NCERT Maths 10 PDF

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MATHEMATICS
Textbook for Class X
www.cbse.online 2019-20 www.rava.org.in

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Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework, 2005, recommends that children’s life at school
must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from
the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a
gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed
on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also
attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between
different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in
the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy
on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers
will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue
imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and
freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed
on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination
is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as
participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning.
Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual
calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching.
The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this
textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than
a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem
of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages
with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space
to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and
activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates
the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this
book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in Science and
Mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisors for this book, Professor
P. Sinclair of IGNOU, New Delhi and Professor G.P. Dikshit (Retd.) of Lucknow
University, Lucknow for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers

iv
contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals

for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which
have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel.
We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee,
appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human
Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and
Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation
committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its
products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to
undertake further revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
15 November 2006 Research and Training

Preface
Through the years, from the time of the Kothari Commission, there have been
several committees looking at ways of making the school curriculum meaningful
and enjoyable for the learners. Based on the understanding developed over the
years, a National Curriculum Framework (NCF) was finalised in 2005. As part of
this exercise, a National Focus Group on Teaching of Mathematics was formed. Its
report, which came in 2005, highlighted a constructivist approach to the teaching
and learning of mathematics.
The essence of this approach is that children already know, and do some
mathematics very naturally in their surroundings, before they even join school. The
syllabus, teaching approach, textbooks etc., should build on this knowledge in a way
that allows children to enjoy mathematics, and to realise that mathematics is more
about a way of reasoning than about mechanically applying formulae and algorithms.
The students and teachers need to perceive mathematics as something natural and
linked to the world around us. While teaching mathematics, the focus should be on
helping children to develop the ability to particularise and generalise, to solve and
pose meaningful problems, to look for patterns and relationships, and to apply the
logical thinking behind mathematical proof. And, all this in an environment that the
children relate to, without overloading them.
This is the philosophy with which the mathematics syllabus from Class I to
Class XII was developed, and which the textbook development committee has tried
to realise in the present textbook. More specifically, while creating the textbook, the
following broad guidelines have been kept in mind.
l The matter needs to be linked to what the child has studied before, and to
her experiences.
l The language used in the book, including that for ‘word problems’, must be
clear, simple and unambiguous.
l Concepts/processes should be introduced through situations from the
children’s environment.
l For each concept/process give several examples and exercises, but not of
the same kind. This ensures that the children use the concept/process again
and again, but in varying contexts. Here ‘several’ should be within reason,
not overloading the child.
l Encourage the children to see, and come out with, diverse solutions to
problems.

vi
l As far as possible, give the children motivation for results used.

l All proofs need to be given in a non-didactic manner, allowing the learner to
see the flow of reason. The focus should be on proofs where a short and
clear argument reinforces mathematical thinking and reasoning.
l Whenever possible, more than one proof is to be given.
l Proofs and solutions need to be used as vehicles for helping the learner
develop a clear and logical way of expressing her arguments.
l All geometric constructions should be accompanied by an analysis of the
construction and a proof for the steps taken to do the required construction.
Accordingly, the children would be trained to do the same while doing
constructions.
l Add such small anecdotes, pictures, cartoons and historical remarks at
several places which the children would find interesting.
l Include optional exercises for the more interested learners. These would
not be tested in the examinations.
l Give answers to all exercises, and solutions/hints for those that the children
may require.
l Whenever possible, propagate constitutional values.
As you will see while studying this textbook, these points have been kept in mind
by the Textbook Development Committee. The book has particularly been created
with the view to giving children space to explore mathematics and develop the abilities
to reason mathematically. Further, two special appendices have been given — Proofs
in Mathematics, and Mathematical Modelling. These are placed in the book for
interested students to study, and are only optional reading at present. These topics
may be considered for inclusion in the main syllabi in due course of time.
As in the past, this textbook is also a team effort. However, what is unusual
about the team this time is that teachers from different kinds of schools have been
an integral part at each stage of the development. We are also assuming that teachers
will contribute continuously to the process in the classroom by formulating examples
and exercises contextually suited to the children in their particular classrooms. Finally,
we hope that teachers and learners would send comments for improving the textbook
to the NCERT.
PARVIN SINCLAIR
G.P. DIKSHIT
Chief Advisors
Textbook Development Committee

Textbook Development Committee

CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Inter-University Centre for Astronomy & Astrophysics
(IUCAA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISORS
P. Sinclair, Professor of Mathematics, IGNOU, New Delhi
G.P. Dikshit, Professor (Retd.), Lucknow University, Lucknow
CHIEF COORDINATOR
Hukum Singh, Professor and Head (Retd.), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
MEMBERS
Anjali Lal, PGT, DAV Public School, Sector-14, Gurgaon
A.K. Wazalwar, Professor and Head, DESM, NCERT
B.S. Upadhyaya, Professor, RIE, Mysore
Jayanti Datta, PGT, Salwan Public School, Gurgaon
Mahendra Shanker, Lecturer (S.G.) (Retd.), NCERT
Manica Aggarwal, Green Park, New Delhi
N.D. Shukla, Professor (Retd.), Lucknow University, Lucknow
Ram Avtar, Professor (Retd.) & Consultant, DESM, NCERT
Rama Balaji, TGT, K.V., MEG & Centre, St. John’s Road, Bangalore
S. Jagdeeshan, Teacher and Member, Governing Council, Centre for Learning, Bangalore
S.K.S. Gautam, Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT
Vandita Kalra, Lecturer, Sarvodaya Kanya Vidyalaya, Vikaspuri District Centre, Delhi
V.A. Sujatha, TGT, Kendriya Vidyalaya No. 1, Vasco, Goa
V. Madhavi, TGT, Sanskriti School, Chankyapuri, New Delhi
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
R.P. Maurya, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi

Acknowledgements
The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions of the following
participants of the Textbook Review Workshop:
Mala Mani, TGT, Amity International School, Sector-44, Noida; Meera
Mahadevan, TGT, Atomic Energy Central School, No. 4, Anushakti Nagar, Mumbai;
Rashmi Rana, TGT, D.A.V. Public School, Pushpanjali Enclave, Pitampura, Delhi;
Mohammad Qasim, TGT, Anglo Arabic Senior Secondary School, Ajmeri Gate, Delhi;
S.C. Rauto, TGT, Central School for Tibetans, Happy Valley, Mussoorie; Rakesh
Kaushik, TGT, Sainik School, Kunjpura, Karnal; Ashok Kumar Gupta, TGT, Jawahar
Navodaya Vidyalaya, Dudhnoi, Distt. Goalpara; Sankar Misra, TGT, Demonstration
Multipurpose School, RIE, Bhubaneswar; Uaday Singh, Lecturer, Department of
Mathematics, B.H.U., Varanasi; B.R. Handa, Emeritus Professor, IIT, New Delhi;
Monika Singh, Lecturer, Sri Ram College (University of Delhi), Lajpat Nagar,
New Delhi; G. Sri Hari Babu, TGT, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Sirpur, Kagaz
Nagar, Adilabad; Ajay Kumar Singh, TGT, Ramjas Sr. Secondary School No. 3,
Chandni Chowk, Delhi; Mukesh Kumar Agrawal, TGT, S.S.A.P.G.B.S.S. School,
Sector-V, Dr Ambedkar Nagar, New Delhi.
Special thanks are due to Professor Hukum Singh, Head (Retd.), DESM, NCERT
for his support during the development of this book.
The Council acknowledges the efforts of Deepak Kapoor, Incharge, Computer
Station; Purnendu Kumar Barik, Copy Editor; Naresh Kumar and Nargis Islam,
D.T.P. Operators; Yogita Sharma, Proof Reader.
The Contribution of APC-Office, administration of DESM, Publication
Department and Secretariat of NCERT is also duly acknowledged.

Contents
Foreword iii
Preface v
1. Real Numbers 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Euclid’s Division Lemma 2
1.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 7
1.4 Revisiting Irrational Numbers 11
1.5 Revisiting Rational Numbers and Their Decimal Expansions 15
1.6 Summary 18
2. Polynomials 20
2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Geometrical Meaning of the Zeroes of a Polynomial 21
2.3 Relationship between Zeroes and Coefficients of a Polynomial 28
2.4 Division Algorithm for Polynomials 33
2.5 Summary 37
3. Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables 38
3.1 Introduction 38
3.2 Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables 39
3.3 Graphical Method of Solution of a Pair of Linear Equations 44
3.4 Algebraic Methods of Solving a Pair of Linear Equations 50
3.4.1 Substitution Method 50
3.4.2 Elimination Method 54
3.4.3 Cross-Multiplication Method 57
3.5 Equations Reducible to a Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables 63
3.6 Summary 69
4. Quadratic Equations 70
4.1 Introduction 70
4.2 Quadratic Equations 71

4.3 Solution of a Quadratic Equation by Factorisation 74

4.4 Solution of a Quadratic Equation by Completing the Square 76
4.5 Nature of Roots 88
4.6 Summary 91
5. Arithmetic Progressions 93
5.1 Introduction 93
5.2 Arithmetic Progressions 95
5.3 nth Term of an AP 100
5.4 Sum of First n Terms of an AP 107
5.5 Summary 116
6. Triangles 117
6.1 Introduction 117
6.2 Similar Figures 118
6.3 Similarity of Triangles 123
6.4 Criteria for Similarity of Triangles 129
6.5 Areas of Similar Triangles 141
6.6 Pythagoras Theorem 144
6.7 Summary 154
7. Coordinate Geometry 155
7.2 Distance Formula 156
7.3 Section Formula 162
7.4 Area of a Triangle 168
7.5 Summary 172
8. Introduction to Trigonometry 173
8.2 Trigonometric Ratios 174
8.3 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Specific Angles 181
8.4 Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles 187
8.5 Trigonometric Identities 190
8.6 Summary 194

xi
9. Some Applications of Trigonometry 195

9.2 Heights and Distances 196
9.3 Summary 205
10. Circles 206
10.2 Tangent to a Circle 207
10.3 Number of Tangents from a Point on a Circle 209
10.4 Summary 215
11. Constructions 216
11.2 Division of a Line Segment 216
11.3 Construction of Tangents to a Circle 220
11.4 Summary 222
12. Areas Related to Circles 223
12.2 Perimeter and Area of a Circle — A Review 224
12.3 Areas of Sector and Segment of a Circle 226
12.4 Areas of Combinations of Plane Figures 231
12.5 Summary 238
13. Surface Areas and Volumes 239
13.2 Surface Area of a Combination of Solids 240
13.3 Volume of a Combination of Solids 245
13.4 Conversion of Solid from One Shape to Another 248
13.5 Frustum of a Cone 252
13.6 Summary 258
14. Statistics 260
14.2 Mean of Grouped Data 260
14.3 Mode of Grouped Data 272

xii
14.4 Median of Grouped Data 277

14.5 Graphical Representation of Cumulative Frequency Distribution 289
14.6 Summary 293
15. Probability 295
15.2 Probability — A Theoretical Approach 296
15.3 Summary 312
Appendix A1 : Proofs in Mathematics 313
A1.1 Introduction 313
A1.2 Mathematical Statements Revisited 313
A1.3 Deductive Reasoning 316
A1.4 Conjectures, Theorems, Proofs and Mathematical Reasoning 318
A1.5 Negation of a Statement 323
A1.6 Converse of a Statement 326
A1.7 Proof by Contradiction 329
A1.8 Summary 333
Appendix A2 : Mathematical Modelling 334
A2.1 Introduction 334
A2.2 Stages in Mathematical Modelling 335
A2.3 Some Illustrations 339
A2.4 Why is Mathematical Modelling Important? 343
A2.5 Summary 344
Answers/Hints 345

REAL NUMBERS 1
REAL NUMBERS 1
1.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you began your exploration of the world of real numbers and encountered
irrational numbers. We continue our discussion on real numbers in this chapter. We
begin with two very important properties of positive integers in Sections 1.2 and 1.3,
namely the Euclid’s division algorithm and the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
Euclid’s division algorithm, as the name suggests, has to do with divisibility of
integers. Stated simply, it says any positive integer a can be divided by another positive
integer b in such a way that it leaves a remainder r that is smaller than b. Many of you
probably recognise this as the usual long division process. Although this result is quite
easy to state and understand, it has many applications related to the divisibility properties
of integers. We touch upon a few of them, and use it mainly to compute the HCF of
two positive integers.
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, on the other hand, has to do something
with multiplication of positive integers. You already know that every composite number
can be expressed as a product of primes in a unique way — this important fact is the
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. Again, while it is a result that is easy to state and
understand, it has some very deep and significant applications in the field of mathematics.
We use the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic for two main applications. First, we
use it to prove the irrationality of many of the numbers you studied in Class IX, such as
2 , 3 and 5 . Second, we apply this theorem to explore when exactly the decimal
p
expansion of a rational number, say (q ≠ 0) , is terminating and when it is non-
q
terminating repeating. We do so by looking at the prime factorisation of the denominator
p
q of . You will see that the prime factorisation of q will completely reveal the nature
q
of the decimal expansion of p .
q
So let us begin our exploration.

2 MATHEMATICS
1.2 Euclid’s Division Lemma

Consider the following folk puzzle*.
A trader was moving along a road selling eggs. An idler who didn’t have
much work to do, started to get the trader into a wordy duel. This grew into a
fight, he pulled the basket with eggs and dashed it on the floor. The eggs broke.
The trader requested the Panchayat to ask the idler to pay for the broken eggs.
The Panchayat asked the trader how many eggs were broken. He gave the
following response:
If counted in pairs, one will remain;
If counted in threes, two will remain;
If counted in fours, three will remain;
If counted in fives, four will remain;
If counted in sixes, five will remain;
If counted in sevens, nothing will remain;
My basket cannot accomodate more than 150 eggs.
So, how many eggs were there? Let us try and solve the puzzle. Let the number
of eggs be a. Then working backwards, we see that a is less than or equal to 150:
If counted in sevens, nothing will remain, which translates to a = 7p + 0, for
some natural number p. If counted in sixes, a = 6 q + 5, for some natural number q.
If counted in fives, four will remain. It translates to a = 5w + 4, for some natural
number w.
If counted in fours, three will remain. It translates to a = 4s + 3, for some natural
number s.
If counted in threes, two will remain. It translates to a = 3t + 2, for some natural
number t.
If counted in pairs, one will remain. It translates to a = 2u + 1, for some natural
number u.
That is, in each case, we have a and a positive integer b (in our example,
b takes values 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2, respectively) which divides a and leaves a remainder
r (in our case, r is 0, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively), that is smaller than b. The
* This is modified form of a puzzle given in ‘Numeracy Counts!’ by A. Rampal, and others.

REAL NUMBERS 3
moment we write down such equations we are using Euclid’s division lemma,
which is given in Theorem 1.1.
Getting back to our puzzle, do you have any idea how you will solve it? Yes! You
must look for the multiples of 7 which satisfy all the conditions. By trial and error
(using the concept of LCM), you will find he had 119 eggs.
In order to get a feel for what Euclid’s division lemma is, consider the following
pairs of integers:
17, 6; 5, 12; 20, 4
Like we did in the example, we can write the following relations for each such
pair:
17 = 6 × 2 + 5 (6 goes into 17 twice and leaves a remainder 5)
5 = 12 × 0 + 5 (This relation holds since 12 is larger than 5)
20 = 4 × 5 + 0 (Here 4 goes into 20 five-times and leaves no remainder)
That is, for each pair of positive integers a and b, we have found whole numbers
q and r, satisfying the relation:
a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b
Note that q or r can also be zero.
Why don’t you now try finding integers q and r for the following pairs of positive
integers a and b?
(i) 10, 3; (ii) 4, 19; (iii) 81, 3
Did you notice that q and r are unique? These are the only integers satisfying the
conditions a = bq + r, where 0 ≤ r < b. You may have also realised that this is nothing
but a restatement of the long division process you have been doing all these years, and
that the integers q and r are called the quotient and remainder, respectively.
A formal statement of this result is as follows :
Theorem 1.1 (Euclid’s Division Lemma) : Given positive integers a and b,

there exist unique integers q and r satisfying a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b.
This result was perhaps known for a long time, but was first recorded in Book VII
of Euclid’s Elements. Euclid’s division algorithm is based on this lemma.

4 MATHEMATICS
An algorithm is a series of well defined steps

which gives a procedure for solving a type of
problem.
The word algorithm comes from the name
of the 9th century Persian mathematician
al-Khwarizmi. In fact, even the word ‘algebra’
is derived from a book, he wrote, called Hisab
al-jabr w’al-muqabala.
A lemma is a proven statement used for Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi
proving another statement. (C.E. 780 – 850)
Euclid’s division algorithm is a technique to compute the Highest Common Factor

(HCF) of two given positive integers. Recall that the HCF of two positive integers a
and b is the largest positive integer d that divides both a and b.
Let us see how the algorithm works, through an example first. Suppose we need
to find the HCF of the integers 455 and 42. We start with the larger integer, that is,
455. Then we use Euclid’s lemma to get
455 = 42 × 10 + 35
Now consider the divisor 42 and the remainder 35, and apply the division lemma
to get
42 = 35 × 1 + 7
Now consider the divisor 35 and the remainder 7, and apply the division lemma
to get
35 = 7 × 5 + 0
Notice that the remainder has become zero, and we cannot proceed any further.
We claim that the HCF of 455 and 42 is the divisor at this stage, i.e., 7. You can easily
verify this by listing all the factors of 455 and 42. Why does this method work? It
works because of the following result.
So, let us state Euclid’s division algorithm clearly.
To obtain the HCF of two positive integers, say c and d, with c > d, follow
the steps below:
Step 1 : Apply Euclid’s division lemma, to c and d. So, we find whole numbers, q and
r such that c = dq + r, 0 ≤ r < d.
Step 2 : If r = 0, d is the HCF of c and d. If r ≠ 0, apply the division lemma to d and r.
Step 3 : Continue the process till the remainder is zero. The divisor at this stage will
be the required HCF.

REAL NUMBERS 5
This algorithm works because HCF (c, d) = HCF (d, r) where the symbol
HCF (c, d) denotes the HCF of c and d, etc.
Example 1 : Use Euclid’s algorithm to find the HCF of 4052 and 12576.
Solution :
Step 1 : Since 12576 > 4052, we apply the division lemma to 12576 and 4052, to get
12576 = 4052 × 3 + 420
Step 2 : Since the remainder 420 ≠ 0, we apply the division lemma to 4052 and 420, to
get
4052 = 420 × 9 + 272
Step 3 : We consider the new divisor 420 and the new remainder 272, and apply the
division lemma to get
420 = 272 × 1 + 148
We consider the new divisor 272 and the new remainder 148, and apply the division
lemma to get
272 = 148 × 1 + 124
lemma to get
148 = 124 × 1 + 24
lemma to get
124 = 24 × 5 + 4
lemma to get
24 = 4 × 6 + 0
The remainder has now become zero, so our procedure stops. Since the divisor at this
stage is 4, the HCF of 12576 and 4052 is 4.
Notice that 4 = HCF (24, 4) = HCF (124, 24) = HCF (148, 124) =
HCF (272, 148) = HCF (420, 272) = HCF (4052, 420) = HCF (12576, 4052).
Euclid’s division algorithm is not only useful for calculating the HCF of very
large numbers, but also because it is one of the earliest examples of an algorithm that
a computer had been programmed to carry out.
Remarks :
1. Euclid’s division lemma and algorithm are so closely interlinked that people often
call former as the division algorithm also.
2. Although Euclid’s Division Algorithm is stated for only positive integers, it can be
extended for all integers except zero, i.e., b ≠ 0. However, we shall not discuss this
aspect here.

6 MATHEMATICS
Euclid’s division lemma/algorithm has several applications related to finding

properties of numbers. We give some examples of these applications below:
Example 2 : Show that every positive even integer is of the form 2q, and that every
positive odd integer is of the form 2q + 1, where q is some integer.
Solution : Let a be any positive integer and b = 2. Then, by Euclid’s algorithm,
a = 2q + r, for some integer q ≥ 0, and r = 0 or r = 1, because 0 ≤ r < 2. So,
a = 2q or 2q + 1.
If a is of the form 2q, then a is an even integer. Also, a positive integer can be
either even or odd. Therefore, any positive odd integer is of the form 2q + 1.
Example 3 : Show that any positive odd integer is of the form 4q + 1 or 4q + 3, where
q is some integer.
Solution : Let us start with taking a, where a is a positive odd integer. We apply the
division algorithm with a and b = 4.
Since 0 ≤ r < 4, the possible remainders are 0, 1, 2 and 3.
That is, a can be 4q, or 4q + 1, or 4q + 2, or 4q + 3, where q is the quotient.
However, since a is odd, a cannot be 4q or 4q + 2 (since they are both divisible by 2).
Therefore, any odd integer is of the form 4q + 1 or 4q + 3.
Example 4 : A sweetseller has 420 kaju barfis and 130 badam barfis. She wants to
stack them in such a way that each stack has the same number, and they take up the
least area of the tray. What is the number of that can be placed in each stack for this
purpose?
Solution : This can be done by trial and error. But to do it systematically, we find
HCF (420, 130). Then this number will give the maximum number of barfis in each
stack and the number of stacks will then be the least. The area of the tray that is used
up will be the least.
Now, let us use Euclid’s algorithm to find their HCF. We have :
420 = 130 × 3 + 30
130 = 30 × 4 + 10
30 = 10 × 3 + 0
So, the HCF of 420 and 130 is 10.
Therefore, the sweetseller can make stacks of 10 for both kinds of barfi.

REAL NUMBERS 7
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Use Euclid’s division algorithm to find the HCF of :
(i) 135 and 225 (ii) 196 and 38220 (iii) 867 and 255
2. Show that any positive odd integer is of the form 6q + 1, or 6q + 3, or 6q + 5, where q is
some integer.
3. An army contingent of 616 members is to march behind an army band of 32 members in
a parade. The two groups are to march in the same number of columns. What is the
maximum number of columns in which they can march?
4. Use Euclid’s division lemma to show that the square of any positive integer is either of
the form 3m or 3m + 1 for some integer m.
[Hint : Let x be any positive integer then it is of the form 3q, 3q + 1 or 3q + 2. Now square
each of these and show that they can be rewritten in the form 3m or 3m + 1.]
5. Use Euclid’s division lemma to show that the cube of any positive integer is of the form
9m, 9m + 1 or 9m + 8.
1.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

In your earlier classes, you have seen that any natural number can be written as a
product of its prime factors. For instance, 2 = 2, 4 = 2 × 2, 253 = 11 × 23, and so on.
Now, let us try and look at natural numbers from the other direction. That is, can any
natural number be obtained by multiplying prime numbers? Let us see.
Take any collection of prime numbers, say 2, 3, 7, 11 and 23. If we multiply
some or all of these numbers, allowing them to repeat as many times as we wish,
we can produce a large collection of positive integers (In fact, infinitely many).
Let us list a few :
7 × 11 × 23 = 1771 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 5313
2 × 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 10626 23 × 3 × 73 = 8232
22 × 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 21252
and so on.
Now, let us suppose your collection of primes includes all the possible primes.
What is your guess about the size of this collection? Does it contain only a finite
number of integers, or infinitely many? Infact, there are infinitely many primes. So, if
we combine all these primes in all possible ways, we will get an infinite collection of
numbers, all the primes and all possible products of primes. The question is – can we
produce all the composite numbers this way? What do you think? Do you think that
there may be a composite number which is not the product of powers of primes?
Before we answer this, let us factorise positive integers, that is, do the opposite of
what we have done so far.

8 MATHEMATICS
We are going to use the factor tree with which you are all familiar. Let us take
some large number, say, 32760, and factorise it as shown :
So we have factorised 32760 as 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 as a product of

primes, i.e., 32760 = 23 × 32 × 5 × 7 × 13 as a product of powers of primes. Let us try
another number, say, 123456789. This can be written as 32 × 3803 × 3607. Of course,
you have to check that 3803 and 3607 are primes! (Try it out for several other natural
numbers yourself.) This leads us to a conjecture that every composite number can be
written as the product of powers of primes. In fact, this statement is true, and is called
the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic because of its basic crucial importance
to the study of integers. Let us now formally state this theorem.
Theorem 1.2 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) : Every composite number

can be expressed ( factorised) as a product of primes, and this factorisation is
unique, apart from the order in which the prime factors occur.

REAL NUMBERS 9
An equivalent version of Theorem 1.2 was probably first

recorded as Proposition 14 of Book IX in Euclid’s
Elements, before it came to be known as the Fundamental
Theorem of Arithmetic. However, the first correct proof
was given by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his Disquisitiones
Arithmeticae.
Carl Friedrich Gauss is often referred to as the ‘Prince of
Mathematicians’ and is considered one of the three
greatest mathematicians of all time, along with Archimedes
and Newton. He has made fundamental contributions to Carl Friedrich Gauss
both mathematics and science. (1777 – 1855)
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic says that every composite number

can be factorised as a product of primes. Actually it says more. It says that given
any composite number it can be factorised as a product of prime numbers in a
‘unique’ way, except for the order in which the primes occur. That is, given any
composite number there is one and only one way to write it as a product of primes,
as long as we are not particular about the order in which the primes occur. So, for
example, we regard 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 as the same as 3 × 5 × 7 × 2, or any other
possible order in which these primes are written. This fact is also stated in the
following form:
The prime factorisation of a natural number is unique, except for the order
of its factors.
In general, given a composite number x, we factorise it as x = p1 p2 ... pn, where
p 1 , p 2 ,..., p n are primes and written in ascending order, i.e., p 1 ≤ p 2
≤ . . . ≤ pn. If we combine the same primes, we will get powers of primes. For example,
32760 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 = 23 × 32 × 5 × 7 × 13
Once we have decided that the order will be ascending, then the way the number
is factorised, is unique.
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic has many applications, both within
mathematics and in other fields. Let us look at some examples.
Example 5 : Consider the numbers 4n, where n is a natural number. Check whether
there is any value of n for which 4n ends with the digit zero.
Solution : If the number 4n, for any n, were to end with the digit zero, then it would be
divisible by 5. That is, the prime factorisation of 4n would contain the prime 5. This is

10 MATHEMATICS
not possible because 4n = (2)2n; so the only prime in the factorisation of 4n is 2. So, the
uniqueness of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic guarantees that there are no
other primes in the factorisation of 4n. So, there is no natural number n for which 4n
ends with the digit zero.
You have already learnt how to find the HCF and LCM of two positive integers
using the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic in earlier classes, without realising it!
This method is also called the prime factorisation method. Let us recall this method
through an example.
Example 6 : Find the LCM and HCF of 6 and 20 by the prime factorisation method.
Solution : We have : 6 = 21 × 31 and 20 = 2 × 2 × 5 = 22 × 51.
You can find HCF(6, 20) = 2 and LCM(6, 20) = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 60, as done in your
earlier classes.
Note that HCF(6, 20) = 21 = Product of the smallest power of each common
prime factor in the numbers.
LCM (6, 20) = 22 × 31 × 51 = Product of the greatest power of each prime factor,
involved in the numbers.
From the example above, you might have noticed that HCF(6, 20) × LCM(6, 20)
= 6 × 20. In fact, we can verify that for any two positive integers a and b,
HCF (a, b) × LCM (a, b) = a × b. We can use this result to find the LCM of two
positive integers, if we have already found the HCF of the two positive integers.
Example 7 : Find the HCF of 96 and 404 by the prime factorisation method. Hence,
find their LCM.
Solution : The prime factorisation of 96 and 404 gives :
96 = 25 × 3, 404 = 22 × 101
Therefore, the HCF of these two integers is 22 = 4.
96 × 404 96 × 404
Also, LCM (96, 404) = = = 9696
HCF(96, 404) 4
Example 8 : Find the HCF and LCM of 6, 72 and 120, using the prime factorisation
method.
Solution : We have :
6 = 2 × 3, 72 = 23 × 32, 120 = 23 × 3 × 5
Here, 21 and 31 are the smallest powers of the common factors 2 and 3, respectively.

REAL NUMBERS 11
So, HCF (6, 72, 120) = 21 × 31 = 2 × 3 = 6

23, 32 and 51 are the greatest powers of the prime factors 2, 3 and 5 respectively
involved in the three numbers.
So, LCM (6, 72, 120) = 23 × 32 × 51 = 360
Remark : Notice, 6 × 72 × 120 ≠ HCF (6, 72, 120) × LCM (6, 72, 120). So, the
product of three numbers is not equal to the product of their HCF and LCM.
EXERCISE 1.2
1. Express each number as a product of its prime factors:
(i) 140 (ii) 156 (iii) 3825 (iv) 5005 (v) 7429
2. Find the LCM and HCF of the following pairs of integers and verify that LCM × HCF =
product of the two numbers.
(i) 26 and 91 (ii) 510 and 92 (iii) 336 and 54
3. Find the LCM and HCF of the following integers by applying the prime factorisation
method.
(i) 12, 15 and 21 (ii) 17, 23 and 29 (iii) 8, 9 and 25
4. Given that HCF (306, 657) = 9, find LCM (306, 657).
5. Check whether 6n can end with the digit 0 for any natural number n.
6. Explain why 7 × 11 × 13 + 13 and 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 + 5 are composite numbers.
7. There is a circular path around a sports field. Sonia takes 18 minutes to drive one round
of the field, while Ravi takes 12 minutes for the same. Suppose they both start at the
same point and at the same time, and go in the same direction. After how many minutes
will they meet again at the starting point?
1.4 Revisiting Irrational Numbers

In Class IX, you were introduced to irrational numbers and many of their properties.
You studied about their existence and how the rationals and the irrationals together
made up the real numbers. You even studied how to locate irrationals on the number
line. However, we did not prove that they were irrationals. In this section, we will
prove that 2 , 3 , 5 and, in general, p is irrational, where p is a prime. One of
the theorems, we use in our proof, is the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
p
Recall, a number ‘s’ is called irrational if it cannot be written in the form ,
q
where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. Some examples of irrational numbers, with

12 MATHEMATICS
which you are already familiar, are :

2,
2, 3 , 15 , π , − 0.10110111011110 . . . , etc.
3
Before we prove that 2 is irrational, we need the following theorem, whose
proof is based on the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
Theorem 1.3 : Let p be a prime number. If p divides a2, then p divides a, where
a is a positive integer.
*Proof : Let the prime factorisation of a be as follows :
a = p1p2 . . . pn, where p1,p2, . . ., pn are primes, not necessarily distinct.
Therefore, a2 = ( p1 p2 . . . pn)( p1 p2 . . . pn) = p21 p22 . . . p2n.
Now, we are given that p divides a2. Therefore, from the Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic, it follows that p is one of the prime factors of a2. However, using the
uniqueness part of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, we realise that the only
prime factors of a2 are p1, p2, . . ., pn. So p is one of p1, p2, . . ., pn.
Now, since a = p1 p2 . . . pn , p divides a.
We are now ready to give a proof that 2 is irrational.
The proof is based on a technique called ‘proof by contradiction’. (This technique is
discussed in some detail in Appendix 1).
Theorem 1.4 : 2 is irrational.

Proof : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 2 is rational.
r
So, we can find integers r and s (≠ 0) such that 2 = .
s
Suppose r and s have a common factor other than 1. Then, we divide by the common
factor to get a , where a and b are coprime.

2=
b
So, b 2 = a.
Squaring on both sides and rearranging, we get 2b2 = a2. Therefore, 2 divides a2.
Now, by Theorem 1.3, it follows that 2 divides a.
So, we can write a = 2c for some integer c.
* Not from the examination point of view.

REAL NUMBERS 13
Substituting for a, we get 2b2 = 4c2, that is, b2 = 2c2.

This means that 2 divides b2, and so 2 divides b (again using Theorem 1.3 with p = 2).
Therefore, a and b have at least 2 as a common factor.
But this contradicts the fact that a and b have no common factors other than 1.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 2 is rational.
So, we conclude that 2 is irrational.
Example 9 : Prove that 3 is irrational.

Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 3 is rational.
a
That is, we can find integers a and b (≠ 0) such that ⋅ 3 =
b
Suppose a and b have a common factor other than 1, then we can divide by the
common factor, and assume that a and b are coprime.
So, b 3 = a ⋅
Squaring on both sides, and rearranging, we get 3b2 = a2.
Therefore, a2 is divisible by 3, and by Theorem 1.3, it follows that a is also divisible
by 3.
So, we can write a = 3c for some integer c.
Substituting for a, we get 3b2 = 9c2, that is, b2 = 3c2.
This means that b2 is divisible by 3, and so b is also divisible by 3 (using Theorem 1.3
with p = 3).
Therefore, a and b have at least 3 as a common factor.
But this contradicts the fact that a and b are coprime.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 3 is rational.
So, we conclude that 3 is irrational.
In Class IX, we mentioned that :
l the sum or difference of a rational and an irrational number is irrational and
l the product and quotient of a non-zero rational and irrational number is

irrational.
We prove some particular cases here.

14 MATHEMATICS
Example 10 : Show that 5 – 3 is irrational.

Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 5 – 3 is rational.
a
That is, we can find coprime a and b (b ≠ 0) such that 5 − 3 = ⋅
b
a
Therefore, 5 − = 3 ⋅
b
a 5b − a
Rearranging this equation, we get 3 = 5 – = ⋅
b b
a
Since a and b are integers, we get 5 – is rational, and so 3 is rational.
b
But this contradicts the fact that 3 is irrational.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 5 – 3 is
rational.
So, we conclude that 5 − 3 is irrational.
Example 11 : Show that 3 2 is irrational.

Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 3 2 is rational.
a
That is, we can find coprime a and b (b ≠ 0) such that 3 2 = ⋅
b
a
Rearranging, we get 2 = ⋅
3b
a
Since 3, a and b are integers, is rational, and so 2 is rational.
3b
But this contradicts the fact that 2 is irrational.
So, we conclude that 3 2 is irrational.
EXERCISE 1.3
1. Prove that 5 is irrational.
2. Prove that 3 + 2 5 is irrational.
3. Prove that the following are irrationals :

1
(i) (ii) 7 5 (iii) 6 + 2
2

REAL NUMBERS 15
1.5 Revisiting Rational Numbers and Their Decimal Expansions

In Class IX, you studied that rational numbers have either a terminating decimal
expansion or a non-terminating repeating decimal expansion. In this section, we are
p
going to consider a rational number, say (q ≠ 0) , and explore exactly when the
q
p
decimal expansion of is terminating and when it is non-terminating repeating
q
(or recurring). We do so by considering several examples.
Let us consider the following rational numbers :
(i) 0.375 (ii) 0.104 (iii) 0.0875 (iv) 23.3408.
375 375 104 104
Now (i) 0.375 = = (ii) 0.104 = =
1000 103 1000 103
875 875 233408 233408
(iii) 0.0875 = = (iv) 23.3408 = =
10000 104 10000 104
As one would expect, they can all be expressed as rational numbers whose
denominators are powers of 10. Let us try and cancel the common factors between
the numerator and denominator and see what we get :
375 3 × 53 3 104 13 × 23 13
(i) 0.375 = 3
= 3 3
= 3 (ii) 0.104 = = =
10 2 ×5 2 103 23 × 53 53
875 7 233408 2 2 × 7 × 521
(iii) 0.0875 = = 4 (iv) 23.3408 = =
10 4
2 ×5 104 54
Do you see any pattern? It appears that, we have converted a real number
p
whose decimal expansion terminates into a rational number of the form , where p
q
and q are coprime, and the prime factorisation of the denominator (that is, q) has only
powers of 2, or powers of 5, or both. We should expect the denominator to look like
this, since powers of 10 can only have powers of 2 and 5 as factors.
Even though, we have worked only with a few examples, you can see that any
real number which has a decimal expansion that terminates can be expressed as a
rational number whose denominator is a power of 10. Also the only prime factors of 10
are 2 and 5. So, cancelling out the common factors between the numerator and the
p
denominator, we find that this real number is a rational number of the form , where
q
the prime factorisation of q is of the form 2n5m, and n, m are some non-negative integers.
Let us write our result formally:

16 MATHEMATICS
Theorem 1.5 : Let x be a rational number whose decimal expansion terminates.

p
Then x can be expressed in the form , where p and q are coprime, and the
q
prime factorisation of q is of the form 2n5m, where n, m are non-negative integers.
You are probably wondering what happens the other way round in Theorem 1.5.
p
That is, if we have a rational number of the form , and the prime factorisation of q
q p
is of the form 2n5m, where n, m are non negative integers, then does have a
q
terminating decimal expansion?
Let us see if there is some obvious reason why this is true. You will surely agree
a
that any rational number of the form , where b is a power of 10, will have a terminating
b
decimal expansion. So it seems to make sense to convert a rational number of the
a
form p , where q is of the form 2n5m, to an equivalent rational number of the form ,
q b
where b is a power of 10. Let us go back to our examples above and work backwards.
3 3 3 × 53 375
(i) = 3 = 3 3
= 3 = 0.375
8 2 2 ×5 10
13 13 13 × 23 104
(ii) = = = = 0.104
125 53 23 × 53 103
7 7 7 × 53 875
(iii) = 4
= 4 4
= 4 = 0.0875
80 2 × 5 2 × 5 10
14588 22 × 7 × 521 26 × 7 × 521 233408
(iv) = = = = 23.3408
625 54 24 × 54 104
So, these examples show us how we can convert a rational number of the form
p , where q is of the form 2n5m, to an equivalent rational number of the form a ,
q b
where b is a power of 10. Therefore, the decimal expansion of such a rational number
terminates. Let us write down our result formally.
Theorem 1.6 : Let x = p be a rational number, such that the prime factorisation
q
of q is of the form 2n5m, where n, m are non-negative integers. Then x has a
decimal expansion which terminates.

REAL NUMBERS 17
We are now ready to move on to the rational numbers 0.1428571

whose decimal expansions are non-terminating and recurring. 7 10
Once again, let us look at an example to see what is going on. 7
We refer to Example 5, Chapter 1, from your Class IX 30
1 28
textbook, namely, . Here, remainders are 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1, 3, 20
7
14
2, 6, 4, 5, 1, . . . and divisor is 7. 60
Notice that the denominator here, i.e., 7 is clearly not of 56
the form 2n5m. Therefore, from Theorems 1.5 and 1.6, we 40
35
1
know that will not have a terminating decimal expansion. 50
7 49
Hence, 0 will not show up as a remainder (Why?), and the
10
remainders will start repeating after a certain stage. So, we 7
will have a block of digits, namely, 142857, repeating in the
30
1
quotient of .
7 1
What we have seen, in the case of , is true for any rational number not covered
7
by Theorems 1.5 and 1.6. For such numbers we have :
p
Theorem 1.7 : Let x = , where p and q are coprimes, be a rational number,
q
such that the prime factorisation of q is not of the form 2n5m, where n, m are
non-negative integers. Then, x has a decimal expansion which is non-terminating
repeating (recurring).
From the discussion above, we can conclude that the decimal expansion of
every rational number is either terminating or non-terminating repeating.
EXERCISE 1.4
1. Without actually performing the long division, state whether the following rational
numbers will have a terminating decimal expansion or a non-terminating repeating decimal
expansion:
13 17 64 15
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
3125 8 455 1600
29 23 129 6
(v) (vi) 3 2 (vii) 2 7 5 (viii)
343 25 257 15
35 77
(ix) (x)
50 210

18 MATHEMATICS
2. Write down the decimal expansions of those rational numbers in Question 1 above
which have terminating decimal expansions.
3. The following real numbers have decimal expansions as given below. In each case,
p
decide whether they are rational or not. If they are rational, and of the form , what can
q
you say about the prime factors of q?
(i) 43.123456789 (ii) 0.120120012000120000. . . (iii) 43.123456789
1.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. Euclid’s division lemma :
Given positive integers a and b, there exist whole numbers q and r satisfying a = bq + r,
0 ≤ r < b.
2. Euclid’s division algorithm : This is based on Euclid’s division lemma. According to this,
the HCF of any two positive integers a and b, with a > b, is obtained as follows:
Step 1 : Apply the division lemma to find q and r where a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b.
Step 2 : If r = 0, the HCF is b. If r ≠ 0, apply Euclid’s lemma to b and r.
Step 3 : Continue the process till the remainder is zero. The divisor at this stage will be
HCF (a, b). Also, HCF(a, b) = HCF(b, r).
3. The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic :
Every composite number can be expressed (factorised) as a product of primes, and this
factorisation is unique, apart from the order in which the prime factors occur.
4. If p is a prime and p divides a2, then p divides a, where a is a positive integer.
5. To prove that 2, 3 are irrationals.

6. Let x be a rational number whose decimal expansion terminates. Then we can express x
p
in the form , where p and q are coprime, and the prime factorisation of q is of the form
q
2n5m, where n, m are non-negative integers.
p
7. Let x = be a rational number, such that the prime factorisation of q is of the form 2n5m,
q
where n, m are non-negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion which terminates.
p
8. Let x = be a rational number, such that the prime factorisation of q is not of the form
q
2n 5m, where n, m are non-negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion which is
non-terminating repeating (recurring).

