Chapter 3: Training Methods,

Techniques and Aids

3.1 Different Types of Training:

On the Job and off the job training.
This training decision as to whether training should be carried out on or off the job
cannot be made arbitrarily. A judgment should be made as to which method is more
likely to meet the required objectives. On-the- job training generally takes place under
normal work situations, the task very often contributing directly to the output of the
department. Off-the-job trainings are usually conducted away from the work situation
and therefore is often simulated. In some production establishments, an off-the-job
training area is set aside within the plant for training operatives and other production
employees. Other requirements are accommodated by the use or training rooms on
site, or suing conference centers or hotels off-site.
The most significant advantages and disadvantages of the two methods are shown as
follows:
On-the job Off-the-job
Advantages
* No special facilities needed * more time available.
* No additional staff needed * trainees’ specific difficulties are
* real life situation, not simulated easier to explore.
* productive in terms of * relaxed atmosphere more
department’s work. conductive to learning.
* trainee can establish work * Easier to obtain full attention of
relationships from the start trainees (distractions reduced to
* learning can be controlled minimum)
* no transferability of training * able to test hypotheses and
required ideas in low risk environment
* away from the work and home (exchange of knowledge and
pressures. experience)
* improves morale and motivation
for self-development

On-the job Off-the-job

Disadvantages
# Loss of cost in departmental # Cost of eternal facilities.
budget
# risk of equipment, machines, # artificial sheltered environment
etc. and increase in scrap due to # difficulty of simulating work
lack of experience. problems
# Freelance instructor may lack # difficulty of trainees being away
skill in training. from home
# Lack of time due to pressure of # complexity of transferring
production learning to work situation
#difficulty of accommodating # generally, more time
trainee idiosyncrasies. consumption.
# Psychological pressures on # often involves traveling costs
trainee duet to exposure before and inconvenience.
experienced workers

3.2 Training Approaches

Generally, there are eight important approaches for training;
1) The ‘Sitting by Nellie’ or ‘Learning by Exposure’ Approach.
2) The ‘Educational’ approach.
3) The ‘Problem- centered’ approach
4) The ‘Action learning’ Approach.
5) The Systems Approach.
6) The ‘Analytical’ Approach.
7) The ‘Competences’ Approach
8) The ‘Training procedural Approach.

1) The ‘Sitting by Nellie’ or ‘Learning by Exposure’ Approach.

This training is not, strictly speaking an approach to employee development; it is an
anti-approach’ But, because learning still happens, it can be considered a management
option; and it is of course widely preferred, if perhaps by default. As far as it can be said
to positively reflect any of the variables we set out earlier, it assumes individual learning
and no resources (but the hidden cost of poor or slow learning might involve a high level
of hidden resource.)
In This training situation, the learner is assumed to be able to gather knowledge
and to use it without any assistance other than that which is randomly offered by their
associates. There are no obvious incentives to learn or disincentives not to do so. The
trainers are not themselves trained, nor are they prepared in any way for their roles.

The approach can be made effective and useful by the following two steps:
a) Experiential learning can be improved if learner motivation is increased. This
training may involve offering some incentives or rewards on the job.
b) ‘Nellie’ can be trained to train. This training will enable the trainees to exactly
follow what Nellie does and directly seek clarifications.

2) The ‘Educational’ Approach

This training approach serves individual needs. It is formal in nature. The contents are
planned having large groups in mind. The syllabi of the educational programmes are
typically substantial and usually lead to recognized qualification. This training approach
is a long-term planned activity. This training approach is more conceptual than work
specific. In future, the educational approach may become more sophisticated and offer
tailor- made work specific programmes.
3) The ‘Problem- centered’ Approach.
Learning needs are determined by the operational problems of individuals or groups in
organizations. This training approach is predominantly short-termed and ad hoc in its
nature. The approach is often highly acceptable throughout the organization: It seems to
serve real work problems, it produces results quickly and it is usually believed to
produce cost effective results.
The effectiveness of this training approach revolves around the identification of
causative problems and availability of experts to solve such problems.

4) The ‘Action Learning’ Approach

‘Action learning is basically the study of real-life resolution within a real-life environment.
Its justification as an approach to (mainly management) training is twofold; if offers not
only a challenge which in turn provides a significant motivation, and it also demands the
revolution of problems into best opportunities. ‘Action learning’ has been used in a
variety of forms; the approach was pioneered by Revans (see Revans, 1980 and 1983)
who arrange for managers to be seconded to firms and placed in existing work team or
part-time working parties (e.g. value analysis teams), and added a mentor (i.e. adviser)
whose role was to help the group devise appropriate work processes. Hence the
learning extends to matters of organizations, leadership and team skills; a ‘task culture’
must be set up and maintained, and the experience of achieving This training while
addressing a real-life problem can create powerful feelings of achievement and
confidence.
5) The ‘System’s Approach
The system thinking is thinking about relationships between parts of a system, about
their appropriateness, and especially about feedback, which acts as a judging
mechanism and feeds new operational decisions.

A systems approach to training views the organization as complex set of

subsystems, and expects changes in one subsystem to yield potential needs in another
it is therefore ‘organizational’ but it can produce individual or group plans aimed at long
or short-term objectives.
A system approach may equally address the training system per se; assessing
the impact of training policy; challenging the quality of data which comes from appraisal;
suggesting new ways of evaluating actual training activities; comparing the
effectiveness of different training methods; identifying whether learning transfers easily
between off-the-job training events and the workplace; redefining trainer roles – and so
on ad infinitum. It can immediately be seen, however, that this training approach cannot
normally replace others; it will seek to refine and improve others by continually
reviewing them.

6) The Analytical Approach

This training kind of approach has traditionally been linked with a careful and specialist
assessment of an organizations training needs, followed by a detailed analysis of its
knowledge, skills and attitudes required for each role. Job descriptions and job
specifications are typically created and / or drawn on for this training information. Where
programmes are created for new, as yet not recruited staff, the norm is to assume no
knowledge, no skills and no relevant attitudes; a training specification is then drawn up,
which is essentially a work-specific version of the sort of learning profile that the
educational’ approach designs. Where employees performance can be measured
against the analysis, a so-called ‘learning gap is said to exist and more specific plan can
be drawn up.
This training approach usually relies on job characteristics standing the test of time –
the analysis is rarely completed quickly and is a costly investment. It requires the
application of logic on the part of someone other than the learner – usually a trainer or a
work-study specialist. It is particularly applicable in situations where the overall task
requires that a number of people work consistently in accordance with laid-down rules.

7) The ‘Competences’ Approach

This training approach prescribes the outcomes and not the learning method. How the
learner becomes competent is left to the learner and / or the trainer to decide.
Standards are described as:
# Elements of competence, which describe ‘what can be done’ that is in the form of
any outcome, behavior, or action, any of which a person would be able to determine.
# Performance Criteria, which are statements which describe the quality of
outcomes of successful performance and the basis against which an assessor can
judge whether an individual can achieve the outcome specific in an element.’
# Range of Statements which define the scale of competencies required for the
individual to be considered as occupationally well proficient.’
These three components collectively form the standard’. They must be backed
by knowledge specifications, which details essential knowledge and understanding to
be assessed; and evidence requirements which identify evidence of performance that is
critical to assessment, plus methods or gathering that evidence.

These standards are ‘national’ they are defined by lead bodies approved by
government to represent each industry or occupational group.

