meaning of the term private ritual is prac-
the question arises as to whether the myth ticed in all cultures. But the greater effec-
was a later creation to reinforce the ritual tiveness of group activity has long been
or whether the myth resulted in the initia- obvious. Hence the political debate in
tion of the ritual. Since Frazer's time which each side solidifies its own position,
ritual has been generally considered pri-hence the mass cheering at football games,
mary, both psychologically and tem-
and hence mass parades and ceremonies
porally. Yet examples from primitive cul-
in which the individual will is submerged
tures can be pointed out where the ritual the will of the mass.
in

southwest Review 135

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 An essential characteristic of ritualistic it was also revolutionary. Social Statics ,
behavior is that it seeks to achieve a result, published in 1850, laid the foundation for
either upon outside events, upon the men- a complex mythology in defense of un-
tal state of the subject, or upon both. The regulated capitalism. It was a new mythol-
object may be to bring rain or to reconcile ogy, but it justified old behavior. The
one to death. It may be to bring about Communist Manifesto, published in 1848,
political action or to reconcile within the laid the foundation of a complex mythol-
subject the dichotomy of selfishness and ogy in defense of socialism. It was a new
good will toward his fellow-man, to gain mythology looking toward new patterns
cosmic approval of what one wants to do. of behavior. These and other examples
Ritualistic behavior is both repetitive that could be adduced suggest that myths
and nonrational. It prescribes the pattern in defense of the status quo develop after
of behavior and relieves the individual of the ritual, and that those which attack
the responsibility of thought; the be- the status quo develop before the ritual.
havior springs from the attitudes fixed Thus it would seem that as cultures pass
by the myth. Thus if I believe that Amer- from illiteracy to literacy, their myths re-
ica was made great by a collection of dis- tain their basic assumptions about the
crete individuals each pursuing his own general nature of the universe - that it is
selfish ends and if I believe that this pro-
ordered, yet both good and evil, and that
cess is still operative, I will not have to
human beings make choices; that some
think to define my attitude toward wel-
such assumptions are imposed upon man
fare legislation.
by his desire for security and dignity; that
Thus myth and behavior enforce each
other. There is no final answer as to tem- relatively less emphasis will be placed on
spirits and more on human manipulation
poral or psychological primacy. The con-
servative character of myth has been em-
in attaining these goals, and hence sanc-
phasized in anthropological literature. Yet tions are sought increasingly in natural
radicalism and revolt have their mythol- law and decreasingly in appeals to spirits;
ogy too. Wovoka's myth foretold a world but that the role of myth - that is, of so-
in which there would be plenty of buffalo cially approved belief which results in
and no white men. Since it looked toward repetitive and nonrational behavior - is as
the re-establishment of a vanished past, it important as ever; and that the forces
was reactionary, but since it was a protest generated by myth may in a free society
against Indian life as it existed in 1889, be either conservative or revolutionary.

13 6 spring 1954

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