REAL NUMBERS 19
A NOTE TO THE READER

You have seen that :
HCF ( p, q, r) × LCM (p, q, r) ≠ p × q × r, where p, q, r are positive integers
(see Example 8). However, the following results hold good for three numbers
p, q and r :
p ⋅ q ⋅ r ⋅ HCF(p, q, r )
LCM (p, q, r) =
HCF( p, q ) ⋅ HCF(q, r ) ⋅ HCF( p, r )
p ⋅ q ⋅ r ⋅ LCM(p, q, r )
HCF (p, q, r) =
LCM( p, q) ⋅ LCM(q, r ) ⋅ LCM( p, r )

20 MATHEMATICS
POLYNOMIALS 2
2.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you have studied polynomials in one variable and their degrees. Recall
that if p(x) is a polynomial in x, the highest power of x in p(x) is called the degree of
the polynomial p(x). For example, 4x + 2 is a polynomial in the variable x of
degree 1, 2y2 – 3y + 4 is a polynomial in the variable y of degree 2, 5x3 – 4x2 + x – 2
3 4
is a polynomial in the variable x of degree 3 and 7u6 – u + 4u 2 + u − 8 is a polynomial
2
1 1
in the variable u of degree 6. Expressions like , x + 2, 2
etc., are
x −1 x + 2x + 3
not polynomials.
A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear polynomial. For example, 2x – 3,
2 2
3 x + 5, y + 2 , x − , 3z + 4, u + 1 , etc., are all linear polynomials. Polynomials
11 3
2 3
such as 2x + 5 – x , x + 1, etc., are not linear polynomials.
A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic polynomial. The name ‘quadratic’
2,
has been derived from the word ‘quadrate’, which means ‘square’. 2 x 2 + 3x −
5
u 2 1
y 2 – 2, 2 − x 2 + 3 x, − 2u 2 + 5, 5v 2 − v, 4 z 2 + are some examples of
3 3 7
quadratic polynomials (whose coefficients are real numbers). More generally, any
quadratic polynomial in x is of the form ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c are real numbers
and a ≠ 0. A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic polynomial. Some examples of

POLYNOMIALS 21
a cubic polynomial are 2 – x3, x3, 2 x3 , 3 – x2 + x3, 3x3 – 2x2 + x – 1. In fact, the most
general form of a cubic polynomial is
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d,
where, a, b, c, d are real numbers and a ≠ 0.
Now consider the polynomial p(x) = x2 – 3x – 4. Then, putting x = 2 in the
polynomial, we get p(2) = 22 – 3 × 2 – 4 = – 6. The value ‘– 6’, obtained by replacing
x by 2 in x2 – 3x – 4, is the value of x2 – 3x – 4 at x = 2. Similarly, p(0) is the value of
p(x) at x = 0, which is – 4.
If p(x) is a polynomial in x, and if k is any real number, then the value obtained by
replacing x by k in p(x), is called the value of p(x) at x = k, and is denoted by p(k).
What is the value of p(x) = x2 –3x – 4 at x = –1? We have :
p(–1) = (–1)2 –{3 × (–1)} – 4 = 0
Also, note that p(4) = 42 – (3 × 4) – 4 = 0.
As p(–1) = 0 and p(4) = 0, –1 and 4 are called the zeroes of the quadratic
polynomial x2 – 3x – 4. More generally, a real number k is said to be a zero of a
polynomial p(x), if p(k) = 0.
You have already studied in Class IX, how to find the zeroes of a linear
polynomial. For example, if k is a zero of p(x) = 2x + 3, then p(k) = 0 gives us
3
2k + 3 = 0, i.e., k = − ⋅
2
−b
In general, if k is a zero of p(x) = ax + b, then p(k) = ak + b = 0, i.e., k = ⋅
a
−b − (Constant term)
So, the zero of the linear polynomial ax + b is = .
a Coefficient of x
Thus, the zero of a linear polynomial is related to its coefficients. Does this
happen in the case of other polynomials too? For example, are the zeroes of a quadratic
polynomial also related to its coefficients?
In this chapter, we will try to answer these questions. We will also study the
division algorithm for polynomials.
2.2 Geometrical Meaning of the Zeroes of a Polynomial

You know that a real number k is a zero of the polynomial p(x) if p(k) = 0. But why
are the zeroes of a polynomial so important? To answer this, first we will see the
geometrical representations of linear and quadratic polynomials and the geometrical
meaning of their zeroes.

22 MATHEMATICS
Consider first a linear polynomial ax + b, a ≠ 0. You have studied in Class IX that the
graph of y = ax + b is a straight line. For example, the graph of y = 2x + 3 is a straight
line passing through the points (– 2, –1) and (2, 7).
x –2 2
y = 2x + 3 –1 7
From Fig. 2.1, you can see

that the graph of y = 2x + 3
intersects the x - axis mid-way
between x = –1 and x = – 2,
that is, at the point  − , 0  .

3
 2 
You also know that the zero of
3
2x + 3 is − . Thus, the zero of
2
the polynomial 2x + 3 is the
x-coordinate of the point where the
graph of y = 2x + 3 intersects the Fig. 2.1
x-axis.
In general, for a linear polynomial ax + b, a ≠ 0, the graph of y = ax + b is a
 −b 
straight line which intersects the x-axis at exactly one point, namely,  , 0  .
 a 
Therefore, the linear polynomial ax + b, a ≠ 0, has exactly one zero, namely, the
x-coordinate of the point where the graph of y = ax + b intersects the x-axis.
Now, let us look for the geometrical meaning of a zero of a quadratic polynomial.
Consider the quadratic polynomial x2 – 3x – 4. Let us see what the graph* of
y = x2 – 3x – 4 looks like. Let us list a few values of y = x2 – 3x – 4 corresponding to
a few values for x as given in Table 2.1.
* Plotting of graphs of quadratic or cubic polynomials is not meant to be done by the students,
nor is to be evaluated.

POLYNOMIALS 23
Table 2.1
x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = x2 – 3x – 4 6 0 –4 –6 –6 –4 0 6
If we locate the points listed

above on a graph paper and draw
the graph, it will actually look like
the one given in Fig. 2.2.
In fact, for any quadratic
polynomial ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0, the
graph of the corresponding
equation y = ax2 + bx + c has one
of the two shapes either open
upwards like or open
downwards like depending on
whether a > 0 or a < 0. (These
curves are called parabolas.)
You can see from Table 2.1
that –1 and 4 are zeroes of the
quadratic polynomial. Also
note from Fig. 2.2 that –1 and 4
are the x-coordinates of the points
where the graph of y = x2 – 3x – 4
intersects the x- axis. Thus, the
zeroes of the quadratic polynomial
x2 – 3x – 4 are x-coordinates of
the points where the graph of
Fig. 2.2
y = x 2 – 3x – 4 intersects the
x-axis.
This fact is true for any quadratic polynomial, i.e., the zeroes of a quadratic
polynomial ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0, are precisely the x-coordinates of the points where the
parabola representing y = ax2 + bx + c intersects the x-axis.
From our observation earlier about the shape of the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c, the
following three cases can happen:

24 MATHEMATICS
Case (i) : Here, the graph cuts x-axis at two distinct points A and A′.
The x-coordinates of A and A′ are the two zeroes of the quadratic polynomial
2
ax + bx + c in this case (see Fig. 2.3).
Fig. 2.3
Case (ii) : Here, the graph cuts the x-axis at exactly one point, i.e., at two coincident
points. So, the two points A and A′ of Case (i) coincide here to become one point A
(see Fig. 2.4).
Fig. 2.4
The x-coordinate of A is the only zero for the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c
in this case.

POLYNOMIALS 25
Case (iii) : Here, the graph is either completely above the x-axis or completely below
the x-axis. So, it does not cut the x-axis at any point (see Fig. 2.5).
Fig. 2.5
So, the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c has no zero in this case.
So, you can see geometrically that a quadratic polynomial can have either two
distinct zeroes or two equal zeroes (i.e., one zero), or no zero. This also means that a
polynomial of degree 2 has atmost two zeroes.
Now, what do you expect the geometrical meaning of the zeroes of a cubic
polynomial to be? Let us find out. Consider the cubic polynomial x3 – 4x. To see what
the graph of y = x3 – 4x looks like, let us list a few values of y corresponding to a few
values for x as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2
x –2 –1 0 1 2
y = x3 – 4x 0 3 0 –3 0
Locating the points of the table on a graph paper and drawing the graph, we see
that the graph of y = x3 – 4x actually looks like the one given in Fig. 2.6.

26 MATHEMATICS
We see from the table above

that – 2, 0 and 2 are zeroes of the
cubic polynomial x3 – 4x. Observe
that – 2, 0 and 2 are, in fact, the
x-coordinates of the only points
where the graph of y = x 3 – 4x
intersects the x-axis. Since the curve
meets the x - axis in only these 3
points, their x - coordinates are the
only zeroes of the polynomial.
Let us take a few more
examples. Consider the cubic
polynomials x3 and x3 – x2. We draw
the graphs of y = x3 and y = x3 – x2
in Fig. 2.7 and Fig. 2.8 respectively.
Fig. 2.6
Fig. 2.7 Fig. 2.8

POLYNOMIALS 27
Note that 0 is the only zero of the polynomial x3. Also, from Fig. 2.7, you can see
that 0 is the x-coordinate of the only point where the graph of y = x3 intersects the
x-axis. Similarly, since x3 – x2 = x2 (x – 1), 0 and 1 are the only zeroes of the polynomial
x3 – x2. Also, from Fig. 2.8, these values are the x - coordinates of the only points
where the graph of y = x3 – x2 intersects the x-axis.
From the examples above, we see that there are at most 3 zeroes for any cubic
polynomial. In other words, any polynomial of degree 3 can have at most three zeroes.
Remark : In general, given a polynomial p(x) of degree n, the graph of y = p(x)
intersects the x-axis at atmost n points. Therefore, a polynomial p(x) of degree n has
at most n zeroes.
Example 1 : Look at the graphs in Fig. 2.9 given below. Each is the graph of y = p(x),
where p(x) is a polynomial. For each of the graphs, find the number of zeroes of p(x).
Fig. 2.9
Solution :
(i) The number of zeroes is 1 as the graph intersects the x-axis at one point only.
(ii) The number of zeroes is 2 as the graph intersects the x-axis at two points.
(iii) The number of zeroes is 3. (Why?)

28 MATHEMATICS
(iv) The number of zeroes is 1. (Why?)

(v) The number of zeroes is 1. (Why?)
(vi) The number of zeroes is 4. (Why?)
EXERCISE 2.1
1. The graphs of y = p(x) are given in Fig. 2.10 below, for some polynomials p(x). Find the
number of zeroes of p(x), in each case.
Fig. 2.10
2.3 Relationship between Zeroes and Coefficients of a Polynomial
You have already seen that zero of a linear polynomial ax + b is − b . We will now try
a
to answer the question raised in Section 2.1 regarding the relationship between zeroes
and coefficients of a quadratic polynomial. For this, let us take a quadratic polynomial,
say p(x) = 2x2 – 8x + 6. In Class IX, you have learnt how to factorise quadratic
polynomials by splitting the middle term. So, here we need to split the middle term
‘– 8x’ as a sum of two terms, whose product is 6 × 2x2 = 12x2. So, we write
2x2 – 8x + 6 = 2x2 – 6x – 2x + 6 = 2x(x – 3) – 2(x – 3)
= (2x – 2)(x – 3) = 2(x – 1)(x – 3)

POLYNOMIALS 29
So, the value of p(x) = 2x2 – 8x + 6 is zero when x – 1 = 0 or x – 3 = 0, i.e., when

x = 1 or x = 3. So, the zeroes of 2x2 – 8x + 6 are 1 and 3. Observe that :
−(−8) −(Coefficient of x)
Sum of its zeroes = 1+ 3 = 4 = =
2 Coefficient of x 2
6 Constant term
Product of its zeroes = 1 × 3 = 3 = =
Let us take one more quadratic polynomial, say, p(x) = 3x2 + 5x – 2. By the
method of splitting the middle term,
3x2 + 5x – 2 = 3x2 + 6x – x – 2 = 3x(x + 2) –1(x + 2)
= (3x – 1)(x + 2)
Hence, the value of 3x2 + 5x – 2 is zero when either 3x – 1 = 0 or x + 2 = 0, i.e.,
1 1
when x = or x = –2. So, the zeroes of 3x2 + 5x – 2 are and – 2. Observe that :
3 3
1 − 5 − (Coefficient of x)
Sum of its zeroes = + (− 2) = =
3 3 Coefficient of x 2
1 −2 Constant term
Product of its zeroes = × ( − 2) = =
In general, if α* and β* are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c,
a ≠ 0, then you know that x – α and x – β are the factors of p(x). Therefore,
ax2 + bx + c = k(x – α) (x – β), where k is a constant
= k[x2 – (α + β)x + α β]
= kx2 – k(α + β)x + k α β
Comparing the coefficients of x2, x and constant terms on both the sides, we get
a = k, b = – k(α + β) and c = kαβ.
–b
This gives α+β= ,
a
c
αβ =
a
* α,β are Greek letters pronounced as ‘alpha’ and ‘beta’ respectively. We will use later one
more letter ‘γ’ pronounced as ‘gamma’.

30 MATHEMATICS
b − (Coefficient of x)
i.e., sum of zeroes = α + β = − = ,
a Coefficient of x2
c Constant term
product of zeroes = αβ = = .
a Coefficient of x 2
Let us consider some examples.
Example 2 : Find the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial x2 + 7x + 10, and verify the
relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients.
Solution : We have
x2 + 7x + 10 = (x + 2)(x + 5)
So, the value of x2 + 7x + 10 is zero when x + 2 = 0 or x + 5 = 0, i.e., when x = – 2 or
x = –5. Therefore, the zeroes of x2 + 7x + 10 are – 2 and – 5. Now,
−(7) – (Coefficient of x) ,
sum of zeroes = – 2 + (– 5) = – (7) = =
10 Constant term
product of zeroes = (− 2) × (− 5) = 10 = = ⋅
Example 3 : Find the zeroes of the polynomial x2 – 3 and verify the relationship
between the zeroes and the coefficients.
Solution : Recall the identity a2 – b2 = (a – b)(a + b). Using it, we can write:
( )(
x2 – 3 = x − 3 x + 3 )
So, the value of x2 – 3 is zero when x = 3 or x = – 3⋅
Therefore, the zeroes of x2 – 3 are 3 and − 3 ⋅

Now,
− (Coefficient of x) ,
sum of zeroes = 3− 3= 0 =
Coefficient of x2
product of zeroes = ( 3 )( − 3 ) = – 3 = −13 = Coefficient

Constant term
of x 2
⋅

POLYNOMIALS 31
Example 4 : Find a quadratic polynomial, the sum and product of whose zeroes are
– 3 and 2, respectively.
Solution : Let the quadratic polynomial be ax2 + bx + c, and its zeroes be α and β.
We have
−b ,
α+β= –3=
a
c.
and αβ = 2 =
a
If a = 1, then b = 3 and c = 2.
So, one quadratic polynomial which fits the given conditions is x2 + 3x + 2.
You can check that any other quadratic polynomial that fits these conditions will
be of the form k(x2 + 3x + 2), where k is real.
Let us now look at cubic polynomials. Do you think a similar relation holds
between the zeroes of a cubic polynomial and its coefficients?
Let us consider p(x) = 2x3 – 5x2 – 14x + 8.
1
You can check that p(x) = 0 for x = 4, – 2, ⋅ Since p(x) can have atmost three
2
zeroes, these are the zeores of 2x3 – 5x2 – 14x + 8. Now,
1 5 − (−5) − (Coefficient of x 2 )
sum of the zeroes = 4 + ( −2) + = = = ,
2 2 2 Coefficient of x 3
1 −8 – Constant term
product of the zeroes = 4 × ( −2) × = −4 = = .
However, there is one more relationship here. Consider the sum of the products
of the zeroes taken two at a time. We have
{4 × (− 2)} + (− 2) ×
1  1 
 +  × 4
 2 2 
−14 Coefficient of x
= – 8 −1+ 2 = −7 = = .
2 Coefficient of x3
In general, it can be proved that if α, β, γ are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, then

32 MATHEMATICS
–b
α+β+γ= ,
a
c
αβ + βγ + γα = ,
a
–d
α β γ = .
a
Let us consider an example.
1
Example 5* : Verify that 3, –1, − are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial
3
p(x) = 3x3 – 5x2 – 11x – 3, and then verify the relationship between the zeroes and the
coefficients.
Solution : Comparing the given polynomial with ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, we get
a = 3, b = – 5, c = –11, d = – 3. Further
p(3) = 3 × 33 – (5 × 32) – (11 × 3) – 3 = 81 – 45 – 33 – 3 = 0,
p(–1) = 3 × (–1)3 – 5 × (–1)2 – 11 × (–1) – 3 = –3 – 5 + 11 – 3 = 0,
3 2
 1  1  1  1
p  −  = 3 ×  −  − 5 ×  −  − 11 ×  −  − 3 ,
 3  3  3  3
1 5 11 2 2
= – − + −3=– + =0
9 9 3 3 3
1
Therefore, 3, –1 and − are the zeroes of 3x3 – 5x2 – 11x – 3.
3
1
So, we take α = 3, β = –1 and γ = − ⋅
3
Now,
 1 1 5 −(−5) −b ,
α + β + γ = 3 + (−1) +  −  = 2 − = = =
 3 3 3 3 a
 1  1 1 −11 c ,
αβ + β γ + γ α = 3 × (−1) + (−1) ×  −  +  −  × 3 = − 3 + − 1 = =
 3  3 3 3 a
 1 − ( −3) − d .
αβγ = 3 × ( −1) ×  −  = 1 = =
 3 3 a

POLYNOMIALS 33
EXERCISE 2.2
1. Find the zeroes of the following quadratic polynomials and verify the relationship between
the zeroes and the coefficients.
(i) x2 – 2x – 8 (ii) 4s2 – 4s + 1 (iii) 6x2 – 3 – 7x
(iv) 4u2 + 8u (v) t2 – 15 (vi) 3x2 – x – 4
2. Find a quadratic polynomial each with the given numbers as the sum and product of its
zeroes respectively.
1, 1
(i) −1 (ii) 2, (iii) 0, 5
4 3
1, 1
(iv) 1, 1 (v) − (vi) 4, 1
4 4
2.4 Division Algorithm for Polynomials

You know that a cubic polynomial has at most three zeroes. However, if you are given
only one zero, can you find the other two? For this, let us consider the cubic polynomial
x3 – 3x2 – x + 3. If we tell you that one of its zeroes is 1, then you know that x – 1 is
a factor of x3 – 3x2 – x + 3. So, you can divide x3 – 3x2 – x + 3 by x – 1, as you have
learnt in Class IX, to get the quotient x2 – 2x – 3.
Next, you could get the factors of x2 – 2x – 3, by splitting the middle term, as
(x + 1)(x – 3). This would give you
x3 – 3x2 – x + 3 = (x – 1)(x2 – 2x – 3)
= (x – 1)(x + 1)(x – 3)
So, all the three zeroes of the cubic polynomial are now known to you as
1, – 1, 3.
Let us discuss the method of dividing one polynomial by another in some detail.
Before noting the steps formally, consider an example.
Example 6 : Divide 2x2 + 3x + 1 by x + 2. 2x – 1

Solution : Note that we stop the division process when x+2
2
2x + 3x + 1
either the remainder is zero or its degree is less than the 2x 2 + 4x
degree of the divisor. So, here the quotient is 2x – 1 and
the remainder is 3. Also,
(2x – 1)(x + 2) + 3 = 2x2 + 3x – 2 + 3 = 2x2 + 3x + 1
i.e., 2x2 + 3x + 1 = (x + 2)(2x – 1) + 3
Therefore, Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
Let us now extend this process to divide a polynomial by a quadratic polynomial.

34 MATHEMATICS
Example 7 : Divide 3x3 + x2 + 2x + 5 by 1 + 2x + x2. 3x – 5

Solution : We first arrange the terms of the x2 + 2 x + 1
dividend and the divisor in the decreasing order 3x3 + 6x2 +3 x
of their degrees. Recall that arranging the terms – – –
2
in this order is called writing the polynomials in –5x – x + 5
standard form. In this example, the dividend is –5x2 – 10x – 5
+ + +
already in standard form, and the divisor, in
9x + 10
standard form, is x2 + 2x + 1.
Step 1 : To obtain the first term of the quotient, divide the highest degree term of the
dividend (i.e., 3x3) by the highest degree term of the divisor (i.e., x2). This is 3x. Then
carry out the division process. What remains is – 5x2 – x + 5.
Step 2 : Now, to obtain the second term of the quotient, divide the highest degree term
of the new dividend (i.e., –5x2) by the highest degree term of the divisor (i.e., x2). This
gives –5. Again carry out the division process with – 5x2 – x + 5.
Step 3 : What remains is 9x + 10. Now, the degree of 9x + 10 is less than the degree
of the divisor x2 + 2x + 1. So, we cannot continue the division any further.
So, the quotient is 3x – 5 and the remainder is 9x + 10. Also,
(x2 + 2x + 1) × (3x – 5) + (9x + 10) = 3x3 + 6x2 + 3x – 5x2 – 10x – 5 + 9x + 10
= 3x3 + x2 + 2x + 5
Here again, we see that
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
What we are applying here is an algorithm which is similar to Euclid’s division
algorithm that you studied in Chapter 1.
This says that
If p(x) and g(x) are any two polynomials with g(x) ≠ 0, then we can find
polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that
p(x) = g(x) × q(x) + r(x),
where r(x) = 0 or degree of r(x) < degree of g(x).
This result is known as the Division Algorithm for polynomials.
Let us now take some examples to illustrate its use.
Example 8 : Divide 3x2 – x3 – 3x + 5 by x – 1 – x2, and verify the division algorithm.

POLYNOMIALS 35
Solution : Note that the given polynomials

are not in standard form. To carry out
division, we first write both the dividend and
divisor in decreasing orders of their degrees.
So, dividend = –x 3 + 3x 2 – 3x + 5 and
divisor = –x2 + x – 1.
Division process is shown on the right side.
We stop here since degree (3) = 0 < 2 = degree (–x2 + x – 1).
So, quotient = x – 2, remainder = 3.
Now,
Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
= (–x2 + x – 1) (x – 2) + 3
= –x3 + x2 – x + 2x2 – 2x + 2 + 3
= –x3 + 3x2 – 3x + 5
= Dividend
In this way, the division algorithm is verified.
Example 9 : Find all the zeroes of 2x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 2, if you know that two of
its zeroes are 2 and − 2 .
Solution : Since two zeroes are (

2 and − 2 , x − 2 )( x + 2 ) = x2 – 2 is a
factor of the given polynomial. Now, we divide the given polynomial by x2 – 2.
2x4
First term of quotient is 2
= 2 x2
x
−3x3
Second term of quotient is = − 3x
x2
x2
Third term of quotient is 2 = 1
x

36 MATHEMATICS
So, 2x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 2 = (x2 – 2)(2x2 – 3x + 1).
Now, by splitting –3x, we factorise 2x 2 – 3x + 1 as (2x – 1)(x – 1). So, its zeroes
1
are given by x = and x = 1. Therefore, the zeroes of the given polynomial are
2
1
2, − 2, , and 1.
2
EXERCISE 2.3
1. Divide the polynomial p(x) by the polynomial g(x) and find the quotient and remainder
in each of the following :
(i) p(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 5x – 3, g(x) = x2 – 2
(ii) p(x) = x4 – 3x2 + 4x + 5, g(x) = x2 + 1 – x
(iii) p(x) = x4 – 5x + 6, g(x) = 2 – x2
2. Check whether the first polynomial is a factor of the second polynomial by dividing the
second polynomial by the first polynomial:
(i) t2 – 3, 2t4 + 3t3 – 2t2 – 9t – 12
(ii) x2 + 3x + 1, 3x4 + 5x3 – 7x2 + 2x + 2
(iii) x3 – 3x + 1, x5 – 4x3 + x2 + 3x + 1
5 5
and – ⋅
3. Obtain all other zeroes of 3x4 + 6x3 – 2x2 – 10x – 5, if two of its zeroes are
3 3
4. On dividing x3 – 3x2 + x + 2 by a polynomial g(x), the quotient and remainder were x – 2
and –2x + 4, respectively. Find g(x).
5. Give examples of polynomials p(x), g(x), q(x) and r(x), which satisfy the division algorithm
and
(i) deg p(x) = deg q(x) (ii) deg q(x) = deg r(x) (iii) deg r(x) = 0
EXERCISE 2.4 (Optional)*

1. Verify that the numbers given alongside of the cubic polynomials below are their zeroes.
Also verify the relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients in each case:
1,
(i) 2x3 + x2 – 5x + 2; 1, – 2 (ii) x3 – 4x2 + 5x – 2; 2, 1, 1
2
2. Find a cubic polynomial with the sum, sum of the product of its zeroes taken two at a
time, and the product of its zeroes as 2, –7, –14 respectively.
*These exercises are not from the examination point of view.

POLYNOMIALS 37
3. If the zeroes of the polynomial x3 – 3x2 + x + 1 are a – b, a, a + b, find a and b.
4. If two zeroes of the polynomial x4 – 6x3 – 26x2 + 138x – 35 are 2 ± 3 , find other zeroes.
5. If the polynomial x4 – 6x3 + 16x2 – 25x + 10 is divided by another polynomial x2 – 2x + k,
the remainder comes out to be x + a, find k and a.
2.5 Summary
1. Polynomials of degrees 1, 2 and 3 are called linear, quadratic and cubic polynomials
respectively.
2. A quadratic polynomial in x with real coefficients is of the form ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c
are real numbers with a ≠ 0.
3. The zeroes of a polynomial p(x) are precisely the x-coordinates of the points, where the
graph of y = p(x) intersects the x -axis.
4. A quadratic polynomial can have at most 2 zeroes and a cubic polynomial can have
at most 3 zeroes.
5. If α and β are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c, then
b c
α +β = − , αβ = .
a a
6. If α, β, γ are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, then
−b ,
α +β + γ =
a
c,
αβ+ β γ + γ α =
a
−d .
and αβγ =
a
7. The division algorithm states that given any polynomial p(x) and any non-zero
polynomial g(x), there are polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that
p(x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x),
where r(x) = 0 or degree r(x) < degree g(x).

38 MATHEMATICS
PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

IN TWO VARIABLES 3
3.1 Introduction
You must have come across situations like the one given below :
Akhila went to a fair in her village. She wanted to enjoy rides on the Giant Wheel
and play Hoopla (a game in which you throw a ring on the items kept in a stall, and if
the ring covers any object completely, you get it). The number of times she played
Hoopla is half the number of rides she had on the Giant Wheel. If each ride costs
` 3, and a game of Hoopla costs ` 4, how would you find out the number of rides she
had and how many times she played Hoopla, provided she spent ` 20.
May be you will try it by considering different cases. If she has one ride, is it
possible? Is it possible to have two rides? And so on. Or you may use the knowledge
of Class IX, to represent such situations as linear equations in two variables.

PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 39
Let us try this approach.

Denote the number of rides that Akhila had by x, and the number of times she
played Hoopla by y. Now the situation can be represented by the two equations:
1
y= x (1)
2
3x + 4y = 20 (2)
Can we find the solutions of this pair of equations? There are several ways of
finding these, which we will study in this chapter.
3.2 Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables

Recall, from Class IX, that the following are examples of linear equations in two
variables:
2x + 3y = 5
x – 2y – 3 = 0
and x – 0y = 2, i.e., x = 2
You also know that an equation which can be put in the form ax + by + c = 0,
where a, b and c are real numbers, and a and b are not both zero, is called a linear
equation in two variables x and y. (We often denote the condition a and b are not both
zero by a2 + b2 ≠ 0). You have also studied that a solution of such an equation is a
pair of values, one for x and the other for y, which makes the two sides of the
equation equal.
For example, let us substitute x = 1 and y = 1 in the left hand side (LHS) of the
equation 2x + 3y = 5. Then
LHS = 2(1) + 3(1) = 2 + 3 = 5,
which is equal to the right hand side (RHS) of the equation.
Therefore, x = 1 and y = 1 is a solution of the equation 2x + 3y = 5.
Now let us substitute x = 1 and y = 7 in the equation 2x + 3y = 5. Then,
LHS = 2(1) + 3(7) = 2 + 21 = 23
which is not equal to the RHS.
Therefore, x = 1 and y = 7 is not a solution of the equation.
Geometrically, what does this mean? It means that the point (1, 1) lies on the line
representing the equation 2x + 3y = 5, and the point (1, 7) does not lie on it. So, every
solution of the equation is a point on the line representing it.

40 MATHEMATICS
In fact, this is true for any linear equation, that is, each solution (x, y) of a
linear equation in two variables, ax + by + c = 0, corresponds to a point on the
line representing the equation, and vice versa.
Now, consider Equations (1) and (2) given above. These equations, taken
together, represent the information we have about Akhila at the fair.
These two linear equations are in the same two variables x and y. Equations
like these are called a pair of linear equations in two variables.
Let us see what such pairs look like algebraically.
The general form for a pair of linear equations in two variables x and y is
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0
and a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0,
where a1, b1, c1, a2, b2, c2 are all real numbers and a12 + b12 ≠ 0, a22 + b22 ≠ 0.
Some examples of pair of linear equations in two variables are:
2x + 3y – 7 = 0 and 9x – 2y + 8 = 0
5x = y and –7x + 2y + 3 = 0
x + y = 7 and 17 = y
Do you know, what do they look like geometrically?
Recall, that you have studied in Class IX that the geometrical (i.e., graphical)
representation of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line. Can you now
suggest what a pair of linear equations in two variables will look like, geometrically?
There will be two straight lines, both to be considered together.
You have also studied in Class IX that given two lines in a plane, only one of the
following three possibilities can happen:
(i) The two lines will intersect at one point.
(ii) The two lines will not intersect, i.e., they are parallel.
(iii) The two lines will be coincident.
We show all these possibilities in Fig. 3.1:

In Fig. 3.1 (a), they intersect.
In Fig. 3.1 (b), they are parallel.
In Fig. 3.1 (c), they are coincident.

Fig. 3.1
Both ways of representing a pair of linear equations go hand-in-hand — the
algebraic and the geometric ways. Let us consider some examples.
Example 1 : Let us take the example given in Section 3.1. Akhila goes to a fair with
` 20 and wants to have rides on the Giant Wheel and play Hoopla. Represent this
situation algebraically and graphically (geometrically).
Solution : The pair of equations formed is :
1
y= x
2
i.e., x – 2y = 0 (1)
3x + 4y = 20 (2)
Let us represent these equations graphically. For this, we need at least two
solutions for each equation. We give these solutions in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1
20
x 0 2 x 0 4
3
x 20 − 3x
y= 0 1 y= 5 0 2
2 4
(i) (ii)
Recall from Class IX that there are infinitely many solutions of each linear
equation. So each of you can choose any two values, which may not be the ones we
have chosen. Can you guess why we have chosen x = 0 in the first equation and in the
second equation? When one of the variables is zero, the equation reduces to a linear

42 MATHEMATICS
equation in one variable, which can be solved easily. For instance, putting x = 0 in
Equation (2), we get 4y = 20, i.e., y = 5. Similarly, putting y = 0 in Equation (2), we get
20 20
3x = 20, i.e., x = . But as is
3 3
not an integer, it will not be easy to
plot exactly on the graph paper. So,
we choose y = 2 which gives x = 4,
an integral value.
Plot the points A(0, 0), B(2, 1)

and P(0, 5), Q(4, 2), corresponding
to the solutions in Table 3.1. Now
draw the lines AB and PQ,
representing the equations
x – 2y = 0 and 3x + 4y = 20, as
shown in Fig. 3.2.
Fig. 3.2
In Fig. 3.2, observe that the two lines representing the two equations are
intersecting at the point (4, 2). We shall discuss what this means in the next section.
Example 2 : Romila went to a stationery shop and purchased 2 pencils and 3 erasers
for ` 9. Her friend Sonali saw the new variety of pencils and erasers with Romila, and
she also bought 4 pencils and 6 erasers of the same kind for ` 18. Represent this
situation algebraically and graphically.
Solution : Let us denote the cost of 1 pencil by ` x and one eraser by ` y. Then the
algebraic representation is given by the following equations:
2x + 3y = 9 (1)
4x + 6y = 18 (2)
To obtain the equivalent geometric representation, we find two points on the line
representing each equation. That is, we find two solutions of each equation.

These solutions are given below in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2
x 0 4.5 x 0 3
9 − 2x 18 − 4 x
y= 3 0 y= 3 1
3 6
(i) (ii)
We plot these points in a graph
paper and draw the lines. We find that
both the lines coincide (see Fig. 3.3).
This is so, because, both the
equations are equivalent, i.e., one can
be derived from the other.
Example 3 : Two rails are

represented by the equations
x + 2y – 4 = 0 and 2x + 4y – 12 = 0.
Represent this situation geometrically.
Solution : Two solutions of each of

the equations :
Fig. 3.3
x + 2y – 4 = 0 (1)
2x + 4y – 12 = 0 (2)
are given in Table 3.3
Table 3.3
x 0 4 x 0 6
4−x 12 − 2 x
y= 2 0 y= 3 0
2 4
(i) (ii)
To represent the equations graphically, we plot the points R(0, 2) and S(4, 0), to
get the line RS and the points P(0, 3) and Q(6, 0) to get the line PQ.

44 MATHEMATICS
We observe in Fig. 3.4, that the

lines do not intersect anywhere, i.e.,
they are parallel.
So, we have seen several
situations which can be represented
by a pair of linear equations. We
have seen their algebraic and
geometric representations. In the
next few sections, we will discuss
how these representations can be
used to look for solutions of the pair
of linear equations.
Fig. 3.4
EXERCISE 3.1
1. Aftab tells his daughter, “Seven years ago, I was seven times as old as you were then.
Also, three years from now, I shall be three times as old as you will be.” (Isn’t this
interesting?) Represent this situation algebraically and graphically.
2. The coach of a cricket team buys 3 bats and 6 balls for ` 3900. Later, she buys another
bat and 3 more balls of the same kind for ` 1300. Represent this situation algebraically
and geometrically.
3. The cost of 2 kg of apples and 1kg of grapes on a day was found to be ` 160. After a
month, the cost of 4 kg of apples and 2 kg of grapes is ` 300. Represent the situation
algebraically and geometrically.
3.3 Graphical Method of Solution of a Pair of Linear Equations

In the previous section, you have seen how we can graphically represent a pair of
linear equations as two lines. You have also seen that the lines may intersect, or may
be parallel, or may coincide. Can we solve them in each case? And if so, how? We
shall try and answer these questions from the geometrical point of view in this section.
Let us look at the earlier examples one by one.
l In the situation of Example 1, find out how many rides on the Giant Wheel
Akhila had, and how many times she played Hoopla.
In Fig. 3.2, you noted that the equations representing the situation are
geometrically shown by two lines intersecting at the point (4, 2). Therefore, the

point (4, 2) lies on the lines represented by both the equations x – 2y = 0 and
3x + 4y = 20. And this is the only common point.
Let us verify algebraically that x = 4, y = 2 is a solution of the given
pair of equations. Substituting the values of x and y in each equation, we get
4 – 2 × 2 = 0 and 3(4) + 4(2) = 20. So, we have verified that x = 4, y = 2 is a
solution of both the equations. Since (4, 2) is the only common point on both
the lines, there is one and only one solution for this pair of linear equations
in two variables.
Thus, the number of rides Akhila had on Giant Wheel is 4 and the number
of times she played Hoopla is 2.
l In the situation of Example 2, can you find the cost of each pencil and each
eraser?
In Fig. 3.3, the situation is geometrically shown by a pair of coincident
lines. The solutions of the equations are given by the common points.
Are there any common points on these lines? From the graph, we observe
that every point on the line is a common solution to both the equations. So, the
equations 2x + 3y = 9 and 4x + 6y = 18 have infinitely many solutions. This
should not surprise us, because if we divide the equation 4x + 6y = 18 by 2 , we
get 2x + 3y = 9, which is the same as Equation (1). That is, both the equations are
equivalent. From the graph, we see that any point on the line gives us a possible
cost of each pencil and eraser. For instance, each pencil and eraser can cost
` 3 and ` 1 respectively. Or, each pencil can cost ` 3.75 and eraser can cost
` 0.50, and so on.
l In the situation of Example 3, can the two rails cross each other?
In Fig. 3.4, the situation is represented geometrically by two parallel lines.
Since the lines do not intersect at all, the rails do not cross. This also means that
the equations have no common solution.
A pair of linear equations which has no solution, is called an inconsistent pair of
linear equations. A pair of linear equations in two variables, which has a solution, is
called a consistent pair of linear equations. A pair of linear equations which are
equivalent has infinitely many distinct common solutions. Such a pair is called a
dependent pair of linear equations in two variables. Note that a dependent pair of
linear equations is always consistent.
We can now summarise the behaviour of lines representing a pair of linear equations
in two variables and the existence of solutions as follows:

46 MATHEMATICS
(i) the lines may intersect in a single point. In this case, the pair of equations
has a unique solution (consistent pair of equations).
(ii) the lines may be parallel. In this case, the equations have no solution
(inconsistent pair of equations).
(iii) the lines may be coincident. In this case, the equations have infinitely many
solutions [dependent (consistent) pair of equations].
Let us now go back to the pairs of linear equations formed in Examples 1, 2, and
3, and note down what kind of pair they are geometrically.
(i) x – 2y = 0 and 3x + 4y – 20 = 0 (The lines intersect)
(ii) 2x + 3y – 9 = 0 and 4x + 6y – 18 = 0 (The lines coincide)
(iii) x + 2y – 4 = 0 and 2x + 4y – 12 = 0 (The lines are parallel)
a1 , b1 c
Let us now write down, and compare, the values of and 1 in all the
a2 b2 c2
three examples. Here, a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 denote the coefficents of equations
given in the general form in Section 3.2.
Table 3.4
a1 b1 c1
Sl Pair of lines Compare the Graphical Algebraic
a2 b2 c2
No. ratios representation interpretation
1 −2 0 a1 b
1. x – 2y = 0 ≠ 1 Intersecting Exactly one
3 4 −20 a2 b2
3x + 4y – 20 = 0 lines solution
(unique)
2 3 −9 a1 b1 c
2. 2x + 3y – 9 = 0 = = 1 Coincident Infinitely
4 6 −18 a2 b2 c2
lines many solutions
4x + 6y – 18 = 0
1 2 −4 a1 b1 c
3. x + 2y – 4 = 0 = ≠ 1 Parallel lines No solution
2 4 −12 a2 b2 c2
2x + 4y – 12 = 0
From the table above, you can observe that if the lines represented by the equation
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0

a1 b1
are (i) intersecting, then ≠ ⋅
a2 b2
a b c
(ii) coincident, then 1 = 1 = 1 ⋅
a2 b2 c2
a b c
(iii) parallel, then 1 = 1 ≠ 1 ⋅
a2 b2 c2
In fact, the converse is also true for any pair of lines. You can verify them by
considering some more examples by yourself.
Let us now consider some more examples to illustrate it.
Example 4 : Check graphically whether the pair of equations

x + 3y = 6 (1)
and 2x – 3y = 12 (2)
is consistent. If so, solve them graphically.
Solution : Let us draw the graphs of the Equations (1) and (2). For this, we find two
solutions of each of the equations, which are given in Table 3.5
Table 3.5
x 0 6 x 0 3
6−x 2 x − 12
y= 2 0 y= –4 –2
3 3
Plot the points A(0, 2), B(6, 0),

P(0, – 4) and Q(3, – 2) on graph
paper, and join the points to form the
lines AB and PQ as shown in
Fig. 3.5.
We observe that there is a point
B (6, 0) common to both the lines
AB and PQ. So, the solution of the
pair of linear equations is x = 6 and
y = 0, i.e., the given pair of equations
is consistent.
Fig. 3.5

48 MATHEMATICS
Example 5 : Graphically, find whether the following pair of equations has no solution,
unique solution or infinitely many solutions:
5x – 8y + 1 = 0 (1)
24 3
3x – y + = 0 (2)
5 5
5
Solution : Multiplying Equation (2) by , we get
3
5x – 8y + 1 = 0
But, this is the same as Equation (1). Hence the lines represented by Equations (1)
and (2) are coincident. Therefore, Equations (1) and (2) have infinitely many solutions.
Plot few points on the graph and verify it yourself.
Example 6 : Champa went to a ‘Sale’ to purchase some pants and skirts. When her
friends asked her how many of each she had bought, she answered, “The number of
skirts is two less than twice the number of pants purchased. Also, the number of skirts
is four less than four times the number of pants purchased”. Help her friends to find
how many pants and skirts Champa bought.
Solution : Let us denote the number of pants by x and the number of skirts by y. Then
the equations formed are :
y = 2x – 2 (1)
and y = 4x – 4 (2)
Let us draw the graphs of

Equations (1) and (2) by finding two
solutions for each of the equations.
They are given in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6
x 2 0
y = 2x – 2 2 –2
x 0 1
y = 4x – 4 –4 0
Fig. 3.6

Plot the points and draw the lines passing through them to represent the equations,
as shown in Fig. 3.6.
The two lines intersect at the point (1, 0). So, x = 1, y = 0 is the required solution
of the pair of linear equations, i.e., the number of pants she purchased is 1 and she did
not buy any skirt.
Verify the answer by checking whether it satisfies the conditions of the given
problem.
EXERCISE 3.2
1. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems, and find their solutions
graphically.
(i) 10 students of Class X took part in a Mathematics quiz. If the number of girls is 4
more than the number of boys, find the number of boys and girls who took part in
the quiz.
(ii) 5 pencils and 7 pens together cost ` 50, whereas 7 pencils and 5 pens together
cost ` 46. Find the cost of one pencil and that of one pen.
a1 , b1 c
2. On comparing the ratios and 1 , find out whether the lines representing the
a2 b2 c2
following pairs of linear equations intersect at a point, are parallel or coincident:
(i) 5x – 4y + 8 = 0 (ii) 9x + 3y + 12 = 0
7x + 6y – 9 = 0 18x + 6y + 24 = 0
(iii) 6x – 3y + 10 = 0
2x – y + 9 = 0
a1 , b1 c
3. On comparing the ratios and 1 , find out whether the following pair of linear
a2 b 2 c2
equations are consistent, or inconsistent.
(i) 3x + 2y = 5 ; 2x – 3y = 7 (ii) 2x – 3y = 8 ; 4x – 6y = 9
3 5
(iii) x + y = 7 ; 9x – 10y = 14 (iv) 5x – 3y = 11 ; – 10x + 6y = –22
2 3
4
(v) x + 2 y = 8 ; 2x + 3y = 12
3
4. Which of the following pairs of linear equations are consistent/inconsistent? If
consistent, obtain the solution graphically:

50 MATHEMATICS
(i) x + y = 5, 2x + 2y = 10
(ii) x – y = 8, 3x – 3y = 16
(iii) 2x + y – 6 = 0, 4x – 2y – 4 = 0
(iv) 2x – 2y – 2 = 0, 4x – 4y – 5 = 0
5. Half the perimeter of a rectangular garden, whose length is 4 m more than its width, is
36 m. Find the dimensions of the garden.
6. Given the linear equation 2x + 3y – 8 = 0, write another linear equation in two variables
such that the geometrical representation of the pair so formed is:
(i) intersecting lines (ii) parallel lines
(iii) coincident lines
7. Draw the graphs of the equations x – y + 1 = 0 and 3x + 2y – 12 = 0. Determine the
coordinates of the vertices of the triangle formed by these lines and the x-axis, and
shade the triangular region.
3.4 Algebraic Methods of Solving a Pair of Linear Equations

In the previous section, we discussed how to solve a pair of linear equations graphically.
The graphical method is not convenient in cases when the point representing the
solution of the linear equations has non-integral coordinates like ( )
3, 2 7 ,
 4, 1 
(–1.75, 3.3),   , etc. There is every possibility of making mistakes while reading
 13 19 
such coordinates. Is there any alternative method of finding the solution? There are
several algebraic methods, which we shall now discuss.
3.4.1 Substitution Method : We shall explain the method of substitution by taking

some examples.
Example 7 : Solve the following pair of equations by substitution method:

7x – 15y = 2 (1)
x + 2y = 3 (2)
Solution :
Step 1 : We pick either of the equations and write one variable in terms of the other.
Let us consider the Equation (2) :
x + 2y = 3
and write it as x = 3 – 2y (3)

Step 2 : Substitute the value of x in Equation (1). We get

7(3 – 2y) – 15y = 2
i.e., 21 – 14y – 15y = 2
i.e., – 29y = –19
19
Therefore, y=
29
Step 3 : Substituting this value of y in Equation (3), we get
 19  49
x = 3 – 2  =
 29  29
49 19
Therefore, the solution is x = ,y= .
29 29
49 19
Verification : Substituting x = and y = , you can verify that both the Equations
29 29
(1) and (2) are satisfied.
To understand the substitution method more clearly, let us consider it stepwise:
Step 1 : Find the value of one variable, say y in terms of the other variable, i.e., x from
either equation, whichever is convenient.
Step 2 : Substitute this value of y in the other equation, and reduce it to an equation in
one variable, i.e., in terms of x, which can be solved. Sometimes, as in Examples 9 and
10 below, you can get statements with no variable. If this statement is true, you can
conclude that the pair of linear equations has infinitely many solutions. If the statement
is false, then the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.
Step 3 : Substitute the value of x (or y) obtained in Step 2 in the equation used in
Step 1 to obtain the value of the other variable.
Remark : We have substituted the value of one variable by expressing it in terms of

the other variable to solve the pair of linear equations. That is why the method is
known as the substitution method.
Example 8 : Solve Q.1 of Exercise 3.1 by the method of substitution.