The detailed work of compiling standards requires that four aspects of job competence
are covered:
* The technical activities to be performed
* Contingency management – dealing with things that go wrong and with ‘the
unexpected’
* Task management – allocating time, setting priorities etc.
* handling the environment – ensuring safety, interacting with colleagues etc.

From the point of view of the employer, the approach brings together the
educational and analytical approaches already described above, but without requiring
the individual employer to undertake the time-consuming analytical work. It has the
added appeal of offering qualification that is more vocational and less academic than
their predecessors.

Critics have challenged the lack of interest in learning processes, stressing how the
learning route can affect an outcome. This training suggests that at least in some cases
the learning method and the actual job need to be matched. It also confirms that
workplace assessment is critical. It is unlikely that workplace supervisors will assess
impartially; regardless of any central training they receive, they are political people in a
highly political environment. External assessors can be assumed to be less biased but
they incur additional expense and their assessments may ignore the specific needs of
the workplace. Because much of the training takes place in a college setting, simulation
of the workplace within the college will almost certainly become widely acceptable.

Such problems and challenges may eventually undermine the value of the
competences’ approach, although it is now firmly established as the means whereby UK
employees will become qualified in the eyes of employers in all EU countries.

8) The Procedural Approach or Training process

This training approach stems from Fayol’s (plan organize do review) process theory of
management. In its early form, the training process was assumed to be based on the
simple, four-stage process of (a) identifying training needs; (b) designing training plans;
(c) implementing the plans; and (d) evaluating the results. But whereas the simplicity of
This training model made it attractive, its reputation suffered as trainers gained
experience and came to appreciate the complexities that arise both within and between
each stage in the cycle and hence demand a more sophisticated model and one that
accepts the political dimension. But despite This training, the ‘training process’
approach has grown stronger, especially in organizations that have a personnel
department but no full-time training management and it now offers and mirrors what
many firms have come to regard as basic system requirements’ – accepting that training
intervention will be regular phenomenon throughout an organization’s life with people
explicitly responsible for seeking that appropriate procedures exist and are followed.
Typically, those procedures are including;
• The implementation of good training plans
• The creation of any training plans
• The inclusion of training responsibilities in the job descriptions
• The promulgation of a training policy.
• The provision of training the resources.
• The assessment of the end results.
• The regular, periodic definition of training needs.

Another way to look at the approaches of training is form the period of their practice
traditional technologies and modern or emerging training technologies.

Training Technologies

Traditional technologies Emerging technologies

* Lecture and Discussion * Distance learning
* Case study * Interactive multi-media.
* Role playing * virtual reality training.
3.3 Training Method:
Definition:
Training method is defined as “a systematic procedure or techniques by which a skill is
developed in a person, employee of an organization”. Combination of different methods
of training contributes to the effectiveness of the training programme.
Trainer use a variety of training methods during delivery to facilitate learning. By
altering the training method, the trainer uses delivery; he can keep learners interested,
activate different learning styles and to enhance comprehension and retention. There
are many multiple training methods available and the trainer should be proficient
enough in using them to help meet learners’ needs.

Classification of Training methods and methodologies

One way to distinguish among training methods is by their characteristics:

Fig. 6.2 classification of training methods

A second way to distinguish among methods is by how much trainer control is there in
each method. Some like lecture vest control in the trainer. Conversely come other
methods like group problem solving, shift the control to learners.

Classification of training methods

General training World bank Coverdale / manage

 methodology methodology Methodology

a) General Training Methodology:

The general training methodology includes a series of lectures by trainers. If is being
adopted by most of the training institutions.

b) World Bank Methodology:

Benzamin Mouthner, a world bank expert form lsrael advocated This training
methodology, since it has been adopted by most of the extension education institutes in
the country, it is also known as E.E.I. Training Methodology.

c) Coverdale / manage Training Methodology

There is hundred per cent participation of trainees in this training methodology;
therefore, the learning percentage is higher in this training Methodology.

3.4 Selecting the Best Method

Selection of the training methods depends on the programme objectives, the trainees,
the confidence of trainers, etc. However, the following considerations are worth bearing
in mind while selecting the training method.

1) The method selection depends on what actions the trainees are supposed to
take after finishing the course.
2) The duration of the training programme and the availability of time.
3) The training setting at the disposal of the trainer.
4) The level of knowledge about the trainees available to the trainers.
5) While selecting a participative experiential method, care should be taken that the
trainer selects proven exercises, which he feels confident that it will work. If the
 exercise fails, the trainer should talk it out with the group members and should
never apologize.
6) It is always better to have a combination of different methods of training in a
programme using a variety of training methods stimulates learner interest and
arouses curiosity.

According to the master presenter Bob Pike of Creative Training Techniques

International, located in Minneapolis, “In their training programmes they use the
90/20/8 rule. No module runs over ninety minutes, the pace just changes every
twenty minutes, and they try to involve people in the content every eight minutes
of the programme. That is based on Tony Buzan’s book, use both sides of your
Brain, in which he states that the average adult can listen with understanding for
only ninety minutes at a stretch, but can listen with retention for only twenty
minutes”.

3.5 Important Training Methods:

There are lot of training methods used by trainers depending on their competence,
confidence, and convenience. Some of the important training methods, their
advantages, disadvantages, applicability, etc. are discussed below

I) Lecture or presentation Method:

This training is a traditional training method. Lectures are unidirectional because the
trainer is the primary communicator who convey the information to the group, while the
group’s role is to listen. When the purpose is informational, lecture method is preferred.
This training method is suitable for large audience where participation is not wanted.
Content and timing of the lecture can be planned in detail well in advance.

Advantages of Lecture Method

1. The primary advantage of the lecture method is that it is an effective way to
convey a large amount of information to learner in short time.
2. This training method is very cost effective.
3. If the purpose of training programme is to raise awareness or supply information,
lecture can be an appropriate method.

4. The lecture method is also useful when training involves many learner.
5. This training method is useful for conveying information in a time effective
manner from trainer as expert to the trainees as learners.
6. Lecture is a method in which information can be communicated instantly.
7. It is very easy to organize.

Limitations / Disadvantages
a) This training is the most criticized method in a research conducted among
directors of training, showing that the lecture was perceived to be among the least
effective training methods.
b) The audience’s role is passive and audience feedback is limited.
c) Efficient learning demands concentration on the part of the learner.

Making lecture method Effective

a) Lecture method can be improved by encouraging the audience to take notes.
b) Use of visual aids largely improves the effectiveness of lecture
c) Prints can be illustrated by making good use of stories and anecdotes.
d) The review a regular summarizing heighten the effectiveness of the lecture
method.
e) Any other way to improve traditional method is to reduce how much time you
spend on them.
f) The trainer can ask questions frequently during a lecture to enhance the learner
improvement. By this the training becomes more interactive and relation is higher.
II) Group discussion Method
The Group discussion is defined as ‘the process of reaction and counter reaction
between two or more than two people on a common subject with the objective of
achieving some specific conclusion or results”.
The trainer conducts a group discussion of solving a problem, getting feedback, sharing
experiences establishing a consensus or for exchanging ideas.
During the group discussion, the trainer plays the role of facilitator and poses
questions, encourages involvement, manages the environment, and summarizes the
conclusions reached by the group. The trainer should be sensitive to group dynamics so
that the learners remain focused and should be prepared to intervene when the
discussion deteriorate. The trainer should be careful while handling discussion of
controversial topics to avoid hurt feelings, lasting anger and frustrated learners. There
are different types of group discussion like small group discussion buzz method group
discussion, symposium, huddle method group discussion, etc.