Solution : Let s and t be the ages (in years) of Aftab and his daughter, respectively.
Then, the pair of linear equations that represent the situation is
s – 7 = 7 (t – 7), i.e., s – 7t + 42 = 0 (1)
and s + 3 = 3 (t + 3), i.e., s – 3t = 6 (2)

52 MATHEMATICS
Using Equation (2), we get s = 3t + 6.

Putting this value of s in Equation (1), we get
(3t + 6) – 7t + 42 = 0,
i.e., 4t = 48, which gives t = 12.
Putting this value of t in Equation (2), we get
s = 3 (12) + 6 = 42
So, Aftab and his daughter are 42 and 12 years old, respectively.
Verify this answer by checking if it satisfies the conditions of the given problems.
Example 9 : Let us consider Example 2 in Section 3.3, i.e., the cost of 2 pencils and
3 erasers is ` 9 and the cost of 4 pencils and 6 erasers is ` 18. Find the cost of each
pencil and each eraser.
Solution : The pair of linear equations formed were:
2x + 3y = 9 (1)
4x + 6y = 18 (2)
We first express the value of x in terms of y from the equation 2x + 3y = 9, to get
9 − 3y
x= (3)
2
Now we substitute this value of x in Equation (2), to get
4(9 − 3 y )
+ 6y = 18
2
i.e., 18 – 6y + 6y = 18
i.e., 18 = 18
This statement is true for all values of y. However, we do not get a specific value
of y as a solution. Therefore, we cannot obtain a specific value of x. This situation has
arisen because both the given equations are the same. Therefore, Equations (1) and (2)
have infinitely many solutions. Observe that we have obtained the same solution
graphically also. (Refer to Fig. 3.3, Section 3.2.) We cannot find a unique cost of a
pencil and an eraser, because there are many common solutions, to the given situation.
Example 10 : Let us consider the Example 3 of Section 3.2. Will the rails cross each
other?

Solution : The pair of linear equations formed were:

x + 2y – 4 = 0 (1)
2x + 4y – 12 = 0 (2)
We express x in terms of y from Equation (1) to get
x = 4 – 2y
Now, we substitute this value of x in Equation (2) to get
2(4 – 2y) + 4y – 12 = 0
i.e., 8 – 12 = 0
i.e., –4= 0
which is a false statement.
Therefore, the equations do not have a common solution. So, the two rails will not
cross each other.
EXERCISE 3.3
1. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the substitution method.
(i) x + y = 14 (ii) s – t = 3
s t
x–y=4 + =6
3 2
(iii) 3x – y = 3 (iv) 0.2x + 0.3y = 1.3
9x – 3y = 9 0.4x + 0.5y = 2.3
3x 5 y
(v) 2 x+ 3 y= 0 (vi) − = −2
2 3
x y 13
3x − 8y = 0 + =
3 2 6
2. Solve 2x + 3y = 11 and 2x – 4y = – 24 and hence find the value of ‘m’ for which
y = mx + 3.
3. Form the pair of linear equations for the following problems and find their solution by
substitution method.
(i) The difference between two numbers is 26 and one number is three times the other.
Find them.
(ii) The larger of two supplementary angles exceeds the smaller by 18 degrees. Find
them.
(iii) The coach of a cricket team buys 7 bats and 6 balls for ` 3800. Later, she buys 3
bats and 5 balls for ` 1750. Find the cost of each bat and each ball.

54 MATHEMATICS
(iv) The taxi charges in a city consist of a fixed charge together with the charge for the
distance covered. For a distance of 10 km, the charge paid is ` 105 and for a
journey of 15 km, the charge paid is ` 155. What are the fixed charges and the
charge per km? How much does a person have to pay for travelling a distance of
25 km?
9
(v) A fraction becomes , if 2 is added to both the numerator and the denominator.
11 5
If, 3 is added to both the numerator and the denominator it becomes . Find the
6
fraction.
(vi) Five years hence, the age of Jacob will be three times that of his son. Five years
ago, Jacob’s age was seven times that of his son. What are their present ages?
3.4.2 Elimination Method

Now let us consider another method of eliminating (i.e., removing) one variable. This
is sometimes more convenient than the substitution method. Let us see how this method
works.
Example 11 : The ratio of incomes of two persons is 9 : 7 and the ratio of their
expenditures is 4 : 3. If each of them manages to save ` 2000 per month, find their
monthly incomes.
Solution : Let us denote the incomes of the two person by ` 9x and ` 7x and their
expenditures by ` 4y and ` 3y respectively. Then the equations formed in the situation
is given by :
9x – 4y = 2000 (1)
and 7x – 3y = 2000 (2)
Step 1 : Multiply Equation (1) by 3 and Equation (2) by 4 to make the coefficients of
y equal. Then we get the equations:
27x – 12y = 6000 (3)
28x – 12y = 8000 (4)
Step 2 : Subtract Equation (3) from Equation (4) to eliminate y, because the coefficients
of y are the same. So, we get
(28x – 27x) – (12y – 12y) = 8000 – 6000
i.e., x = 2000
Step 3 : Substituting this value of x in (1), we get
9(2000) – 4y = 2000
i.e., y = 4000

So, the solution of the equations is x = 2000, y = 4000. Therefore, the monthly incomes
of the persons are ` 18,000 and ` 14,000, respectively.
Verification : 18000 : 14000 = 9 : 7. Also, the ratio of their expenditures =

18000 – 2000 : 14000 – 2000 = 16000 : 12000 = 4 : 3
Remarks :
1. The method used in solving the example above is called the elimination method,
because we eliminate one variable first, to get a linear equation in one variable.
In the example above, we eliminated y. We could also have eliminated x. Try
doing it that way.
2. You could also have used the substitution, or graphical method, to solve this
problem. Try doing so, and see which method is more convenient.
Let us now note down these steps in the elimination method :
Step 1 : First multiply both the equations by some suitable non-zero constants to make
the coefficients of one variable (either x or y) numerically equal.
Step 2 : Then add or subtract one equation from the other so that one variable gets
eliminated. If you get an equation in one variable, go to Step 3.
If in Step 2, we obtain a true statement involving no variable, then the original
pair of equations has infinitely many solutions.
If in Step 2, we obtain a false statement involving no variable, then the original
pair of equations has no solution, i.e., it is inconsistent.
Step 3 : Solve the equation in one variable (x or y) so obtained to get its value.
Step 4 : Substitute this value of x (or y) in either of the original equations to get the
value of the other variable.
Now to illustrate it, we shall solve few more examples.
Example 12 : Use elimination method to find all possible solutions of the following
pair of linear equations :
2x + 3y = 8 (1)
4x + 6y = 7 (2)
Solution :
Step 1 : Multiply Equation (1) by 2 and Equation (2) by 1 to make the

coefficients of x equal. Then we get the equations as :
4x + 6y = 16 (3)
4x + 6y = 7 (4)

56 MATHEMATICS
Step 2 : Subtracting Equation (4) from Equation (3),

(4x – 4x) + (6y – 6y) = 16 – 7
i.e., 0 = 9, which is a false statement.
Therefore, the pair of equations has no solution.
Example 13 : The sum of a two-digit number and the number obtained by reversing
the digits is 66. If the digits of the number differ by 2, find the number. How many such
numbers are there?
Solution : Let the ten’s and the unit’s digits in the first number be x and y, respectively.
So, the first number may be written as 10 x + y in the expanded form (for example,
56 = 10(5) + 6).
When the digits are reversed, x becomes the unit’s digit and y becomes the ten’s
digit. This number, in the expanded notation is 10y + x (for example, when 56 is
reversed, we get 65 = 10(6) + 5).
According to the given condition.
(10x + y) + (10y + x) = 66
i.e., 11(x + y) = 66
i.e., x+y= 6 (1)
We are also given that the digits differ by 2, therefore,
either x–y= 2 (2)
or y–x= 2 (3)
If x – y = 2, then solving (1) and (2) by elimination, we get x = 4 and y = 2.
In this case, we get the number 42.
If y – x = 2, then solving (1) and (3) by elimination, we get x = 2 and y = 4.
In this case, we get the number 24.
Thus, there are two such numbers 42 and 24.
Verification : Here 42 + 24 = 66 and 4 – 2 = 2. Also 24 + 42 = 66 and 4 – 2 = 2.
EXERCISE 3.4
1. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the elimination method and the substitution
method :
(i) x + y = 5 and 2x – 3y = 4 (ii) 3x + 4y = 10 and 2x – 2y = 2
x 2y y
(iii) 3x – 5y – 4 = 0 and 9x = 2y + 7 (iv) + = − 1 and x − = 3
2 3 3

2. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems, and find their solutions
(if they exist) by the elimination method :
(i) If we add 1 to the numerator and subtract 1 from the denominator, a fraction reduces
1
to 1. It becomes if we only add 1 to the denominator. What is the fraction?
2
(ii) Five years ago, Nuri was thrice as old as Sonu. Ten years later, Nuri will be twice as
old as Sonu. How old are Nuri and Sonu?
(iii) The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 9. Also, nine times this number is
twice the number obtained by reversing the order of the digits. Find the number.
(iv) Meena went to a bank to withdraw ` 2000. She asked the cashier to give her
` 50 and ` 100 notes only. Meena got 25 notes in all. Find how many notes of
` 50 and ` 100 she received.
(v) A lending library has a fixed charge for the first three days and an additional charge
for each day thereafter. Saritha paid ` 27 for a book kept for seven days, while Susy
paid ` 21 for the book she kept for five days. Find the fixed charge and the charge
for each extra day.
3.4.3 Cross - Multiplication Method

So far, you have learnt how to solve a pair of linear equations in two variables by
graphical, substitution and elimination methods. Here, we introduce one more algebraic
method to solve a pair of linear equations which for many reasons is a very useful
method of solving these equations. Before we proceed further, let us consider the
following situation.
The cost of 5 oranges and 3 apples is ` 35 and the cost of 2 oranges and 4 apples
is ` 28. Let us find the cost of an orange and an apple.
Let us denote the cost of an orange by ` x and the cost of an apple by ` y. Then,
the equations formed are :
5x + 3y = 35, i.e., 5x + 3y – 35 = 0 (1)
2x + 4y = 28, i.e., 2x + 4y – 28 = 0 (2)
Let us use the elimination method to solve these equations.
Multiply Equation (1) by 4 and Equation (2) by 3. We get
(4)(5)x + (4)(3)y + (4)(–35) = 0 (3)
(3)(2)x + (3)(4)y + (3)(–28) = 0 (4)
Subtracting Equation (4) from Equation (3), we get
[(5)(4) – (3)(2)]x + [(4)(3) – (3)(4)]y + [4(–35) – (3)(–28)] = 0

58 MATHEMATICS
– [ (4)(–35) − (3)(−28) ]
Therefore, x=
(5)(4) − (3)(2)
(3)(– 28) − (4) (−35)

i.e., x= (5)
(5)(4) − (2)(3)
If Equations (1) and (2) are written as a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0,
then we have
a1 = 5, b1 = 3, c1 = –35, a2 = 2, b2 = 4, c2 = –28.
b1c2 − b2 c1
Then Equation (5) can be written as x = ,
a1b2 − a2 b1
c1a2 − c2 a1
Similarly, you can get y=
a1b2 − a2 b1
By simplyfing Equation (5), we get
−84 + 140
x= =4
20 − 6
(−35)(2) − (5)(−28) −70 + 140
Similarly, y= = =5
20 − 6 14
Therefore, x = 4, y = 5 is the solution of the given pair of equations.
Then, the cost of an orange is ` 4 and that of an apple is ` 5.
Verification : Cost of 5 oranges + Cost of 3 apples = ` 20 + ` 15 = ` 35. Cost of

2 oranges + Cost of 4 apples = ` 8 + ` 20 = ` 28.
Let us now see how this method works for any pair of linear equations in two
variables of the form
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 (1)
and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 (2)
To obtain the values of x and y as shown above, we follow the following steps:
Step 1 : Multiply Equation (1) by b2 and Equation (2) by b1, to get

b2a1x + b2b1 y + b2c1 = 0 (3)
b1a2x + b1b2 y + b1c2 = 0 (4)
Step 2 : Subtracting Equation (4) from (3), we get:
(b2a1 – b1a2) x + (b2b1 – b1b2 ) y + (b2c1– b1c2) = 0

i.e., (b2a1 – b1a2) x = b1c2 – b2c1

b1c2 − b2 c1
So, x= , provided a1b2 – a2b1 ≠ 0 (5)
a1b2 − a2b1
Step 3 : Substituting this value of x in (1) or (2), we get
c1a2 − c2 a1
y= (6)
a1b2 − a2 b1
Now, two cases arise :
a b
Case 1 : a1b2 – a2b1 ≠ 0. In this case 1 ≠ 1 . Then the pair of linear equations has
a2 b2
a unique solution.
a b
Case 2 : a1b2 – a2b1 = 0. If we write 1 = 1 = k , then a1 = k a2, b1 = k b2.
a2 b2
Substituting the values of a1 and b1 in the Equation (1), we get
k (a2 x + b2 y) + c1 = 0. (7)
It can be observed that the Equations (7) and (2) can both be satisfied only if
c1
c1 = k c2, i.e., = k.
c2
If c1 = k c2, any solution of Equation (2) will satisfy the Equation (1), and vice
a1 b1 c1
versa. So, if = = = k , then there are infinitely many solutions to the pair of
a2 b2 c2
linear equations given by (1) and (2).
If c1 ≠ k c2, then any solution of Equation (1) will not satisfy Equation (2) and vice
versa. Therefore the pair has no solution.
We can summarise the discussion above for the pair of linear equations given by
(1) and (2) as follows:
a1 b1
(i) When ≠ , we get a unique solution.
a2 b2
a1 b1 c1
(ii) When = = , there are infinitely many solutions.
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
(iii) When = ≠ , there is no solution.
a2 b2 c2

60 MATHEMATICS
Note that you can write the solution given by Equations (5) and (6) in the
following form :
x y 1
= = (8)
b1c2 − b2c1 c1a2 − c2 a1 a1b2 − a2b1
In remembering the above result, the following diagram may be helpful to
you :
x y 1
b1 c1 a1 b1
b2 c2 a2 b2
The arrows between the two numbers indicate that they are to be multiplied and
the second product is to be subtracted from the first.
For solving a pair of linear equations by this method, we will follow the following
steps :
Step 1 : Write the given equations in the form (1) and (2).
Step 2 : Taking the help of the diagram above, write Equations as given in (8).
Step 3 : Find x and y, provided a1b2 – a2b1 ≠ 0
Step 2 above gives you an indication of why this method is called the
cross-multiplication method.
Example 14 : From a bus stand in Bangalore , if we buy 2 tickets to Malleswaram and

3 tickets to Yeshwanthpur, the total cost is ` 46; but if we buy 3 tickets to Malleswaram
and 5 tickets to Yeshwanthpur the total cost is ` 74. Find the fares from the bus stand
to Malleswaram, and to Yeshwanthpur.
Solution : Let ` x be the fare from the bus stand in Bangalore to Malleswaram, and
` y to Yeshwanthpur. From the given information, we have
2x + 3y = 46, i.e., 2x + 3y – 46 = 0 (1)
3x + 5y = 74, i.e., 3x + 5y – 74 = 0 (2)
To solve the equations by the cross-multiplication method, we draw the diagram as
given below. y 1
x
3 – 46 2 3
5 – 74 3 5

x y 1
Then = =
(3)(−74) − (5)(−46) (−46)(3) − ( −74)(2) (2)(5) − (3)(3)
x y 1
i.e., = =
−222 + 230 −138 + 148 10 − 9
x y 1
i.e., = =
8 10 1
x 1 y 1
i.e., = and =
8 1 10 1
i.e., x= 8 and y = 10
Hence, the fare from the bus stand in Bangalore to Malleswaram is ` 8 and the fare to
Yeshwanthpur is ` 10.
Verification : You can check from the problem that the solution we have got is correct.
Example 15 : For which values of p does the pair of equations given below has unique
solution?
4x + py + 8 = 0
2x + 2y + 2 = 0
Solution : Here a1 = 4, a2 = 2, b1 = p, b2 = 2.
a1 b
Now for the given pair to have a unique solution : ≠ 1
a2 b2
4 p
i.e., ≠
2 2
i.e., p≠ 4
Therefore, for all values of p, except 4, the given pair of equations will have a unique
solution.
Example 16 : For what values of k will the following pair of linear equations have
infinitely many solutions?
kx + 3y – (k – 3) = 0
12x + ky – k = 0
a1 k b 3 c k −3
Solution : Here, = , 1 = , 1 =
a2 12 b2 k c2 k
a1 b1 c1
For a pair of linear equations to have infinitely many solutions : = =
a2 b2 c2

62 MATHEMATICS
k 3 k− 3
So, we need = =
12 k k
k 3
or, =
12 k
which gives k2 = 36, i.e., k = ± 6.
3 k − 3
Also, =
k k
gives 3k = k – 3k, i.e., 6k = k , which means k = 0 or k = 6.
2 2
Therefore, the value of k, that satisfies both the conditions, is k = 6. For this value, the
pair of linear equations has infinitely many solutions.
EXERCISE 3.5
1. Which of the following pairs of linear equations has unique solution, no solution, or
infinitely many solutions. In case there is a unique solution, find it by using cross
multiplication method.
(i) x – 3y – 3 = 0 (ii) 2x + y = 5
3x – 9y – 2 = 0 3x + 2y = 8
(iii) 3x – 5y = 20 (iv) x – 3y – 7 = 0
6x – 10y = 40 3x – 3y – 15 = 0
2. (i) For which values of a and b does the following pair of linear equations have an
infinite number of solutions?
2x + 3y = 7
(a – b) x + (a + b) y = 3a + b – 2
(ii) For which value of k will the following pair of linear equations have no solution?
3x + y = 1
(2k – 1) x + (k – 1) y = 2k + 1
3. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the substitution and cross-multiplication
methods :
8x + 5y = 9
3x + 2y = 4
4. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems and find their solutions (if
they exist) by any algebraic method :

(i) A part of monthly hostel charges is fixed and the remaining depends on the
number of days one has taken food in the mess. When a student A takes food for
20 days she has to pay ` 1000 as hostel charges whereas a student B, who takes
food for 26 days, pays ` 1180 as hostel charges. Find the fixed charges and the
cost of food per day.
1 1
(ii) A fraction becomes when 1 is subtracted from the numerator and it becomes
3 4
when 8 is added to its denominator. Find the fraction.
(iii) Yash scored 40 marks in a test, getting 3 marks for each right answer and losing 1
mark for each wrong answer. Had 4 marks been awarded for each correct answer
and 2 marks been deducted for each incorrect answer, then Yash would have
scored 50 marks. How many questions were there in the test?
(iv) Places A and B are 100 km apart on a highway. One car starts from A and another
from B at the same time. If the cars travel in the same direction at different speeds,
they meet in 5 hours. If they travel towards each other, they meet in 1 hour. What
are the speeds of the two cars?
(v) The area of a rectangle gets reduced by 9 square units, if its length is reduced by
5 units and breadth is increased by 3 units. If we increase the length by 3 units and
the breadth by 2 units, the area increases by 67 square units. Find the dimensions
of the rectangle.
3.5 Equations Reducible to a Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables

In this section, we shall discuss the solution of such pairs of equations which are not
linear but can be reduced to linear form by making some suitable substitutions. We
now explain this process through some examples.
Example 17 : Solve the pair of equations:

2 3
+ = 13
x y
5 4
− = –2
x y
Solution : Let us write the given pair of equations as
1 1
2   + 3   = 13 (1)
 x  y
1 1
5  – 4   = – 2 (2)
 x y

64 MATHEMATICS
These equations are not in the form ax + by + c = 0. However, if we substitute

1 1
= p and = q in Equations (1) and (2), we get
x y
2p + 3q = 13 (3)
5p – 4q = – 2 (4)
So, we have expressed the equations as a pair of linear equations. Now, you can use
any method to solve these equations, and get p = 2, q = 3.
1 1
You know that p = and q = ⋅
x y
Substitute the values of p and q to get
1 1 1 1
= 2, i.e., x = and = 3, i.e., y = .
x 2 y 3
1 1
Verification : By substituting x = and y = in the given equations, we find that
2 3
both the equations are satisfied.
Example 18 : Solve the following pair of equations by reducing them to a pair of

linear equations :
5 1
+ = 2
x −1 y − 2
6 3
− = 1
x −1 y − 2
1 1
Solution : Let us put x − 1 = p and y − 2 = q . Then the given equations
 1  1
5 + = 2 (1)
 x −1  y − 2
 1   1 
6 −3 = 1 (2)
 x −1  y −2
can be written as : 5p + q = 2 (3)
6p – 3q = 1 (4)

Equations (3) and (4) form a pair of linear equations in the general form. Now,
1 1
you can use any method to solve these equations. We get p = and q = ⋅
3 3
1
Now, substituting for p, we have
x −1
1 1
= ,
x −1 3
i.e., x – 1 = 3, i.e., x = 4.
1
Similarly, substituting for q, we get
y−2
1 1
=
y −2 3
i.e., 3 = y – 2, i.e., y = 5
Hence, x = 4, y = 5 is the required solution of the given pair of equations.
Verification : Substitute x = 4 and y = 5 in (1) and (2) to check whether they are
satisfied.
Example 19 : A boat goes 30 km

upstream and 44 km downstream in
10 hours. In 13 hours, it can go
40 km upstream and 55 km
down-stream. Determine the speed
of the stream and that of the boat in
still water.
Solution : Let the speed of the boat
in still water be x km/h and speed of
the stream be y km/h. Then the
speed of the boat downstream
= (x + y) km/h,
and the speed of the boat upstream = (x – y) km/h
distance
Also, time =
speed
In the first case, when the boat goes 30 km upstream, let the time taken, in hour,
be t1. Then
30
t1 =
x− y

66 MATHEMATICS
Let t2 be the time, in hours, taken by the boat to go 44 km downstream. Then

44 .
t2 = The total time taken, t1 + t2, is 10 hours. Therefore, we get the equation
x+ y
30 44
+ = 10 (1)
x−y x+y
In the second case, in 13 hours it can go 40 km upstream and 55 km downstream. We
get the equation
40 55
+ = 13 (2)
x− y x+ y
1 1
Put = u and =v (3)
x− y x+ y
On substituting these values in Equations (1) and (2), we get the pair of linear
equations:
30u + 44v = 10 or 30u + 44v – 10 = 0 (4)
40u + 55v = 13 or 40u + 55v – 13 = 0 (5)
Using Cross-multiplication method, we get
u v 1
= =
44( −13) − 55( −10) 40( −10) − 30(−13) 30(55) − 44(40)
u v 1
i.e., = =
−22 −10 −110
1 1
i.e., u= , v=
5 11
Now put these values of u and v in Equations (3), we get
1 1 1 1
= and =
x− y 5 x + y 11
i.e., x – y = 5 and x + y = 11 (6)
Adding these equations, we get
2x = 16
i.e., x= 8
Subtracting the equations in (6), we get
2y = 6
i.e., y= 3

Hence, the speed of the boat in still water is 8 km/h and the speed of the stream
is 3 km/h.
Verification : Verify that the solution satisfies the conditions of the problem.
EXERCISE 3.6
1. Solve the following pairs of equations by reducing them to a pair of linear equations:
1 1 2 3
(i) 2 x + 3 y = 2 (ii) + =2
x y
1 1 13 4 9
+ = − = −1
3x 2 y 6 x y
4 5 1
(iii) + 3 y = 14 (iv) x − 1 + y − 2 = 2
x
3 6 3
− 4 y = 23 − =1
x x− 1 y − 2
7x − 2y
(v) =5 (vi) 6x + 3y = 6xy
xy
8x + 7 y
= 15 2x + 4y = 5xy
xy
10 2 1 1 3
(vii) + =4 (viii) + =
x+ y x− y 3x + y 3x − y 4
15 5 1 1 −1
− = −2 − =
x+ y x− y 2(3x + y ) 2(3x − y ) 8
2. Formulate the following problems as a pair of equations, and hence find their solutions:
(i) Ritu can row downstream 20 km in 2 hours, and upstream 4 km in 2 hours. Find her
speed of rowing in still water and the speed of the current.
(ii) 2 women and 5 men can together finish an embroidery work in 4 days, while 3
women and 6 men can finish it in 3 days. Find the time taken by 1 woman alone to
finish the work, and also that taken by 1 man alone.
(iii) Roohi travels 300 km to her home partly by train and partly by bus. She takes 4
hours if she travels 60 km by train and the remaining by bus. If she travels 100 km
by train and the remaining by bus, she takes 10 minutes longer. Find the speed of
the train and the bus separately.

68 MATHEMATICS

1. The ages of two friends Ani and Biju differ by 3 years. Ani’s father Dharam is twice as old
as Ani and Biju is twice as old as his sister Cathy. The ages of Cathy and Dharam differ
by 30 years. Find the ages of Ani and Biju.
2. One says, “Give me a hundred, friend! I shall then become twice as rich as you”. The
other replies, “If you give me ten, I shall be six times as rich as you”. Tell me what is the
amount of their (respective) capital? [From the Bijaganita of Bhaskara II]
[Hint : x + 100 = 2(y – 100), y + 10 = 6(x – 10)].
3. A train covered a certain distance at a uniform speed. If the train would have been
10 km/h faster, it would have taken 2 hours less than the scheduled time. And, if the train
were slower by 10 km/h; it would have taken 3 hours more than the scheduled time. Find
the distance covered by the train.
4. The students of a class are made to stand in rows. If 3 students are extra in a row, there
would be 1 row less. If 3 students are less in a row, there would be 2 rows more. Find the
number of students in the class.
5. In a ∆ ABC, ∠ C = 3 ∠ B = 2 (∠ A + ∠ B). Find the three angles.
6. Draw the graphs of the equations 5x – y = 5 and 3x – y = 3. Determine the co-ordinates of
the vertices of the triangle formed by these lines and the y axis.
7. Solve the following pair of linear equations:
(i) px + qy = p – q (ii) ax + by = c
qx – py = p + q bx + ay = 1 + c
x y
(iii) − =0 (iv) (a – b)x + (a + b) y = a2 – 2ab – b2
a b
ax + by = a2 + b2. (a + b)(x + y) = a2 + b2
(v) 152x – 378y = – 74
–378x + 152y = – 604
8. ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral (see Fig. 3.7).
Find the angles of the cyclic quadrilateral.
Fig. 3.7
* These exercises are not from the examination point of view.

3.6 Summary
1. Two linear equations in the same two variables are called a pair of linear equations in two
variables. The most general form of a pair of linear equations is
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
where a1, a2, b1, b2, c1, c2 are real numbers, such that a12 + b12 ≠ 0, a22 + b22 ≠ 0.
2. A pair of linear equations in two variables can be represented, and solved, by the:
(i) graphical method
(ii) algebraic method
3. Graphical Method :
The graph of a pair of linear equations in two variables is represented by two lines.
(i) If the lines intersect at a point, then that point gives the unique solution of the two
equations. In this case, the pair of equations is consistent.
(ii) If the lines coincide, then there are infinitely many solutions — each point on the
line being a solution. In this case, the pair of equations is dependent (consistent).
(iii) If the lines are parallel, then the pair of equations has no solution. In this case, the
pair of equations is inconsistent.
4. Algebraic Methods : We have discussed the following methods for finding the solution(s)
of a pair of linear equations :
(i) Substitution Method
(ii) Elimination Method
(iii) Cross-multiplication Method
5. If a pair of linear equations is given by a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0, then the
following situations can arise :
a1 b1
(i) ≠ : In this case, the pair of linear equations is consistent.
a2 b1
a1 b1 c1
(ii) = ≠ : In this case, the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
(iii) = = : In this case, the pair of linear equations is dependent and consistent.
a2 b2 c2
6. There are several situations which can be mathematically represented by two equations
that are not linear to start with. But we alter them so that they are reduced to a pair of
linear equations.

70 MATHEMATICS
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 4
4.1 Introduction
In Chapter 2, you have studied different types of polynomials. One type was the
quadratic polynomial of the form ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0. When we equate this polynomial
to zero, we get a quadratic equation. Quadratic equations come up when we deal with
many real-life situations. For instance, suppose a
charity trust decides to build a prayer hall having
a carpet area of 300 square metres with its length
one metre more than twice its breadth. What
should be the length and breadth of the hall?
Suppose the breadth of the hall is x metres. Then,
its length should be (2x + 1) metres. We can depict
this information pictorially as shown in Fig. 4.1. Fig. 4.1
Now, area of the hall = (2x + 1). x m2 = (2x2 + x) m2

So, 2x2 + x = 300 (Given)
2
Therefore, 2x + x – 300 = 0
So, the breadth of the hall should satisfy the equation 2x2 + x – 300 = 0 which is a
quadratic equation.
Many people believe that Babylonians were the first to solve quadratic equations.
For instance, they knew how to find two positive numbers with a given positive sum
and a given positive product, and this problem is equivalent to solving a quadratic
equation of the form x2 – px + q = 0. Greek mathematician Euclid developed a
geometrical approach for finding out lengths which, in our present day terminology,
are solutions of quadratic equations. Solving of quadratic equations, in general form, is
often credited to ancient Indian mathematicians. In fact, Brahmagupta (C.E.598–665)
gave an explicit formula to solve a quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx = c. Later,

Sridharacharya (C.E. 1025) derived a formula, now known as the quadratic formula,
(as quoted by Bhaskara II) for solving a quadratic equation by the method of completing
the square. An Arab mathematician Al-Khwarizmi (about C.E. 800) also studied
quadratic equations of different types. Abraham bar Hiyya Ha-Nasi, in his book
‘Liber embadorum’ published in Europe in C.E. 1145 gave complete solutions of
different quadratic equations.
In this chapter, you will study quadratic equations, and various ways of finding
their roots. You will also see some applications of quadratic equations in daily life
situations.
4.2 Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation in the variable x is an equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where
a, b, c are real numbers, a ≠ 0. For example, 2x2 + x – 300 = 0 is a quadratic equation.
Similarly, 2x2 – 3x + 1 = 0, 4x – 3x2 + 2 = 0 and 1 – x2 + 300 = 0 are also quadratic
equations.
In fact, any equation of the form p(x) = 0, where p(x) is a polynomial of degree
2, is a quadratic equation. But when we write the terms of p(x) in descending order of
their degrees, then we get the standard form of the equation. That is, ax2 + bx + c = 0,
a ≠ 0 is called the standard form of a quadratic equation.
Quadratic equations arise in several situations in the world around us and in
different fields of mathematics. Let us consider a few examples.
Example 1 : Represent the following situations mathematically:

(i) John and Jivanti together have 45 marbles. Both of them lost 5 marbles each, and
the product of the number of marbles they now have is 124. We would like to find
out how many marbles they had to start with.
(ii) A cottage industry produces a certain number of toys in a day. The cost of
production of each toy (in rupees) was found to be 55 minus the number of toys
produced in a day. On a particular day, the total cost of production was
` 750. We would like to find out the number of toys produced on that day.
Solution :
(i) Let the number of marbles John had be x.
Then the number of marbles Jivanti had = 45 – x (Why?).
The number of marbles left with John, when he lost 5 marbles = x – 5
The number of marbles left with Jivanti, when she lost 5 marbles = 45 – x – 5
= 40 – x

72 MATHEMATICS
Therefore, their product = (x – 5) (40 – x)

= 40x – x2 – 200 + 5x
= – x2 + 45x – 200
So, – x2 + 45x – 200 = 124 (Given that product = 124)
i.e., – x2 + 45x – 324 = 0
i.e., x2 – 45x + 324 = 0
Therefore, the number of marbles John had, satisfies the quadratic equation
x2 – 45x + 324 = 0
which is the required representation of the problem mathematically.
(ii) Let the number of toys produced on that day be x.
Therefore, the cost of production (in rupees) of each toy that day = 55 – x
So, the total cost of production (in rupees) that day = x (55 – x)
Therefore, x (55 – x) = 750
i.e., 55x – x2 = 750
i.e., – x2 + 55x – 750 = 0
i.e., x2 – 55x + 750 = 0
Therefore, the number of toys produced that day satisfies the quadratic equation
x2 – 55x + 750 = 0
which is the required representation of the problem mathematically.
Example 2 : Check whether the following are quadratic equations:

(i) (x – 2)2 + 1 = 2x – 3 (ii) x(x + 1) + 8 = (x + 2) (x – 2)
(iii) x (2x + 3) = x2 + 1 (iv) (x + 2)3 = x3 – 4
Solution :
(i) LHS = (x – 2)2 + 1 = x2 – 4x + 4 + 1 = x2 – 4x + 5
Therefore, (x – 2)2 + 1 = 2x – 3 can be rewritten as

x2 – 4x + 5 = 2x – 3
i.e., x2 – 6x + 8 = 0
It is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Therefore, the given equation is a quadratic equation.

(ii) Since x(x + 1) + 8 = x2 + x + 8 and (x + 2)(x – 2) = x2 – 4

Therefore, x2 + x + 8 = x2 – 4
i.e., x + 12 = 0
2
It is not of the form ax + bx + c = 0.
Therefore, the given equation is not a quadratic equation.
(iii) Here, LHS = x (2x + 3) = 2x2 + 3x
So, x (2x + 3) = x2 + 1 can be rewritten as
2x2 + 3x = x2 + 1
Therefore, we get x2 + 3x – 1 = 0
So, the given equation is a quadratic equation.
(iv) Here, LHS = (x + 2)3 = x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8
Therefore, (x + 2)3 = x3 – 4 can be rewritten as
x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8 = x3 – 4
i.e., 6x2 + 12x + 12 = 0 or, x2 + 2x + 2 = 0
So, the given equation is a quadratic equation.
Remark : Be careful! In (ii) above, the given equation appears to be a quadratic
equation, but it is not a quadratic equation.
In (iv) above, the given equation appears to be a cubic equation (an equation of
degree 3) and not a quadratic equation. But it turns out to be a quadratic equation. As
you can see, often we need to simplify the given equation before deciding whether it
is quadratic or not.
EXERCISE 4.1
1. Check whether the following are quadratic equations :
(i) (x + 1)2 = 2(x – 3) (ii) x2 – 2x = (–2) (3 – x)
(iii) (x – 2)(x + 1) = (x – 1)(x + 3) (iv) (x – 3)(2x +1) = x(x + 5)
(v) (2x – 1)(x – 3) = (x + 5)(x – 1) (vi) x2 + 3x + 1 = (x – 2)2
(vii) (x + 2)3 = 2x (x2 – 1) (viii) x3 – 4x2 – x + 1 = (x – 2)3
2. Represent the following situations in the form of quadratic equations :
(i) The area of a rectangular plot is 528 m2. The length of the plot (in metres) is one
more than twice its breadth. We need to find the length and breadth of the plot.

74 MATHEMATICS
(ii) The product of two consecutive positive integers is 306. We need to find the
integers.
(iii) Rohan’s mother is 26 years older than him. The product of their ages (in years)
3 years from now will be 360. We would like to find Rohan’s present age.
(iv) A train travels a distance of 480 km at a uniform speed. If the speed had been
8 km/h less, then it would have taken 3 hours more to cover the same distance. We
need to find the speed of the train.
4.3 Solution of a Quadratic Equation by Factorisation

Consider the quadratic equation 2x2 – 3x + 1 = 0. If we replace x by 1 on the
LHS of this equation, we get (2 × 12) – (3 × 1) + 1 = 0 = RHS of the equation.
We say that 1 is a root of the quadratic equation 2x2 – 3x + 1 = 0. This also means that
1 is a zero of the quadratic polynomial 2x2 – 3x + 1.
In general, a real number α is called a root of the quadratic equation
ax + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 if a α2 + bα + c = 0. We also say that x = α is a solution of
2
the quadratic equation, or that α satisfies the quadratic equation. Note that the
zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c and the roots of the quadratic
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are the same.
You have observed, in Chapter 2, that a quadratic polynomial can have at most
two zeroes. So, any quadratic equation can have atmost two roots.
You have learnt in Class IX, how to factorise quadratic polynomials by splitting
their middle terms. We shall use this knowledge for finding the roots of a quadratic
equation. Let us see how.
Example 3 : Find the roots of the equation 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0, by factorisation.

Solution : Let us first split the middle term – 5x as –2x –3x [because (–2x) × (–3x) =
6x2 = (2x2) × 3].
So, 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 2x2 – 2x – 3x + 3 = 2x (x – 1) –3(x – 1) = (2x – 3)(x – 1)
Now, 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 can be rewritten as (2x – 3)(x – 1) = 0.
So, the values of x for which 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 are the same for which (2x – 3)(x – 1) = 0,
i.e., either 2x – 3 = 0 or x – 1 = 0.
3
Now, 2x – 3 = 0 gives x = and x – 1 = 0 gives x = 1.
2
3
So, x = and x = 1 are the solutions of the equation.
2
3
In other words, 1 and are the roots of the equation 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0.
2
Verify that these are the roots of the given equation.

Note that we have found the roots of 2x 2 – 5x + 3 = 0 by factorising

2x2 – 5x + 3 into two linear factors and equating each factor to zero.
Example 4 : Find the roots of the quadratic equation 6x2 – x – 2 = 0.