Advantages of Group Discussion Method:

A group discussion is usually effective in engaging learning and encouraging
participation. Peer learning is one of the most direct benefits resulting for the discussion
method. Group discussion centre around problems, questions, ideas or issues
presenter to the group for consideration and verbal exploration.

Disadvantages of Group Discussion Method:

1) Behavioral problems like hurting feelings, jarring personal conflict, etc. may
happen in group discussion, if the trainer has not handled the situation and environment
properly. Sometimes the discussion may be so lengthy that meaningful results may not
be achieved.

2) In some cases, the trainees get off the track or one trainee dominates the
discussion, then the other trainees feel that the discussion was a waste of time.
3) One of the obvious disadvantages of group discussion is when many trainees
may like to contribute at the same time or when trainees are verbose.

Making Group Discussion Method Effective:

1) The trainer should announce well in advance about the trainer intentions to use
group discussion method. This training will communicate to the trainees that they are
expected to participate.

2) The problem of one man domination, “consuming more time without any
purposeful agenda, etc. can be addressed by skilled facilitation by the trainer.

3) To stimulate the discussion the trainer may pose questions to the group that build
interest or elicit opinions.

4) The trainer should remain neutral as far as possible to make the group
discussion a successful method.

5) Physical settings like seating arrangement also plays an important role in making
this training method a successful method. This training method works best when chairs
are arranged in a circle or with other seating arrangement that encourages trainees to
look at each other.

Types of Group Discussion:

There are eight methods of group discussion, which are very important. They can be
very profitably deployed in training, teaching, extension, etc.
1) Small Group Discussion Method
2) Huddle Method
3) Buzz Method
4) Symposium Method
5) Seminar Method
6) Conference Method
7) Workshop Method
8) Panel Discussion Method
Smaller the group more effective is the discussion. Usually in the group discussion
method the group consists of 5-10 members.
To make the passive members to participate, the group may be further divided
into smaller groups this training is called Huddle Method.

The important features of this training method are:

• 4-6 members.
• Each member may be huddle leader
• There is time limit for the given activity
• The huddle group reports to the larger group.
• Participation is improved.
• Group members are activated
• Enhanced contribution from members.

Some more participation can be brought about by dividing the huddle group into 2 sub-
groups. This training called Buzz Method. The important features of this training method
are;
• Only 2 members
• Participation is cent per cent
• Method is informal
• Buzz group leader is not there
• The buzz group reports to the larger group.

III) Case Study Method

Case studies present reckoned or computer based scenarios that describe an actual or
imaginary problem situation. The trainees must usually apply what they learn and the
knowledge they acquire and skills they develop from the training and prior experiences
to examine the case, make decisions and proper solutions or recommendations. This
training method is a very useful tool for developing analytical skill. This training method
is very useful when the trainees lack on the job experience. There are a variety of case
studies and problems that could be covered by extensive case study method like
development of teamwork, difficulties, interpersonal relations, control or wastage, lack of
funds, role ambiguity, customer service and relations, etc.
Case study method is primarily a problem identification, problem solving activity. The
focus of the method is mainly thinking and finding out multiple ways of solving the
problem and examining their causative factors that are responsible for the problem. This
training helps the trainees in develop analytical and problem solving skills. It proves to
stay a useful method in giving participant an opportunity to tackle difficult problems
before the trainee is personally exposed to real life frightening and confusing situations.

IV) Harvard method

The Harvard method is regarded as the granddaddy of the case problem technique, its
method is to use cases developed from actual situations in which the student will be
able to learn from independent thinking how the trainer skills may be used in solving the
problems presented.
This training method is non-directive in that the instructor presents the case problem to
the students, allows sufficient study time and then creates an environment for group
discussion. The instructor guides the discussion and acts as a catalyst for the group. He
helps the student discover for themselves what the answers or solutions may be. He
assists the group using skilled questions to draw out, direct, or guide the thinking of the
group. Finally, the result of this training approach may be a series of solutions to the
same problem.
Other methods differ mainly in the manner of their presentations, whether it is
filmed cases, role-playing of ‘live’ cases. The film approach presents an open-ended
problem to be solved by the group. Its advantages include that of offering considerable
detail about real life settings in which emotional reactions as well as facts and data are
visualized. This training approach is useful when there are unique settings of a problem
which are critical to the interpretation of the case.
Live cases are those, which are still active in a problem context; the situation
being studied is undergoing change now of study, this training is an effective method for
an organization, which is actually involved in the study of a problem and seeks to train
its personnel to handle the situation.

V) When to use the Case Method

Like all techniques in training the method is better adapted to some specific types of
training problems than others.
Cases are well suited to the teaching of such a topic as supervisor training,
where plant and personnel problems can be presented to case forms, cases are also
useful in management training complex union problems, and similar exercises where a
student should be given the opportunity to apply the trainer analytical and creative
talents in solving problems.

Advantages of Case Study Method;

1) Bring together the knowledge and experiences of a group of people analyzing
that the case is possible.
2) This training method helps in developing cooperation and interpersonal skills
among the participants.
3) It facilitates analytical skills and communication of the skills of the participants.
4) As the case study method throws open different approaches, alternatives and
solutions to a problem the participants is given a variety of solutions.
5) Others’ point of view is made known in the discussion and one starts
appreciating others point of view paving way for possible behavioral and attitudinal
changes.
6) This training method facilitates synthesis of several conceptual principles
resulting in a plan of action.
7) In addition to developing analytical and problem-solving skills may facilitate the
development of teamwork, communication, and presentation skills especially when the
trainees are asked to report their findings to the group.

Disadvantages
Case study method does have certain disadvantages;
1) The case studies some time lack realism and immediate relevance to the
organizational settings.
2) The case study method over rides time compared to other direct methods.
3) Some case studies may be difficult for trainees to comprehend and imagine the
situation as it happened when presented in written from.

Making Case study method Effective.

1) Presenting living case, which introduces an actual problem or situation occurring
in the organization.
2) Allow sufficient time before the start or case study analysis for the members to
study and prepare over a written case.
3) This training method can be made very effective if small groups compete in
seeking solutions.
4) A debate on possible alternatives and solutions can be worthwhile, but care
should be taken that the trainees do not transgress.
5) While preparing the case study some Red herrings are desirable but care should
be taken that they do not divert the main message.

VI) Incident Process Method

There are several differences between the incident process and other forms of the case
method. For one thing, only a bare ‘incident’ is reported to the group. It may involve
merely a statement that foreman saw two workers involved in a dispute and then saw
one strike another. Other information relevant to the incident is known only to the
discussion leader. This training may include company rules or agreements, or
biographical information about the characters. The group gets this training information
only by asking for it specifically; if no one is astute enough to ask the proper questions,
key information is withheld. On the other hand, the proper question might elicit a copy of
the limits of authority delegated to the managers involved in the incident. Such hand-
outs are given to each member of the group, when and if someone requests the
information.

After This training fact finding stage, the group attempts to determine the major issue to
be resolved and whether minor issues must also be considered. When issues have
been clarified, each member writes the trainer own solution, then joins in short period of
general discussion of all the proposed solutions. Next, those with similar solutions met
to iron out their differences and select spokesman to argue the merits of their approach
in debate with other viewpoints. Finally, the leader reports the real-life solution. Since
the cases in the incident process, like most cases, are drawn from actual events, it is
possible to report the solution that a management or an arbitrator reached.

It has been suggested that the conventional case method has a basic limitation that it
cannot readily reproduce the unfolding quality of actual events. If the student does not
perceive and respond to the quality of the process when he thinks about a given case,
is not real to him and he will therefore, not put enough into its discussion to learn much
from it.

Paul and Faith Pigors claim it is virtually impossible to capture the living quality of
a case situation by reading about it and that the process of case reporting can be far
more illuminating than the product. Pigors believes that people pick up the idea that
change is characteristic or every situation more readily when they reconstruct the case
orally – by asking questions – than when they first get their information by reading a full-
length report.
In the incident process. All the student receives is a thumbnail sketch of a precipitating
incidents. This training is followed by the first space of questions concerning the WHAT,
WHEN, WHERE and HOW of the case – at the time of the incident – and WHO was
immediately involved. This training questioning leads into full scale discussion and lively
analysis because people find it easier to THINK and FEEL that the situation is
happening now and that they are taking part in it.

VII) Role-play Method

In role-play method, active participation rather than passive response is achieved and
this training facilitates learning. In the cone of experience that highlights instructional
alternatives, contrived experience is categorized as the clues to direct purposeful
experience. Thus, in the absence of real situations, certain mock situations may have to
be created to garb the instructional needs so that the trainees would be feeling that they
are experiencing life like situations. This training contrived artificial situation in
educational parlance is called simulation.
A simulation is a product that results when the appearance or effect of something
else has been created by controlling the task-irrelevant items and by adding the
replaced or represented items.

Role-Plays, which are sometimes called skill practices, provide trainees with the
opportunity to apply new skill in a safe environment Role-play sometimes involves the
trainees acting the part of other people so that they can practice newly acquired skills. A
real-life situation is improvised and enacted in front of the group which discusses the
implication of the performances for the situation under consideration.

The role-play method is advantageous only in the following training situations.

1) To examine a problem in human relationship – for example, an extension worker
or a social worker who is required to deal with a “difficult” client.
2) Two seek out possible solutions to an emotion – laden problem.
3) To provide a group with insight into attitudes that differs sharply from their own.
4) To practice new skills.

Problems in conducting Role-play

As this training method relies heavily on simulation of real life situations, by the trainer
and very good perception by the trainee are since qua non for the success of this
training method. Problems crop-up either with the trainer or with the trainee.

Trainer-based problems:
• The trainer might be unclear about the objectives of the training and hence may
fail to set clear-cut target.
• Failure to establish supportive climate while moving into post-enactment
discussion focusing on the attitude and behavior of role-playing case.
• Trainer should be careful in selecting role-playing case.

Trainee-based problems:
• The trainees may sometimes add facts that are not part of the role or subtract /
leave out that are needed for the role.
• The player might step out of the role or “open-up” despite instructions.

Forms and functions

Role-plays fall under two main categories; structure and spontaneous. Let us examine
each of these.

Structure Role-Play
This training is a formal type of role-play where careful planning and preparations are
necessary. The facilitator is required to prepare well though-out descriptions of the
general situation and the role each participant is to play. Each participant is given a
copy of the description of the situation (sometimes referred to as ‘script’). He is also
given copy of paper describing the trainer own personality and role but is not given
details of the roles of the other players. The Structure role-plays most ideal for
management training. It is sub-devised into five categories;

i) The Single Role-play, which involves two or three role-players performing under
observation and assessment of the rest of the class. Performance is followed by a
plenary discussion by the entire class where the issues involved are analyzed and
feedback provided to the actors This training from of Structured Role-play is most ideal
for a group with shared experience (homogeneous) and where the subject matter is
generally familiar to the whole group, effectiveness in the use of This training method is
achieved when it is managed by a competent facilitator who can;
a) Encourage the shy members of the class to act roles; and
b) Ensure that the feedback provided during the plenary is supported by good and
concrete examples, lest it creates resentment and frustration on the part of the role-
players.

ii) Multiple Role-play; where the entire class takes part in the actual play. The
class is divided into groups, each of which is assigned a specific role to play. The
different groups thus divided role-play simultaneously. The advantage of This training
method vis-a vis the Single role-play is that whereas in the latter attitudes may develop
in the whole group while the skill is sharpened only in the role-players, the former
affords improvement of skills and change of attitudes of as many participate as possible.
What is more, in this training form there are less inhibitions among the players as they
are all acting at the same time (some people are less shy acting in groups than
individually – especially when observed by their peers). Learning takes place through
self- analysis or mutual feedback. Analysis of attitudes may not be as sharp as in the
Single role-play, but practice and acceptance are more pronounced.
iii) Role Rotation or Role Repetition; whereas single person plays the key role by
posing a problem or by trying out the trainer approaches with several members of the
class. Each of the latter is asked to try out the trainer own approach to the problem (with
the same key role players). For example, the key role player may assume the role of the
manger who has created a problem situation that is to be tackled by the trainer
subordinates. Individual members of the class play the role of a subordinate, each one
taking turns to tackle the situation. Thus, the subordinates change during the role-play
but the manger does not.

The advantage of this training method lies in its capacity to help a trainer analyze
situations while at the same time emphasizing the need for flexibility and use of different
approaches to the same problem situation. This training is particularly useful where
subordinates with different personalities and temperaments are involved. Different
mangers may try out different approaches with the same subordinate who, in this
training case, assumes the role of a key player.

iv) Role Reversal; where a person plays a role opposite to what he usually is in real
life. For example, a manager who has problems with the trainer staff, committee or
members may be asked to play the role of any of these people with whom he has
problems.

This training technique helps people understand what transpires ‘on the other side of
the fence’ People develop empathy and attitude changes often occur resulting in better
understanding of the problems, views and emotions of the other person. This training in
turn facilitates better communications without which suspicion and apathy reign
supreme. Role reversal is used for attitude development while role rotation is used for
skill development.

v) Ghost Role-play; Where the facilitator stands behind the role player and
doubles or ghost plays him. This training becomes appropriate in a situation where the
role player is unable to identify with the role assigned to him and the role-play does not
develop in the required direction where a Single role-play is involved, the facilitator may
also ask any of the observes to ghost play in order to rescue a play in danger. A word of
caution here; the facilitator must not carry This training too far; after he has put the idea
across, he or the observer should withdraw once confidence and interest have been
restored the role players should continue their own.
Whichever of the five categories of Structured role-plays is applied, it is important that
the plenary discussion following the role-play is properly controlled and harnessed
towards the objective of the session. Discussions should never be allowed to develop
into a game of ‘verbal ping-pong’ with defense and counter-defense, support and
counter-support argument and counter-argument. Equally important, the post enactment
analysis should focus not dimply on the acidity as such but should identify the motives,
feelings and emotions involved either in helping or hindering communication between
the members.

Spontaneous Role-play;
The main purpose of this training form of role-play is to provide the learner with an
insight into the trainer own attitude and behavior, or those of others. In This training
sense, it deals more with assumption and motivate factors that influence ones behavior.
Unlike the Structure role-play neither script nor personality and role descriptions
need be prepared in advance. A spontaneous role-play should be based on a case
study, an exercise or group discussion of a problem already introduced. Usually in such
class or discussions, participants argue hypothetically and form opinions and decisions
after an event.