Solution : We have
6x2 – x – 2 = 6x2 + 3x – 4x – 2
= 3x (2x + 1) – 2 (2x + 1)
= (3x – 2)(2x + 1)
The roots of 6x2 – x – 2 = 0 are the values of x for which (3x – 2)(2x + 1) = 0
Therefore, 3x – 2 = 0 or 2x + 1 = 0,
2 1
i.e., x= or x= −
3 2
2 1
Therefore, the roots of 6x2 – x – 2 = 0 are and – .
3 2
2 1
We verify the roots, by checking that and − satisfy 6x2 – x – 2 = 0.
3 2
Example 5 : Find the roots of the quadratic equation 3 x2 − 2 6 x + 2 = 0 .
Solution : 3 x 2 − 2 6 x + 2 = 3 x 2 − 6 x − 6 x + 2
= 3x ( 3x − 2 − 2 ) ( 3x − 2 )
= ( 3x − 2 )( 3x − 2 )
So, the roots of the equation are the values of x for which
( 3 x − 2) ( 3x − 2 = 0 )
2
Now, 3x − 2 = 0 for x = .
3
So, this root is repeated twice, one for each repeated factor 3x − 2 .
2 2.
Therefore, the roots of 3 x2 − 2 6 x + 2 = 0 are ,
3 3

76 MATHEMATICS
Example 6 : Find the dimensions of the prayer hall discussed in Section 4.1.
Solution : In Section 4.1, we found that if the breadth of the hall is x m, then x
satisfies the equation 2x2 + x – 300 = 0. Applying the factorisation method, we write
this equation as
2x2 – 24x + 25x – 300 = 0
2x (x – 12) + 25 (x – 12) = 0
i.e., (x – 12)(2x + 25) = 0
So, the roots of the given equation are x = 12 or x = – 12.5. Since x is the breadth
of the hall, it cannot be negative.
Thus, the breadth of the hall is 12 m. Its length = 2x + 1 = 25 m.
EXERCISE 4.2
1. Find the roots of the following quadratic equations by factorisation:
(i) x2 – 3x – 10 = 0 (ii) 2x2 + x – 6 = 0

1
(iii) 2 x2 + 7 x + 5 2 = 0 (iv) 2x2 – x + = 0
8
(v) 100 x2 – 20x + 1 = 0
2. Solve the problems given in Example 1.
3. Find two numbers whose sum is 27 and product is 182.
4. Find two consecutive positive integers, sum of whose squares is 365.
5. The altitude of a right triangle is 7 cm less than its base. If the hypotenuse is 13 cm, find
the other two sides.
6. A cottage industry produces a certain number of pottery articles in a day. It was observed
on a particular day that the cost of production of each article (in rupees) was 3 more than
twice the number of articles produced on that day. If the total cost of production on that
day was ` 90, find the number of articles produced and the cost of each article.
4.4 Solution of a Quadratic Equation by Completing the Square

In the previous section, you have learnt one method of obtaining the roots of a quadratic
equation. In this section, we shall study another method.
Consider the following situation:
The product of Sunita’s age (in years) two years ago and her age four years
from now is one more than twice her present age. What is her present age?
To answer this, let her present age (in years) be x. Then the product of her ages
two years ago and four years from now is (x – 2)(x + 4).

Therefore, (x – 2)(x + 4) = 2x + 1
i.e., x2 + 2x – 8 = 2x + 1
i.e., x2 – 9 = 0
So, Sunita’s present age satisfies the quadratic equation x2 – 9 = 0.
We can write this as x2 = 9. Taking square roots, we get x = 3 or x = – 3. Since
the age is a positive number, x = 3.
So, Sunita’s present age is 3 years.
Now consider the quadratic equation (x + 2)2 – 9 = 0. To solve it, we can write
it as (x + 2)2 = 9. Taking square roots, we get x + 2 = 3 or x + 2 = – 3.
Therefore, x=1 or x = –5
So, the roots of the equation (x + 2)2 – 9 = 0 are 1 and – 5.
In both the examples above, the term containing x is completely inside a square,
and we found the roots easily by taking the square roots. But, what happens if we are
asked to solve the equation x2 + 4x – 5 = 0? We would probably apply factorisation to
do so, unless we realise (somehow!) that x2 + 4x – 5 = (x + 2)2 – 9.
So, solving x2 + 4x – 5 = 0 is equivalent to solving (x + 2)2 – 9 = 0, which we have
seen is very quick to do. In fact, we can convert any quadratic equation to the form
(x + a)2 – b2 = 0 and then we can easily find its roots. Let us see if this is possible.
Look at Fig. 4.2.
In this figure, we can see how x2 + 4x is being converted to (x + 2)2 – 4.
Fig. 4.2

78 MATHEMATICS
The process is as follows:

4 4
x2 + 4x = (x2 + x) + x
2 2
= x2 + 2x + 2x
= (x + 2) x + 2 × x
= (x + 2) x + 2 × x + 2 × 2 – 2 × 2
= (x + 2) x + (x + 2) × 2 – 2 × 2
= (x + 2) (x + 2) – 22
= (x + 2)2 – 4
So, x2 + 4x – 5 = (x + 2)2 – 4 – 5 = (x + 2)2 – 9
So, x2 + 4x – 5 = 0 can be written as (x + 2)2 – 9 = 0 by this process of completing
the square. This is known as the method of completing the square.
In brief, this can be shown as follows:
2 2 2
 4 4  4
x + 4x =  x +  −   =  x +  − 4
2
 2 2  2
So, x2 + 4x – 5 = 0 can be rewritten as
2
 4
x +  −4−5 = 0
 2
i.e., (x + 2)2 – 9 = 0
Consider now the equation 3x2 – 5x + 2 = 0. Note that the coefficient of x2 is not
a perfect square. So, we multiply the equation throughout by 3 to get
9x2 – 15x + 6 = 0
5
Now, 9x2 – 15x + 6 = (3 x) 2 − 2 × 3 x × +6
2
2 2
2 5 5 5
= (3x ) − 2 × 3x × +  −  +6
2 2 2
2 2
 5  25  5 1
=  3x −  − + 6 =  3x −  −
 2 4  2 4

So, 9x2 – 15x + 6 = 0 can be written as

2
 5 1
 3x −  − = 0
 2 4
2
 5 1
i.e.,  3x −  =
 2  4
2
 5 1
So, the solutions of 9x – 15x + 6 = 0 are the same as those of  3 x −  = .
2
 2 4
5 1 5 1
i.e., 3x – = or 3 x − = −
2 2 2 2
5 1
(We can also write this as 3 x − = ± , where ‘±’ denotes ‘plus minus’.)
2 2
5 1 5 1
Thus, 3x = + or 3x = −
2 2 2 2
5 1 5 1
So, x= + or x = −
6 6 6 6
4
Therefore, x = 1 or x =
6
2
i.e., x = 1 or x =
3
2.
Therefore, the roots of the given equation are 1 and
3
Remark : Another way of showing this process is as follows :
The equation 3x2 – 5x + 2 = 0

is the same as
5 2
x2 − x+ = 0
3 3
2 2
5 2  1  5    1  5  2
Now, x – x + =  x −    −    +
2
3 3  2  3    2  3  3

80 MATHEMATICS
2
 5  2 25
= x−  + −
 6  3 36
2 2 2
 5 1  5 1
= x−  − = x −  −  
 6  36  6 6
2 2
So, the solutions of 3x2 – 5x + 2 = 0 are the same as those of  x −  −   = 0 ,
5 1
 6 6
5 1 5 1 5 1 2
which are x – = ± , i.e., x = + = 1 and x = − = .
6 6 6 6 6 6 3
Let us consider some examples to illustrate the above process.
Example 7 : Solve the equation given in Example 3 by the method of completing the
square.
5 3
Solution : The equation 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 is the same as x 2 − x + = 0.
2 2
2 2 2
5 3  5 5 3  5 1
Now, x2 − x + =  x −  −   + =  x −  −
2 2  4  4 2  4  16
2
 5 1
Therefore, 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 can be written as  x −  − = 0 .
 4  16
So, the roots of the equation 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 are exactly the same as those of
2 2 2
 5 1  5 1  5 1
 x −  − = 0 . Now, x−  − =0 is the same as x−  =
 4  16  4  16  4  16
5 1
Therefore, x− = ±
4 4
5 1
i.e., x= ±
4 4
5 1 5 1
i.e., x= + or x = −
4 4 4 4
3
i.e., x= or x = 1
2

3
Therefore, the solutions of the equations are x = and 1.
2
Let us verify our solutions.
2
3 3  3
Putting x = in 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0, we get 2   – 5   + 3 = 0 , which is
2 2  2
correct. Similarly, you can verify that x = 1 also satisfies the given equation.
In Example 7, we divided the equation 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 throughout by 2 to get
5 3
x2 – x+ = 0 to make the first term a perfect square and then completed the
2 2
square. Instead, we can multiply throughout by 2 to make the first term as 4x2 = (2x)2
and then complete the square.
This method is illustrated in the next example.
Example 8 : Find the roots of the equation 5x2 – 6x – 2 = 0 by the method of completing
the square.
Solution : Multiplying the equation throughout by 5, we get
25x2 – 30x – 10 = 0
This is the same as
(5x)2 – 2 × (5x) × 3 + 32 – 32 – 10 = 0
i.e., (5x – 3)2 – 9 – 10 = 0
i.e., (5x – 3)2 – 19 = 0
i.e., (5x – 3)2 = 19
i.e., 5x – 3 = ± 19
i.e., 5x = 3 ± 19
3 ± 19
So, x=
5
3 + 19 3 − 19
Therefore, the roots are and .
5 5
3 + 19 3 − 19
Verify that the roots are and .
5 5

82 MATHEMATICS
Example 9 : Find the roots of 4x2 + 3x + 5 = 0 by the method of completing the

square.
Solution : Note that 4x2 + 3x + 5 = 0 is the same as

2 2
3 3 3
(2x) + 2 × (2x) × +   −   + 5 = 0
2
4 4 4
2
 3 9
i.e.,  2x +  − +5 = 0
 4  16
2
 3 71
i.e.,  2x +  + = 0
 4 16
2
 3 −71
i.e.,  2x +  = <0
 4 6
2
 3
But  2 x +  cannot be negative for any real value of x (Why?). So, there is
 4
no real value of x satisfying the given equation. Therefore, the given equation has no
real roots.
Now, you have seen several examples of the use of the method of completing
the square. So, let us give this method in general.
Consider the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ≠ 0). Dividing throughout by
b c
a, we get x2 + x + = 0
a a
2 2
 b   b  c
This is the same as x+  −  + =0
 2a   2a  a
2
 b  b 2 − 4ac
i.e., x+  − =0
 2a  4a 2
So, the roots of the given equation are the same as those of
2 2
 b  b 2 − 4ac  b  b2 − 4ac
x+  − = 0, i.e., those of  x +  = (1)
 2a  4a 2  2a  4a 2

If b2 – 4ac ≥ 0, then by taking the square roots in (1), we get
b ± b 2 − 4ac
x+ =
2a 2a
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
Therefore, x=
2a
−b + b 2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
So, the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 are and , if
2a 2a
b2 – 4ac ≥ 0. If b2 – 4ac < 0, the equation will have no real roots. (Why?)
Thus, if b 2 – 4ac ≥ 0, then the roots of the quadratic equation
– b ± b 2 – 4ac
ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by
2a
This formula for finding the roots of a quadratic equation is known as the
quadratic formula.
Let us consider some examples for illustrating the use of the quadratic formula.
Example 10 : Solve Q. 2(i) of Exercise 4.1 by using the quadratic formula.

Solution : Let the breadth of the plot be x metres. Then the length is (2x + 1) metres.
Then we are given that x(2x + 1) = 528, i.e., 2x2 + x – 528 = 0.
This is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a = 2, b = 1, c = – 528.
So, the quadratic formula gives us the solution as
−1 ± 1 + 4(2)(528) −1 ± 4225 −1 ± 65
x= = =
4 4 4
64 – 66
i.e., x= or x =
4 4
33
i.e., x = 16 or x= −
2
Since x cannot be negative, being a dimension, the breadth of the plot is
16 metres and hence, the length of the plot is 33m.
You should verify that these values satisfy the conditions of the problem.

84 MATHEMATICS
Example 11 : Find two consecutive odd positive integers, sum of whose squares
is 290.
Solution : Let the smaller of the two consecutive odd positive integers be x. Then, the
second integer will be x + 2. According to the question,
x2 + (x + 2)2 = 290
i.e., x2 + x2 + 4x + 4 = 290
i.e., 2x2 + 4x – 286 = 0
i.e., x2 + 2x – 143 = 0
which is a quadratic equation in x.
Using the quadratic formula, we get
−2 ± 4 + 572 −2 ± 576 −2 ± 24
x= = =
2 2 2
i.e., x = 11 or x = – 13
But x is given to be an odd positive integer. Therefore, x ≠ – 13, x = 11.
Thus, the two consecutive odd integers are 11 and 13.
Check : 112 + 132 = 121 + 169 = 290.
Example 12 : A rectangular park is to be designed whose breadth is 3 m less than its

length. Its area is to be 4 square metres more than the area of a park that has already
been made in the shape of an isosceles triangle with its base as the breadth of the
rectangular park and of altitude 12 m (see Fig. 4.3). Find its length and breadth.
Solution : Let the breadth of the rectangular park be x m.
So, its length = (x + 3) m.
Therefore, the area of the rectangular park = x(x + 3) m2 = (x2 + 3x) m2.
Now, base of the isosceles triangle = x m.
1
Therefore, its area = × x × 12 = 6 x m2.
2
According to our requirements,
x2 + 3x = 6x + 4
i.e., x2 – 3x – 4 = 0
Fig. 4.3

3 ± 25 3±5
x= = = 4 or – 1
2 2
But x ≠ – 1 (Why?). Therefore, x = 4.
So, the breadth of the park = 4m and its length will be 7m.
Verification : Area of rectangular park = 28 m2,
area of triangular park = 24 m2 = (28 – 4) m2
Example 13 : Find the roots of the following quadratic equations, if they exist, using
the quadratic formula:
(i) 3x2 – 5x + 2 = 0 (ii) x2 + 4x + 5 = 0 (iii) 2x2 – 2 2 x + 1 = 0

Solution :
(i) 3x2 – 5x + 2 = 0. Here, a = 3, b = – 5, c = 2. So, b2 – 4ac = 25 – 24 = 1 > 0.
5 ± 1 5 ±1 2
Therefore, x = = , i.e., x = 1 or x =
6 6 3
2
So, the roots are and 1.
3
(ii) x2 + 4x + 5 = 0. Here, a = 1, b = 4, c = 5. So, b2 – 4ac = 16 – 20 = – 4 < 0.
Since the square of a real number cannot be negative, therefore b 2 − 4ac will
not have any real value.
So, there are no real roots for the given equation.
(iii) 2x2 – 2 2 x + 1 = 0. Here, a = 2, b = −2 2 , c = 1.
So, b2 – 4ac = 8 – 8 = 0
22 22± 00 22 11 .
Therefore, x = == ±±00,i.e.,
i.e., x==
4 2 2
1 1 .
So, the roots are ,
2 2

86 MATHEMATICS
Example 14 : Find the roots of the following equations:
1 1 1
(i) x + = 3, x ≠ 0 (ii) − = 3, x ≠ 0,2
x x x−2
Solution :
1
(i) x + = 3 . Multiplying throughout by x, we get
x
x2 + 1 = 3x
i.e., x2 – 3x + 1 = 0, which is a quadratic equation.
Here, a = 1, b = – 3, c = 1
So, b2 – 4ac = 9 – 4 = 5 > 0
3± 5
Therefore, x= (Why?)
2
3+ 5 3− 5
So, the roots are and .
2 2
1 1
(ii) − = 3, x ≠ 0, 2 .
x x −2
As x ≠ 0, 2, multiplying the equation by x (x – 2), we get
(x – 2) – x = 3x (x – 2)
= 3x2 – 6x
So, the given equation reduces to 3x2 – 6x + 2 = 0, which is a quadratic equation.
Here, a = 3, b = – 6, c = 2. So, b2 – 4ac = 36 – 24 = 12 > 0
6 ± 12 6 ± 2 3 3 ± 3
Therefore, x= = = .
6 6 3
3+ 3 3− 3
So, the roots are and .
3 3

Example 15 : A motor boat whose speed is 18 km/h in still water takes 1 hour more
to go 24 km upstream than to return downstream to the same spot. Find the speed of
the stream.
Solution : Let the speed of the stream be x km/h.
Therefore, the speed of the boat upstream = (18 – x) km/h and the speed of the boat
downstream = (18 + x) km/h.
distance 24
The time taken to go upstream = = hours.
speed 18 − x
24
Similarly, the time taken to go downstream = hours.
18 + x
According to the question,
24 24
− = 1
18 − x 18 + x
i.e., 24(18 + x) – 24(18 – x) = (18 – x) (18 + x)
i.e., x2 + 48x – 324 = 0

− 48 ± 482 + 1296 − 48 ± 3600

x= =
2 2
− 48 ± 60
= = 6 or – 54
2
Since x is the speed of the stream, it cannot be negative. So, we ignore the root
x = – 54. Therefore, x = 6 gives the speed of the stream as 6 km/h.
EXERCISE 4.3
1. Find the roots of the following quadratic equations, if they exist, by the method of
completing the square:
(i) 2x2 – 7x + 3 = 0 (ii) 2x2 + x – 4 = 0
(iii) 4 x 2 + 4 3x + 3 = 0 (iv) 2x2 + x + 4 = 0
2. Find the roots of the quadratic equations given in Q.1 above by applying the quadratic
formula.

88 MATHEMATICS
3. Find the roots of the following equations:

1 1 1 11
(i) x − = 3, x ≠ 0 (ii) − , x ≠ – 4, 7
=
x x + 4 x − 7 30
4. The sum of the reciprocals of Rehman’s ages, (in years) 3 years ago and 5 years from
1
now is . Find his present age.
3
5. In a class test, the sum of Shefali’s marks in Mathematics and English is 30. Had she got
2 marks more in Mathematics and 3 marks less in English, the product of their marks
would have been 210. Find her marks in the two subjects.
6. The diagonal of a rectangular field is 60 metres more than the shorter side. If the longer
side is 30 metres more than the shorter side, find the sides of the field.
7. The difference of squares of two numbers is 180. The square of the smaller number is 8
times the larger number. Find the two numbers.
8. A train travels 360 km at a uniform speed. If the speed had been 5 km/h more, it would
have taken 1 hour less for the same journey. Find the speed of the train.
3
9. Two water taps together can fill a tank in 9 hours. The tap of larger diameter takes 10
8
hours less than the smaller one to fill the tank separately. Find the time in which each tap
can separately fill the tank.
10. An express train takes 1 hour less than a passenger train to travel 132 km between
Mysore and Bangalore (without taking into consideration the time they stop at
intermediate stations). If the average speed of the express train is 11km/h more than that
of the passenger train, find the average speed of the two trains.
11. Sum of the areas of two squares is 468 m2. If the difference of their perimeters is 24 m,
find the sides of the two squares.
4.5 Nature of Roots

In the previous section, you have seen that the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
are given by
– b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
b b 2 − 4ac
If b 2 – 4ac > 0, we get two distinct real roots − + and
2a 2a
b b2 − 4ac
− – .
2a 2a

bb bb b
If b2 – 4ac = 0, then x = −− ±± 00, i.e.,
i.e., x == −− or
or – ⋅
22aa 22aa 2a
−b
So, the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are both ⋅
2a
Therefore, we say that the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two equal
real roots in this case.
If b2 – 4ac < 0, then there is no real number whose square is b2 – 4ac. Therefore,
there are no real roots for the given quadratic equation in this case.
Since b2 – 4ac determines whether the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has
real roots or not, b2 – 4ac is called the discriminant of this quadratic equation.
So, a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has
(i) two distinct real roots, if b2 – 4ac > 0,
(ii) two equal real roots, if b2 – 4ac = 0,
(iii) no real roots, if b2 – 4ac < 0.
Example 16 : Find the discriminant of the quadratic equation 2x2 – 4x + 3 = 0, and

hence find the nature of its roots.
Solution : The given equation is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a = 2, b = – 4 and
c = 3. Therefore, the discriminant
b2 – 4ac = (– 4)2 – (4 × 2 × 3) = 16 – 24 = – 8 < 0
So, the given equation has no real roots.
Example 17 : A pole has to be erected at a point on the boundary of a circular park

of diameter 13 metres in such a way that the differences of its distances from two
diametrically opposite fixed gates A and B on the boundary is 7 metres. Is it possible to
do so? If yes, at what distances from the two gates should the pole be erected?
Solution : Let us first draw the diagram
(see Fig. 4.4).
Let P be the required location of the
pole. Let the distance of the pole from the
gate B be x m, i.e., BP = x m. Now the
difference of the distances of the pole from
the two gates = AP – BP (or, BP – AP) =
7 m. Therefore, AP = (x + 7) m.
Fig. 4.4

90 MATHEMATICS
Now, AB = 13m, and since AB is a diameter,

∠APB = 90° (Why?)
Therefore, AP + PB2 = AB2
2
(By Pythagoras theorem)
i.e., (x + 7)2 + x2 = 132
i.e., x2 + 14x + 49 + x2 = 169
i.e., 2x2 + 14x – 120 = 0
So, the distance ‘x’ of the pole from gate B satisfies the equation
x2 + 7x – 60 = 0
So, it would be possible to place the pole if this equation has real roots. To see if this
is so or not, let us consider its discriminant. The discriminant is
b2 – 4ac = 72 – 4 × 1 × (– 60) = 289 > 0.
So, the given quadratic equation has two real roots, and it is possible to erect the
pole on the boundary of the park.
Solving the quadratic equation x2 + 7x – 60 = 0, by the quadratic formula, we get
−7 ± 289 −7 ± 17
x= =
2 2
Therefore, x = 5 or – 12.
Since x is the distance between the pole and the gate B, it must be positive.
Therefore, x = – 12 will have to be ignored. So, x = 5.
Thus, the pole has to be erected on the boundary of the park at a distance of 5m
from the gate B and 12m from the gate A.
1
Example 18 : Find the discriminant of the equation 3x2 – 2x + = 0 and hence find
3
the nature of its roots. Find them, if they are real.
1
Solution : Here a = 3, b = – 2 and c = .
3
1
Therefore, discriminant b2 – 4ac = (– 2)2 – 4 × 3 × = 4 – 4 = 0.
3
Hence, the given quadratic equation has two equal real roots.
−b , −b , 2 2 1 1
The roots are i.e., , , i.e., , .
2a 2a 6 6 3 3

EXERCISE 4.4
1. Find the nature of the roots of the following quadratic equations. If the real roots exist,
find them:
(i) 2x2 – 3x + 5 = 0 (ii) 3x2 – 4 3 x + 4 = 0

(iii) 2x2 – 6x + 3 = 0
2. Find the values of k for each of the following quadratic equations, so that they have two
equal roots.
(i) 2x2 + kx + 3 = 0 (ii) kx (x – 2) + 6 = 0
3. Is it possible to design a rectangular mango grove whose length is twice its breadth,
and the area is 800 m2? If so, find its length and breadth.
4. Is the following situation possible? If so, determine their present ages.
The sum of the ages of two friends is 20 years. Four years ago, the product of their ages
in years was 48.
5. Is it possible to design a rectangular park of perimeter 80 m and area 400 m2? If so, find
its length and breadth.
4.6 Summary
1. A quadratic equation in the variable x is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are real
numbers and a ≠ 0.
2. A real number α is said to be a root of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, if
aα2 + bα + c = 0. The zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c and the roots of the
quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are the same.
3. If we can factorise ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0, into a product of two linear factors, then the roots
of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be found by equating each factor to zero.
4. A quadratic equation can also be solved by the method of completing the square.
5. Quadratic formula: The roots of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
, provided b2 – 4ac ≥ 0.
2a
6. A quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has
(i) two distinct real roots, if b2 – 4ac > 0,
(ii) two equal roots (i.e., coincident roots), if b2 – 4ac = 0, and
(iii) no real roots, if b2 – 4ac < 0.

92 MATHEMATICS

In case of word problems, the obtained solutions should always be
verified with the conditions of the original problem and not in the
equations formed (see Examples 11, 13, 19 of Chapter 3 and
Examples 10, 11, 12 of Chapter 4).

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 93
5.1 Introduction
You must have observed that in nature, many things follow a certain pattern, such as
the petals of a sunflower, the holes of a honeycomb, the grains on a maize cob, the
spirals on a pineapple and on a pine cone etc.
We now look for some patterns which occur in our day-to-day life. Some such
examples are :
(i) Reena applied for a job and got selected. She
has been offered a job with a starting monthly
salary of ` 8000, with an annual increment of
` 500 in her salary. Her salary (in `) for the 1st,
2nd, 3rd, . . . years will be, respectively
8000, 8500, 9000, . . . .
(ii) The lengths of the rungs of a ladder decrease
uniformly by 2 cm from bottom to top
(see Fig. 5.1). The bottom rung is 45 cm in
length. The lengths (in cm) of the 1st, 2nd,
3rd, . . ., 8th rung from the bottom to the top
are, respectively
Fig. 5.1
45, 43, 41, 39, 37, 35, 33, 31
5
(iii) In a savings scheme, the amount becomes times of itself after every 3 years.
4
The maturity amount (in `) of an investment of ` 8000 after 3, 6, 9 and 12 years
will be, respectively :
10000, 12500, 15625, 19531.25

94 MATHEMATICS
(iv) The number of unit squares in squares with side 1, 2, 3, . . . units (see Fig. 5.2)
are, respectively
12, 22, 32, . . . .
Fig. 5.2
(v) Shakila puts ` 100 into her daughter’s money box when she was one year old
and increased the amount by ` 50 every year. The amounts of money (in `) in the
box on the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, . . . birthday were
100, 150, 200, 250, . . ., respectively.
(vi) A pair of rabbits are too young to produce in their first month. In the second, and
every subsequent month, they produce a new pair. Each new pair of rabbits
produce a new pair in their second month and in every subsequent month (see
Fig. 5.3). Assuming no rabbit dies, the number of pairs of rabbits at the start of
the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., 6th month, respectively are :
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
Fig. 5.3

In the examples above, we observe some patterns. In some, we find that the
succeeding terms are obtained by adding a fixed number, in other by multiplying
with a fixed number, in another we find that they are squares of consecutive
numbers, and so on.
In this chapter, we shall discuss one of these patterns in which succeeding terms
are obtained by adding a fixed number to the preceding terms. We shall also see how
to find their nth terms and the sum of n consecutive terms, and use this knowledge in
solving some daily life problems.
5.2 Arithmetic Progressions

Consider the following lists of numbers :
(i) 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
(ii) 100, 70, 40, 10, . . .
(iii) – 3, –2, –1, 0, . . .
(iv) 3, 3, 3, 3, . . .
(v) –1.0, –1.5, –2.0, –2.5, . . .
Each of the numbers in the list is called a term.
Given a term, can you write the next term in each of the lists above? If so, how
will you write it? Perhaps by following a pattern or rule. Let us observe and write the
rule.
In (i), each term is 1 more than the term preceding it.
In (ii), each term is 30 less than the term preceding it.
In (iii), each term is obtained by adding 1 to the term preceding it.
In (iv), all the terms in the list are 3 , i.e., each term is obtained by adding
(or subtracting) 0 to the term preceding it.
In (v), each term is obtained by adding – 0.5 to (i.e., subtracting 0.5 from) the
term preceding it.
In all the lists above, we see that successive terms are obtained by adding a fixed
number to the preceding terms. Such list of numbers is said to form an Arithmetic
Progression ( AP ).
So, an arithmetic progression is a list of numbers in which each term is
obtained by adding a fixed number to the preceding term except the first
term.
This fixed number is called the common difference of the AP. Remember that
it can be positive, negative or zero.

96 MATHEMATICS
Let us denote the first term of an AP by a1, second term by a2, . . ., nth term by
an and the common difference by d. Then the AP becomes a1, a2, a3, . . ., an.
So, a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 = . . . = an – an – 1 = d.
Some more examples of AP are:
(a) The heights ( in cm ) of some students of a school standing in a queue in the
morning assembly are 147 , 148, 149, . . ., 157.
(b) The minimum temperatures ( in degree celsius ) recorded for a week in the
month of January in a city, arranged in ascending order are
– 3.1, – 3.0, – 2.9, – 2.8, – 2.7, – 2.6, – 2.5
(c) The balance money ( in ` ) after paying 5 % of the total loan of ` 1000 every
month is 950, 900, 850, 800, . . ., 50.
(d) The cash prizes ( in ` ) given by a school to the toppers of Classes I to XII are,
respectively, 200, 250, 300, 350, . . ., 750.
(e) The total savings (in `) after every month for 10 months when ` 50 are saved
each month are 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500.
It is left as an exercise for you to explain why each of the lists above is an AP.
You can see that
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .
represents an arithmetic progression where a is the first term and d the common
difference. This is called the general form of an AP.
Note that in examples (a) to (e) above, there are only a finite number of terms.
Such an AP is called a finite AP. Also note that each of these Arithmetic Progressions
(APs) has a last term. The APs in examples (i) to (v) in this section, are not finite APs
and so they are called infinite Arithmetic Progressions. Such APs do not have a
last term.
Now, to know about an AP, what is the minimum information that you need? Is it
enough to know the first term? Or, is it enough to know only the common difference?
You will find that you will need to know both – the first term a and the common
difference d.
For instance if the first term a is 6 and the common difference d is 3, then
the AP is
6, 9,12, 15, . . .
and if a is 6 and d is – 3, then the AP is
6, 3, 0, –3, . . .

Similarly, when
a = – 7, d = – 2, the AP is – 7, – 9, – 11, – 13, . . .
a = 1.0, d = 0.1, the AP is 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, . . .
1 1 1
a = 0, d=1 , the AP is 0, 1 , 3, 4 , 6, . . .
2 2 2
a = 2, d = 0, the AP is 2, 2, 2, 2, . . .
So, if you know what a and d are, you can list the AP. What about the other way
round? That is, if you are given a list of numbers can you say that it is an AP and then
find a and d? Since a is the first term, it can easily be written. We know that in an AP,
every succeeding term is obtained by adding d to the preceding term. So, d found by
subtracting any term from its succeeding term, i.e., the term which immediately follows
it should be same for an AP.
For example, for the list of numbers :
6, 9, 12, 15, . . . ,
We have a2 – a1 = 9 – 6 = 3,
a3 – a2 = 12 – 9 = 3,
a4 – a3 = 15 – 12 = 3
Here the difference of any two consecutive terms in each case is 3. So, the
given list is an AP whose first term a is 6 and common difference d is 3.
For the list of numbers : 6, 3, 0, – 3, . . .,
a2 – a1 = 3 – 6 = – 3
a3 – a2 = 0 – 3 = – 3
a4 – a3 = –3 – 0 = –3
Similarly this is also an AP whose first term is 6 and the common difference
is –3.
In general, for an AP a1, a2, . . ., an, we have
d = ak + 1 – ak
where ak + 1 and ak are the ( k + 1)th and the kth terms respectively.
To obtain d in a given AP, we need not find all of a2 – a1, a3 – a2, a4 – a3, . . . .
It is enough to find only one of them.
Consider the list of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, . . . . By looking at it, you can tell that the
difference between any two consecutive terms is not the same. So, this is not an AP.

98 MATHEMATICS
Note that to find d in the AP : 6, 3, 0, – 3, . . ., we have subtracted 6 from 3

and not 3 from 6, i.e., we should subtract the kth term from the (k + 1) th term
even if the (k + 1) th term is smaller.
Let us make the concept more clear through some examples.
3 1 1 3
Example 1 : For the AP : , ,– ,– , . . ., write the first term a and the
2 2 2 2
common difference d.
3 1 3
Solution : Here, a= ,d= – = – 1.
2 2 2
Remember that we can find d using any two consecutive terms, once we know that
the numbers are in AP.
Example 2 : Which of the following list of numbers form an AP? If they form an AP,
write the next two terms :
(i) 4, 10, 16, 22, . . . (ii) 1, – 1, – 3, – 5, . . .
(iii) – 2, 2, – 2, 2, – 2, . . . (iv) 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, . . .
Solution : (i) We have a2 – a1 = 10 – 4 = 6
a3 – a2 = 16 – 10 = 6
a4 – a3 = 22 – 16 = 6
i.e., ak + 1 – ak is the same every time.
So, the given list of numbers forms an AP with the common difference d = 6.
The next two terms are: 22 + 6 = 28 and 28 + 6 = 34.
(ii) a2 – a1 = – 1 – 1 = – 2
a3 – a2 = – 3 – ( –1 ) = – 3 + 1 = – 2
a4 – a3 = – 5 – ( –3 ) = – 5 + 3 = – 2
i.e., ak + 1 – ak is the same every time.
So, the given list of numbers forms an AP with the common difference d = – 2.
The next two terms are:
– 5 + (– 2 ) = – 7 and – 7 + (– 2 ) = – 9
(iii) a2 – a1 = 2 – (– 2) = 2 + 2 = 4
a3 – a2 = – 2 – 2 = – 4
As a2 – a1 ≠ a3 – a2 , the given list of numbers does not form an AP.

(iv) a2 – a1 = 1 – 1 = 0
a3 – a2 = 1 – 1 = 0
a4 – a3 = 2 – 1 = 1
Here, a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 ≠ a4 – a3.
So, the given list of numbers does not form an AP.
EXERCISE 5.1
1. In which of the following situations, does the list of numbers involved make an arithmetic
progression, and why?
(i) The taxi fare after each km when the fare is ` 15 for the first km and ` 8 for each
additional km.
1
(ii) The amount of air present in a cylinder when a vacuum pump removes of the
air remaining in the cylinder at a time. 4
(iii) The cost of digging a well after every metre of digging, when it costs ` 150 for the
first metre and rises by ` 50 for each subsequent metre.
(iv) The amount of money in the account every year, when ` 10000 is deposited at
compound interest at 8 % per annum.
2. Write first four terms of the AP, when the first term a and the common difference d are
given as follows:
(i) a = 10, d = 10 (ii) a = –2, d = 0
1
(iii) a = 4, d=–3 (iv) a = – 1, d =
2
(v) a = – 1.25, d = – 0.25
3. For the following APs, write the first term and the common difference:
(i) 3, 1, – 1, – 3, . . . (ii) – 5, – 1, 3, 7, . . .
1 , 5 , 9 , 13 ,
(iii) ... (iv) 0.6, 1.7, 2.8, 3.9, . . .
3 3 3 3
4. Which of the following are APs ? If they form an AP, find the common difference d and
write three more terms.
5 7
(i) 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . (ii) 2, , 3, , . . .
2 2
(iii) – 1.2, – 3.2, – 5.2, – 7.2, . . . (iv) – 10, – 6, – 2, 2, . . .
(v) 3, 3 + 2 , 3 + 2 2 , 3 + 3 2, ... (vi) 0.2, 0.22, 0.222, 0.2222, . . .

1 1 1 1
(vii) 0, – 4, – 8, –12, . . . (viii) – ,– ,– ,– ,...
2 2 2 2

100 MATHEMATICS
(ix) 1, 3, 9, 27, . . . (x) a, 2a, 3a, 4a, . . .

(xi) a, a2, a3, a4, . . . (xii) 2, 8, 18 , 32, . . .
(xiii) 3, 6, 9 , 12 , . . . (xiv) 12, 32, 52, 72, . . .
(xv) 12, 52, 72, 73, . . .
5.3 nth Term of an AP

Let us consider the situation again, given in Section 5.1 in which Reena applied for a
job and got selected. She has been offered the job with a starting monthly salary of
` 8000, with an annual increment of ` 500. What would be her monthly salary for the
fifth year?
To answer this, let us first see what her monthly salary for the second year
would be.
It would be ` (8000 + 500) = ` 8500. In the same way, we can find the monthly
salary for the 3rd, 4th and 5th year by adding ` 500 to the salary of the previous year.
So, the salary for the 3rd year = ` (8500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 2 × 500)
= ` [8000 + (3 – 1) × 500] (for the 3rd year)
= ` 9000
Salary for the 4th year = ` (9000 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 500 + 500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 3 × 500)
= ` [8000 + (4 – 1) × 500] (for the 4th year)
= ` 9500
Salary for the 5th year = ` (9500 + 500)
= ` (8000+500+500+500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 4 × 500)
= ` [8000 + (5 – 1) × 500] (for the 5th year)
= ` 10000
Observe that we are getting a list of numbers
8000, 8500, 9000, 9500, 10000, . . .
These numbers are in AP. (Why?)

Now, looking at the pattern formed above, can you find her monthly salary for
the 6th year? The 15th year? And, assuming that she will still be working in the job,
what about the monthly salary for the 25th year? You would calculate this by adding
` 500 each time to the salary of the previous year to give the answer. Can we make
this process shorter? Let us see. You may have already got some idea from the way
we have obtained the salaries above.
Salary for the 15th year
= Salary for the 14th year + ` 500
=
= ` [8000 + 14 × 500]
= ` [8000 + (15 – 1) × 500] = ` 15000
i.e., First salary + (15 – 1) × Annual increment.
In the same way, her monthly salary for the 25th year would be
` [8000 + (25 – 1) × 500] = ` 20000
= First salary + (25 – 1) × Annual increment

This example would have given you some idea about how to write the 15th term,
or the 25th term, and more generally, the nth term of the AP.
Let a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . be an AP whose first term a 1 is a and the common
difference is d.
Then,
the second term a2 = a + d = a + (2 – 1) d
the third term a3 = a2 + d = (a + d) + d = a + 2d = a + (3 – 1) d
the fourth term a4 = a3 + d = (a + 2d) + d = a + 3d = a + (4 – 1) d
........
........
Looking at the pattern, we can say that the nth term an = a + (n – 1) d.
So, the nth term an of the AP with first term a and common difference d is
given by an = a + (n – 1) d.

102 MATHEMATICS
an is also called the general term of the AP. If there are m terms in the AP, then
am represents the last term which is sometimes also denoted by l.
Example 3 : Find the 10th term of the AP : 2, 7, 12, . . .

Solution : Here, a = 2, d=7–2=5 and n = 10.
We have an = a + (n – 1) d
So, a10 = 2 + (10 – 1) × 5 = 2 + 45 = 47
Therefore, the 10th term of the given AP is 47.
Example 4 : Which term of the AP : 21, 18, 15, . . . is – 81? Also, is any term 0? Give
reason for your answer.
Solution : Here, a = 21, d = 18 – 21 = – 3 and an = – 81, and we have to find n.
As an = a + ( n – 1) d,
we have – 81 = 21 + (n – 1)(– 3)
– 81 = 24 – 3n
– 105 = – 3n
So, n = 35
Therefore, the 35th term of the given AP is – 81.
Next, we want to know if there is any n for which an = 0. If such an n is there, then
21 + (n – 1) (–3) = 0,
i.e., 3(n – 1) = 21
i.e., n= 8
So, the eighth term is 0.
Example 5 : Determine the AP whose 3rd term is 5 and the 7th term is 9.
Solution : We have
a3 = a + (3 – 1) d = a + 2d = 5 (1)
and a7 = a + (7 – 1) d = a + 6d = 9 (2)
Solving the pair of linear equations (1) and (2), we get
a = 3, d = 1
Hence, the required AP is 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, . . .

Example 6 : Check whether 301 is a term of the list of numbers 5, 11, 17, 23, . . .
Solution : We have :
a2 – a1 = 11 – 5 = 6, a3 – a2 = 17 – 11 = 6, a4 – a3 = 23 – 17 = 6
As ak + 1 – ak is the same for k = 1, 2, 3, etc., the given list of numbers is an AP.
Now, a=5 and d = 6.
Let 301 be a term, say, the nth term of this AP.
We know that
an = a + (n – 1) d
So, 301 = 5 + (n – 1) × 6
i.e., 301 = 6n – 1
302 151
So, n= =
6 3
But n should be a positive integer (Why?). So, 301 is not a term of the given list of
numbers.
Example 7 : How many two-digit numbers are divisible by 3?

Solution : The list of two-digit numbers divisible by 3 is :
12, 15, 18, . . . , 99
Is this an AP? Yes it is. Here, a = 12, d = 3, an = 99.
As an = a + (n – 1) d,
we have 99 = 12 + (n – 1) × 3
i.e., 87 = (n – 1) × 3
87
i.e., n–1= = 29
3
i.e., n = 29 + 1 = 30
So, there are 30 two-digit numbers divisible by 3.
Example 8 : Find the 11th term from the last term (towards the first term) of the
AP : 10, 7, 4, . . ., – 62.
Solution : Here, a = 10, d = 7 – 10 = – 3, l = – 62,
where l = a + (n – 1) d

104 MATHEMATICS
To find the 11th term from the last term, we will find the total number of terms in
the AP.
So, – 62 = 10 + (n – 1)(–3)
i.e., – 72 = (n – 1)(–3)
i.e., n – 1 = 24
or n = 25
So, there are 25 terms in the given AP.
The 11th term from the last term will be the 15th term. (Note that it will not be
the 14th term. Why?)
So, a15 = 10 + (15 – 1)(–3) = 10 – 42 = – 32
i.e., the 11th term from the last term is – 32.
Alternative Solution :
If we write the given AP in the reverse order, then a = – 62 and d = 3 (Why?)
So, the question now becomes finding the 11th term with these a and d.
So, a11 = – 62 + (11 – 1) × 3 = – 62 + 30 = – 32
So, the 11th term, which is now the required term, is – 32.
Example 9 : A sum of ` 1000 is invested at 8% simple interest per year. Calculate the
interest at the end of each year. Do these interests form an AP? If so, find the interest
at the end of 30 years making use of this fact.
Solution : We know that the formula to calculate simple interest is given by
P× R × T
Simple Interest =
100
1000 × 8 ×1
So, the interest at the end of the 1st year = ` = ` 80
100
1000 × 8 × 2
The interest at the end of the 2nd year = ` = ` 160
100
1000 × 8 × 3
The interest at the end of the 3rd year = ` = ` 240
100
Similarly, we can obtain the interest at the end of the 4th year, 5th year, and so on.
So, the interest (in `) at the end of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . . years, respectively are
80, 160, 240, . . .