However, if the learner is required to carry out the thought and decisions by playing the
role, the facilitator can identify and demonstrate the gulf between thinking and doing,
and the communication skills that are required to practice what may, on the surface,
appear easy to think and advise.
Let us take the example of a manager who is having problems with one of the
trainer board members usually the participants would point out actions that the manager
should have taken to solve the problem. When several suggestions have been made by
participants, the facilitator can suggest to the class ‘Let us try to convince the board
member that he needs to change the trainer attitude. Impulsively one participant may
play the role of the stubborn board member while another play that of the manger.
Often, the participant-manager will fail to convince the board member, and the facilitator
can then analyze and bring out the attitude flaws and communication barriers that
hinder conviction. If the participant-manager is successful is convincing skills used for
convincing. In either case the facilitator should bring down the participant from the
trainer general style of approach to specific words tone, logic, emotions etc. required to
convince the board member.
In both the Structured and spontaneous forms of role-play the Single, Rotation
/ Repetition and Reversal modes can be used. The Multiple and Ghost modes are,
however, only suited to the Structured form.

Some Advice to the Facilitator of Role-Play Method;

* Choice of a learning technique is determined by the subject matter and the

objectives se for that subject. The facilitator must convince himself that a role-play is the
most effective way of achieving a learning objective before he applied the method.

* Participants should be told in advance about the objective of the role-play and its
educational value to eliminate whatever prejudices they may have against the method.

* Careful planning and management will make a successful role-play. “Time

budget” should be made for introduction, scene preparation, participant briefing, the
actual play, post enactment discussion and conclusion.
* In the case of a structured role-play, all the written material (Character
descriptions, etc.) should be prepared in advance.

* The participants should be briefed individually on their roles, not as a group.

* No person should be assigned a role that is likely to humiliate him by showing

that he is incompetent in the job he does in real life. Names of people and places should
always be fictitious.

* When choosing actors, and assigning roles, the facilitator should bear in mind
that those who act may learn most.

* The facilitator must maintain a neutral stand during post-enactment discussion,

while subtly and prudently harnessing the discussion to desired conclusion. In doing so,
he should not bring the trainer own personality and opinions to bear on the discussions.
Where comments from the observers are too critical, he should play a pacifying role and
avoid hurting the feelings of either the role players or the observers.

* The role-play should be stopped before solution to the problem is reached, but
after all features of the problem, the emotions, motives, and attitudes involved have
been revealed. This training will help trainees focus on the subject matter, rather than
on the plot.

* The facilitator should summaries the conclusion of the role-play and bring out the
instructional substance.

Making Role-play Method Effective

Since role-plays mimic a real scenario and require demonstration, they increase greater
chances of transfer of learning from training site to actual work site. This training
method also gives you opportunity to supply performance-oriented feedback
immediately following the role-play. This training feedback coupled with subsequent
opportunities to practice the skill learnt may make This training Method effective.
When simultaneous role-plays are utilized significant time should be invested in
planning, communicating instructions and expectations, and preparing trainees to be
successful on their own. The facilitator should move around among the groups to
monitor progress, assess performance, and provide feedback. It is a good strategy to
involve on more trainer to increase the time devoted and the attention given.
Role-plays and other skill practices can be made more intense and more powerful by
videotaping them. Videotaping a skill practice allows learner to see their actions in
private and can be encouraged to redo their performance until they are pleased with the
outcome. Learners are often their own worst critics in such situations. Note, of course,
that videotaping adds a significant dimension of complexity to a programme in terms of
time, equipment, and physical facilities.

To make the role-play method effective, the trainer should spend ample time in
preparing the learners and in establishing high comfort levels. The trainer should take
time to communicate the importance of the activity and the benefits that will result from
applying the new skills back on the job.
One more way to make the role-play method effective is doing the role-play in a
‘Fishbowl’ style. Here the role-players perform in front of the other trainees who form a
circle around them, as in a fishbowl. The group then discusses how well the target skills
were practiced and in doing so provides feedback to the role-players. When time
permits, inviting different participants to perform the role over again is useful. However,
factor like competitiveness amongst the trainees on performing better than the last set
of player, are to be avoided as this training can interfere, with the method’s primary
learning value.

VIII) Management Game Method:

The management game is a new and powerful tool for executive development –
aggregate improvement on case study and role playing methods. Pioneered by the
American Management Associations it has proved to be a very effective educational
exercise during the last eight years since its inception.

The management game is a dynamic exercise utilizing a simulation of a business

situation. Executives, grouped into terms representing the management of competing
companies, make the same type of operating and policy decisions as they do in real life.

The game is played over a period and the decisions taken at one point of time
takes into account the effects of their own earlier decisions, the decisions taken by other
competing companies and what really happened in the business filed during the period.
Thus, full scope is given to companies. At the end of the game a critique’ session I held
to focus attention on the main points of the problem and to review the performance of
participants.
This training important new management training exercise permits practice in decision-
making without actual involvement of capital, factories, and staff. Management games
can help and compress months and years of operation experience into a just a few
hours of intensive training.
Two unique characteristics, which enable the technique to contribute so powerfully
to management education, are the realistic use of the time decision and the objectivity of
the feedback.
The emotional involvement of participants is a significant feature of these games.

VIIII) In-Basket Exercise Method

In-basket exercise method is an interactive simulation in which learners analyze
information, set priorities, and make decisions on issues given in the exercise. 'In-
basket' method as the name implies is usually filled with what a manager would find on
the trainer desk such as - reports, memos, letters, etc. From the above this training
method is very profitably used in leadership or management development training
programmes.
The in-basket exercise places the trainees in a real-life situation where they are asked
to perform typical management tasks and activities they face on a day-to-day basis.
During the simulation, it is videotaped and learners are assessed against pre-
determined competences such as time management, effective problem solving and
final decision-making.

Making In-basket Exercise Effective

The trainer should spend considerable time while duplicating the real-life situation. He is
clear about the objective of the exercise and learning outcome.
Multi-rater assessments may be preferable than a single-rater assessment, as they tend
subjective. The multi-rater assessments focus on actual job performance rather than
perform under artificial conditions. Sometimes the trainees complete an in-basket
exercise before on training; which can save time and encourage self-directed learning.

X) Conference Method
The conference method is usually a highly structure device for conveying a message or
on a large scale. Often to an audience of several hundred people4 delegates with
common from a wide cross section of the society attend the same seeking an opportunity
to hear the comments of authorities in areas covered. Literally conference means
consultation as being so the delegates should be able to get answers to questions on
topics covered.
The chairman is the key and significant figure in the conference method. He is
expected have complete control both speakers and of the audience and in this
training respect have considerable power. He should plan well what the speaker
should deliver and provide aid question time after each talk. Balancing the expectations
of the audience and allocating optimum question time demands considerable skills on
the part of chairman. Sometimes he must be but the same firmness should not be
wrongly interpreted as dictatorial. Relevance, coverage, and brevity are the required
characteristics and the chairman should have the skill to do the same.

Making Conference Method Effective

1) The objective of the conference must be clearly defined and well understood.
2) Expert speakers should be carefully selected after going through their
background.
3) Early planning of the programme and wide publicity is desirable.

XI) Seminar Method

The word 'Seminar' is derived from the Latin word "Seed Plot" - meaning that seminar
method is a good ground for sowing, nurturing and developing ideas. The seminar is
a conference of a smaller size, but greater degree of participation from the members
is incorporated.

The Seminar Method is usually centered on a single theme which is examined in

detail, speakers are acknowledged specialists who are asked to make brief presentation
on the topic discussion and lead the members towards exploring the subjects of
discussion more in detail. The size of the seminar group should be optimum so as to
facilitate forming smaller syndicate group. Too small a syndicate group may delimit
the expertise and views resulting in a sense of inadequacy and frustration amongst
members whereas too large a group tends to result in confusion, domination by few,
etc.
The syndicate groups examine the task and arrive at some conclusions by democratic
processes within the given time limit. A spokesman then presents the decisions of the
syndicate group.

Making Seminar Method Effective

1) Handouts summarizing, the main points made by the speakers are useful and
serve as a reference material.
2) The trainer may briefly summaries the points of the seminar to reiterate the
common grounds.
3) The closing session should identify future plans and action points arising out of
the seminar.
4) The trainer should make the objectives of the seminar clear at the beginning of
the seminar itself.
5) The seminar success depends on thorough research, balanced approach to avoid
controversies, quality of presentation, the skill of the trainer and the experts and
involvement and participation of the members.

XII) Demonstration Method

In the demonstration method, the trainer performs an activity or behavior while learners
observe and then perform the same. The demonstration can include the action
performed by someone other than the trainer. Behaviour modeling is a type of
demonstration method. In This training method, the trainees learn through observation
before performing the same.

XIII) Sensitivity Training Method

Sensitivity training is otherwise called as ‘T-group Training. In 1947 in bethel Maine,
U.S.A. a training laboratory was conducted with the main objective of serving as a
change agent.
T-Groups in India are mainly conducted by Indian Society for applied behavior
sciences, variety of skills like awareness, interpersonal, relations, teamwork, group and
organizational processes, inter-group conflict resolution, etc.

T-Group training is designed to help everyone, realize one’s own potential for growth
and to increase their ability to work effectively along with others in a variety of
circumstances.
1) Sensitivity training alternatively called as T-group (Training) D-Group
(Development) L-Group (Learning) or laboratory training is an experience based
learning-learn by experience sharing particularly those generated by the group.

2) Sensitivity training is a process-oriented training.

3) A trainer of the faculty has no formal role in the group in T-Group training. He
works with the participants as one of them.

4) Sensitivity training is carried out in a laboratory where participants simulate

conditions for effective functioning of the group in an unstructured manner. The
group is no defined, the leadership is not offered by the trainer and the behaviour
is not prescribed. All of them are evolved though a natural process by the group.

5) Sensitivity training is a participant centered learning.

6) A major goal of sensitivity training is to contribute towards the personal growth of

the participants through the increased self-awareness and inter-personal
competence.

3.6 Criteria for Acceptable Methods

To be effective as training devices, cases employed in teaching must meet the minimum
criteria in construction. These criteria, which may be used to select commercially
available cases or in the development of your own cases, are listed below;
1) The case is based on first hand observation for realism.
2) It is based on facts, not opinions discussed as facts.
3) It shows more than it tells.
4) It provides organized information.
5) It shows formal and informal interpersonal relationship.
6) It describes key people in the case.
7) It reveals the effects of change.
8) It indicates that the situation was changing when observations stopped.

Purpose of T-group training:

The following five factor are broad purposes of T-group training:
1) Better understanding amongst a group, its processes, and increased skills in
achieving group effectiveness.
2) Recognition of the characteristics of a longer social system.

3) Self-insight.
4) Greater awareness of the effect of the dynamics of change.
5) Better understanding of other people and being aware of one’s impact on them.

Conditions for Laboratory Training:

If participants are to reach personal goals of improvement and changes in
understandings, situations, and skills, the following conditions should be met in different
ways.

Presentation of one’s Self:

Until given the opportunity to reveal the way one sees things and does things, one has
very little base for improvement and change.

Feedback:
Individuals learn from bringing out the necessary patterns of purposes, motives and
behaviour in situations where they can receive back precise information regarding the
relevance and effectiveness of behavior, they need a feedback system which constantly
operates so that they can correct what is inappropriate.

Atmosphere:
Such an atmosphere of trust and non-defensiveness is vital for people to be willingly
expose their behavior and to accept a positive feedback.

Cognitive Map:
Knowledge from research, theory and experience is needed and it is important to
facilitate the individual to understand the trainer experiences and simplify them.
Information is most effective when it follows feedback and experience.

Experimentation:
Unlike there is opportunity to try out new pattern of thought and behaviour, it never
becomes a part of the individual. Without any experimental efforts, appropriate change
is very difficult to make.

Practice:
Practice new approaches so that the individual gains confidence in being different.

Application:
Learning and change can be applied so that they can be effective or have an enduring
effect. Attention should be given to helping individuals plan the application of the
knowledge.

Relearning how to learn:

Our academic experience has taught us to believe that we learn out of listening to
experts, there is frequently a need to learn how to gain knowledge from presentation to
feedback to experimentation.

The initial T-Group experience provides opportunities to explore traditional patterns of

behavior.

Refusal shapes the T-Group tension to carry out the traditional expectations of the
trainer role, leadership, agenda, and procedure setting. Lack of formal leadership and
clarity about goals and procedures, trainers tend to rush in with the purpose of filling in
these missing requirements. Thus, the first condition of training is met.

Each T-Group has as its task improving learning of everyone. Appropriate

opportunities for individuals to explore new ways of behaving need to be presented. The
T-Group and the Training laboratory are designed to meet these conditions.

Outbound learning method:

Of-late this method, is in high demand. Under This training method open-air exercises
are usually carried out in teams at a place away from the usual working environment.
The trainees are made to play some games or do trekking, etc. A facilitator observes
the trainees’ behavior and given them feedback about how this training learning can be
applied in the work situation back home. As the trainee is internalizing the learning
through experiential mode, he learns from observing others, learns from the feedback,
and internalizes the application of the learning and applies the same in work situations.
This training method offers practice in management. It can offer training in facing
challenging or problematic situations. This method also helps in leadership and
teamwork lessons. It can also provide training itself-analysis.
 As the training is conducted in the outdoor the physical challenges to the trainee
may be tough, which may not receive the trainer acceptance and hence its relevance
may not be that well appreciated.
There are organizations like “Pegasus” near Bangalore, which provides such
specialized outbound training. It is worthwhile to note that corporate organizations like
Canara Bank had successfully conducted such outbound training for inculcating
achievement motivation amongst their employees. The author has successfully
designed and delivered an outbound training programme called “Walkathon”, profitably
combining treasure hunt and marathon walking.

Computer-based Training Method:

Latest evidences suggest there has been a dramatic shift from instructor led, classroom
training toward learner centered, technology mediated training. Based on benchmark
data from American Society of the Training and Development, Bassi and Van Buren
(1999) predicts that companies will have greatly reduced classroom training nearly 20
percent with much of the time converted to training delivered via CD-ROMs, intranets,
or the internet. Although each learning technology has some unique features, they all
use computers to deliver training. Thus, computer-based training in its many forms, is
the future of training – and the future has arrived.