It is an AP as the difference between the consecutive terms in the list is 80, i.e.,
d = 80. Also, a = 80.
So, to find the interest at the end of 30 years, we shall find a30.
Now, a30 = a + (30 – 1) d = 80 + 29 × 80 = 2400
So, the interest at the end of 30 years will be ` 2400.
Example 10 : In a flower bed, there are 23 rose plants in the first row, 21 in the
second, 19 in the third, and so on. There are 5 rose plants in the last row. How many
rows are there in the flower bed?
Solution : The number of rose plants in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., rows are :
23, 21, 19, . . ., 5
It forms an AP (Why?). Let the number of rows in the flower bed be n.
Then a = 23, d = 21 – 23 = – 2, an = 5
As, an = a + (n – 1) d
We have, 5 = 23 + (n – 1)(– 2)
i.e., – 18 = (n – 1)(– 2)
i.e., n = 10
So, there are 10 rows in the flower bed.
EXERCISE 5.2
1. Fill in the blanks in the following table, given that a is the first term, d the common
difference and an the nth term of the AP:
a d n an
(i) 7 3 8 ...
(ii) – 18 ... 10 0
(iii) ... –3 18 –5
(iv) – 18.9 2.5 ... 3.6
(v) 3.5 0 105 ...

106 MATHEMATICS
2. Choose the correct choice in the following and justify :

(i) 30th term of the AP: 10, 7, 4, . . . , is
(A) 97 (B) 77 (C) –77 (D) – 87
1
(ii) 11th term of the AP: – 3, − , 2, . . ., is
2
1
(A) 28 (B) 22 (C) –38 (D) – 48
2
3. In the following APs, find the missing terms in the boxes :
(i) 2, , 26
(ii) , 13, , 3
1
(iii) 5, , , 9
2
(iv) – 4, , , , , 6
(v) , 38, , , , – 22
4. Which term of the AP : 3, 8, 13, 18, . . . ,is 78?
5. Find the number of terms in each of the following APs :
1
(i) 7, 13, 19, . . . , 205 (ii) 18, 15
, 13, . . . , – 47
2
6. Check whether – 150 is a term of the AP : 11, 8, 5, 2 . . .
7. Find the 31st term of an AP whose 11th term is 38 and the 16th term is 73.
8. An AP consists of 50 terms of which 3rd term is 12 and the last term is 106. Find the 29th
term.
9. If the 3rd and the 9th terms of an AP are 4 and – 8 respectively, which term of this AP is
zero?
10. The 17th term of an AP exceeds its 10th term by 7. Find the common difference.
11. Which term of the AP : 3, 15, 27, 39, . . . will be 132 more than its 54th term?
12. Two APs have the same common difference. The difference between their 100th terms is
100, what is the difference between their 1000th terms?
13. How many three-digit numbers are divisible by 7?
14. How many multiples of 4 lie between 10 and 250?
15. For what value of n, are the nth terms of two APs: 63, 65, 67, . . . and 3, 10, 17, . . . equal?
16. Determine the AP whose third term is 16 and the 7th term exceeds the 5th term by 12.

17. Find the 20th term from the last term of the AP : 3, 8, 13, . . ., 253.
18. The sum of the 4th and 8th terms of an AP is 24 and the sum of the 6th and 10th terms is
44. Find the first three terms of the AP.
19. Subba Rao started work in 1995 at an annual salary of ` 5000 and received an increment
of ` 200 each year. In which year did his income reach ` 7000?
20. Ramkali saved ` 5 in the first week of a year and then increased her weekly savings by
` 1.75. If in the nth week, her weekly savings become ` 20.75, find n.
5.4 Sum of First n Terms of an AP

Let us consider the situation again
given in Section 5.1 in which Shakila
put ` 100 into her daughter’s money
box when she was one year old,
` 150 on her second birthday,
` 200 on her third birthday and will
continue in the same way. How much
money will be collected in the money
box by the time her daughter is 21
years old?
Here, the amount of money (in `) put in the money box on her first, second, third,
fourth . . . birthday were respectively 100, 150, 200, 250, . . . till her 21st birthday. To
find the total amount in the money box on her 21st birthday, we will have to write each
of the 21 numbers in the list above and then add them up. Don’t you think it would be
a tedious and time consuming process? Can we make the process shorter? This would
be possible if we can find a method for getting this sum. Let us see.
We consider the problem given to Gauss (about whom you read in
Chapter 1), to solve when he was just 10 years old. He was asked to find the sum of
the positive integers from 1 to 100. He immediately replied that the sum is 5050. Can
you guess how did he do? He wrote :
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 99 + 100
And then, reversed the numbers to write
S = 100 + 99 + . . . + 3 + 2 + 1
Adding these two, he got
2S = (100 + 1) + (99 + 2) + . . . + (3 + 98) + (2 + 99) + (1 + 100)
= 101 + 101 + . . . + 101 + 101 (100 times)
100 × 101
So, S= = 5050 , i.e., the sum = 5050.
2

108 MATHEMATICS
We will now use the same technique to find the sum of the first n terms of an AP :
a, a + d, a + 2d, . . .
The nth term of this AP is a + (n – 1) d. Let S denote the sum of the first n terms
of the AP. We have
S = a + (a + d ) + (a + 2d ) + . . . + [a + (n – 1) d ] (1)
Rewriting the terms in reverse order, we have
S = [a + (n – 1) d ] + [a + (n – 2) d ] + . . . + (a + d ) + a (2)
On adding (1) and (2), term-wise. we get
[2a + (n − 1)d ] + [2a + (n − 1)d ] + ... + [2a + ( n − 1)d ] + [2a + (n − 1)d ]

2S =
n times
or, 2S = n [2a + (n – 1) d ] (Since, there are n terms)
n
or, S= [2a + (n – 1) d ]
2
So, the sum of the first n terms of an AP is given by
n
S= [2a + (n – 1) d ]
2
n
We can also write this as S= [a + a + (n – 1) d ]
2
n
i.e., S= (a + an ) (3)
2
Now, if there are only n terms in an AP, then an = l, the last term.
From (3), we see that
n
S= (a + l ) (4)
2
This form of the result is useful when the first and the last terms of an AP are
given and the common difference is not given.
Now we return to the question that was posed to us in the beginning. The amount
of money (in Rs) in the money box of Shakila’s daughter on 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th birthday,
. . ., were 100, 150, 200, 250, . . ., respectively.
This is an AP. We have to find the total money collected on her 21st birthday, i.e.,
the sum of the first 21 terms of this AP.

Here, a = 100, d = 50 and n = 21. Using the formula :

n
S= [ 2a + (n − 1) d ] ,
2
21 21
we have S= [ 2 × 100 + (21 − 1) × 50] = [ 200 + 1000]
2 2
21
= × 1200 = 12600
2
So, the amount of money collected on her 21st birthday is ` 12600.
Hasn’t the use of the formula made it much easier to solve the problem?
We also use Sn in place of S to denote the sum of first n terms of the AP. We
write S20 to denote the sum of the first 20 terms of an AP. The formula for the sum of
the first n terms involves four quantities S, a, d and n. If we know any three of them,
we can find the fourth.
Remark : The nth term of an AP is the difference of the sum to first n terms and the
sum to first (n – 1) terms of it, i.e., an = Sn – Sn – 1.
Example 11 : Find the sum of the first 22 terms of the AP : 8, 3, –2, . . .

Solution : Here, a = 8, d = 3 – 8 = –5, n = 22.
We know that
n
S = [ 2a + (n − 1) d ]
2
22
Therefore, S = [16 + 21 (−5)] = 11(16 – 105) = 11(–89) = – 979
2
So, the sum of the first 22 terms of the AP is – 979.
Example 12 : If the sum of the first 14 terms of an AP is 1050 and its first term is 10,
find the 20th term.
Solution : Here, S14 = 1050, n = 14, a = 10.
n
As Sn = [ 2a + (n − 1)d ] ,
2
14
so, 1050 = [ 20 + 13d ] = 140 + 91d
2

110 MATHEMATICS
i.e., 910 = 91d

or, d = 10
Therefore, a20 = 10 + (20 – 1) × 10 = 200, i.e. 20th term is 200.
Example 13 : How many terms of the AP : 24, 21, 18, . . . must be taken so that their
sum is 78?
Solution : Here, a = 24, d = 21 – 24 = –3, Sn = 78. We need to find n.
n
We know that Sn = [ 2a + ( n − 1) d ]
2
n n
So, 78 = [ 48 + (n − 1)( −3) ] = [51 − 3n ]
2 2
or 3n2 – 51n + 156 = 0
or n2 – 17n + 52 = 0
or (n – 4)(n – 13) = 0
or n = 4 or 13
Both values of n are admissible. So, the number of terms is either 4 or 13.
Remarks :
1. In this case, the sum of the first 4 terms = the sum of the first 13 terms = 78.
2. Two answers are possible because the sum of the terms from 5th to 13th will be
zero. This is because a is positive and d is negative, so that some terms will be
positive and some others negative, and will cancel out each other.
Example 14 : Find the sum of :

(i) the first 1000 positive integers (ii) the first n positive integers
Solution :
(i) Let S = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 1000
n
Using the formula Sn = (a + l ) for the sum of the first n terms of an AP, we
2
have
1000
S1000 = (1 + 1000) = 500 × 1001 = 500500
2
So, the sum of the first 1000 positive integers is 500500.
(ii) Let Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n
Here a = 1 and the last term l is n.

n (1 + n) n (n + 1)
Therefore, Sn = or Sn =
2 2
So, the sum of first n positive integers is given by
n( n + 1)
Sn =
2
Example 15 : Find the sum of first 24 terms of the list of numbers whose nth term is
given by
an = 3 + 2n
Solution :
As an = 3 + 2n,
so, a1 = 3 + 2 = 5
a2 = 3 + 2 × 2 = 7
a3 = 3 + 2 × 3 = 9

List of numbers becomes 5, 7, 9, 11, . . .
Here, 7 – 5 = 9 – 7 = 11 – 9 = 2 and so on.
So, it forms an AP with common difference d = 2.
To find S24, we have n = 24, a = 5, d = 2.
24
Therefore, S24 = [ 2 × 5 + (24 − 1) × 2] = 12 [10 + 46] = 672
2
So, sum of first 24 terms of the list of numbers is 672.
Example 16 : A manufacturer of TV sets produced 600 sets in the third year and 700
sets in the seventh year. Assuming that the production increases uniformly by a fixed
number every year, find :
(i) the production in the 1st year (ii) the production in the 10th year
(iii) the total production in first 7 years
Solution : (i) Since the production increases uniformly by a fixed number every year,
the number of TV sets manufactured in 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., years will form an AP.
Let us denote the number of TV sets manufactured in the nth year by an.
Then, a3 = 600 and a7 = 700

112 MATHEMATICS
or, a + 2d = 600
and a + 6d = 700
Solving these equations, we get d = 25 and a = 550.
Therefore, production of TV sets in the first year is 550.
(ii) Now a10 = a + 9d = 550 + 9 × 25 = 775
So, production of TV sets in the 10th year is 775.
7
(iii) Also, S7 = [ 2 × 550 + (7 − 1) × 25]
2
7
= [1100 + 150] = 4375
2
Thus, the total production of TV sets in first 7 years is 4375.
EXERCISE 5.3
1. Find the sum of the following APs:
(i) 2, 7, 12, . . ., to 10 terms. (ii) –37, –33, –29, . . ., to 12 terms.
1 , 1 , 1
(iii) 0.6, 1.7, 2.8, . . ., to 100 terms. (iv) , . . ., to 11 terms.
15 12 10
2. Find the sums given below :
1
(i) 7 + 10 + 14 + . . . + 84 (ii) 34 + 32 + 30 + . . . + 10
2
(iii) –5 + (–8) + (–11) + . . . + (–230)
3. In an AP:
(i) given a = 5, d = 3, an = 50, find n and Sn.
(ii) given a = 7, a13 = 35, find d and S13.
(iii) given a12 = 37, d = 3, find a and S12.
(iv) given a3 = 15, S10 = 125, find d and a10.
(v) given d = 5, S9 = 75, find a and a9.
(vi) given a = 2, d = 8, Sn = 90, find n and an.
(vii) given a = 8, an = 62, Sn = 210, find n and d.
(viii) given an = 4, d = 2, Sn = –14, find n and a.
(ix) given a = 3, n = 8, S = 192, find d.
(x) given l = 28, S = 144, and there are total 9 terms. Find a.

4. How many terms of the AP : 9, 17, 25, . . . must be taken to give a sum of 636?
5. The first term of an AP is 5, the last term is 45 and the sum is 400. Find the number of terms
and the common difference.
6. The first and the last terms of an AP are 17 and 350 respectively. If the common difference
is 9, how many terms are there and what is their sum?
7. Find the sum of first 22 terms of an AP in which d = 7 and 22nd term is 149.
8. Find the sum of first 51 terms of an AP whose second and third terms are 14 and 18
respectively.
9. If the sum of first 7 terms of an AP is 49 and that of 17 terms is 289, find the sum of
first n terms.
10. Show that a1, a2, . . ., an, . . . form an AP where an is defined as below :
(i) an = 3 + 4n (ii) an = 9 – 5n
Also find the sum of the first 15 terms in each case.
11. If the sum of the first n terms of an AP is 4n – n2, what is the first term (that is S1)? What
is the sum of first two terms? What is the second term? Similarly, find the 3rd, the 10th and
the nth terms.
12. Find the sum of the first 40 positive integers divisible by 6.
13. Find the sum of the first 15 multiples of 8.
14. Find the sum of the odd numbers between 0 and 50.
15. A contract on construction job specifies a penalty for delay of completion beyond a
certain date as follows: ` 200 for the first day, ` 250 for the second day, ` 300 for the third
day, etc., the penalty for each succeeding day being ` 50 more than for the preceding day.
How much money the contractor has to pay as penalty, if he has delayed the work by 30
days?
16. A sum of ` 700 is to be used to give seven cash prizes to students of a school for their
overall academic performance. If each prize is ` 20 less than its preceding prize, find the
value of each of the prizes.
17. In a school, students thought of planting trees in and around the school to reduce air
pollution. It was decided that the number of trees, that each section of each class will
plant, will be the same as the class, in which they are studying, e.g., a section of Class I
will plant 1 tree, a section of Class II will plant 2 trees and so on till Class XII. There are
three sections of each class. How many trees will be planted by the students?
18. A spiral is made up of successive semicircles, with centres alternately at A and B,
starting with centre at A, of radii 0.5 cm, 1.0 cm, 1.5 cm, 2.0 cm, . . . as shown in
Fig. 5.4. What is the total length of such a spiral made up of thirteen consecutive
22
semicircles? (Take π = )
7

114 MATHEMATICS
Fig. 5.4
[Hint : Length of successive semicircles is l1, l2, l3, l4, . . . with centres at A, B, A, B, . . .,
respectively.]
19. 200 logs are stacked in the following manner: 20 logs in the bottom row, 19 in the next row,
18 in the row next to it and so on (see Fig. 5.5). In how many rows are the 200 logs placed
and how many logs are in the top row?
Fig. 5.5
20. In a potato race, a bucket is placed at the starting point, which is 5 m from the first potato,
and the other potatoes are placed 3 m apart in a straight line. There are ten potatoes in the
line (see Fig. 5.6).
Fig. 5.6
A competitor starts from the bucket, picks up the nearest potato, runs back with it, drops
it in the bucket, runs back to pick up the next potato, runs to the bucket to drop it in, and
she continues in the same way until all the potatoes are in the bucket. What is the total
distance the competitor has to run?
[Hint : To pick up the first potato and the second potato, the total distance (in metres)
run by a competitor is 2 × 5 + 2 × (5 + 3)]


1. Which term of the AP : 121, 117, 113, . . ., is
its first negative term?
[Hint : Find n for an < 0]
2. The sum of the third and the seventh terms
of an AP is 6 and their product is 8. Find
the sum of first sixteen terms of the AP.
3. A ladder has rungs 25 cm apart.
(see Fig. 5.7). The rungs decrease
uniformly in length from 45 cm at the
bottom to 25 cm at the top. If the top and
1
the bottom rungs are 2 m apart, what is
2
the length of the wood required for the
rungs?
250 Fig. 5.7

[Hint : Number of rungs = + 1]
25
4. The houses of a row are numbered consecutively from 1 to 49. Show that there is a value
of x such that the sum of the numbers of the houses preceding the house numbered x is
equal to the sum of the numbers of the houses following it. Find this value of x.
[Hint : Sx – 1 = S49 – Sx]
5. A small terrace at a football ground comprises of 15 steps each of which is 50 m long and
built of solid concrete.
1 1
Each step has a rise of m and a tread of m. (see Fig. 5.8). Calculate the total volume
4 2
of concrete required to build the terrace.
1 1 3
[Hint : Volume of concrete required to build the first step = × × 50 m ]
4 2
Fig. 5.8

116 MATHEMATICS
5.5 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. An arithmetic progression (AP) is a list of numbers in which each term is obtained by
adding a fixed number d to the preceding term, except the first term. The fixed number d
is called the common difference.
The general form of an AP is a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .
2. A given list of numbers a1, a2, a3, . . . is an AP, if the differences a2 – a1, a3 – a2,
a4 – a3, . . ., give the same value, i.e., if ak + 1 – ak is the same for different values of k.
3. In an AP with first term a and common difference d, the nth term (or the general term) is
given by an = a + (n – 1) d.
4. The sum of the first n terms of an AP is given by :
n
S= [ 2a + (n − 1) d ]
2
5. If l is the last term of the finite AP, say the nth term, then the sum of all terms of the AP
is given by :
n
S= (a + l )
2
a+c
If a, b, c are in AP, then b = and b is called the arithmetic
2
mean of a and c.

TRIANGLES 117
TRIANGLES 6
6.1 Introduction
You are familiar with triangles and many of their properties from your earlier classes.
In Class IX, you have studied congruence of triangles in detail. Recall that two figures
are said to be congruent, if they have the same shape and the same size. In this
chapter, we shall study about those figures which have the same shape but not necessarily
the same size. Two figures having the same shape (and not necessarily the same size)
are called similar figures. In particular, we shall discuss the similarity of triangles and
apply this knowledge in giving a simple proof of Pythagoras Theorem learnt earlier.
Can you guess how heights of mountains (say Mount Everest) or distances of
some long distant objects (say moon) have been found out? Do you think these have

118 MATHEMATICS
been measured directly with the help of a measuring tape? In fact, all these heights
and distances have been found out using the idea of indirect measurements, which is
based on the principle of similarity of figures (see Example 7, Q.15 of Exercise 6.3
and also Chapters 8 and 9 of this book).
6.2 Similar Figures

In Class IX, you have seen that all circles with the same radii are congruent, all
squares with the same side lengths are congruent and all equilateral triangles with the
same side lengths are congruent.
Now consider any two (or more)
circles [see Fig. 6.1 (i)]. Are they
congruent? Since all of them do not
have the same radius, they are not
congruent to each other. Note that
some are congruent and some are not,
but all of them have the same shape.
So they all are, what we call, similar.
Two similar figures have the same
shape but not necessarily the same
size. Therefore, all circles are similar.
What about two (or more) squares or
two (or more) equilateral triangles
[see Fig. 6.1 (ii) and (iii)]? As observed
in the case of circles, here also all
squares are similar and all equilateral
triangles are similar.
From the above, we can say
that all congruent figures are
similar but the similar figures need
not be congruent. Fig. 6.1
Can a circle and a square be
similar? Can a triangle and a square
be similar? These questions can be
answered by just looking at the
figures (see Fig. 6.1). Evidently
these figures are not similar. (Why?)
Fig. 6.2

TRIANGLES 119
What can you say about the two quadrilaterals ABCD and PQRS
(see Fig 6.2)?Are they similar? These figures appear to be similar but we cannot be
certain about it.Therefore, we must have some definition of similarity of figures and
based on this definition some rules to decide whether the two given figures are similar
or not. For this, let us look at the photographs given in Fig. 6.3:
Fig. 6.3
You will at once say that they are the photographs of the same monument
(Taj Mahal) but are in different sizes. Would you say that the three photographs are
similar? Yes,they are.
What can you say about the two photographs of the same size of the same
person one at the age of 10 years and the other at the age of 40 years? Are these
photographs similar? These photographs are of the same size but certainly they are
not of the same shape. So, they are not similar.
What does the photographer do when she prints photographs of different sizes
from the same negative? You must have heard about the stamp size, passport size and
postcard size photographs. She generally takes a photograph on a small size film, say
of 35mm size and then enlarges it into a bigger size, say 45mm (or 55mm). Thus, if we
consider any line segment in the smaller photograph (figure), its corresponding line
45  55 
segment in the bigger photograph (figure) will be  or  of that of the line segment.
35  35 
This really means that every line segment of the smaller photograph is enlarged
(increased) in the ratio 35:45 (or 35:55). It can also be said that every line segment
of the bigger photograph is reduced (decreased) in the ratio 45:35 (or 55:35). Further,
if you consider inclinations (or angles) between any pair of corresponding line segments
in the two photographs of different sizes, you shall see that these inclinations(or angles)
are always equal. This is the essence of the similarity of two figures and in particular
of two polygons. We say that:
Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if (i) their
corresponding angles are equal and (ii) their corresponding sides are in the
same ratio (or proportion).

120 MATHEMATICS
Note that the same ratio of the corresponding sides is referred to as the scale
factor (or the Representative Fraction) for the polygons. You must have heard that
world maps (i.e., global maps) and blue prints for the construction of a building are
prepared using a suitable scale factor and observing certain conventions.
In order to understand similarity of figures more clearly, let us perform the following
activity:
Activity 1 : Place a lighted bulb at a
point O on the ceiling and directly below
it a table in your classroom. Let us cut a
polygon, say a quadrilateral ABCD, from
a plane cardboard and place this
cardboard parallel to the ground between
the lighted bulb and the table. Then a
shadow of ABCD is cast on the table.
Mark the outline of this shadow as
A′B′C′D′ (see Fig.6.4).
Note that the quadrilateral A′B′C′D′ is
an enlargement (or magnification) of the
quadrilateral ABCD. This is because of
the property of light that light propogates
in a straight line. You may also note that Fig. 6.4
A′ lies on ray OA, B′ lies on ray OB, C′
lies on OC and D′ lies on OD. Thus, quadrilaterals A′B′C′D′ and ABCD are of the
same shape but of different sizes.
So, quadrilateral A′B′C′D′ is similiar to quadrilateral ABCD. We can also say
that quadrilateral ABCD is similar to the quadrilateral A′B′C′D′.
Here, you can also note that vertex A′ corresponds to vertex A, vertex B′
corresponds to vertex B, vertex C′ corresponds to vertex C and vertex D′ corresponds
to vertex D. Symbolically, these correspondences are represented as A′ ↔ A, B′ ↔ B,
C′ ↔ C and D′ ↔ D. By actually measuring the angles and the sides of the two
quadrilaterals, you may verify that
(i) ∠ A = ∠ A′, ∠ B = ∠ B′, ∠ C = ∠ C′, ∠ D = ∠ D′ and
AB BC CD DA .
(ii) = = =
A′ B′ B′ C′ C′ D′ D′ A′
This again emphasises that two polygons of the same number of sides are
similar, if (i) all the corresponding angles are equal and (ii) all the corresponding
sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).

TRIANGLES 121
From the above, you can easily say that quadrilaterals ABCD and PQRS of
Fig. 6.5 are similar.
Fig. 6.5
Remark : You can verify that if one polygon is similar to another polygon and this
second polygon is similar to a third polygon, then the first polygon is similar to the third
polygon.
You may note that in the two quadrilaterals (a square and a rectangle) of
Fig. 6.6, corresponding angles are equal, but their corresponding sides are not in the
same ratio.
Fig. 6.6
So, the two quadrilaterals are not similar. Similarly, you may note that in the two
quadrilaterals (a square and a rhombus) of Fig. 6.7, corresponding sides are in the
same ratio, but their corresponding angles are not equal. Again, the two polygons
(quadrilaterals) are not similar.

122 MATHEMATICS
Fig. 6.7
Thus, either of the above two conditions (i) and (ii) of similarity of two
polygons is not sufficient for them to be similar.
EXERCISE 6.1
1. Fill in the blanks using the correct word given in brackets :
(i) All circles are . (congruent, similar)
(ii) All squares are . (similar, congruent)
(iii) All triangles are similar. (isosceles, equilateral)
(iv) Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if (a) their corresponding
angles are and (b) their corresponding sides are . (equal,
proportional)
2. Give two different examples of pair of
(i) similar figures. (ii) non-similar figures.
3. State whether the following quadrilaterals are similar or not:
Fig. 6.8

TRIANGLES 123
6.3 Similarity of Triangles

What can you say about the similarity of two triangles?
You may recall that triangle is also a polygon. So, we can state the same conditions
for the similarity of two triangles. That is:
Two triangles are similiar, if
(i) their corresponding angles are equal and
(ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
Note that if corresponding angles of two
triangles are equal, then they are known as
equiangular triangles. A famous Greek
mathematician Thales gave an important truth relating
to two equiangular triangles which is as follows:
The ratio of any two corresponding sides in
two equiangular triangles is always the same.
It is believed that he had used a result called
the Basic Proportionality Theorem (now known as
the Thales Theorem) for the same. Thales
(640 – 546 B.C.)
To understand the Basic Proportionality
Theorem, let us perform the following activity:
Activity 2 : Draw any angle XAY and on its one
arm AX, mark points (say five points) P, Q, D, R and
B such that AP = PQ = QD = DR = RB.
Now, through B, draw any line intersecting arm
AY at C (see Fig. 6.9).
Also, through the point D, draw a line parallel
to BC to intersect AC at E. Do you observe from
Fig. 6.9
AD 3
your constructions that = ? Measure AE and
DB 2
AE AE 3
EC. What about ? Observe that is also equal to . Thus, you can see that
EC EC 2
AD AE
in ∆ ABC, DE || BC and = . Is it a coincidence? No, it is due to the following
DB EC
theorem (known as the Basic Proportionality Theorem):

124 MATHEMATICS
Theorem 6.1 : If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the
other two sides in distinct points, the other two sides are divided in the same
ratio.
Proof : We are given a triangle ABC in which a line
parallel to side BC intersects other two sides AB and
AC at D and E respectively (see Fig. 6.10).
AD AE
We need to prove that = .
DB EC
Let us join BE and CD and then draw DM ⊥ AC and
EN ⊥ AB. Fig. 6.10
1 1
Now, area of ∆ ADE (= base × height) = AD × EN.
2 2
Recall from Class IX, that area of ∆ ADE is denoted as ar(ADE).
1
So, ar(ADE) = AD × EN
2
1
Similarly, ar(BDE) = DB × EN,
2
1 1
ar(ADE) = AE × DM and ar(DEC) = EC × DM.
2 2
1
ar(ADE) AD × EN
2 AD
Therefore, = = (1)
ar(BDE) 1
DB × EN DB
2
1
ar(ADE) AE × DM
AE
and = 2 = (2)
ar(DEC) 1
EC × DM EC
2
Note that ∆ BDE and DEC are on the same base DE and between the same parallels
BC and DE.
So, ar(BDE) = ar(DEC) (3)

TRIANGLES 125
Therefore, from (1), (2) and (3), we have :
AD AE
=
DB EC
Is the converse of this theorem also true (For the meaning of converse, see
Appendix 1)? To examine this, let us perform the following activity:
Activity 3 : Draw an angle XAY on your

notebook and on ray AX, mark points B1, B2,
B3, B4 and B such that AB1 = B1B2 = B2B3 =
B3B4 = B4B.
Similarly, on ray AY, mark points
C1, C2, C3, C4 and C such that AC1 = C1C2 =
C2C3 = C3C4 = C4C. Then join B1C1 and BC
(see Fig. 6.11).
Fig. 6.11
AB1 AC1 1
Note that B1B = C1C (Each equal to )
4
You can also see that lines B1C1 and BC are parallel to each other, i.e.,
B1C1 || BC (1)
Similarly, by joining B2C2, B3C3 and B4C4, you can see that:
AB2 AC2  2 
=  =  and B2C2 || BC (2)
B2 B C2C  3 
AB3 AC3  3 
=  =  and B3C3 || BC (3)
B3B C3 C  2 
AB4 AC4  4 
=  =  and B4C4 || BC (4)
B4 B C4C  1 
From (1), (2), (3) and (4), it can be observed that if a line divides two sides of a
triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the third side.
You can repeat this activity by drawing any angle XAY of different measure and
taking any number of equal parts on arms AX and AY . Each time, you will arrive at
the same result. Thus, we obtain the following theorem, which is the converse of
Theorem 6.1:

126 MATHEMATICS
Theorem 6.2 : If a line divides any two sides of a

triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel
to the third side.
This theorem can be proved by taking a line DE such
AD AE
that = and assuming that DE is not parallel
DB EC
to BC (see Fig. 6.12).
If DE is not parallel to BC, draw a line DE′
parallel to BC. Fig. 6.12
AD AE′
So, = (Why ?)
DB E′C
AE AE′
Therefore, = (Why ?)
EC E′C
Adding 1 to both sides of above, you can see that E and E′ must coincide.
(Why ?)
Let us take some examples to illustrate the use of the above theorems.
Example 1 : If a line intersects sides AB and AC of a ∆ ABC at D and E respectively

AD AE
and is parallel to BC, prove that = (see Fig. 6.13).
AB AC
Solution : DE || BC (Given)
AD AE
So, = (Theorem 6.1)
DB EC
DB EC
or, =
AD AE
DB EC
or, +1 = +1
AD AE
AB AC
or, =
AD AE
AD AE
So, =
AB AC Fig. 6.13

TRIANGLES 127
Example 2 : ABCD is a trapezium with AB || DC.

E and F are points on non-parallel sides AD and BC
respectively such that EF is parallel to AB
AE BF
(see Fig. 6.14). Show that = .
ED FC
Solution : Let us join AC to intersect EF at G
(see Fig. 6.15). Fig. 6.14
AB || DC and EF || AB (Given)
So, EF || DC (Lines parallel to the same line are
parallel to each other)
Now, in ∆ ADC,
EG || DC (As EF || DC)
AE AG
So, = (Theorem 6.1) (1)
ED GC
Similarly, from ∆ CAB,
Fig. 6.15
CG CF
=
AG BF
AG BF
i.e., = (2)
GC FC
Therefore, from (1) and (2),
AE BF
=
ED FC
PS PT
Example 3 : In Fig. 6.16, = and ∠ PST =
SQ TR
∠ PRQ. Prove that PQR is an isosceles triangle.
PS PT Fig. 6.16
Solution : It is given that = ⋅
SQ TR
So, ST || QR (Theorem 6.2)
Therefore, ∠ PST = ∠ PQR (Corresponding angles) (1)

128 MATHEMATICS
Also, it is given that

∠ PST = ∠ PRQ (2)
So, ∠ PRQ = ∠ PQR [From (1) and (2)]
Therefore, PQ = PR (Sides opposite the equal angles)
i.e., PQR is an isosceles triangle.
EXERCISE 6.2
1. In Fig. 6.17, (i) and (ii), DE || BC. Find EC in (i) and AD in (ii).
Fig. 6.17
2. E and F are points on the sides PQ and PR
respectively of a ∆ PQR. For each of the following
cases, state whether EF || QR :
(i) PE = 3.9 cm, EQ = 3 cm, PF = 3.6 cm and FR = 2.4 cm
(ii) PE = 4 cm, QE = 4.5 cm, PF = 8 cm and RF = 9 cm Fig. 6.18
(iii) PQ = 1.28 cm, PR = 2.56 cm, PE = 0.18 cm and PF = 0.36 cm
3. In Fig. 6.18, if LM || CB and LN || CD, prove that
AM AN
= ⋅
AB AD
4. In Fig. 6.19, DE || AC and DF || AE. Prove that
BF BE
= ⋅
FE EC
Fig. 6.19

TRIANGLES 129
5. In Fig. 6.20, DE || OQ and DF || OR. Show that

EF || QR.
6. In Fig. 6.21, A, B and C are points on OP, OQ and
OR respectively such that AB || PQ and AC || PR.
Show that BC || QR.
7. Using Theorem 6.1, prove that a line drawn through
the mid-point of one side of a triangle parallel to
another side bisects the third side. (Recall that you Fig. 6.20
have proved it in Class IX).
8. Using Theorem 6.2, prove that the line joining the
mid-points of any two sides of a triangle is parallel
to the third side. (Recall that you have done it in
Class IX).
9. ABCD is a trapezium in which AB || DC and its
diagonals intersect each other at the point O. Show
AO CO
that = ⋅ Fig. 6.21
BO DO
10. The diagonals of a quadrilateral ABCD intersect each other at the point O such that
AO CO
= ⋅ Show that ABCD is a trapezium.
BO DO
6.4 Criteria for Similarity of Triangles

In the previous section, we stated that two triangles are similar, if (i) their corresponding
angles are equal and (ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
That is, in ∆ ABC and ∆ DEF, if
(i) ∠ A = ∠ D, ∠ B = ∠ E, ∠ C = ∠ F and
AB BC CA ,
(ii) = = then the two triangles are similar (see Fig. 6.22).
DE EF FD
Fig. 6.22

130 MATHEMATICS
Here, you can see that A corresponds to D, B corresponds to E and C

corresponds to F. Symbolically, we write the similarity of these two triangles as
‘∆ ABC ~ ∆ DEF’ and read it as ‘triangle ABC is similar to triangle DEF’. The
symbol ‘~’ stands for ‘is similar to’. Recall that you have used the symbol ‘≅’ for
‘is congruent to’ in Class IX.
It must be noted that as done in the case of congruency of two triangles, the
similarity of two triangles should also be expressed symbolically, using correct
correspondence of their vertices. For example, for the triangles ABC and DEF of
Fig. 6.22, we cannot write ∆ ABC ~ ∆ EDF or ∆ ABC ~ ∆ FED. However, we
can write ∆ BAC ~ ∆ EDF.
Now a natural question arises : For checking the similarity of two triangles, say
ABC and DEF, should we always look for all the equality relations of their corresponding
angles (∠ A = ∠ D, ∠ B = ∠ E, ∠ C = ∠ F) and all the equality relations of the ratios
 AB BC CA 
of their corresponding sides  = =  ? Let us examine. You may recall that
 DE EF FD 
in Class IX, you have obtained some criteria for congruency of two triangles involving
only three pairs of corresponding parts (or elements) of the two triangles. Here also,
let us make an attempt to arrive at certain criteria for similarity of two triangles involving
relationship between less number of pairs of corresponding parts of the two triangles,
instead of all the six pairs of corresponding parts. For this, let us perform the following
activity:
Activity 4 : Draw two line segments BC and EF of two different lengths, say 3 cm
and 5 cm respectively. Then, at the points B and C respectively, construct angles PBC
and QCB of some measures, say, 60° and 40°. Also, at the points E and F, construct
angles REF and SFE of 60° and 40° respectively (see Fig. 6.23).
Fig. 6.23

TRIANGLES 131
Let rays BP and CQ intersect each other at A and rays ER and FS intersect
each other at D. In the two triangles ABC and DEF, you can see that
∠ B = ∠ E, ∠ C = ∠ F and ∠ A = ∠ D. That is, corresponding angles of these two
triangles are equal. What can you say about their corresponding sides ? Note that
BC 3 AB CA
= = 0.6. What about and ? On measuring AB, DE, CA and FD, you
EF 5 DE FD
AB CA
will find that and are also equal to 0.6 (or nearly equal to 0.6, if there is some
DE FD
AB BC CA
error in the measurement). Thus, = = ⋅ You can repeat this activity by
DE EF FD
constructing several pairs of triangles having their corresponding angles equal. Every
time, you will find that their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
This activity leads us to the following criterion for similarity of two triangles.
Theorem 6.3 : If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal, then their
corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion) and hence the two
This criterion is referred to as the AAA
(Angle–Angle–Angle) criterion of
similarity of two triangles.
This theorem can be proved by taking two
triangles ABC and DEF such that
∠ A = ∠ D, ∠ B = ∠ E and ∠ C = ∠ F
(see Fig. 6.24)
Fig. 6.24
Cut DP = AB and DQ = AC and join PQ.
So, ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ DPQ (Why ?)
This gives ∠ B = ∠ P = ∠ E and PQ || EF (How?)
DP DQ
Therefore, = (Why?)
PE QF
AB AC
i.e., = (Why?)
DE DF
AB BC AB BC AC
Similarly, = and so = = .
DE EF DE EF DF
Remark : If two angles of a triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another
triangle, then by the angle sum property of a triangle their third angles will also be
equal. Therefore, AAA similarity criterion can also be stated as follows:

132 MATHEMATICS
If two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another
triangle, then the two triangles are similar.
This may be referred to as the AA similarity criterion for two triangles.
You have seen above that if the three angles of one triangle are respectively
equal to the three angles of another triangle, then their corresponding sides are
proportional (i.e., in the same ratio). What about the converse of this statement? Is the
converse true? In other words, if the sides of a triangle are respectively proportional to
the sides of another triangle, is it true that their corresponding angles are equal? Let us
examine it through an activity :
Activity 5 : Draw two triangles ABC and DEF such that AB = 3 cm, BC = 6 cm,
CA = 8 cm, DE = 4.5 cm, EF = 9 cm and FD = 12 cm (see Fig. 6.25).
Fig. 6.25
AB BC CA 2
So, you have : = = (each equal to )
DE EF FD 3
Now measure ∠ A, ∠ B, ∠ C, ∠ D, ∠ E and ∠ F. You will observe that
∠ A = ∠ D, ∠ B = ∠ E and ∠ C = ∠ F, i.e., the corresponding angles of the two
triangles are equal.
You can repeat this activity by drawing several such triangles (having their sides
in the same ratio). Everytime you shall see that their corresponding angles are equal.
It is due to the following criterion of similarity of two triangles:
Theorem 6.4 : If in two triangles, sides of one triangle are proportional to

(i.e., in the same ratio of ) the sides of the other triangle, then their corresponding
angles are equal and hence the two triangles are similiar.
This criterion is referred to as the SSS (Side–Side–Side) similarity criterion for
two triangles.
This theorem can be proved by taking two triangles ABC and DEF such that
AB BC CA
= = (< 1) (see Fig. 6.26):
DE EF FD

TRIANGLES 133
Fig. 6.26
Cut DP = AB and DQ = AC and join PQ.
DP DQ
It can be seen that = and PQ || EF (How?)
PE QF
So, ∠P=∠ E and ∠ Q = ∠ F.
DP DQ PQ
Therefore, = =
DE DF EF
DP DQ BC
So, = = (Why?)
DE DF EF
So, BC = PQ (Why?)
Thus, ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ DPQ (Why ?)
So, ∠ A = ∠ D, ∠ B = ∠ E and ∠C=∠F (How ?)
Remark : You may recall that either of the two conditions namely, (i) corresponding
angles are equal and (ii) corresponding sides are in the same ratio is not sufficient for
two polygons to be similar. However, on the basis of Theorems 6.3 and 6.4, you can
now say that in case of similarity of the two triangles, it is not necessary to check both
the conditions as one condition implies the other.
Let us now recall the various criteria for congruency of two triangles learnt in
Class IX. You may observe that SSS similarity criterion can be compared with the SSS
congruency criterion.This suggests us to look for a similarity criterion comparable to
SAS congruency criterion of triangles. For this, let us perform an activity.
Activity 6 : Draw two triangles ABC and DEF such that AB = 2 cm, ∠ A = 50°,
AC = 4 cm, DE = 3 cm, ∠ D = 50° and DF = 6 cm (see Fig.6.27).

134 MATHEMATICS
Fig. 6.27
AB AC 2
Here, you may observe that = (each equal to ) and ∠ A (included
DE DF 3
between the sides AB and AC) = ∠ D (included between the sides DE and DF). That
is, one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another triangle and sides including
these angles are in the same ratio (i.e., proportion). Now let us measure ∠ B, ∠ C,
∠ E and ∠ F.
You will find that ∠ B = ∠ E and ∠ C = ∠ F. That is, ∠ A = ∠ D, ∠ B = ∠ E and
∠ C = ∠ F. So, by AAA similarity criterion, ∆ ABC ~ ∆ DEF. You may repeat this
activity by drawing several pairs of such triangles with one angle of a triangle equal to
one angle of another triangle and the sides including these angles are proportional.
Everytime, you will find that the triangles are similar. It is due to the following criterion
of similarity of triangles:
Theorem 6.5 : If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of the other
triangle and the sides including these angles are proportional, then the two
This criterion is referred to as
the SAS (Side–Angle–Side)
similarity criterion for two
triangles.
As before, this theorem can
be proved by taking two triangles
ABC and DEF such that
AB AC
= (< 1) and ∠ A = ∠ D
DE DF
(see Fig. 6.28). Cut DP = AB, DQ Fig. 6.28
= AC and join PQ.