The computer based training method is an effective and flexible method of training and
all levels of staff can use the same. In This training method, the training material is
prepared by the trainer after involving the managers. The material is then loaded on the
computer and the trainee should undergo the training programme by using the
computer with the training material in the disk and associated workbook.

Working of Computer-based Training:

The manager and individual learner jointly identify the training and developmental
needs. This training ensures measurable outcomes, added value and enhanced
achievement. The individual completes the training programme using the compute, the
disk containing training material and the associated workbook to achieve the knowledge
and understanding of specific area or skill. An action plan is jointly prepared, to facilitate
transition from learning situation to enhance job performance. A follow-up discussion at
a suitable time after the training may facilitate review of the situation and decide further
course of action.

Satellite Based Training Method:

This training method of training provides for satellite transmission of training sessions.
This training will provide live broadcasting to company audiences or students at specific
times and facilitates local recording of the programme in some cases enables
organizations to transmit data or training material during times of cheaper rates (e.g.
night) ready for staff to view the next day. It is worthwhile to note that Visvewaraiah
Technological University, a leading technical university provide engineering education
via satellite called “edusat”.

Field Trip Method of Training:

A field trip if carefully planned and organized to visit a plant or an organization could
provide a fist hand knowledge to the participants about certain aspects of the working of
an organization and thus enhance learning. It enables the participants to interact with a
real-world situation. Leading evidence is available to the participants and it may
reinforce the classroom learning.

It facilitates comprehension of how things work in real settings and facilitates better
appreciation of the practical problems faced by the organization and the trainee. The
success of this training method depends on the pre-visit preparations and establishment
of learning objective. It should ensure that learning takes place through suitably devised
mechanisms.
3.7 Matching Methods with Training Outcome
Broadly the methods can be classified into two types - participative and non-
participative methods. This training classification is based on level of involvement of
trainee. The transferring of learning to the on-the-job learning is more effective if the
training method is the participative method.

The choice of the method can be divided into three broad categories.
a) trainer centered training
b) trainee centered training
c) coaching

a) Trainer Centered Training

Pace and control of learning is controlled by the trainer in this training method. Lecture,
presentation, and demonstration methods are the most Significant methods in this
training category. The trainer decides the content and delivers it at the pace the trainer
thinks it is appropriate. The trainees can only retard the pace of training by asking
questions. But they cannot speed things up. In a centered training, he sets the
timetable, structure, the de-briefing and draws out the key learning points.

b) Trainee Centered Training;

The other extreme method gives the trainee complete control over the pace and content
of learning. Printed books, journals, self-study text, self-development questionnaires,
personal learning logs are certain examples of active trainee centered learning
methods. Participative methods like role-plays, e-learning, etc. are partly trainee
centered.

c) Coaching;
In coaching a learning partnership develops between the trainer and the trainees and
they share control of pace and content. It comprises of five phases.
i) Identification of clear, challenging yet realistic learning objective.
This training is what trainee wants to achieve rather than being dictated by the
trainer. However, it must be set in the context of overall objective of the training
programme.

ii) Raising awareness about the current level of the knowledge of the trainee.

iii) Identification of options. This training involves identification of the things the
learner could do to get nearer to the objective. To begin with all the ideas should come
from the trainee only when the trainee asks for suggestions the trainer help. The
trainee’s suggestions are weighted to priorities the possibilities.

iv) Listing various options and selection of the beneficial options. Working through each
option to see how it might help the trainee in archiving the learning objectives and
deciding which action the trainee will take. This training is the narrowing down of options
phase.

v) Deciding the course of action. Zeroing on what the trainee should do, by when,
what help is needed, what obstacles are to be overcome and how to do it – all these
things are decided in this training phase.
Coaching can be used with teams, groups, or individuals. It can also be used as
general problem solving method.

Some methods are abstract and based on concepts and observations whereas some
method is more concrete wherein the trainee learns by doing certain acts. The training
method adopted largely depends on the objectives of the programmes.

Secondly, the selection of method is mostly dependent on the level and experience of
the participants.
Limitations of time and resources are also a consideration for selection of the training
method. The level of reinforcement of learning expected decides the method to be used.
If the level of reinforcement expected is very high participative methods, wherein the
participants are actively involved in the learning situation is a better choice than
conceptual delivery.
The skill and behaviour to be developed in the participants decides the method to be
used. The level of ingenuity of the trainer and the level of ease with which he could
facilitate and master a method also decides the method of delivery.
The selection of suitable training method largely depends on number of factors like the
objective of the training programme, the key results expected in knowledge skill and
attitude, the programme content, the age, level and experience of the participants, the
skills and capacity of the faculty and the time and resources available.
A training method is not an end to itself. Its effectiveness can be increased by using a
rightly selected training aid. A lecture method is enhanced by use of audio visual aids
like OHP or LCD.
The selection of suitable method for training delivery depends on the number of factors.
However, some of the important factors are listed below:
i) The objective of the training programme.
ii) The purpose of the training programme – as to whether the training programme is for
imparting knowledge or enhancing the skill level or attitudinal transformation.
iii) The contents of the programme.
iv) The level of qualifications and experience of the participants.
v) The skills level and capabilities of the faculty.
vi) The duration of the programme and in turn the duration of the session.
vii) The resources available for delivering the programme. This training includes the
learning resources, the delivery resources, the faculty skills resources, and the
infrastructure resources.
To ensure maximum involvement and participation of trainees, participative methods
are suggested.
3.8 Teaching Aids for Training:
To help the trainer deliver successful training there is a vast range of aids available.
These aids otherwise called as "Media" which are how the information is conveyed
during training delivery. These aids complement trainers by extending their delivery
skills, adding variety, and stimulating the learners' interest. They can also help in
increasing learners' retention.

The training aids can be classified broadly into two categories namely -
i) Static media;
ii) Dynamic media;
Under the static media, we include printed materials like texts, handouts, non-
projected materials like models, photographic prints, posters, flip-charts, white marker
boards, chalk-boards and still-projected materials like overhead projector, slides and
micro-films. As these things relay on fixed images, they are called static media. They
provide visual image to focus the attention of the learners and reinforces the learning.
Dynamic media is active and shows a series of images, activities or information’s.
Video materials like video-tape, video-disk, television and film and audio material/s,
audio-tape, record or compact disk and computer based materials like CD, VCD and
multi-media training aids.

Need for Training Aids

Training is an enabling profession and helps people to learn and assimilate new
knowledge. The effectiveness of the learning process can be increased manifold by
using well-chosen training aids or instructional materials.
The training aids add variety to the learning process thereby increasing the involvement
and motivation of the trainees. The training aids like OHP, slide projector, LCD
Presentations, training films etc., also benefit the learners as more than one faculty, like
visual effects, are put into operations.
It helps in providing certain stimuli, which cannot be otherwise provided without their
use. The training aids encourage the participation and interaction of the trainees. It also
facilitates the trainer in planning and preparing the training session.
The use of training aids, to a very large amount depends on the objectives of the
training programme, also the characteristics of the trainees and the integration of the
training aids with the other facets of training.