TRIANGLES 135
Now, PQ || EF and ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ DPQ (How ?)

So, ∠ A = ∠ D, ∠ B = ∠ P and ∠ C = ∠ Q
Therefore, ∆ ABC ~ ∆ DEF (Why?)
We now take some examples to illustrate the use of these criteria.
Example 4 : In Fig. 6.29, if PQ || RS, prove that ∆ POQ ~ ∆ SOR.
Fig. 6.29
Solution : PQ || RS (Given)
So, ∠P= ∠S (Alternate angles)
and ∠Q= ∠R
Also, ∠ POQ = ∠ SOR (Vertically opposite angles)
Therefore, ∆ POQ ~ ∆ SOR (AAA similarity criterion)
Example 5 : Observe Fig. 6.30 and then find ∠ P.
Fig. 6.30
Solution : In ∆ ABC and ∆ PQR,

136 MATHEMATICS
AB 3.8 1 , BC 6 1 CA 3 3 1
= = = = and = =
RQ 7.6 2 QP 12 2 PR 6 3 2
AB BC CA
That is, = =
RQ QP PR
So, ∆ ABC ~ ∆ RQP (SSS similarity)
Therefore, ∠C= ∠P (Corresponding angles of similar triangles)

But ∠ C = 180° – ∠ A – ∠ B (Angle sum property)
= 180° – 80° – 60° = 40°

So, ∠ P = 40°
Example 6 : In Fig. 6.31,
OA . OB = OC . OD.
Show that ∠ A = ∠ C and ∠ B = ∠ D.
Solution : OA . OB = OC . OD (Given)
OA OD Fig. 6.31
So, = (1)
OC OB
Also, we have ∠ AOD = ∠ COB (Vertically opposite angles) (2)
Therefore, from (1) and (2), ∆ AOD ~ ∆ COB (SAS similarity criterion)
So, ∠ A = ∠ C and ∠ D = ∠ B
(Corresponding angles of similar triangles)
Example 7 : A girl of height 90 cm is

walking away from the base of a
lamp-post at a speed of 1.2 m/s. If the lamp
is 3.6 m above the ground, find the length
of her shadow after 4 seconds.
Solution : Let AB denote the lamp-post
and CD the girl after walking for 4 seconds
away from the lamp-post (see Fig. 6.32).
From the figure, you can see that DE is the
shadow of the girl. Let DE be x metres. Fig. 6.32

TRIANGLES 137
Now, BD = 1.2 m × 4 = 4.8 m.

Note that in ∆ ABE and ∆ CDE,
∠B= ∠D (Each is of 90° because lamp-post
as well as the girl are standing
vertical to the ground)
and ∠E= ∠E (Same angle)
So, ∆ ABE ~ ∆ CDE (AA similarity criterion)
BE AB
Therefore, =
DE CD
4.8 + x 3.6 90
i.e., = (90 cm = m = 0.9 m)
x 0.9 100
i.e., 4.8 + x = 4x
i.e., 3x = 4.8
i.e., x = 1.6
So, the shadow of the girl after walking for 4 seconds is 1.6 m long.
Example 8 : In Fig. 6.33, CM and RN are

respectively the medians of ∆ ABC and
∆ PQR. If ∆ ABC ~ ∆ PQR, prove that :
(i) ∆ AMC ~ ∆ PNR
CM AB
(ii) =
RN PQ
(iii) ∆ CMB ~ ∆ RNQ
Fig. 6.33
Solution : (i) ∆ ABC ~ ∆ PQR (Given)
AB BC CA
So, = = (1)
PQ QR RP
and ∠ A = ∠ P, ∠ B = ∠ Q and ∠ C = ∠ R (2)
But AB = 2 AM and PQ = 2 PN
(As CM and RN are medians)
2 AM CA
So, from (1), 2PN =
RP

138 MATHEMATICS
AM CA
i.e., = (3)
PN RP
Also, ∠ MAC = ∠ NPR [From (2)] (4)
So, from (3) and (4),
∆ AMC ~ ∆ PNR (SAS similarity) (5)
CM CA
(ii) From (5), = (6)
RN RP
CA AB
But = [From (1)] (7)
RP PQ
CM AB
Therefore, = [From (6) and (7)] (8)
RN PQ
AB BC
(iii) Again, = [From (1)]
PQ QR
CM BC
Therefore, = [From (8)] (9)
RN QR
CM AB 2 BM
Also, = =
RN PQ 2 QN
CM BM
i.e., = (10)
RN QN
CM BC BM
i.e., = = [From (9) and (10)]
RN QR QN
Therefore, ∆ CMB ~ ∆ RNQ (SSS similarity)
[Note : You can also prove part (iii) by following the same method as used for proving
part (i).]
EXERCISE 6.3
1. State which pairs of triangles in Fig. 6.34 are similar. Write the similarity criterion used by
you for answering the question and also write the pairs of similar triangles in the symbolic
form :

TRIANGLES 139
Fig. 6.34
2. In Fig. 6.35, ∆ ODC ~ ∆ OBA, ∠ BOC = 125°
and ∠ CDO = 70°. Find ∠ DOC, ∠ DCO and

∠ OAB.
3. Diagonals AC and BD of a trapezium ABCD
with AB || DC intersect each other at the

point O. Using a similarity criterion for two Fig. 6.35
OA OB
triangles, show that = ⋅
OC OD

140 MATHEMATICS
QR QT
4. In Fig. 6.36, = and ∠ 1 = ∠ 2. Show
QS PR
that ∆ PQS ~ ∆ TQR.
5. S and T are points on sides PR and QR of

∆ PQR such that ∠ P = ∠ RTS. Show that
∆ RPQ ~ ∆ RTS. Fig. 6.36
6. In Fig. 6.37, if ∆ ABE ≅ ∆ ACD, show that

∆ ADE ~ ∆ ABC.
7. In Fig. 6.38, altitudes AD and CE of ∆ ABC

intersect each other at the point P. Show
that:
(i) ∆ AEP ~ ∆ CDP
(ii) ∆ ABD ~ ∆ CBE
(iii) ∆ AEP ~ ∆ ADB
Fig. 6.37
(iv) ∆ PDC ~ ∆ BEC
8. E is a point on the side AD produced of a
parallelogram ABCD and BE intersects CD
at F. Show that ∆ ABE ~ ∆ CFB.
9. In Fig. 6.39, ABC and AMP are two right

triangles, right angled at B and M
respectively. Prove that:
(i) ∆ ABC ~ ∆ AMP
CA BC Fig. 6.38
(ii) =
PA MP
10. CD and GH are respectively the bisectors
of ∠ ACB and ∠ EGF such that D and H lie
on sides AB and FE of ∆ ABC and ∆ EFG
respectively. If ∆ ABC ~ ∆ FEG, show that:
CD AC
(i) =
GH FG
(ii) ∆ DCB ~ ∆ HGE
(iii) ∆ DCA ~ ∆ HGF Fig. 6.39

TRIANGLES 141
11. In Fig. 6.40, E is a point on side CB

produced of an isosceles triangle ABC
with AB = AC. If AD ⊥ BC and EF ⊥ AC,
prove that ∆ ABD ~ ∆ ECF.
12. Sides AB and BC and median AD of a
triangle ABC are respectively propor-
tional to sides PQ and QR and median
PM of ∆ PQR (see Fig. 6.41). Show that Fig. 6.40
∆ ABC ~ ∆ PQR.
13. D is a point on the side BC of a triangle
ABC such that ∠ ADC = ∠ BAC. Show
that CA2 = CB.CD.
14. Sides AB and AC and median AD of a
triangle ABC are respectively
proportional to sides PQ and PR and
median PM of another triangle PQR. Fig. 6.41
Show that ∆ ABC ~ ∆ PQR.
15. A vertical pole of length 6 m casts a shadow 4 m long on the ground and at the same time
a tower casts a shadow 28 m long. Find the height of the tower.
16. If AD and PM are medians of triangles ABC and PQR, respectively where
AB AD
∆ ABC ~ ∆ PQR, prove that = ⋅
PQ PM
6.5 Areas of Similar Triangles

You have learnt that in two similar triangles, the ratio of their corresponding sides is
the same. Do you think there is any relationship between the ratio of their areas and
the ratio of the corresponding sides? You know that area is measured in square units.
So, you may expect that this ratio is the square of the ratio of their corresponding
sides. This is indeed true and we shall prove it in the next theorem.
Theorem 6.6 : The ratio of the areas

of two similar triangles is equal to the
square of the ratio of their
corresponding sides.
Proof : We are given two
triangles ABC and PQR such that
∆ ABC ~ ∆ PQR (see Fig. 6.42). Fig. 6.42

142 MATHEMATICS
2 2 2
ar (ABC)  AB   BC   CA 
We need to prove that =  =  =  ⋅
ar (PQR)  PQ   QR   RP 
For finding the areas of the two triangles, we draw altitudes AM and PN of the
triangles.
1
Now, ar (ABC) = BC × AM
2
1
and ar (PQR) = QR × PN
2
1
ar (ABC) × BC × AM
BC × AM
So, = 2 = (1)
ar (PQR) 1 QR × PN
× QR × PN
2
Now, in ∆ ABM and ∆ PQN,
∠B= ∠Q (As ∆ ABC ~ ∆ PQR)
and ∠M= ∠N (Each is of 90°)
So, ∆ ABM ~ ∆ PQN (AA similarity criterion)
AM AB
Therefore, = (2)
PN PQ
Also, ∆ ABC ~ ∆ PQR (Given)
AB BC CA
So, = = (3)
PQ QR RP
ar (ABC) AB AM
Therefore, ×
ar (PQR) = PQ PN [From (1) and (3)]
AB AB
= × [From (2)]
PQ PQ
2
 AB 
=  
 PQ 
Now using (3), we get
2 2 2
ar (ABC)  AB   BC   CA 
ar (PQR) =  PQ     
= =
 QR   RP 
Let us take an example to illustrate the use of this theorem.

TRIANGLES 143
Example 9 : In Fig. 6.43, the line segment

XY is parallel to side AC of ∆ ABC and it
divides the triangle into two parts of equal
AX
areas. Find the ratio ⋅
AB
Fig. 6.43
Solution : We have XY || AC (Given)
So, ∠ BXY = ∠ A and ∠ BYX = ∠ C (Corresponding angles)
Therefore, ∆ ABC ~ ∆ XBY (AA similarity criterion)
2
ar (ABC)  AB 
So, ar (XBY) =  XB  (Theorem 6.6) (1)
Also, ar (ABC) = 2 ar (XBY) (Given)

ar (ABC) 2
So, ar (XBY) = 1 (2)

2
 AB  2 AB 2
  = , i.e., XB = 1
 XB  1
XB 1
or, =
AB 2
XB 1
or, 1– = 1–
AB 2
AB – XB 2 −1 AX 2 −1 2− 2
or, = , i.e., = = .
AB 2 AB 2 2
EXERCISE 6.4
1. Let ∆ ABC ~ ∆ DEF and their areas be, respectively, 64 cm 2 and 121 cm2. If EF =
15.4 cm, find BC.
2. Diagonals of a trapezium ABCD with AB || DC intersect each other at the point O.
If AB = 2 CD, find the ratio of the areas of triangles AOB and COD.

144 MATHEMATICS
3. In Fig. 6.44, ABC and DBC are two triangles on the

same base BC. If AD intersects BC at O, show that
ar (ABC) AO
= ⋅
ar (DBC) DO
4. If the areas of two similar triangles are equal, prove

that they are congruent. Fig. 6.44
5. D, E and F are respectively the mid-points of sides AB, BC and CA of ∆ ABC. Find the
ratio of the areas of ∆ DEF and ∆ ABC.
6. Prove that the ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio
of their corresponding medians.
7. Prove that the area of an equilateral triangle described on one side of a square is equal
to half the area of the equilateral triangle described on one of its diagonals.
Tick the correct answer and justify :
8. ABC and BDE are two equilateral triangles such that D is the mid-point of BC. Ratio of
the areas of triangles ABC and BDE is
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 1 : 2 (C) 4 : 1 (D) 1 : 4
9. Sides of two similar triangles are in the ratio 4 : 9. Areas of these triangles are in the ratio
(A) 2 : 3 (B) 4 : 9 (C) 81 : 16 (D) 16 : 81
6.6 Pythagoras Theorem

You are already familiar with the Pythagoras Theorem from your earlier classes. You
had verified this theorem through some activities and made use of it in solving certain
problems. You have also seen a proof of this theorem in Class IX. Now, we shall prove
this theorem using the concept of similarity of
triangles. In proving this, we shall make use of
a result related to similarity of two triangles
formed by the perpendicular to the hypotenuse
from the opposite vertex of the right triangle.
Now, let us take a right triangle ABC, right
angled at B. Let BD be the perpendicular to the
hypotenuse AC (see Fig. 6.45). Fig. 6.45
You may note that in ∆ ADB and ∆ ABC
∠A= ∠A
and ∠ ADB = ∠ ABC (Why?)
So, ∆ ADB ~ ∆ ABC (How?) (1)
Similarly, ∆ BDC ~ ∆ ABC (How?) (2)

TRIANGLES 145
So, from (1) and (2), triangles on both sides of the perpendicular BD are similar
to the whole triangle ABC.
Also, since ∆ ADB ~ ∆ ABC
and ∆ BDC ~ ∆ ABC
So, ∆ ADB ~ ∆ BDC (From Remark in Section 6.2)
The above discussion leads to the following theorem :
Theorem 6.7 : If a perpendicular is drawn from

the vertex of the right angle of a right triangle to
the hypotenuse then triangles on both sides of
the perpendicular are similar to the whole triangle
and to each other.
Let us now apply this theorem in proving the
Pythagoras Theorem:
Pythagoras
(569 – 479 B.C.E.)
Theorem 6.8 : In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares of the other two sides.
Proof : We are given a right triangle ABC right angled at B.
We need to prove that AC2 = AB2 + BC2
Let us draw BD ⊥ AC (see Fig. 6.46).
Now, ∆ ADB ~ ∆ ABC (Theorem 6.7)
AD AB
So, = (Sides are proportional) Fig. 6.46
AB AC
or, AD . AC = AB 2 (1)
Also, ∆ BDC ~ ∆ ABC (Theorem 6.7)
CD BC
So, =
BC AC
or, CD . AC = BC 2 (2)

146 MATHEMATICS
Adding (1) and (2),

AD . AC + CD . AC = AB2 + BC2
or, AC (AD + CD) = AB2 + BC2
or, AC . AC = AB2 + BC2
or, AC2 = AB2 + BC2
The above theorem was earlier given by an ancient Indian mathematician

Baudhayan (about 800 B.C.E.) in the following form :
The diagonal of a rectangle produces by itself the same area as produced
by its both sides (i.e., length and breadth).
For this reason, this theorem is sometimes also referred to as the Baudhayan
Theorem.
What about the converse of the Pythagoras Theorem? You have already verified,
in the earlier classes, that this is also true. We now prove it in the form of a theorem.
Theorem 6.9 : In a triangle, if square of one side is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides, then the angle opposite the first side is a right
angle.
Proof : Here, we are given a triangle ABC in which AC2 = AB2 + BC2.
We need to prove that ∠ B = 90°.
To start with, we construct a ∆ PQR right angled at Q such that PQ = AB and
QR = BC (see Fig. 6.47).
Fig. 6.47
Now, from ∆ PQR, we have :
PR2 = PQ2 + QR2 (Pythagoras Theorem,
as ∠ Q = 90°)
or, PR2 = AB2 + BC2 (By construction) (1)

TRIANGLES 147
But AC2 = AB2 + BC2 (Given) (2)

So, AC = PR [From (1) and (2)] (3)
Now, in ∆ ABC and ∆ PQR,
AB = PQ (By construction)
BC = QR (By construction)
AC = PR [Proved in (3) above]
So, ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ PQR (SSS congruence)
Therefore, ∠B= ∠Q (CPCT)
But ∠Q= 90° (By construction)
So, ∠B= 90°
Note : Also see Appendix 1 for another proof of this theorem.
Let us now take some examples to illustrate the use of these theorems.
Example 10 : In Fig. 6.48, ∠ ACB = 90°

BC2 BD
and CD ⊥ AB. Prove that = ⋅
AC2 AD
Solution : ∆ ACD ~ ∆ ABC
(Theorem 6.7)
AC AD
So, = Fig. 6.48
AB AC
or, AC2 = AB . AD (1)
Similarly, ∆ BCD ~ ∆ BAC (Theorem 6.7)

BC BD
So, =
BA BC
or, BC2 = BA . BD (2)
BC2 BA ⋅ BD BD
=
= AB ⋅ AD AD
AC2
Example 11 : A ladder is placed against a wall such that its foot is at a distance
of 2.5 m from the wall and its top reaches a window 6 m above the ground. Find the
length of the ladder.

148 MATHEMATICS
Solution : Let AB be the ladder and CA be the wall

with the window at A (see Fig. 6.49).
Also, BC = 2.5 m and CA = 6 m
From Pythagoras Theorem, we have:
AB2 = BC2 + CA2
= (2.5)2 + (6)2
= 42.25
So, AB = 6.5
Thus, length of the ladder is 6.5 m.
Example 12 : In Fig. 6.50, if AD ⊥ BC, prove that Fig. 6.49

AB2 + CD2 = BD2 + AC2.
Solution : From ∆ ADC, we have
AC2 = AD2 + CD2
(Pythagoras Theorem) (1)
From ∆ ADB, we have
AB2 = AD2 + BD2
(Pythagoras Theorem) (2)
Subtracting (1) from (2), we have Fig. 6.50
AB2 – AC2 = BD2 – CD2
or, AB2 + CD2 = BD2 + AC2
Example 13 : BL and CM are medians of a

triangle ABC right angled at A. Prove that
4 (BL2 + CM2) = 5 BC2 .
Solution : BL and CM are medians of the
∆ ABC in which ∠ A = 90° (see Fig. 6.51).
From ∆ ABC, Fig. 6.51
BC2 = AB2 + AC2 (Pythagoras Theorem) (1)

From ∆ ABL,
BL2 = AL2 + AB2

TRIANGLES 149
2
 AC  2
or, BL2 =   + AB (L is the mid-point of AC)
 2 
AC 2
or, BL2 = + AB2
4
or, 4 BL2 = AC2 + 4 AB2 (2)
From ∆ CMA,
CM2 = AC2 + AM2
2
 AB 
or, CM = AC + 
2 2
 (M is the mid-point of AB)
 2 
AB2
or, CM2 = AC2 +
4
or 4 CM2 = 4 AC2 + AB2 (3)
Adding (2) and (3), we have
4 (BL2 + CM2) = 5 (AC2 + AB2)
i.e., 4 (BL2 + CM2) = 5 BC2 [From (1)]
Example 14 : O is any point inside a

rectangle ABCD (see Fig. 6.52). Prove that
OB2 + OD2 = OA2 + OC2.
Solution :
Through O, draw PQ || BC so that P lies on
AB and Q lies on DC.
Fig. 6.52
Now, PQ || BC
Therefore, PQ ⊥ AB and PQ ⊥ DC (∠ B = 90° and ∠ C = 90°)
So, ∠ BPQ = 90° and ∠ CQP = 90°
Therefore, BPQC and APQD are both rectangles.

Now, from ∆ OPB,
OB2 = BP2 + OP2 (1)

150 MATHEMATICS
Similarly, from ∆ OQD,

OD2 = OQ2 + DQ2 (2)
From ∆ OQC, we have
OC2 = OQ2 + CQ2 (3)
and from ∆ OAP, we have
OA2 = AP2 + OP2 (4)
Adding (1) and (2),
OB2 + OD2 = BP2 + OP2 + OQ2 + DQ2
= CQ2 + OP2 + OQ2 + AP2
(As BP = CQ and DQ = AP)
= CQ2 + OQ2 + OP2 + AP2
= OC2 + OA2 [From (3) and (4)]
EXERCISE 6.5
1. Sides of triangles are given below. Determine which of them are right triangles.
In case of a right triangle, write the length of its hypotenuse.
(i) 7 cm, 24 cm, 25 cm
(ii) 3 cm, 8 cm, 6 cm
(iii) 50 cm, 80 cm, 100 cm
(iv) 13 cm, 12 cm, 5 cm
2. PQR is a triangle right angled at P and M is a
point on QR such that PM ⊥ QR. Show that
PM2 = QM . MR.
3. In Fig. 6.53, ABD is a triangle right angled at A
and AC ⊥ BD. Show that
(i) AB2 = BC . BD
(ii) AC2 = BC . DC
Fig. 6.53
(iii) AD2 = BD . CD
4. ABC is an isosceles triangle right angled at C. Prove that AB2 = 2AC2.
5. ABC is an isosceles triangle with AC = BC. If AB2 = 2 AC2, prove that ABC is a right
triangle.
6. ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 2a. Find each of its altitudes.
7. Prove that the sum of the squares of the sides of a rhombus is equal to the sum of the
squares of its diagonals.

TRIANGLES 151
8. In Fig. 6.54, O is a point in the interior of a triangle

ABC, OD ⊥ BC, OE ⊥ AC and OF ⊥ AB. Show that
(i) OA2 + OB2 + OC2 – OD2 – OE2 – OF2 = AF2 + BD2 + CE2,
(ii) AF2 + BD2 + CE2 = AE2 + CD2 + BF 2.
9. A ladder 10 m long reaches a window 8 m above the
ground. Find the distance of the foot of the ladder
from base of the wall.
10. A guy wire attached to a vertical pole of height 18 m
is 24 m long and has a stake attached to the other
end. How far from the base of the pole should the
Fig. 6.54
stake be driven so that the wire will be taut?
11. An aeroplane leaves an airport and flies due north at a speed of 1000 km per hour. At the
same time, another aeroplane leaves the same airport and flies due west at a speed of
1
1200 km per hour. How far apart will be the two planes after 1 hours?
2
12. Two poles of heights 6 m and 11 m stand on a
plane ground. If the distance between the feet
of the poles is 12 m, find the distance between
their tops.
13. D and E are points on the sides CA and CB
respectively of a triangle ABC right angled at C.
Prove that AE2 + BD2 = AB2 + DE2.
14. The perpendicular from A on side BC of a
∆ ABC intersects BC at D such that DB = 3 CD Fig. 6.55
(see Fig. 6.55). Prove that 2 AB2 = 2 AC2 + BC2.
1
15. In an equilateral triangle ABC, D is a point on side BC such that BD = BC. Prove that
3
9 AD2 = 7 AB2.
16. In an equilateral triangle, prove that three times the square of one side is equal to four
times the square of one of its altitudes.
17. Tick the correct answer and justify : In ∆ ABC, AB = 6 3 cm, AC = 12 cm and BC = 6 cm.
The angle B is :
(A) 120° (B) 60°
(C) 90° (D) 45°

152 MATHEMATICS

QS PQ
1. In Fig. 6.56, PS is the bisector of ∠ QPR of ∆ PQR. Prove that = ⋅
SR PR
Fig. 6.56 Fig. 6.57

2. In Fig. 6.57, D is a point on hypotenuse AC of ∆ ABC, such that BD ⊥ AC, DM ⊥ BC and
DN ⊥ AB. Prove that :
(i) DM2 = DN . MC (ii) DN2 = DM . AN
3. In Fig. 6.58, ABC is a triangle in which ∠ ABC > 90° and AD ⊥ CB produced. Prove that
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 + 2 BC . BD.
Fig. 6.58 Fig. 6.59

4. In Fig. 6.59, ABC is a triangle in which ∠ ABC < 90° and AD ⊥ BC. Prove that
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 – 2 BC . BD.
5. In Fig. 6.60, AD is a median of a triangle ABC and
AM ⊥ BC. Prove that :
2
 BC 
(i) AC2 = AD2 + BC . DM +  
 2 
Fig. 6.60
* These exercises are not from examination point of view.

TRIANGLES 153
2
 BC  1
(ii) AB2 = AD2 – BC . DM +   (iii) AC2 + AB2 = 2 AD2 + BC2
 2  2
6. Prove that the sum of the squares of the diagonals of parallelogram is equal to the sum
of the squares of its sides.
7. In Fig. 6.61, two chords AB and CD intersect each other at the point P. Prove that :
(i) ∆ APC ~ ∆ DPB (ii) AP . PB = CP . DP
Fig. 6.61 Fig. 6.62
8. In Fig. 6.62, two chords AB and CD of a circle intersect each other at the point P
(when produced) outside the circle. Prove that
(i) ∆ PAC ~ ∆ PDB (ii) PA . PB = PC . PD
9. In Fig. 6.63, D is a point on side BC of ∆ ABC
BD AB
such that = ⋅ Prove that AD is the
CD AC
bisector of ∠ BAC.
Fig. 6.63
10. Nazima is fly fishing in a stream. The tip of
her fishing rod is 1.8 m above the surface
of the water and the fly at the end of the
string rests on the water 3.6 m away and
2.4 m from a point directly under the tip of
the rod. Assuming that her string
(from the tip of her rod to the fly) is taut,
how much string does she have out
(see Fig. 6.64)? If she pulls in the string at
the rate of 5 cm per second, what will be
the horizontal distance of the fly from her
after 12 seconds?
Fig. 6.64

154 MATHEMATICS
6.7 Summary
In this chapter you have studied the following points :
1. Two figures having the same shape but not necessarily the same size are called similar
figures.
2. All the congruent figures are similar but the converse is not true.
3. Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if (i) their corresponding angles
are equal and (ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (i.e., proportion).
4. If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in
distinct points, then the other two sides are divided in the same ratio.
5. If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the
third side.
6. If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal, then their corresponding sides are in
the same ratio and hence the two triangles are similar (AAA similarity criterion).
7. If in two triangles, two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to the two angles of
the other triangle, then the two triangles are similar (AA similarity criterion).
8. If in two triangles, corresponding sides are in the same ratio, then their corresponding
angles are equal and hence the triangles are similar (SSS similarity criterion).
9. If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another triangle and the sides including
these angles are in the same ratio (proportional), then the triangles are similar
(SAS similarity criterion).
10. The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio of their
corresponding sides.
11. If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right triangle to the
hypotenuse, then the triangles on both sides of the perpendicular are similar to the
whole triangle and also to each other.
12. In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the
other two sides (Pythagoras Theorem).
13. If in a triangle, square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides, then the angle opposite the first side is a right angle.

If in two right triangles, hypotenuse and one side of one triangle are
proportional to the hypotenuse and one side of the other triangle,
then the two triangles are similar. This may be referred to as the
RHS Similarity Criterion.
If you use this criterion in Example 2, Chapter 8, the proof will become
simpler.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY 155
7.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you have studied that to locate the position of a point on a plane, we
require a pair of coordinate axes. The distance of a point from the y-axis is called its
x-coordinate, or abscissa. The distance of a point from the x-axis is called its
y-coordinate, or ordinate. The coordinates of a point on the x-axis are of the form
(x, 0), and of a point on the y-axis are of the form (0, y).
Here is a play for you. Draw a set of a pair of perpendicular axes on a graph
paper. Now plot the following points and join them as directed: Join the point A(4, 8) to
B(3, 9) to C(3, 8) to D(1, 6) to E(1, 5) to F(3, 3) to G(6, 3) to H(8, 5) to I(8, 6) to
J(6, 8) to K(6, 9) to L(5, 8) to A. Then join the points P(3.5, 7), Q (3, 6) and R(4, 6) to
form a triangle. Also join the points X(5.5, 7), Y(5, 6) and Z(6, 6) to form a triangle.
Now join S(4, 5), T(4.5, 4) and U(5, 5) to form a triangle. Lastly join S to the points
(0, 5) and (0, 6) and join U to the points (9, 5) and (9, 6). What picture have you got?
Also, you have seen that a linear equation in two variables of the form
ax + by + c = 0, (a, b are not simultaneously zero), when represented graphically,
gives a straight line. Further, in Chapter 2, you have seen the graph of
y = ax2 + bx + c (a ≠ 0), is a parabola. In fact, coordinate geometry has been developed
as an algebraic tool for studying geometry of figures. It helps us to study geometry
using algebra, and understand algebra with the help of geometry. Because of this,
coordinate geometry is widely applied in various fields such as physics, engineering,
navigation, seismology and art!
In this chapter, you will learn how to find the distance between the two points
whose coordinates are given, and to find the area of the triangle formed by three given
points. You will also study how to find the coordinates of the point which divides a line
segment joining two given points in a given ratio.

156 MATHEMATICS
7.2 Distance Formula

Let us consider the following situation:
A town B is located 36 km east and 15
km north of the town A. How would you find
the distance from town A to town B without
actually measuring it. Let us see. This situation
can be represented graphically as shown in
Fig. 7.1. You may use the Pythagoras Theorem
to calculate this distance.
Now, suppose two points lie on the x-axis. Fig. 7.1
Can we find the distance between them? For
instance, consider two points A(4, 0) and B(6, 0)
in Fig. 7.2. The points A and B lie on the x-axis.
From the figure you can see that OA = 4
units and OB = 6 units.
Therefore, the distance of B from A, i.e.,
AB = OB – OA = 6 – 4 = 2 units.
So, if two points lie on the x-axis, we can
easily find the distance between them.
Now, suppose we take two points lying on
the y-axis. Can you find the distance between
them. If the points C(0, 3) and D(0, 8) lie on the
y-axis, similarly we find that CD = 8 – 3 = 5 units Fig. 7.2
(see Fig. 7.2).
Next, can you find the distance of A from C (in Fig. 7.2)? Since OA = 4 units and
OC = 3 units, the distance of A from C, i.e., AC = 32 + 42 = 5 units. Similarly, you can
find the distance of B from D = BD = 10 units.
Now, if we consider two points not lying on coordinate axis, can we find the
distance between them? Yes! We shall use Pythagoras theorem to do so. Let us see
an example.
In Fig. 7.3, the points P(4, 6) and Q(6, 8) lie in the first quadrant. How do we use
Pythagoras theorem to find the distance between them? Let us draw PR and QS
perpendicular to the x-axis from P and Q respectively. Also, draw a perpendicular
from P on QS to meet QS at T. Then the coordinates of R and S are (4, 0) and (6, 0),
respectively. So, RS = 2 units. Also, QS = 8 units and TS = PR = 6 units.

Therefore, QT = 2 units and PT = RS = 2 units.

Now, using the Pythagoras theorem, we
have
PQ2 = PT2 + QT2
= 22 + 2 2 = 8
So, PQ = 2 2 units
How will we find the distance between two
points in two different quadrants?
Consider the points P(6, 4) and Q(–5, –3)
(see Fig. 7.4). Draw QS perpendicular to the
x-axis. Also draw a perpendicular PT from the
Fig. 7.3
point P on QS (extended) to meet y-axis at the
point R.
Fig. 7.4
Then PT = 11 units and QT = 7 units. (Why?)

Using the Pythagoras Theorem to the right triangle PTQ, we get
PQ = 112 + 7 2 = 170 units.

158 MATHEMATICS
Let us now find the distance between any two

points P(x 1, y 1) and Q(x 2, y 2 ). Draw PR and QS
perpendicular to the x-axis. A perpendicular from the
point P on QS is drawn to meet it at the point
T (see Fig. 7.5).
Then, OR = x1, OS = x2. So, RS = x2 – x1 = PT.
Also, SQ = y2, ST = PR = y1. So, QT = y2 – y1.
Now, applying the Pythagoras theorem in ∆ PTQ, we get
PQ2 = PT2 + QT2
Fig. 7.5
= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
Therefore, PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2
Note that since distance is always non-negative, we take only the positive square
root. So, the distance between the points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is
2 2
PQ = ( x2 – x1 ) + ( y2 – y1 ) ,
which is called the distance formula.

Remarks :
1. In particular, the distance of a point P(x, y) from the origin O(0, 0) is given by
OP = x2 + y 2 .
2. We can also write, PQ = ( x1 − x2 )2 + ( y1 − y2 )2 . (Why?)
Example 1 : Do the points (3, 2), (–2, –3) and (2, 3) form a triangle? If so, name the
type of triangle formed.
Solution : Let us apply the distance formula to find the distances PQ, QR and PR,
where P(3, 2), Q(–2, –3) and R(2, 3) are the given points. We have
PQ = (3 + 2)2 + (2 + 3) 2 = 52 + 52 = 50 = 7.07 (approx.)
QR = (–2 – 2)2 + (–3 – 3) 2 = (– 4)2 + (– 6)2 = 52 = 7.21 (approx.)
PR = (3 – 2) 2 + (2 – 3) 2 = 12 + (−1)2 = 2 = 1.41 (approx.)

Since the sum of any two of these distances is greater than the third distance, therefore,
the points P, Q and R form a triangle.

Also, PQ2 + PR2 = QR2, by the converse of Pythagoras theorem, we have ∠ P = 90°.
Therefore, PQR is a right triangle.
Example 2 : Show that the points (1, 7), (4, 2), (–1, –1) and (– 4, 4) are the vertices
of a square.
Solution : Let A(1, 7), B(4, 2), C(–1, –1) and D(– 4, 4) be the given points. One way
of showing that ABCD is a square is to use the property that all its sides should be
equal and both its digonals should also be equal. Now,
AB = (1 – 4) 2 + (7 − 2)2 = 9 + 25 = 34
BC = (4 + 1) 2 + (2 + 1) 2 = 25 + 9 = 34
CD = (–1 + 4)2 + (–1 – 4) 2 = 9 + 25 = 34
DA = (1 + 4) 2 + (7 – 4) 2 = 25 + 9 = 34
AC = (1 + 1) 2 + (7 + 1) 2 = 4 + 64 = 68
BD = (4 + 4) 2 + (2 − 4) 2 = 64 + 4 = 68
Since, AB = BC = CD = DA and AC = BD, all the four sides of the quadrilateral

ABCD are equal and its diagonals AC and BD are also equal. Thereore, ABCD is a
square.
Alternative Solution : We find
the four sides and one diagonal, say,
AC as above. Here AD2 + DC2 =
34 + 34 = 68 = AC2. Therefore, by
the converse of Pythagoras
theorem, ∠ D = 90°. A quadrilateral
with all four sides equal and one
angle 90° is a square. So, ABCD
is a square.
Example 3 : Fig. 7.6 shows the

arrangement of desks in a
classroom. Ashima, Bharti and
Camella are seated at A(3, 1),
B(6, 4) and C(8, 6) respectively.
Do you think they are seated in a
line? Give reasons for your
Fig. 7.6
answer.

160 MATHEMATICS
Solution : Using the distance formula, we have

AB = (6 − 3) 2 + (4 − 1) 2 = 9 + 9 = 18 = 3 2
BC = (8 – 6) 2 + (6 – 4) 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2
AC = (8 – 3) 2 + (6 – 1)2 = 25 + 25 = 50 = 5 2
Since, AB + BC = 3 2 + 2 2 = 5 2 = AC, we can say that the points A, B and C

are collinear. Therefore, they are seated in a line.
Example 4 : Find a relation between x and y such that the point (x , y) is equidistant
from the points (7, 1) and (3, 5).
Solution : Let P(x, y) be equidistant from the points A(7, 1) and B(3, 5).
We are given that AP = BP. So, AP2 = BP2
i.e., (x – 7)2 + (y – 1)2 = (x – 3)2 + (y – 5)2
i.e., x2 – 14x + 49 + y2 – 2y + 1 = x2 – 6x + 9 + y2 – 10y + 25
i.e., x–y= 2
which is the required relation.
Remark : Note that the graph of the equation

x – y = 2 is a line. From your earlier studies,
you know that a point which is equidistant
from A and B lies on the perpendicular
bisector of AB. Therefore, the graph of
x – y = 2 is the perpendicular bisector of AB
(see Fig. 7.7).
Example 5 : Find a point on the y-axis which
is equidistant from the points A(6, 5) and
B(– 4, 3).
Solution : We know that a point on the
y-axis is of the form (0, y). So, let the point
P(0, y) be equidistant from A and B. Then Fig. 7.7
(6 – 0)2 + (5 – y)2 = (– 4 – 0)2 + (3 – y)2
i.e., 36 + 25 + y2 – 10y = 16 + 9 + y2 – 6y
i.e., 4y = 36
i.e., y= 9

So, the required point is (0, 9).
Let us check our solution : AP = (6 – 0) 2 + (5 – 9) 2 = 36 + 16 = 52
BP = (– 4 – 0) 2 + (3 – 9) 2 = 16 + 36 = 52
Note : Using the remark above, we see that (0, 9) is the intersection of the y-axis and
the perpendicular bisector of AB.
EXERCISE 7.1
1. Find the distance between the following pairs of points :
(i) (2, 3), (4, 1) (ii) (– 5, 7), (– 1, 3) (iii) (a, b), (– a, – b)
2. Find the distance between the points (0, 0) and (36, 15). Can you now find the distance
between the two towns A and B discussed in Section 7.2.
3. Determine if the points (1, 5), (2, 3) and (– 2, – 11) are collinear.
4. Check whether (5, – 2), (6, 4) and (7, – 2) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
5. In a classroom, 4 friends are
seated at the points A, B, C and
D as shown in Fig. 7.8. Champa
and Chameli walk into the class
and after observing for a few
minutes Champa asks Chameli,
“Don’t you think ABCD is a
square?” Chameli disagrees.
Using distance formula, find
which of them is correct.
6. Name the type of quadrilateral
formed, if any, by the following
points, and give reasons for
your answer:
(i) (– 1, – 2), (1, 0), (– 1, 2), (– 3, 0)
(ii) (–3, 5), (3, 1), (0, 3), (–1, – 4)
(iii) (4, 5), (7, 6), (4, 3), (1, 2) Fig. 7.8
7. Find the point on the x-axis which is equidistant from (2, –5) and (–2, 9).
8. Find the values of y for which the distance between the points P(2, – 3) and Q(10, y) is
10 units.

162 MATHEMATICS
9. If Q(0, 1) is equidistant from P(5, –3) and R(x, 6), find the values of x. Also find the
distances QR and PR.
10. Find a relation between x and y such that the point (x, y) is equidistant from the point
(3, 6) and (– 3, 4).
7.3 Section Formula

Let us recall the situation in Section 7.2.
Suppose a telephone company wants to
position a relay tower at P between A and B
is such a way that the distance of the tower
from B is twice its distance from A. If P lies
on AB, it will divide AB in the ratio 1 : 2
(see Fig. 7.9). If we take A as the origin O,
and 1 km as one unit on both the axis, the
coordinates of B will be (36, 15). In order to
know the position of the tower, we must know Fig. 7.9
the coordinates of P. How do we find these
coordinates?
Let the coordinates of P be (x, y). Draw perpendiculars from P and B to the
x-axis, meeting it in D and E, respectively. Draw PC perpendicular to BE. Then, by
the AA similarity criterion, studied in Chapter 6, ∆ POD and ∆ BPC are similar.
OD OP 1 PD OP 1
Therefore , = = , and = =
PC PB 2 BC PB 2
x 1 y 1
So, = and = ⋅
36 − x 2 15 − y 2
These equations give x = 12 and y = 5.
You can check that P(12, 5) meets the
condition that OP : PB = 1 : 2.
Now let us use the understanding that
you may have developed through this
example to obtain the general formula.
Consider any two points A(x1, y1) and
B(x2, y2) and assume that P (x, y) divides
AB internally in the ratio m 1 : m 2, i.e.,
PA m1
= (see Fig. 7.10). Fig. 7.10
PB m2

Draw AR, PS and BT perpendicular to the x-axis. Draw AQ and PC parallel to

the x-axis. Then, by the AA similarity criterion,
∆ PAQ ~ ∆ BPC
PA AQ PQ
Therefore, = = (1)
BP PC BC
Now, AQ = RS = OS – OR = x – x1
PC = ST = OT – OS = x2 – x
PQ = PS – QS = PS – AR = y – y1
BC = BT– CT = BT – PS = y2 – y
Substituting these values in (1), we get
m1 x − x1 y − y1
= =
m2 x2 − x y2 − y
m1 x − x1 m1 x2 + m2 x1
Taking = , we get x =
m2 x2 − x m1 + m2
m1 y − y1 m y + m2 y1
Similarly, taking = , we get y = 1 2
m2 y2 − y m1 + m2
So, the coordinates of the point P(x, y) which divides the line segment joining the
points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2), internally, in the ratio m1 : m2 are
 m1 x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y2 + m2 y1 
  (2)
 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 
This is known as the section formula.
This can also be derived by drawing perpendiculars from A, P and B on the
y-axis and proceeding as above.
If the ratio in which P divides AB is k : 1, then the coordinates of the point P will be
 kx2 + x1 , ky2 + y1 
 ⋅
 k+1 k+1 
Special Case : The mid-point of a line segment divides the line segment in the ratio
1 : 1. Therefore, the coordinates of the mid-point P of the join of the points A(x1, y1)
and B(x2, y2) is
 1 ⋅ x1 + 1 ⋅ x2 , 1 ⋅ y1 + 1 ⋅ y2   x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 
 =
 1+1 1+1   2 2  .
Let us solve a few examples based on the section formula.

164 MATHEMATICS
Example 6 : Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining
the points (4, – 3) and (8, 5) in the ratio 3 : 1 internally.
Solution : Let P(x, y) be the required point. Using the section formula, we get
3(8) + 1(4) 3(5) + 1(–3)

x= = 7, y = =3
3+1 3+1
Therefore, (7, 3) is the required point.
Example 7 : In what ratio does the point (– 4, 6) divide the line segment joining the
points A(– 6, 10) and B(3, – 8)?
Solution : Let (– 4, 6) divide AB internally in the ratio m1 : m2. Using the section
formula, we get
 3m1 − 6m2 –8m1 + 10m2 
(– 4, 6) =  ,  (1)
 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 
Recall that if (x, y) = (a, b) then x = a and y = b.
3m1 − 6m2 − 8m1 + 10m2

So, –4= and 6 =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
3m1 − 6m2
Now, –4= gives us
m1 + m2
– 4m1 – 4m2 = 3m1 – 6m2
i.e., 7m1 = 2m2
i.e., m1 : m2 = 2 : 7
You should verify that the ratio satisfies the y-coordinate also.
m1
−8 + 10
−8m1 + 10m2 m2
Now, = (Dividing throughout by m2)
m1 + m2 m1
+1
m2
2
−8 × + 10
7 =6
= 2
+1
7

Therefore, the point (– 4, 6) divides the line segment joining the points A(– 6, 10) and
B(3, – 8) in the ratio 2 : 7.
m1
Alternatively : The ratio m1 : m2 can also be written as :1, or k : 1. Let (– 4, 6)
m2
divide AB internally in the ratio k : 1. Using the section formula, we get
 3k − 6 , −8k + 10 
(– 4, 6) =   (2)
 k +1 k +1 
3k − 6
So, –4=
k +1
i.e., – 4k – 4 = 3k – 6
i.e., 7k = 2
i.e., k:1= 2:7
You can check for the y-coordinate also.
So, the point (– 4, 6) divides the line segment joining the points A(– 6, 10) and
B(3, – 8) in the ratio 2 : 7.
Note : You can also find this ratio by calculating the distances PA and PB and taking
their ratios provided you know that A, P and B are collinear.
Example 8 : Find the coordinates of the points of trisection (i.e., points dividing in
three equal parts) of the line segment joining the points A(2, – 2) and B(– 7, 4).
Solution : Let P and Q be the points of
trisection of AB i.e., AP = PQ = QB
(see Fig. 7.11). Fig. 7.11
Therefore, P divides AB internally in the ratio 1 : 2. Therefore, the coordinates of P, by
applying the section formula, are
 1( −7) + 2(2) , 1(4) + 2( −2) 
  , i.e., (–1, 0)
 1+ 2 1+ 2 
Now, Q also divides AB internally in the ratio 2 : 1. So, the coordinates of Q are
 2(−7) + 1(2) , 2(4) + 1( −2) 

  , i.e., (– 4, 2)
 2+1 2 +1 

166 MATHEMATICS
Therefore, the coordinates of the points of trisection of the line segment joining A and
B are (–1, 0) and (– 4, 2).
Note : We could also have obtained Q by noting that it is the mid-point of PB. So, we
could have obtained its coordinates using the mid-point formula.
Example 9 : Find the ratio in which the y-axis divides the line segment joining the
points (5, – 6) and (–1, – 4). Also find the point of intersection.
Solution : Let the ratio be k : 1. Then by the section formula, the coordinates of the
 −k + 5 , −4k − 6 
point which divides AB in the ratio k : 1 are  ⋅
 k +1 k +1 
This point lies on the y-axis, and we know that on the y-axis the abscissa is 0.
−k + 5
Therefore, = 0
k +1
So, k=5
That is, the ratio is 5 : 1. Putting the value of k = 5, we get the point of intersection as
 −13 
 0, .
 3 
Example 10 : If the points A(6, 1), B(8, 2), C(9, 4) and D(p, 3) are the vertices of a
parallelogram, taken in order, find the value of p.
Solution : We know that diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
So, the coordinates of the mid-point of AC = coordinates of the mid-point of BD
6 + 9, 1+ 4  8 + p , 2 + 3
i.e.,   =  
 2 2   2 2 
 15 , 5  8 + p, 5
i.e.,   =  
 2 2  2 2
15 8+ p
so, =
2 2
i.e., p= 7

EXERCISE 7.2
1. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the join of (–1, 7) and (4, –3) in the
ratio 2 : 3.
2. Find the coordinates of the points of trisection of the line segment joining (4, –1)
and (–2, –3).
3. To conduct Sports Day activities, in
your rectangular shaped school
ground ABCD, lines have been
drawn with chalk powder at a
distance of 1m each. 100 flower pots
have been placed at a distance of 1m
from each other along AD, as shown
1
in Fig. 7.12. Niharika runs th the
4
distance AD on the 2nd line and
1
posts a green flag. Preet runs th
5
the distance AD on the eighth line
and posts a red flag. What is the
distance between both the flags? If
Rashmi has to post a blue flag exactly
halfway between the line segment
joining the two flags, where should
she post her flag? Fig. 7.12
4. Find the ratio in which the line segment joining the points (– 3, 10) and (6, – 8) is divided
by (– 1, 6).
5. Find the ratio in which the line segment joining A(1, – 5) and B(– 4, 5) is divided by the
x-axis. Also find the coordinates of the point of division.
6. If (1, 2), (4, y), (x, 6) and (3, 5) are the vertices of a parallelogram taken in order, find
x and y.
7. Find the coordinates of a point A, where AB is the diameter of a circle whose centre is
(2, – 3) and B is (1, 4).
8. If A and B are (– 2, – 2) and (2, – 4), respectively, find the coordinates of P such that
3
AP = AB and P lies on the line segment AB.
7
9. Find the coordinates of the points which divide the line segment joining A(– 2, 2) and
B(2, 8) into four equal parts.
10. Find the area of a rhombus if its vertices are (3, 0), (4, 5), (– 1, 4) and (– 2, – 1) taken in
1
order. [Hint : Area of a rhombus = (product of its diagonals)]
2

168 MATHEMATICS
7.4 Area of a Triangle

In your earlier classes, you have studied how to calculate the area of a triangle when
its base and corresponding height (altitude) are given. You have used the formula :
1
Area of a triangle = × base × altitude
2
In Class IX, you have also studied Heron’s formula to find the area of a triangle.
Now, if the coordinates of the vertices of a triangle are given, can you find its area?
Well, you could find the lengths of the
three sides using the distance formula and
then use Heron’s formula. But this could
be tedious, particularly if the lengths of
the sides are irrational numbers. Let us
see if there is an easier way out.
Let ABC be any triangle whose
vertices are A(x 1, y 1), B(x 2 , y 2 ) and
C(x 3 , y 3 ). Draw AP, BQ and CR
perpendiculars from A, B and C,
respectively, to the x-axis. Clearly ABQP,
APRC and BQRC are all trapezia
(see Fig. 7.13). Fig. 7.13
Now, from Fig. 7.13, it is clear that
area of ∆ ABC = area of trapezium ABQP + area of trapezium APRC
– area of trapezium BQRC.
You also know that the
1
area of a trapezium = (sum of parallel sides)(distance between them)
2
Therefore,
1 1 1
Area of ∆ ABC = (BQ + AP) QP + (AP + CR) PR – (BQ + CR) QR
2 2 2
1 1 1
= ( y2 + y1)( x1 − x2 ) + ( y1 + y3 )(x3 − x1) − ( y2 + y3 )(x3 − x2 )
2 2 2
1
= [ x1 ( y2 – y3 ) + x2 ( y3 – y1 ) + x3 ( y1 – y2 ) ]
2
Thus, the area of ∆ ABC is the numerical value of the expression
1
 x1 ( y2 − y3 ) + x2 ( y3 − y1 ) + x3 ( y1 − y2 
2
Let us consider a few examples in which we make use of this formula.

Example 11 : Find the area of a triangle whose vertices are (1, –1), (– 4, 6) and
(–3, –5).
Solution : The area of the triangle formed by the vertices A(1, –1), B(– 4, 6) and
C (–3, –5), by using the formula above, is given by
1
[1 (6 + 5) + (−4) (−5 + 1) + (−3) (−1 − 6)]
2
1
= (11 + 16 + 21) = 24
2
So, the area of the triangle is 24 square units.
Example 12 : Find the area of a triangle formed by the points A(5, 2), B(4, 7) and
C (7, – 4).
Solution : The area of the triangle formed by the vertices A(5, 2), B(4, 7) and
C (7, – 4) is given by
1
[5 (7 + 4) + 4 (− 4 − 2) + 7 (2 − 7) ]
2
1 −4
= (55 − 24 − 35) = = −2
2 2
Since area is a measure, which cannot be negative, we will take the numerical value
of – 2, i.e., 2. Therefore, the area of the triangle = 2 square units.
Example 13 : Find the area of the triangle formed by the points P(–1.5, 3), Q(6, –2)
and R(–3, 4).
Solution : The area of the triangle formed by the given points is equal to
1
[ −1.5(−2 − 4) + 6(4 − 3) + (−3)(3 + 2)]
2
1
= (9 + 6 − 15) = 0
2
Can we have a triangle of area 0 square units? What does this mean?
If the area of a triangle is 0 square units, then its vertices will be collinear.
Example 14 : Find the value of k if the points A(2, 3), B(4, k) and C(6, –3) are
collinear.
Solution : Since the given points are collinear, the area of the triangle formed by them
must be 0, i.e.,

170 MATHEMATICS
1
[ 2(k + 3) + 4(−3 − 3) + 6(3 − k )] = 0
2
1
i.e., ( − 4k ) = 0
2
Therefore, k=0
Let us verify our answer.
1
area of ∆ ABC = [ 2 (0 + 3) + 4(− 3 − 3) + 6 (3 − 0)] = 0
2
Example 15 : If A(–5, 7), B(– 4, –5), C(–1, –6) and D(4, 5) are the vertices of a
quadrilateral, find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD.
Solution : By joining B to D, you will get two triangles ABD and BCD.
1
Now the area of ∆ ABD = [ −5(− 5 − 5) + (−4)(5 − 7) + 4(7 + 5)]
2
1 106
= (50 + 8 + 48) = = 53 square units
2 2
1
Also, the area of ∆ BCD = [ −4(− 6 − 5) – 1(5 + 5) + 4( −5 + 6)]
2
1
= (44 − 10 + 4) = 19 square units
2
So, the area of quadrilateral ABCD = 53 + 19 = 72 square units.
Note : To find the area of a polygon, we divide it into triangular regions, which have
no common area, and add the areas of these regions.
EXERCISE 7.3
1. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are :
(i) (2, 3), (–1, 0), (2, – 4) (ii) (–5, –1), (3, –5), (5, 2)
2. In each of the following find the value of ‘k’, for which the points are collinear.
(i) (7, –2), (5, 1), (3, k) (ii) (8, 1), (k, – 4), (2, –5)
3. Find the area of the triangle formed by joining the mid-points of the sides of the triangle
whose vertices are (0, –1), (2, 1) and (0, 3). Find the ratio of this area to the area of the
given triangle.
4. Find the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices, taken in order, are (– 4, – 2), (– 3, – 5),
(3, – 2) and (2, 3).
5. You have studied in Class IX, (Chapter 9, Example 3), that a median of a triangle divides
it into two triangles of equal areas. Verify this result for ∆ ABC whose vertices are
A(4, – 6), B(3, –2) and C(5, 2).


1. Determine the ratio in which the line 2x + y – 4 = 0 divides the line segment joining the
points A(2, – 2) and B(3, 7).
2. Find a relation between x and y if the points (x, y), (1, 2) and (7, 0) are collinear.
3. Find the centre of a circle passing through the points (6, – 6), (3, – 7) and (3, 3).
4. The two opposite vertices of a square are (–1, 2) and (3, 2). Find the coordinates of the
other two vertices.
5. The Class X students of a
secondary school in Krishinagar
have been allotted a rectangular
plot of land for their gardening
activity. Sapling of Gulmohar
are planted on the boundary at
a distance of 1m from each
other. There is a triangular
grassy lawn in the plot as
shown in the Fig. 7.14. The
students are to sow seeds of
flowering plants on the
Fig. 7.14
remaining area of the plot.
(i) Taking A as origin, find the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle.
(ii) What will be the coordinates of the vertices of ∆ PQR if C is the origin?
Also calculate the areas of the triangles in these cases. What do you observe?
6. The vertices of a ∆ ABC are A(4, 6), B(1, 5) and C(7, 2). A line is drawn to intersect sides
AD AE 1
AB and AC at D and E respectively, such that = = ⋅ Calculate the area of the
AB AC 4
∆ ADE and compare it with the area of ∆ ABC. (Recall Theorem 6.2 and Theorem 6.6).
7. Let A (4, 2), B(6, 5) and C(1, 4) be the vertices of ∆ ABC.
(i) The median from A meets BC at D. Find the coordinates of the point D.
(ii) Find the coordinates of the point P on AD such that AP : PD = 2 : 1
(iii) Find the coordinates of points Q and R on medians BE and CF respectively such
that BQ : QE = 2 : 1 and CR : RF = 2 : 1.
(iv) What do yo observe?
[Note : The point which is common to all the three medians is called the centroid
and this point divides each median in the ratio 2 : 1.]

172 MATHEMATICS
(v) If A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) are the vertices of ∆ ABC, find the coordinates of
the centroid of the triangle.
8. ABCD is a rectangle formed by the points A(–1, –1), B(– 1, 4), C(5, 4) and D(5, – 1). P, Q,
R and S are the mid-points of AB, BC, CD and DA respectively. Is the quadrilateral
PQRS a square? a rectangle? or a rhombus? Justify your answer.
7.5 Summary
1. The distance between P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 .

2. The distance of a point P(x, y) from the origin is x2 + y 2 .
3. The coordinates of the point P(x, y) which divides the line segment joining the
points A(x 1 , y 1 ) and B(x 2 , y 2 ) internally in the ratio m 1 : m 2 are
 m1 x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y2 + m2 y1 
 ⋅
 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 
4. The mid-point of the line segment joining the points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is
 x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 
 2 .
 2 
5. The area of the triangle formed by the points (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is the
numerical value of the expression
1
[ x1 ( y2 − y3 ) + x2 ( y3 − y1 ) + x3 ( y1 − y2 )].
2

Section 7.3 discusses the Section Formula for the coordinates (x, y) of a
point P which divides internally the line segment joining the points
A(x1, y 1) and B(x2, y2) in the ratio m1 : m2 as follows :
m1 x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y2 + m2 y1
x= y=
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Note that, here, PA : PB = m1 : m2.

However, if P does not lie between A and B but lies on the line AB,
outside the line segment AB, and PA : PB = m1 : m2, we say that P divides
externally the line segment joining the points A and B. You will study
Section Formula for such case in higher classes.

INTRODUCTION TO TRIGONOMETRY 173
INTRODUCTION TO
TRIGONOMETRY 8
There is perhaps nothing which so occupies the
middle position of mathematics as trigonometry.
– J.F. Herbart (1890)
8.1 Introduction
You have already studied about triangles, and in particular, right triangles, in your
earlier classes. Let us take some examples from our surroundings where right triangles
can be imagined to be formed. For instance :
1. Suppose the students of a school are
visiting Qutub Minar. Now, if a student
is looking at the top of the Minar, a right
triangle can be imagined to be made,
as shown in Fig 8.1. Can the student
find out the height of the Minar, without
actually measuring it?
2. Suppose a girl is sitting on the balcony
of her house located on the bank of a Fig. 8.1
river. She is looking down at a flower
pot placed on a stair of a temple situated
nearby on the other bank of the river.
A right triangle is imagined to be made
in this situation as shown in Fig.8.2. If
you know the height at which the
person is sitting, can you find the width
of the river?
Fig. 8.2

174 MATHEMATICS
3. Suppose a hot air balloon is flying in

the air. A girl happens to spot the
balloon in the sky and runs to her
mother to tell her about it. Her mother
rushes out of the house to look at the
balloon.Now when the girl had spotted
the balloon intially it was at point A.
When both the mother and daughter
came out to see it, it had already
travelled to another point B. Can you
find the altitude of B from the ground? Fig. 8.3
In all the situations given above, the distances or heights can be found by using
some mathematical techniques, which come under a branch of mathematics called
‘trigonometry’. The word ‘trigonometry’ is derived from the Greek words ‘tri’
(meaning three), ‘gon’ (meaning sides) and ‘metron’ (meaning measure). In fact,
trigonometry is the study of relationships between the sides and angles of a triangle.
The earliest known work on trigonometry was recorded in Egypt and Babylon. Early
astronomers used it to find out the distances of the stars and planets from the Earth.
Even today, most of the technologically advanced methods used in Engineering and
Physical Sciences are based on trigonometrical concepts.
In this chapter, we will study some ratios of the sides of a right triangle with
respect to its acute angles, called trigonometric ratios of the angle. We will restrict
our discussion to acute angles only. However, these ratios can be extended to other
angles also. We will also define the trigonometric ratios for angles of measure 0° and
90°. We will calculate trigonometric ratios for some specific angles and establish
some identities involving these ratios, called trigonometric identities.
8.2 Trigonometric Ratios

In Section 8.1, you have seen some right triangles
imagined to be formed in different situations.
Let us take a right triangle ABC as shown
in Fig. 8.4.
Here, ∠ CAB (or, in brief, angle A) is an
acute angle. Note the position of the side BC
with respect to angle A. It faces ∠ A. We call it
the side opposite to angle A. AC is the
hypotenuse of the right triangle and the side AB
is a part of ∠ A. So, we call it the side
Fig. 8.4
adjacent to angle A.

Note that the position of sides change

when you consider angle C in place of A
(see Fig. 8.5).
You have studied the concept of ‘ratio’ in
your earlier classes. We now define certain ratios
involving the sides of a right triangle, and call
them trigonometric ratios.
The trigonometric ratios of the angle A
in right triangle ABC (see Fig. 8.4) are defined
as follows :
Fig. 8.5
side opposite to angle A BC
sine of ∠ A = =
hypotenuse AC
side adjacent to angle A AB

cosine of ∠ A = =
hypotenuse AC
side opposite to angle A BC
tangent of ∠ A = =
side adjacent to angle A AB
1 hypotenuse AC
cosecant of ∠ A = = =
sine of ∠ A side opposite to angle A BC
1 hypotenuse AC
secant of ∠ A = = =
cosine of ∠ A side adjacent to angle A AB
1 side adjacent to angle A AB
cotangent of ∠ A = = =
tangent of ∠ A side opposite to angle A BC
The ratios defined above are abbreviated as sin A, cos A, tan A, cosec A, sec A
and cot A respectively. Note that the ratios cosec A, sec A and cot A are respectively,
the reciprocals of the ratios sin A, cos A and tan A.
BC
BC AC sin A cos A .
Also, observe that tan A = = = and cot A =
AB AB cos A sin A
AC
So, the trigonometric ratios of an acute angle in a right triangle express the
relationship between the angle and the length of its sides.
Why don’t you try to define the trigonometric ratios for angle C in the right
triangle? (See Fig. 8.5)

176 MATHEMATICS
The first use of the idea of ‘sine’ in the way we use

it today was in the work Aryabhatiyam by Aryabhata,
in A.D. 500. Aryabhata used the word ardha-jya
for the half-chord, which was shortened to jya or
jiva in due course. When the Aryabhatiyam was
translated into Arabic, the word jiva was retained as
it is. The word jiva was translated into sinus, which
means curve, when the Arabic version was translated
into Latin. Soon the word sinus, also used as sine,
became common in mathematical texts throughout
Europe. An English Professor of astronomy Edmund
Gunter (1581–1626), first used the abbreviated Aryabhata
notation ‘sin’. C.E. 476 – 550
The origin of the terms ‘cosine’ and ‘tangent’ was much later. The cosine function
arose from the need to compute the sine of the complementary angle. Aryabhatta
called it kotijya. The name cosinus originated with Edmund Gunter. In 1674, the
English Mathematician Sir Jonas Moore first used the abbreviated notation ‘cos’.
Remark : Note that the symbol sin A is used as an

abbreviation for ‘the sine of the angle A’. sin A is not
the product of ‘sin’ and A. ‘sin’ separated from A
has no meaning. Similarly, cos A is not the product of
‘cos’ and A. Similar interpretations follow for other
trigonometric ratios also.
Now, if we take a point P on the hypotenuse
AC or a point Q on AC extended, of the right triangle
ABC and draw PM perpendicular to AB and QN
perpendicular to AB extended (see Fig. 8.6), how
will the trigonometric ratios of ∠ A in ∆ PAM differ
from those of ∠ A in ∆ CAB or from those of ∠ A in Fig. 8.6
∆ QAN?
To answer this, first look at these triangles. Is ∆ PAM similar to ∆ CAB? From
Chapter 6, recall the AA similarity criterion. Using the criterion, you will see that the
triangles PAM and CAB are similar. Therefore, by the property of similar triangles,
the corresponding sides of the triangles are proportional.
AM AP MP
So, we have = = ⋅
AB AC BC

MP BC
From this, we find = = sin A .
AP AC
AM AB MP BC
Similarly, = = cos A, = = tan A and so on.
AP AC AM AB
This shows that the trigonometric ratios of angle A in ∆ PAM not differ from
those of angle A in ∆ CAB.
In the same way, you should check that the value of sin A (and also of other
trigonometric ratios) remains the same in ∆ QAN also.
From our observations, it is now clear that the values of the trigonometric
ratios of an angle do not vary with the lengths of the sides of the triangle, if
the angle remains the same.
Note : For the sake of convenience, we may write sin2A, cos2A, etc., in place of
(sin A)2, (cos A)2, etc., respectively. But cosec A = (sin A)–1 ≠ sin–1 A (it is called sine
inverse A). sin–1 A has a different meaning, which will be discussed in higher classes.
Similar conventions hold for the other trigonometric ratios as well. Sometimes, the
Greek letter θ (theta) is also used to denote an angle.
We have defined six trigonometric ratios of an acute angle. If we know any one
of the ratios, can we obtain the other ratios? Let us see.
1
If in a right triangle ABC, sin A = ,
3
BC 1
then this means that = , i.e., the
AC 3
lengths of the sides BC and AC of the triangle
ABC are in the ratio 1 : 3 (see Fig. 8.7). So if
BC is equal to k, then AC will be 3k, where
Fig. 8.7
k is any positive number. To determine other
trigonometric ratios for the angle A, we need to find the length of the third side
AB. Do you remember the Pythagoras theorem? Let us use it to determine the
required length AB.
AB2 = AC2 – BC2 = (3k)2 – (k)2 = 8k2 = (2 2 k)2
Therefore, AB = ± 2 2 k
So, we get AB = 2 2 k (Why is AB not – 2 2 k ?)
AB 2 2 k 2 2
Now, cos A = = =
AC 3k 3
Similarly, you can obtain the other trigonometric ratios of the angle A.

178 MATHEMATICS
Remark : Since the hypotenuse is the longest side in a right triangle, the value of
sin A or cos A is always less than 1 (or, in particular, equal to 1).
4
Example 1 : Given tan A = , find the other
3
trigonometric ratios of the angle A.
Solution : Let us first draw a right ∆ ABC
(see Fig 8.8).
BC 4
Now, we know that tan A = = .
AB 3
Therefore, if BC = 4k, then AB = 3k, where k is a
positive number.
Fig. 8.8
Now, by using the Pythagoras Theorem, we have
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 = (4k)2 + (3k)2 = 25k2
So, AC = 5k
Now, we can write all the trigonometric ratios using their definitions.
BC 4k 4
sin A = = =
AC 5k 5
AB 3k 3
cos A = = =
AC 5k 5
1 3 1 5 1 5
Therefore, cot A = = , cosec A = = and sec A = = ⋅
tan A 4 sin A 4 cos A 3
Example 2 : If ∠ B and ∠ Q are

acute angles such that sin B = sin Q,
then prove that ∠ B = ∠ Q.
Solution : Let us consider two right
triangles ABC and PQR where
sin B = sin Q (see Fig. 8.9).
AC Fig. 8.9
We have sin B =
AB
PR
and sin Q =
PQ

AC PR
Then =
AB PQ
AC AB
Therefore, = = k , say (1)
PR PQ
Now, using Pythagoras theorem,
BC = AB2 − AC2
and QR = PQ2 – PR 2
BC AB2 − AC 2 k 2 PQ 2 − k 2 PR 2 k PQ 2 − PR 2
So, = = = =k (2)
QR PQ 2 − PR 2 PQ 2 − PR 2 PQ2 − PR 2
From (1) and (2), we have
AC AB BC
= =
PR PQ QR
Then, by using Theorem 6.4, ∆ ACB ~ ∆ PRQ and therefore, ∠ B = ∠ Q.
Example 3 : Consider ∆ ACB, right-angled at C, in

which AB = 29 units, BC = 21 units and ∠ ABC = θ
(see Fig. 8.10). Determine the values of
(i) cos2 θ + sin2 θ,
(ii) cos2 θ – sin2 θ.
Solution : In ∆ ACB, we have
AC = AB2 − BC 2 = (29) 2 − (21) 2 Fig. 8.10

= (29 − 21) (29 + 21) = (8) (50) = 400 = 20 units
AC 20 , BC 21
So, sin θ = = cos θ = = ⋅
AB 29 AB 29
2 2
 20   21  202 + 212 400 + 441
Now, (i) cos θ + sin θ =   +   =
2 2 = = 1,
 29   29  292 841
2 2
 21   20  (21 + 20) (21 − 20) 41
and (ii) cos θ – sin θ =   −   =
2 2
2
= .
 29   29  29 841

180 MATHEMATICS
Example 4 : In a right triangle ABC, right-angled at B,

if tan A = 1, then verify that
2 sin A cos A = 1.
BC
Solution : In ∆ ABC, tan A = =1 (see Fig 8.11)
AB
i.e., BC = AB
Fig. 8.11
Let AB = BC = k, where k is a positive number.
Now, AC = AB2 + BC 2
= ( k ) 2 + (k ) 2 = k 2
BC 1 AB 1
Therefore, sin A = = and cos A = =
AC 2 AC 2
 1  1 
So, 2 sin A cos A = 2    = 1, which is the required value.
 2  2 
Example 5 : In ∆ OPQ, right-angled at P,
OP = 7 cm and OQ – PQ = 1 cm (see Fig. 8.12).
Determine the values of sin Q and cos Q.
Solution : In ∆ OPQ, we have
OQ2 = OP2 + PQ2
i.e., (1 + PQ)2 = OP2 + PQ2 (Why?)
i.e., 1 + PQ2 + 2PQ = OP2 + PQ2
i.e., 1 + 2PQ = 72 (Why?)
i.e., PQ = 24 cm and OQ = 1 + PQ = 25 cm
Fig. 8.12
7 24
So, sin Q = and cos Q = ⋅
25 25

EXERCISE 8.1
1. In ∆ ABC, right-angled at B, AB = 24 cm, BC = 7 cm. Determine :
(i) sin A, cos A
(ii) sin C, cos C
2. In Fig. 8.13, find tan P – cot R.
3,
3. If sin A = calculate cos A and tan A.
4
4. Given 15 cot A = 8, find sin A and sec A.
13 ,
5. Given sec θ = calculate all other trigonometric ratios. Fig. 8.13
12
6. If ∠ A and ∠ B are acute angles such that cos A = cos B, then show that ∠ A = ∠ B.
7, (1 + sin θ) (1 − sin θ) ,
7. If cot θ = evaluate : (i) (ii) cot2 θ
8 (1 + cos θ) (1 − cos θ)
1 − tan 2 A
8. If 3 cot A = 4, check whether = cos2 A – sin2A or not.
1 + tan 2 A
1 ,
9. In triangle ABC, right-angled at B, if tan A = find the value of:
3
(i) sin A cos C + cos A sin C
(ii) cos A cos C – sin A sin C
10. In ∆ PQR, right-angled at Q, PR + QR = 25 cm and PQ = 5 cm. Determine the values of
sin P, cos P and tan P.
11. State whether the following are true or false. Justify your answer.
(i) The value of tan A is always less than 1.
12
(ii) sec A = for some value of angle A.
5
(iii) cos A is the abbreviation used for the cosecant of angle A.
(iv) cot A is the product of cot and A.
4
(v) sin θ = for some angle θ.
3
8.3 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Specific Angles

From geometry, you are already familiar with the construction of angles of 30°, 45°,
60° and 90°. In this section, we will find the values of the trigonometric ratios for these
angles and, of course, for 0°.

182 MATHEMATICS
Trigonometric Ratios of 45°

In ∆ ABC, right-angled at B, if one angle is 45°, then
the other angle is also 45°, i.e., ∠ A = ∠ C = 45°
(see Fig. 8.14).
So, BC = AB (Why?)
Now, Suppose BC = AB = a.
Fig. 8.14
Then by Pythagoras Theorem, AC2 = AB2 + BC2 = a2 + a2 = 2a2,
and, therefore, AC = a 2 ⋅
Using the definitions of the trigonometric ratios, we have :
side opposite to angle 45° BC a 1

sin 45° = = = =
hypotenuse AC a 2 2
side adjacent to angle 45° AB a 1

cos 45° = = = =
hypotenuse AC a 2 2
side opposite to angle 45° BC a

tan 45° = = = =1
side adjacent to angle 45° AB a
1 1 1
Also, cosec 45° = = 2 , sec 45° = = 2 , cot 45° = = 1.
sin 45° cos 45° tan 45°
Trigonometric Ratios of 30° and 60°

Let us now calculate the trigonometric ratios of 30°
and 60°. Consider an equilateral triangle ABC. Since
each angle in an equilateral triangle is 60°, therefore,
∠ A = ∠ B = ∠ C = 60°.
Draw the perpendicular AD from A to the side BC
(see Fig. 8.15).
Now ∆ ABD ≅ ∆ ACD (Why?) Fig. 8.15
Therefore, BD = DC
and ∠ BAD = ∠ CAD (CPCT)
Now observe that:
∆ ABD is a right triangle, right- angled at D with ∠ BAD = 30° and ∠ ABD = 60°
(see Fig. 8.15).

As you know, for finding the trigonometric ratios, we need to know the lengths of the
sides of the triangle. So, let us suppose that AB = 2a.
1
Then, BD = BC = a
2
and AD2 = AB2 – BD2 = (2a)2 – (a)2 = 3a2,
Therefore, AD = a 3
Now, we have :
BD a 1 AD a 3 3
sin 30° = = = , cos 30° = = =
AB 2a 2 AB 2a 2
BD a 1
tan 30° = = = .
AD a 3 3
1 1 2
Also, cosec 30° = = 2, sec 30° = =
sin 30° cos 30° 3
1
cot 30° = = 3.
tan 30°
Similarly,
AD a 3 3 1
sin 60° = = = , cos 60° = , tan 60° = 3,
AB 2a 2 2
2 , 1
cosec 60° = sec 60° = 2 and cot 60° = ⋅
3 3
Trigonometric Ratios of 0° and 90°

Let us see what happens to the trigonometric ratios of angle
A, if it is made smaller and smaller in the right triangle ABC
(see Fig. 8.16), till it becomes zero. As ∠ A gets smaller and
smaller, the length of the side BC decreases.The point C gets
closer to point B, and finally when ∠ A becomes very close
to 0°, AC becomes almost the same as AB (see Fig. 8.17). Fig. 8.16
Fig. 8.17

184 MATHEMATICS
When ∠ A is very close to 0°, BC gets very close to 0 and so the value of
BC
sin A = is very close to 0. Also, when ∠ A is very close to 0°, AC is nearly the
AC
AB
same as AB and so the value of cos A = is very close to 1.
AC
This helps us to see how we can define the values of sin A and cos A when
A = 0°. We define : sin 0° = 0 and cos 0° = 1.
Using these, we have :
sin 0° 1 ,
tan 0° = = 0, cot 0° = which is not defined. (Why?)
cos 0° tan 0°
1 1 ,
sec 0° = = 1 and cosec 0° = which is again not defined.(Why?)
cos 0° sin 0°
Now, let us see what happens to the trigonometric ratios of ∠ A, when it is made
larger and larger in ∆ ABC till it becomes 90°. As ∠ A gets larger and larger, ∠ C gets
smaller and smaller. Therefore, as in the case above, the length of the side AB goes on
decreasing. The point A gets closer to point B. Finally when ∠ A is very close to 90°,
∠ C becomes very close to 0° and the side AC almost coincides with side BC
(see Fig. 8.18).
Fig. 8.18
When ∠ C is very close to 0°, ∠ A is very close to 90°, side AC is nearly the
same as side BC, and so sin A is very close to 1. Also when ∠ A is very close to 90°,
∠ C is very close to 0°, and the side AB is nearly zero, so cos A is very close to 0.
So, we define : sin 90° = 1 and cos 90° = 0.
Now, why don’t you find the other trigonometric ratios of 90°?
We shall now give the values of all the trigonometric ratios of 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°
and 90° in Table 8.1, for ready reference.

Table 8.1
∠A 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
1 1 3
sin A 0 1
2 2 2
3 1 1
cos A 1 0
2 2 2
1
tan A 0 1 3 Not defined
3
2
cosec A Not defined 2 2 1
3
2
sec A 1 2 2 Not defined
3
1
cot A Not defined 3 1 0
3
Remark : From the table above you can observe that as ∠ A increases from 0° to
90°, sin A increases from 0 to 1 and cos A decreases from 1 to 0.
Let us illustrate the use of the values in the table above through some examples.
Example 6 : In ∆ ABC, right-angled at B,

AB = 5 cm and ∠ ACB = 30° (see Fig. 8.19).
Determine the lengths of the sides BC and AC.
Solution : To find the length of the side BC, we will
choose the trigonometric ratio involving BC and the
given side AB. Since BC is the side adjacent to angle
C and AB is the side opposite to angle C, therefore Fig. 8.19
AB
= tan C
BC
5 1
i.e., = tan 30° =
BC 3
which gives BC = 5 3 cm

186 MATHEMATICS
To find the length of the side AC, we consider
AB
sin 30° = (Why?)
AC
1 5
i.e., =
2 AC
i.e., AC = 10 cm
Note that alternatively we could have used Pythagoras theorem to determine the third
side in the example above,
i.e., AC = AB2 + BC 2 = 52 + (5 3) 2 cm = 10cm.
Example 7 : In ∆ PQR, right - angled at

Q (see Fig. 8.20), PQ = 3 cm and PR = 6 cm.
Determine ∠ QPR and ∠ PRQ.
Solution : Given PQ = 3 cm and PR = 6 cm.
PQ
Therefore, = sin R
PR
Fig. 8.20
3 1
or sin R = =
6 2
So, ∠ PRQ = 30°
and therefore, ∠ QPR = 60°. (Why?)
You may note that if one of the sides and any other part (either an acute angle or any
side) of a right triangle is known, the remaining sides and angles of the triangle can be
determined.
1 1
Example 8 : If sin (A – B) = , cos (A + B) = , 0° < A + B ≤ 90°, A > B, find A
2 2
and B.
1
Solution : Since, sin (A – B) = , therefore, A – B = 30° (Why?) (1)
2
1
Also, since cos (A + B) = , therefore, A + B = 60° (Why?) (2)
2
Solving (1) and (2), we get : A = 45° and B = 15°.

EXERCISE 8.2
1. Evaluate the following :
(i) sin 60° cos 30° + sin 30° cos 60° (ii) 2 tan2 45° + cos2 30° – sin2 60°
cos 45° sin 30° + tan 45° – cosec 60°
(iii) (iv)
sec 30° + cosec 30° sec 30° + cos 60° + cot 45°
5 cos 2 60° + 4 sec 2 30° − tan 2 45°
(v)
sin 2 30° + cos 2 30°
2. Choose the correct option and justify your choice :
2 tan 30°
(i) =
1 + tan 2 30°
(A) sin 60° (B) cos 60° (C) tan 60° (D) sin 30°
1 − tan 2 45°
(ii) =
1 + tan 2 45°
(A) tan 90° (B) 1 (C) sin 45° (D) 0
(iii) sin 2A = 2 sin A is true when A =
(A) 0° (B) 30° (C) 45° (D) 60°
2 tan 30°
(iv) =
1 − tan 2 30°
(A) cos 60° (B) sin 60° (C) tan 60° (D) sin 30°
1
3. If tan (A + B) = 3 and tan (A – B) = ; 0° < A + B ≤ 90°; A > B, find A and B.
3
4. State whether the following are true or false. Justify your answer.
(i) sin (A + B) = sin A + sin B.
(ii) The value of sin θ increases as θ increases.
(iii) The value of cos θ increases as θ increases.
(iv) sin θ = cos θ for all values of θ.
(v) cot A is not defined for A = 0°.
8.4 Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles

Recall that two angles are said to be complementary
if their sum equals 90°. In ∆ ABC, right-angled at B,
do you see any pair of complementary angles?
(See Fig. 8.21) Fig. 8.21

188 MATHEMATICS
Since ∠ A + ∠ C = 90°, they form such a pair. We have:
BC AB BC
sin A = cos A = tan A = 
AC AC AB 

 (1)
AC AC AB 
cosec A = sec A = cot A = 
BC AB BC
Now let us write the trigonometric ratios for ∠ C = 90° – ∠ A.
For convenience, we shall write 90° – A instead of 90° – ∠ A.
What would be the side opposite and the side adjacent to the angle 90° – A?
You will find that AB is the side opposite and BC is the side adjacent to the angle
90° – A. Therefore,
AB BC AB
sin (90° – A) = , cos (90° – A) = , tan (90° – A) = 
AC AC BC 

 (2)
AC , AC , BC 
cosec (90° – A) = sec (90° – A) = cot (90° – A) = 
AB BC AB 
Now, compare the ratios in (1) and (2). Observe that :
AB BC
sin (90° – A) = = cos A and cos (90° – A) = = sin A
AC AC
AB BC
Also, tan (90° – A) = = cot A , cot (90° – A) = = tan A
BC AB
AC AC
sec (90° – A) = = cosec A , cosec (90° – A) = = sec A
BC AB
So, sin (90° – A) = cos A, cos (90° – A) = sin A,
tan (90° – A) = cot A, cot (90° – A) = tan A,
sec (90° – A) = cosec A, cosec (90° – A) = sec A,
for all values of angle A lying between 0° and 90°. Check whether this holds for
A = 0° or A = 90°.
Note : tan 0° = 0 = cot 90°, sec 0° = 1 = cosec 90° and sec 90°, cosec 0°, tan 90° and
cot 0° are not defined.
Now, let us consider some examples.

tan 65°
Example 9 : Evaluate .
cot 25°
Solution : We know : cot A = tan (90° – A)
So, cot 25° = tan (90° – 25°) = tan 65°
tan 65° tan 65°

i.e., = =1
cot 25° tan 65°
Example 10 : If sin 3A = cos (A – 26°), where 3A is an acute angle, find the value
of A.
Solution : We are given that sin 3A = cos (A – 26°). (1)
Since sin 3A = cos (90° – 3A), we can write (1) as
cos (90° – 3A) = cos (A – 26°)
Since 90° – 3A and A – 26° are both acute angles, therefore,
90° – 3A = A – 26°
which gives A = 29°
Example 11 : Express cot 85° + cos 75° in terms of trigonometric ratios of angles
between 0° and 45°.
Solution : cot 85° + cos 75° = cot (90° – 5°) + cos (90° – 15°)
= tan 5° + sin 15°
EXERCISE 8.3
1. Evaluate :
sin 18° tan 26°

(i) (ii) (iii) cos 48° – sin 42° (iv) cosec 31° – sec 59°
cos 72° cot 64°
2. Show that :
(i) tan 48° tan 23° tan 42° tan 67° = 1
(ii) cos 38° cos 52° – sin 38° sin 52° = 0
3. If tan 2A = cot (A – 18°), where 2A is an acute angle, find the value of A.
4. If tan A = cot B, prove that A + B = 90°.
5. If sec 4A = cosec (A – 20°), where 4A is an acute angle, find the value of A.