3.9 Selecting Appropriate Training Aids

Research studies indicate that most of the instructional functions can be performed by
most of the aids, but some are better and effective in achieving certain objectives.
The relevance is the major functional criteria for selecting a certain type of the training
aid. The training must be relevant to the purpose and to the trainees' level of
understanding.
The work of R.H. Anderson' Setting Criteria for selection and usage of training
aids is very relevant He advocates the following points.
• Aids should be necessary to make things easier
• They should be simple and large enough to understand.
• Layout should stimulate interest.
• The aids should be suitable to the needs.

Audio-visual Aids
1) The audio-visual material requires lot of planning and preparation on the part
of the trainer.
2) There should be an optimal blend of oral presentation with that of the
audio-visual presentation.
3) The audio-visual material should have direct relevance and primary relation to
the learning objective of the session.
4) The audio-visual material should be so prepared that it does not offend
anybody.
5) The use of audio-visual aids must be well integrated with training programme
in general, and the training session.
6) The trainer should check all the equipment well before their use in training
session and should preview the audio-visual aids before their actual
presentation.

I) Static Media
Static media are words or graphics that are fixed or stationary. They include print-based
material, flip charts, white boards and chalk-board and overhead transparencies, slides,
etc.

A) Print-based Material
Print-based material encompasses materials such as participant guides, workbooks,
manuals, handouts, assignment sheets, pamphlets, and textbooks. Print-based material
can be used for self-study as well as class-room training.

Making Print-based Material Effective:

1) Learners who encounter densely packed handout or study guide may lose
interest hence, care should be taken while designing the layout of the print-based
material so as to make it user friendly.
2) The language should be simple without any jargon or acronyms.
3) The space should be even and the print should be clear using right kind of fonts
and styles.
4) The flow should be smooth and consistent.
5) The quality and the readability of print-based material should be high and it
should be ensured that the material does not look cluttered.
6) The print-based material should be used at the appropriate time as the trainee's
attention and focus is shifted while distributing the printed material.

b) Flip Charts, White Boards, and Chalk-Boards

A flip chart is a large pad of paper mounted on a wall or on a stand. Marker pens are
used to write on the same. A white board is a porcelain surface and marker pens used
to write on it. Chalkboard or black board and white or multi-colored chalks are used on
it.

Guidelines for effective use of Flip Chart

1) The design and layout of flip charts is of prime concern while using flip charts. They
are to be kept simple without too much information on anyone sheet.

2) The writing should be bold and sufficiently large to be seen by all the trainees.
3) The flip chart can be made colorful to enhance clarity.

C) Marker Boards;
The marker board is a white or colored porcelain surface that is hung on a wall or
positioned on a stand. Using an erasable color-marking pen the matter is either written
or drawn. Some of the white boards are metallic allowing objects to be affixed with
magnets.

Guidelines for effective use of Marker Board

1) The use of marker board should be well integrated with the objectives of the
training sessions.
2) The marker board should be clean to start with.
3) Use erasable pens to write so that cleaning is easy.
4) It is to be ensured that the writing is legible and big enough so that even the
trainees in last row can conveniently see and understand. To check the trainer may
view the writing from the back of room.
5) Simultaneous talking and writing should be avoided.
6) The trainees' view of the board should not be obstructed.
7) The space on the board should be used judiciously and logically.
8) To emphasize the important points color pens may be used.

Electronic marker boards are available with facility of quickly transferring the image to
paper. However, they are prohibitively costly.
d) Over-head Projector
The over-head projector is commonly used of mass training and is very popular
amongst trainers. Over-head transparencies, foils and view graphs can be used in the
over-head projector. A transparency is a sheet of clear plastic on which words, figures
or graphics can be written. It is used in combination with over-head projector unit the
material in the transparency is magnified and displayed on a screen. The material in the
transparency can be prepared in advance or can be written with a special marking pen
during the session itself.

Guidelines for Effective use of Over-head Projector

The effectiveness of over-head projector relies on how well its use is integrated into the
training session and the preparation of slides and physical setting of over-head
projector.
When designing the transparencies, it is to be written clearly without any cluttering of
ideas. Different colors are to be used to enhance clarity and viewing pleasure. The
transparency can be photocopied also.

Computer-based Slide Presentation:

Use of a PC, a projection unit and a presentation software are the recent developments
around presentation. Software’s like PowerPoint Presentations enable trainers to
develop computer- based presentations using LCD projectors, the projectors. The slides
are changed by use of mouse or by remote control device. The clip art software
provides access to millions of graphical images and permits the trainer to integrate them
to slides for powerful visuals impact. Moreover, how the text should appear (either
dropping from top or coming from the sides, etc.) can be decided by the trainer.

II) Dynamic Media;

Dynamic media are active, showing a series of images, activities of information
unlike static media which rely on fixed images video-tape or audio tape, are the
examples or frequently used dynamic media.
 Dynamic media are stimuli that are sequentially moving. The information is
presented in the continually moving progression from beginning to end.

Computer Aided Web-based Training:

Recent research suggests that there has been a drastic shift away from the old
instructor led class room training towards a learner centered technology mediated
training.

Computer related training is an effective and effective and flexible method of training
that is becoming highly popular because of the following reasons.
1) It engages the trainee’s n activities.
2) It enables the trainees to learn at their own pace.
3) It may also provide opportunities for the trainees to check their understanding.

1) Computer-aided instruction:
Computer aided instruction involves a software programme stored in a hard disc or a
floppy or a CD. It is delivered totally by the compute based medium or combined with
other media such as instruction cum exercise book. It incorporates multimedia
capabilities, graphics, audio, video, and text and facilitates interactive, visually
stimulating learning experience.

A variety of topics ranging from technical subjects to management subjects are

available for using in computer instruction.
The main advantage of computer-aided instruction is self-directed product that
are widely available. These trainees can work at their own pace and in their own time
frame. The training can be given across multi locations overcoming the geographic
barriers by simply distributing the CD in cost effective highly efficient manner. However,
direct interactive contact between trainer and trainee is absent in computer-aided
instruction.
2) Intranet and Internet based Training;
Many organizations have local area network, which functions in a similar way to a
leased line. LAN usually installed within a building. Several LANs in different building
may be connected. The users are connected to the host computer also. Computer
mediate communication systems include electronic mail, computer conferencing,
bulletin boards and on-line data basis.
The equipment necessary to access and use internet is widely available at
relatively low cost. The primary items needed for used include personal computer,
modem, cable or phone line, communication software and an internet service provider.
The internet facility is available on monthly fat rate or based on hourly usage. Once
installed, you can access the World Wide Web (WWW) logon websites, do information’s
searches, send, and receive electronic mail and engage in many other activities.

One powerful use of internet is the ability to search for information giving specific criteria
while searching the web. Meta search Engines enable to search engines.
There are five levels of internet training. At the first level is general
communication through tools such as e-mail and electronic conferencing. Second level
is on-line reference using the internet to create a virtual liberty containing links to
relevant and critical information. Testing Assessments and surveys conducted by the
organization via internet is the third level. During fourth level the organization provides
distribution of computer–based training. The trainees can access the entire training
programme or discrete modules on their computers. The fifth level is the most
sophisticated level. Delivery of multi-media over the internet is done during this training
level. This training facilitates the training in having real time access, highly interactive
and multi-media based.
As the institution goes to high level the benefits also increase. However, the
costs also become higher at the higher levels. As a technology progresses the costs are
also coming down. Better communication information sharing, knowledge management,
two-way audio, video interaction and training real time face-to face training are some of
the benefits reaped by institutions through internet based training.