190 MATHEMATICS
6. If A, B and C are interior angles of a triangle ABC, then show that
B + C A
sin   = cos ⋅
 2  2
7. Express sin 67° + cos 75° in terms of trigonometric ratios of angles between 0° and 45°.
8.5 Trigonometric Identities

You may recall that an equation is called an identity
when it is true for all values of the variables involved.
Similarly, an equation involving trigonometric ratios
of an angle is called a trigonometric identity, if it is
true for all values of the angle(s) involved.
In this section, we will prove one trigonometric
identity, and use it further to prove other useful
trigonometric identities. Fig. 8.22
In ∆ ABC, right-angled at B (see Fig. 8.22), we have:
AB2 + BC2 = AC 2 (1)
2
Dividing each term of (1) by AC , we get
AB2 BC 2 AC2
+ =
AC 2 AC 2 AC2
2 2 2
 AB   BC   AC 
i.e.,   +  =  
 AC   AC   AC 
i.e., (cos A)2 + (sin A)2 = 1
i.e., cos2 A + sin2 A = 1 (2)
This is true for all A such that 0° ≤ A ≤ 90°. So, this is a trigonometric identity.
Let us now divide (1) by AB2. We get
AB2 BC 2 AC2
+ =
AB2 AB2 AB2
2 2 2
 AB   BC   AC 
or,   +  =  
 AB   AB   AB 
i.e., 1 + tan2 A = sec 2 A (3)

Is this equation true for A = 0°? Yes, it is. What about A = 90°? Well, tan A and
sec A are not defined for A = 90°. So, (3) is true for all A such that 0° ≤ A < 90°.
Let us see what we get on dividing (1) by BC2. We get
AB2 BC2 AC2

+ =
BC2 BC2 BC2
2 2 2
 AB   BC   AC 
i.e.,   +  =  
 BC   BC   BC 
i.e., cot2 A + 1 = cosec 2 A (4)
Note that cosec A and cot A are not defined for A = 0°. Therefore (4) is true for
all A such that 0° < A ≤ 90°.
Using these identities, we can express each trigonometric ratio in terms of other
trigonometric ratios, i.e., if any one of the ratios is known, we can also determine the
values of other trigonometric ratios.
Let us see how we can do this using these identities. Suppose we know that
1
tan A = ⋅ Then, cot A = 3.
3
1 4, 2 3
Since, sec2 A = 1 + tan2 A = 1 + = sec A = , and cos A = ⋅
3 3 3 2
3 1
Again, sin A = 1 − cos2 A = 1 − = . Therefore, cosec A = 2.
4 2
Example 12 : Express the ratios cos A, tan A and sec A in terms of sin A.
Solution : Since cos2 A + sin2 A = 1, therefore,
2
cos2 A = 1 – sin2 A, i.e., cos A = ± 1 − sin A
This gives cos A = 1 − sin 2 A (Why?)
sin A sin A 1 1
Hence, tan A = = and sec A = =
cos A 1 – sin 2 A cos A 1 − sin 2 A

192 MATHEMATICS
Example 13 : Prove that sec A (1 – sin A)(sec A + tan A) = 1.

Solution :
 1   1 sin A 
LHS = sec A (1 – sin A)(sec A + tan A) =   (1 − sin A)  + 
 cos A   cos A cos A 
(1 − sin A) (1 + sin A) 1 − sin 2 A
= =
cos2 A cos2 A
cos2 A
= = 1 = RHS
cos2 A
cot A – cos A cosec A – 1

Example 14 : Prove that =
cot A + cos A cosec A + 1
cos A
− cos A
cot A – cos A sin A
Solution : LHS = =
cot A + cos A cos A
+ cos A
sin A
 1   1 
cos A  −1   − 1
 sin A  =  sin A  = cosec A – 1
= = RHS
 1   1  cosec A + 1
cos A  + 1  + 1
 sin A   sin A 
sin θ − cos θ + 1 1 , using the identity

Example 15 : Prove that =
sin θ + cos θ − 1 sec θ − tan θ
sec2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ.
Solution : Since we will apply the identity involving sec θ and tan θ, let us first
convert the LHS (of the identity we need to prove) in terms of sec θ and tan θ by
dividing numerator and denominator by cos θ.
sin θ – cos θ + 1 tan θ − 1 + sec θ

LHS = =
sin θ + cos θ – 1 tan θ + 1 − sec θ
(tan θ + sec θ) − 1 {(tan θ + sec θ) − 1} (tan θ − sec θ)

= =
(tan θ − sec θ) + 1 {(tan θ − sec θ) + 1} (tan θ − sec θ)

(tan 2 θ − sec 2 θ) − (tan θ − sec θ)

=
{tan θ − sec θ + 1} (tan θ − sec θ)
– 1 − tan θ + sec θ
=
(tan θ − sec θ + 1) (tan θ − sec θ)
–1 1 ,
= tan θ − sec θ = sec θ − tan θ
which is the RHS of the identity, we are required to prove.
EXERCISE 8.4
1. Express the trigonometric ratios sin A, sec A and tan A in terms of cot A.
2. Write all the other trigonometric ratios of ∠ A in terms of sec A.
3. Evaluate :
sin 2 63° + sin 2 27°

(i)
cos 2 17° + cos 2 73°
(ii) sin 25° cos 65° + cos 25° sin 65°
4. Choose the correct option. Justify your choice.
(i) 9 sec2 A – 9 tan2 A =
(A) 1 (B) 9 (C) 8 (D) 0
(ii) (1 + tan θ + sec θ) (1 + cot θ – cosec θ) =
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) –1
(iii) (sec A + tan A) (1 – sin A) =
(A) sec A (B) sin A (C) cosec A (D) cos A
1 + tan 2 A
(iv) =
1 + cot 2 A
(A) sec2 A (B) –1 (C) cot2 A (D) tan2 A
5. Prove the following identities, where the angles involved are acute angles for which the
expressions are defined.
1 − cos θ cos A 1 + sin A

(i) (cosec θ – cot θ)2 = (ii) + = 2 sec A
1 + cos θ 1 + sin A cos A

194 MATHEMATICS
tan θ cot θ
(iii) + = 1 + sec θ cosec θ
1 − cot θ 1 − tan θ
[Hint : Write the expression in terms of sin θ and cos θ]
1 + sec A sin 2 A
(iv) = [Hint : Simplify LHS and RHS separately]
sec A 1 – cos A
cos A – sin A + 1
(v) = cosec A + cot A, using the identity cosec2 A = 1 + cot2 A.
cos A + sin A – 1
1 + sin A sin θ − 2 sin 3 θ
(vi) = sec A + tan A (vii) = tan θ
1 – sin A 2 cos3 θ − cos θ
(viii) (sin A + cosec A)2 + (cos A + sec A)2 = 7 + tan2 A + cot2 A
1
(ix) (cosec A – sin A)(sec A – cos A) =
tan A + cot A
[Hint : Simplify LHS and RHS separately]
2
 1 + tan 2 A   1 − tan A 
(x)  2 =   = tan2 A
 1 + cot A   1 – cot A 
8.6 Summary
1. In a right triangle ABC, right-angled at B,
side opposite to angle A , side adjacent to angle A
sin A = cos A =
hypotenuse hypotenuse
side opposite to angle A
tan A = .
side adjacent to angle A
1 1 1 , sin A
2. cosec A = ; sec A = ; tan A = tan A = .
sin A cos A cot A cos A
3. If one of the trigonometric ratios of an acute angle is known, the remaining trigonometric
ratios of the angle can be easily determined.
4. The values of trigonometric ratios for angles 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°.
5. The value of sin A or cos A never exceeds 1, whereas the value of sec A or cosec A is
always greater than or equal to 1.
6. sin (90° – A) = cos A, cos (90° – A) = sin A;
tan (90° – A) = cot A, cot (90° – A) = tan A;
sec (90° – A) = cosec A, cosec (90° – A) = sec A.
7. sin2 A + cos2 A = 1,
sec2 A – tan2 A = 1 for 0° ≤ A < 90°,
cosec2 A = 1 + cot2 A for 0° < A ≤ 90º.

SOME APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY 195
SOME APPLICATIONS OF
TRIGONOMETRY 9
9.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, you have studied about trigonometric ratios. In this chapter,
you will be studying about some ways in which trigonometry is used in the life around
you. Trigonometry is one of the most ancient subjects studied by scholars all over the
world. As we have said in Chapter 8, trigonometry was invented because its need
arose in astronomy. Since then the astronomers have used it, for instance, to calculate
distances from the Earth to the planets and stars. Trigonometry is also used in geography
and in navigation. The knowledge of trigonometry is used to construct maps, determine
the position of an island in relation to the longitudes and latitudes.
Surveyors have used trigonometry for

centuries. One such large surveying project
of the nineteenth century was the ‘Great
Trigonometric Survey’ of British India
for which the two largest-ever theodolites
were built. During the survey in 1852, the
highest mountain in the world was
discovered. From a distance of over
160 km, the peak was observed from six
different stations. In 1856, this peak was
named after Sir George Everest, who had A Theodolite
commissioned and first used the giant (Surveying instrument, which is based
theodolites (see the figure alongside). The on the Principles of trigonometry, is
theodolites are now on display in the used for measuring angles with a
Museum of the Survey of India in rotating telescope)
Dehradun.

196 MATHEMATICS
In this chapter, we will see how trigonometry is used for finding the heights and
distances of various objects, without actually measuring them.
9.2 Heights and Distances

Let us consider Fig. 8.1 of prvious chapter, which is redrawn below in Fig. 9.1.
Fig. 9.1
In this figure, the line AC drawn from the eye of the student to the top of the
minar is called the line of sight. The student is looking at the top of the minar. The
angle BAC, so formed by the line of sight with the horizontal, is called the angle of
elevation of the top of the minar from the eye of the student.
Thus, the line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point
in the object viewed by the observer. The angle of elevation of the point viewed is
the angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when the point being viewed is
above the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we raise our head to look at the object
(see Fig. 9.2).
Fig. 9.2

Now, consider the situation given in Fig. 8.2. The girl sitting on the balcony is
looking down at a flower pot placed on a stair of the temple. In this case, the line of
sight is below the horizontal level. The angle so formed by the line of sight with the
horizontal is called the angle of depression.
Thus, the angle of depression of a point on the object being viewed is the angle
formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when the point is below the horizontal
level, i.e., the case when we lower our head to look at the point being viewed
(see Fig. 9.3).
Fig. 9.3
Now, you may identify the lines of sight, and the angles so formed in Fig. 8.3.
Are they angles of elevation or angles of depression?
Let us refer to Fig. 9.1 again. If you want to find the height CD of the minar
without actually measuring it, what information do you need? You would need to know
the following:
(i) the distance DE at which the student is standing from the foot of the minar
(ii) the angle of elevation, ∠ BAC, of the top of the minar
(iii) the height AE of the student.
Assuming that the above three conditions are known, how can we determine the
height of the minar?
In the figure, CD = CB + BD. Here, BD = AE, which is the height of the student.
To find BC, we will use trigonometric ratios of ∠ BAC or ∠ A.
In ∆ ABC, the side BC is the opposite side in relation to the known ∠ A. Now,
which of the trigonometric ratios can we use? Which one of them has the two values
that we have and the one we need to determine? Our search narrows down to using
either tan A or cot A, as these ratios involve AB and BC.

198 MATHEMATICS
BC AB ,
Therefore, tan A = or cot A = which on solving would give us BC.
AB BC
By adding AE to BC, you will get the height of the minar.
Now let us explain the process, we have just discussed, by solving some problems.
Example 1 : A tower stands vertically on the ground. From a point on the ground,
which is 15 m away from the foot of the tower, the angle of elevation of the top of the
tower is found to be 60°. Find the height of the tower.
Solution : First let us draw a simple diagram to
represent the problem (see Fig. 9.4). Here AB
represents the tower, CB is the distance of the point
from the tower and ∠ ACB is the angle of elevation.
We need to determine the height of the tower, i.e.,
AB. Also, ACB is a triangle, right-angled at B.
To solve the problem, we choose the trigonometric
ratio tan 60° (or cot 60°), as the ratio involves AB
and BC.
AB
Now, tan 60° =
BC
AB Fig. 9.4
i.e., 3 =
15
i.e., AB = 15 3
Hence, the height of the tower is 15 3 m.
Example 2 : An electrician has to repair an electric

fault on a pole of height 5 m. She needs to reach a
point 1.3m below the top of the pole to undertake the
repair work (see Fig. 9.5). What should be the length
of the ladder that she should use which, when inclined
at an angle of 60° to the horizontal, would enable her
to reach the required position? Also, how far from
the foot of the pole should she place the foot of the
ladder? (You may take 3 = 1.73) Fig. 9.5

Solution : In Fig. 9.5, the electrician is required to reach the point B on the pole AD.
So, BD = AD – AB = (5 – 1.3)m = 3.7 m.
Here, BC represents the ladder. We need to find its length, i.e., the hypotenuse of the
right triangle BDC.
Now, can you think which trigonometic ratio should we consider?
It should be sin 60°.
BD 3.7 3
So, = sin 60° or =
BC BC 2
3.7 × 2
Therefore, BC = = 4.28 m (approx.)
3
i.e., the length of the ladder should be 4.28 m.
DC 1
Now, = cot 60° =
BD 3
3.7
i.e., DC = = 2.14 m (approx.)
3
Therefore, she should place the foot of the ladder at a distance of 2.14 m from the
pole.
Example 3 : An observer 1.5 m tall is 28.5 m away

from a chimney. The angle of elevation of the top of
the chimney from her eyes is 45°. What is the height
of the chimney?
Solution : Here, AB is the chimney, CD the observer
and ∠ ADE the angle of elevation (see Fig. 9.6). In
this case, ADE is a triangle, right-angled at E and
we are required to find the height of the chimney.
We have AB = AE + BE = AE + 1.5 Fig. 9.6
and DE = CB = 28.5 m
To determine AE, we choose a trigonometric ratio, which involves both AE and
DE. Let us choose the tangent of the angle of elevation.

200 MATHEMATICS
AE
Now, tan 45° =
DE
AE
i.e., 1=
28.5
Therefore, AE = 28.5
So the height of the chimney (AB) = (28.5 + 1.5) m = 30 m.
Example 4 : From a point P on the ground the angle of elevation of the top of a 10 m
tall building is 30°. A flag is hoisted at the top of the building and the angle of elevation
of the top of the flagstaff from P is 45°. Find the length of the flagstaff and the
distance of the building from the point P. (You may take 3 = 1.732)
Solution : In Fig. 9.7, AB denotes the height of the building, BD the flagstaff and P
the given point. Note that there are two right triangles PAB and PAD. We are required
to find the length of the flagstaff, i.e., DB and the distance of the building from the
point P, i.e., PA.
Since, we know the height of the building AB, we
will first consider the right ∆ PAB.
AB
We have tan 30° =
AP
1 10
i.e., =
3 AP
Therefore, AP = 10 3
Fig. 9.7
i.e., the distance of the building from P is 10 3 m = 17.32 m.
Next, let us suppose DB = x m. Then AD = (10 + x) m.
AD 10 + x
Now, in right ∆ PAD, tan 45° = =
AP 10 3
10 + x
Therefore, 1=
10 3

i.e., x = 10 ( )
3 − 1 = 7.32
So, the length of the flagstaff is 7.32 m.
Example 5 : The shadow of a tower standing

on a level ground is found to be 40 m longer
when the Sun’s altitude is 30° than when it is
60°. Find the height of the tower.
Solution : In Fig. 9.8, AB is the tower and
BC is the length of the shadow when the
Sun’s altitude is 60°, i.e., the angle of
elevation of the top of the tower from the tip
of the shadow is 60° and DB is the length of
the shadow, when the angle of elevation is Fig. 9.8
30°.
Now, let AB be h m and BC be x m. According to the question, DB is 40 m longer

than BC.
So, DB = (40 + x) m
Now, we have two right triangles ABC and ABD.
AB
In ∆ ABC, tan 60° =
BC
h
or, 3 = x (1)
AB
In ∆ ABD, tan 30° =
BD
1 h
i.e., = (2)
3 x + 40
From (1), we have h= x 3
(
Putting this value in (2), we get x 3 ) 3 = x + 40, i.e., 3x = x + 40
i.e., x = 20
So, h = 20 3 [From (1)]

Therefore, the height of the tower is 20 3 m.

202 MATHEMATICS
Example 6 : The angles of depression of the top and the bottom of an 8 m tall building
from the top of a multi-storeyed building are 30° and 45°, respectively. Find the height
of the multi-storeyed building and the distance between the two buildings.
Solution : In Fig. 9.9, PC denotes the multi-
storyed building and AB denotes the 8 m tall
building. We are interested to determine the
height of the multi-storeyed building, i.e., PC
and the distance between the two buildings,
i.e., AC.
Look at the figure carefully. Observe that
PB is a transversal to the parallel lines PQ
and BD. Therefore, ∠ QPB and ∠ PBD are
alternate angles, and so are equal.
So ∠ PBD = 30°. Similarly, ∠ PAC = 45°. Fig. 9.9
In right ∆ PBD, we have
PD 1
= tan 30° = or BD = PD 3
BD 3
In right ∆ PAC, we have
PC
= tan 45° = 1
AC
i.e., PC = AC
Also, PC = PD + DC, therefore, PD + DC = AC.
Since, AC = BD and DC = AB = 8 m, we get PD + 8 = BD = PD 3 (Why?)
8
=
8 ( )
3+ 1
= 4 ( 3 + 1) m.
This gives PD =
3 −1 ( )(
3 +1 ) 3 −1
So, the height of the multi-storeyed building is {4 (

3 + 1) + 8} m = 4 ( 3 + 3 ) m
and the distance between the two buildings is also 4 ( 3 + 3 ) m.
Example 7 : From a point on a bridge across a river, the angles of depression of

the banks on opposite sides of the river are 30° and 45°, respectively. If the bridge
is at a height of 3 m from the banks, find the width of the river.

Solution : In Fig 9.10, A and B

represent points on the bank on
opposite sides of the river, so that
AB is the width of the river. P is
a point on the bridge at a height
of 3 m, i.e., DP = 3 m. We are
interested to determine the width Fig. 9.10
of the river, which is the length
of the side AB of the ∆ APB.
Now, AB = AD + DB
In right ∆ APD, ∠ A = 30°.
PD
So, tan 30° =
AD
1 3
i.e., = or AD = 3 3 m
3 AD
Also, in right ∆ PBD, ∠ B = 45°. So, BD = PD = 3 m.
Now, AB = BD + AD = 3 + 3 3 = 3 (1 + 3 ) m.
Therefore, the width of the river is 3 ( )

3 +1 m.
EXERCISE 9.1
1. A circus artist is climbing a 20 m long rope, which is
tightly stretched and tied from the top of a vertical
pole to the ground. Find the height of the pole, if
the angle made by the rope with the ground level is
30° (see Fig. 9.11).
2. A tree breaks due to storm and the broken part
bends so that the top of the tree touches the ground
making an angle 30° with it. The distance between
the foot of the tree to the point where the top Fig. 9.11
touches the ground is 8 m. Find the height of the
tree.
3. A contractor plans to install two slides for the children to play in a park. For the children
below the age of 5 years, she prefers to have a slide whose top is at a height of 1.5 m, and

204 MATHEMATICS
is inclined at an angle of 30° to the ground, whereas for elder children, she wants to have
a steep slide at a height of 3m, and inclined at an angle of 60° to the ground. What
should be the length of the slide in each case?
4. The angle of elevation of the top of a tower from a point on the ground, which is 30 m
away from the foot of the tower, is 30°. Find the height of the tower.
5. A kite is flying at a height of 60 m above the ground. The string attached to the kite is
temporarily tied to a point on the ground. The inclination of the string with the ground
is 60°. Find the length of the string, assuming that there is no slack in the string.
6. A 1.5 m tall boy is standing at some distance from a 30 m tall building. The angle of
elevation from his eyes to the top of the building increases from 30° to 60° as he walks
towards the building. Find the distance he walked towards the building.
7. From a point on the ground, the angles of elevation of the bottom and the top of a
transmission tower fixed at the top of a 20 m high building are 45° and 60° respectively.
Find the height of the tower.
8. A statue, 1.6 m tall, stands on the top of a pedestal. From a point on the ground, the
angle of elevation of the top of the statue is 60° and from the same point the angle of
elevation of the top of the pedestal is 45°. Find the height of the pedestal.
9. The angle of elevation of the top of a building from the foot of the tower is 30° and the
angle of elevation of the top of the tower from the foot of the building is 60°. If the tower
is 50 m high, find the height of the building.
10. Two poles of equal heights are standing opposite each other on either side of the road,
which is 80 m wide. From a point between them on the road, the angles of elevation of
the top of the poles are 60° and 30°, respectively. Find the height of the poles and the
distances of the point from the poles.
11. A TV tower stands vertically on a bank
of a canal. From a point on the other
bank directly opposite the tower, the
angle of elevation of the top of the
tower is 60°. From another point 20 m
away from this point on the line joing
this point to the foot of the tower, the
angle of elevation of the top of the
tower is 30° (see Fig. 9.12). Find the
height of the tower and the width of Fig. 9.12
the canal.
12. From the top of a 7 m high building, the angle of elevation of the top of a cable tower is
60° and the angle of depression of its foot is 45°. Determine the height of the tower.
13. As observed from the top of a 75 m high lighthouse from the sea-level, the angles of
depression of two ships are 30° and 45°. If one ship is exactly behind the other on the
same side of the lighthouse, find the distance between the two ships.

14. A 1.2 m tall girl spots a balloon moving

with the wind in a horizontal line at a
height of 88.2 m from the ground. The
angle of elevation of the balloon from
the eyes of the girl at any instant is
60°. After some time, the angle of
elevation reduces to 30° (see Fig. 9.13).
Find the distance travelled by the
balloon during the interval. Fig. 9.13
15. A straight highway leads to the foot of a tower. A man standing at the top of the tower
observes a car at an angle of depression of 30°, which is approaching the foot of the
tower with a uniform speed. Six seconds later, the angle of depression of the car is found
to be 60°. Find the time taken by the car to reach the foot of the tower from this point.
16. The angles of elevation of the top of a tower from two points at a distance of 4 m and
9 m from the base of the tower and in the same straight line with it are complementary.
Prove that the height of the tower is 6 m.
9.3 Summary
1. (i) The line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point in the
object viewed by the observer.
(ii) The angle of elevation of an object viewed, is the angle formed by the line of sight
with the horizontal when it is above the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we raise
our head to look at the object.
(iii) The angle of depression of an object viewed, is the angle formed by the line of sight
with the horizontal when it is below the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we lower
our head to look at the object.
2. The height or length of an object or the distance between two distant objects can be
determined with the help of trigonometric ratios.

206 MATHEMATICS
CIRCLES 10
10.1 Introduction
You have studied in Class IX that a circle is a collection of all points in a plane
which are at a constant distance (radius) from a fixed point (centre). You have
also studied various terms related to a circle like chord, segment, sector, arc etc.
Let us now examine the different situations that can arise when a circle and a line
are given in a plane.
So, let us consider a circle and a line PQ. There can be three possibilities given
in Fig. 10.1 below:
Fig. 10.1
In Fig. 10.1 (i), the line PQ and the circle have no common point. In this case,
PQ is called a non-intersecting line with respect to the circle. In Fig. 10.1 (ii), there
are two common points A and B that the line PQ and the circle have. In this case, we
call the line PQ a secant of the circle. In Fig. 10.1 (iii), there is only one point A which
is common to the line PQ and the circle. In this case, the line is called a tangent to the
circle.

CIRCLES 207
You might have seen a pulley fitted over a well which is used
in taking out water from the well. Look at Fig. 10.2. Here the rope
on both sides of the pulley, if considered as a ray, is like a tangent
to the circle representing the pulley.
Is there any position of the line with respect to the circle
other than the types given above? You can see that there cannot
be any other type of position of the line with respect to the circle.
Fig. 10.2
In this chapter, we will study about the existence of the tangents
to a circle and also study some of their properties.
10.2 Tangent to a Circle

In the previous section, you have seen that a tangent* to a circle is a line that
intersects the circle at only one point.
To understand the existence of the tangent to a circle at a point, let us perform
the following activities:
Activity 1 : Take a circular wire and attach a straight wire AB at a point P of the
circular wire so that it can rotate about the point P in a plane. Put the system on a table
and gently rotate the wire AB about the point P to get different positions of the straight
wire [see Fig. 10.3(i)].
In various positions, the wire intersects the
circular wire at P and at another point Q1 or Q2 or
Q3, etc. In one position, you will see that it will
intersect the circle at the point P only (see position
A′B′ of AB). This shows that a tangent exists at
the point P of the circle. On rotating further, you
can observe that in all other positions of AB, it will
intersect the circle at P and at another point, say R1
or R2 or R3, etc. So, you can observe that there is
only one tangent at a point of the circle. Fig. 10.3 (i)
While doing activity above, you must have observed that as the position AB
moves towards the position A′ B′, the common point, say Q1, of the line AB and the
circle gradually comes nearer and nearer to the common point P. Ultimately, it coincides
with the point P in the position A′B′ of A′′B′′. Again note, what happens if ‘AB’ is
rotated rightwards about P? The common point R3 gradually comes nearer and nearer
to P and ultimately coincides with P. So, what we see is:
The tangent to a circle is a special case of the secant, when the two end
points of its corresponding chord coincide.
*The word ‘tangent’ comes from the Latin word ‘tangere’, which means to touch and was
introduced by the Danish mathematician Thomas Fineke in 1583.

208 MATHEMATICS
Activity 2 : On a paper, draw a circle and a

secant PQ of the circle. Draw various lines
parallel to the secant on both sides of it. You
will find that after some steps, the length of
the chord cut by the lines will gradually
decrease, i.e., the two points of intersection of
the line and the circle are coming closer and
closer [see Fig. 10.3(ii)]. In one case, it
becomes zero on one side of the secant and in
another case, it becomes zero on the other side
of the secant. See the positions P′Q′ and P′′Q′′
of the secant in Fig. 10.3 (ii). These are the
tangents to the circle parallel to the given secant
PQ. This also helps you to see that there cannot Fig. 10.3 (ii)
be more than two tangents parallel to a given
secant.
This activity also establishes, what you must have observed, while doing
Activity 1, namely, a tangent is the secant when both of the end points of the
corresponding chord coincide.
The common point of the tangent and the circle is called the point of contact
[the point A in Fig. 10.1 (iii)]and the tangent is said to touch the circle at the
common point.
Now look around you. Have you seen a bicycle
or a cart moving? Look at its wheels. All the spokes
of a wheel are along its radii. Now note the position
of the wheel with respect to its movement on the
ground. Do you see any tangent anywhere?
(See Fig. 10.4). In fact, the wheel moves along a line
which is a tangent to the circle representing the wheel.
Also, notice that in all positions, the radius through
the point of contact with the ground appears to be at
right angles to the tangent (see Fig. 10.4). We shall Fig. 10.4
now prove this property of the tangent.
Theorem 10.1 : The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the

radius through the point of contact.
Proof : We are given a circle with centre O and a tangent XY to the circle at a
point P. We need to prove that OP is perpendicular to XY.

CIRCLES 209
Take a point Q on XY other than P and join OQ (see Fig. 10.5).

The point Q must lie outside the circle.
(Why? Note that if Q lies inside the circle, XY
will become a secant and not a tangent to the
circle). Therefore, OQ is longer than the radius
OP of the circle. That is,
OQ > OP.
Since this happens for every point on the
line XY except the point P, OP is the
shortest of all the distances of the point O to the
points of XY. So OP is perpendicular to XY.
(as shown in Theorem A1.7.) Fig. 10.5
Remarks :
1. By theorem above, we can also conclude that at any point on a circle there can be
one and only one tangent.
2. The line containing the radius through the point of contact is also sometimes called
the ‘normal’ to the circle at the point.
EXERCISE 10.1
1. How many tangents can a circle have?
2. Fill in the blanks :
(i) A tangent to a circle intersects it in point (s).
(ii) A line intersecting a circle in two points is called a .
(iii) A circle can have parallel tangents at the most.
(iv) The common point of a tangent to a circle and the circle is called .
3. A tangent PQ at a point P of a circle of radius 5 cm meets a line through the centre O at
a point Q so that OQ = 12 cm. Length PQ is :
(A) 12 cm (B) 13 cm (C) 8.5 cm (D) 119 cm.
4. Draw a circle and two lines parallel to a given line such that one is a tangent and the
other, a secant to the circle.
10.3 Number of Tangents from a Point on a Circle

To get an idea of the number of tangents from a point on a circle, let us perform the
following activity:

210 MATHEMATICS
Activity 3 : Draw a circle on a paper. Take a

point P inside it. Can you draw a tangent to the
circle through this point? You will find that all
the lines through this point intersect the circle in
two points. So, it is not possible to draw any
tangent to a circle through a point inside it
[see Fig. 10.6 (i)].
Next take a point P on the circle and draw
tangents through this point. You have already (i)
observed that there is only one tangent to the
circle at such a point [see Fig. 10.6 (ii)].
Finally, take a point P outside the circle and
try to draw tangents to the circle from this point.
What do you observe? You will find that you
can draw exactly two tangents to the circle
through this point [see Fig. 10.6 (iii)].
We can summarise these facts as follows:
Case 1 : There is no tangent to a circle passing
through a point lying inside the circle. (ii)
Case 2 : There is one and only one tangent to a
circle passing through a point lying on the circle.
Case 3 : There are exactly two tangents to a
circle through a point lying outside the circle.
In Fig. 10.6 (iii), T1and T2 are the points of
contact of the tangents PT 1 and PT 2
respectively.
The length of the segment of the tangent
from the external point P and the point of contact (iii)
with the circle is called the length of the tangent
Fig. 10.6
from the point P to the circle.
Note that in Fig. 10.6 (iii), PT1 and PT2 are the lengths of the tangents from P to
the circle. The lengths PT1 and PT2 have a common property. Can you find this?
Measure PT1 and PT2. Are these equal? In fact, this is always so. Let us give a proof
of this fact in the following theorem.

CIRCLES 211
Theorem 10.2 : The lengths of tangents drawn

from an external point to a circle are equal.
Proof : We are given a circle with centre O, a
point P lying outside the circle and two tangents
PQ, PR on the circle from P (see Fig. 10.7). We
are required to prove that PQ = PR.
For this, we join OP, OQ and OR. Then
∠ OQP and ∠ ORP are right angles, because
these are angles between the radii and tangents,
and according to Theorem 10.1 they are right Fig. 10.7
angles. Now in right triangles OQP and ORP,
OQ = OR (Radii of the same circle)
OP = OP (Common)
Therefore, ∆ OQP ≅ ∆ ORP (RHS)
This gives PQ = PR (CPCT)
Remarks :
1. The theorem can also be proved by using the Pythagoras Theorem as follows:
PQ2 = OP2 – OQ2 = OP2 – OR2 = PR2 (As OQ = OR)
which gives PQ = PR.
2. Note also that ∠ OPQ = ∠ OPR. Therefore, OP is the angle bisector of ∠ QPR,
i.e., the centre lies on the bisector of the angle between the two tangents.
Let us take some examples.
Example 1 : Prove that in two concentric circles,

the chord of the larger circle, which touches the
smaller circle, is bisected at the point of contact.
Solution : We are given two concentric circles
C1 and C2 with centre O and a chord AB of the
larger circle C1 which touches the smaller circle
C2 at the point P (see Fig. 10.8). We need to prove
that AP = BP.
Let us join OP. Then, AB is a tangent to C2 at P Fig. 10.8
and OP is its radius. Therefore, by Theorem 10.1,
OP ⊥ AB

212 MATHEMATICS
Now AB is a chord of the circle C1 and OP ⊥ AB. Therefore, OP is the bisector of the
chord AB, as the perpendicular from the centre bisects the chord,
i.e., AP = BP
Example 2 : Two tangents TP and TQ are drawn
to a circle with centre O from an external point T.
Prove that ∠ PTQ = 2 ∠ OPQ.
Solution : We are given a circle with centre O,
an external point T and two tangents TP and TQ
to the circle, where P, Q are the points of contact
(see Fig. 10.9). We need to prove that
∠ PTQ = 2 ∠ OPQ Fig. 10.9
Let ∠ PTQ = θ
Now, by Theorem 10.2, TP = TQ. So, TPQ is an isosceles triangle.
1 1
Therefore, ∠ TPQ = ∠ TQP = (180° − θ) = 90° − θ
2 2
Also, by Theorem 10.1, ∠ OPT = 90°
 1 
So, ∠ OPQ = ∠ OPT – ∠ TPQ = 90° −  90° – θ 
 2 
1 1
= θ = ∠ PTQ
2 2
This gives ∠ PTQ = 2 ∠ OPQ
Example 3 : PQ is a chord of length 8 cm of a

circle of radius 5 cm. The tangents at P and Q
intersect at a point T (see Fig. 10.10). Find the
length TP.
Solution : Join OT. Let it intersect PQ at the
point R. Then ∆ TPQ is isosceles and TO is the
angle bisector of ∠ PTQ. So, OT ⊥ PQ
and therefore, OT bisects PQ which gives
PR = RQ = 4 cm.
Fig. 10.10
Also, OR = OP 2 − PR 2 = 52 − 42 cm = 3 cm.

CIRCLES 213
Now, ∠ TPR + ∠ RPO = 90° = ∠ TPR + ∠ PTR (Why?)

So, ∠ RPO = ∠ PTR
Therefore, right triangle TRP is similar to the right triangle PRO by AA similarity.
TP RP TP 4 20
This gives = , i.e., = or TP = cm.
PO RO 5 3 3
Note : TP can also be found by using the Pythagoras Theorem, as follows:
Let TP = x and TR = y. Then
x2 = y2 + 16 (Taking right ∆ PRT) (1)
2 2 2
x + 5 = (y + 3) (Taking right ∆ OPT) (2)
Subtracting (1) from (2), we get
32 16
25 = 6y – 7 or y= =
6 3
2
 16  16 16 × 25
Therefore, x =   + 16 = (16 + 9) =
2
[From (1)]
 3 9 9
20
or x=
3
EXERCISE 10.2
In Q.1 to 3, choose the correct option and give justification.
1. From a point Q, the length of the tangent to a circle is 24 cm and the distance of Q from
the centre is 25 cm. The radius of the circle is
(A) 7 cm (B) 12 cm
(C) 15 cm (D) 24.5 cm
2. In Fig. 10.11, if TP and TQ are the two tangents
to a circle with centre O so that ∠ POQ = 110°,
then ∠ PTQ is equal to
(A) 60° (B) 70°
(C) 80° (D) 90° Fig. 10.11
3. If tangents PA and PB from a point P to a circle with centre O are inclined to each other
at angle of 80°, then ∠ POA is equal to
(A) 50° (B) 60°
(C) 70° (D) 80°

214 MATHEMATICS
4. Prove that the tangents drawn at the ends of a diameter of a circle are parallel.
5. Prove that the perpendicular at the point of contact to the tangent to a circle passes
through the centre.
6. The length of a tangent from a point A at distance 5 cm from the centre of the circle is 4
cm. Find the radius of the circle.
7. Two concentric circles are of radii 5 cm and 3 cm. Find the length of the chord of the
larger circle which touches the smaller circle.
8. A quadrilateral ABCD is drawn to circumscribe a circle (see Fig. 10.12). Prove that
AB + CD = AD + BC
Fig. 10.12 Fig. 10.13

9. In Fig. 10.13, XY and X′Y′ are two parallel tangents to a circle with centre O and
another tangent AB with point of contact C intersecting XY at A and X′Y′ at B. Prove
that ∠ AOB = 90°.
10. Prove that the angle between the two tangents drawn from an external point to a circle
is supplementary to the angle subtended by the line-segment joining the points of
contact at the centre.
11. Prove that the parallelogram circumscribing a
circle is a rhombus.
12. A triangle ABC is drawn to circumscribe a circle
of radius 4 cm such that the segments BD and
DC into which BC is divided by the point of
contact D are of lengths 8 cm and 6 cm
respectively (see Fig. 10.14). Find the sides AB
and AC.
13. Prove that opposite sides of a quadrilateral
circumscribing a circle subtend supplementary
angles at the centre of the circle. Fig. 10.14

CIRCLES 215
10.4 Summary
1. The meaning of a tangent to a circle.
2. The tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.
3. The lengths of the two tangents from an external point to a circle are equal.

216 MATHEMATICS
CONSTRUCTIONS 11
11.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you have done certain constructions using a straight edge (ruler) and a
compass, e.g., bisecting an angle, drawing the perpendicular bisector of a line segment,
some constructions of triangles etc. and also gave their justifications. In this chapter,
we shall study some more constructions by using the knowledge of the earlier
constructions. You would also be expected to give the mathematical reasoning behind
why such constructions work.
11.2 Division of a Line Segment

Suppose a line segment is given and you have to divide it in a given ratio, say 3 : 2. You
may do it by measuring the length and then marking a point on it that divides it in the
given ratio. But suppose you do not have any way of measuring it precisely, how
would you find the point? We give below two ways for finding such a point.
Construction 11.1 : To divide a line segment in a given ratio.
Given a line segment AB, we want to divide it in the ratio m : n, where both m and
n are positive integers. To help you to understand it, we shall take m = 3 and n = 2.
Steps of Construction :
1. Draw any ray AX, making an acute angle with AB.
2. Locate 5 (= m + n) points A1, A2, A 3, A4 and
A5 on AX so that AA 1 = A1A2 = A2A 3 = A3A4
= A 4A 5.
3. Join BA5.
4. Through the point A3 (m = 3), draw a line
parallel to A5B (by making an angle equal to
∠ AA5B) at A3 intersecting AB at the point C
(see Fig. 11.1). Then, AC : CB = 3 : 2. Fig. 11.1

CONSTRUCTIONS 217
Let us see how this method gives us the required division.

Since A3C is parallel to A5B, therefore,
AA3 AC
= (By the Basic Proportionality Theorem)
A3A5 CB
AA3 3 AC 3 .
By construction, = ⋅ Therefore, =
A3A5 2 CB 2
This shows that C divides AB in the ratio 3 : 2.
Alternative Method
1. Draw any ray AX making an acute angle with AB. Fig. 11.2
2. Draw a ray BY parallel to AX by making ∠ ABY equal to ∠ BAX.
3. Locate the points A1, A2, A3 (m = 3) on AX and B1, B2 (n = 2) on BY such that
AA1 = A1A2 = A2A3 = BB1 = B1B2.
4. Join A3B2. Let it intersect AB at a point C (see Fig. 11.2).
Then AC : CB = 3 : 2.
Why does this method work? Let us see.
Here ∆ AA3C is similar to ∆ BB2C. (Why ?)
AA 3 AC
Then = .
BB2 BC
AA 3 3 , AC 3
Since by construction, BB = 2 therefore, = ⋅
2 BC 2
In fact, the methods given above work for dividing the line segment in any ratio.
We now use the idea of the construction above for constructing a triangle similar
to a given triangle whose sides are in a given ratio with the corresponding sides of the
given triangle.
Construction 11.2 : To construct a triangle similar to a given triangle as per
given scale factor.
This construction involves two different situations. In one, the triangle to be
constructed is smaller and in the other it is larger than the given triangle. Here, the
scale factor means the ratio of the sides of the triangle to be constructed with the
corresponding sides of the given triangle (see also Chapter 6). Let us take the following
examples for understanding the constructions involved. The same methods would
apply for the general case also.

218 MATHEMATICS
Example 1 : Construct a triangle similar to a given triangle ABC with its sides equal
3 3
to of the corresponding sides of the triangle ABC (i.e., of scale factor ).
4 4
Solution : Given a triangle ABC, we are required to construct another triangle whose
3
sides are of the corresponding sides of the triangle ABC.
4
1. Draw any ray BX making an acute angle
with BC on the side opposite to the vertex
A.
3
2. Locate 4 (the greater of 3 and 4 in )
4
points B1, B2, B3 and B4 on BX so that
BB1 = B1B2 = B2B3 = B3B4.
3. Join B4C and draw a line through B3 (the
3rd point, 3 being smaller of 3 and 4 in
3
) parallel to B4C to intersect BC at C′.
4
4. Draw a line through C′ parallel
to the line CA to intersect BA at A′
(see Fig. 11.3). Fig. 11.3
Then, ∆ A′BC′ is the required triangle.
Let us now see how this construction gives the required triangle.
BC′ 3
By Construction 11.1, = ⋅
C′C 1
BC BC′ + C′C C′C 1 4 BC′ 3
Therefore, = =1+ = 1 + = , i.e., = .
BC′ BC′ BC′ 3 3 BC 4
Also C′A′ is parallel to CA. Therefore, ∆ A′BC′ ~ ∆ ABC. (Why ?)
A′B A′C′ BC′ 3

So, = = = ⋅
AB AC BC 4
Example 2 : Construct a triangle similar to a given triangle ABC with its sides equal
5 5
to of the corresponding sides of the triangle ABC (i.e., of scale factor ).
3 3

CONSTRUCTIONS 219
Solution : Given a triangle ABC, we are required to construct a triangle whose sides
5
are of the corresponding sides of ∆ ABC.
3
1. Draw any ray BX making an acute angle with BC on the side opposite to the
vertex A.
5
2. Locate 5 points (the greater of 5 and 3 in ) B1, B2, B3, B4 and B5 on BX so that
3
BB1 = B1B2 = B2B3 = B3B4 = B4B5.
5
3. Join B3(the 3rd point, 3 being smaller of 3 and 5 in ) to C and draw a line through
3
B5 parallel to B3C, intersecting the extended line segment BC at C′.
4. Draw a line through C′ parallel to CA
intersecting the extended line segment BA at
A′ (see Fig. 11.4).
Then A′BC′ is the required triangle.
For justification of the construction, note that
∆ ABC ~ ∆ A′BC′. (Why ?)
AB AC BC
Therefore, = = ⋅
A′B A′C′ BC′
BC BB3 3 ,
But, = =
BC′ BB5 5
Fig. 11.4
BC ′ 5 , A′B A′C′ BC′ 5

So, = and, therefore, = = = ⋅
BC 3 AB AC BC 3
Remark : In Examples 1 and 2, you could take a ray making an acute angle with AB
or AC and proceed similarly.
EXERCISE 11.1
In each of the following, give the justification of the construction also:
1. Draw a line segment of length 7.6 cm and divide it in the ratio 5 : 8. Measure the two
parts.

220 MATHEMATICS
2. Construct a triangle of sides 4 cm, 5 cm and 6 cm and then a triangle similar to it whose
2
sides are of the corresponding sides of the first triangle.
3
3. Construct a triangle with sides 5 cm, 6 cm and 7 cm and then another triangle whose
7
sides are of the corresponding sides of the first triangle.
5
4. Construct an isosceles triangle whose base is 8 cm and altitude 4 cm and then another
1
triangle whose sides are 1 times the corresponding sides of the isosceles triangle.
2
5. Draw a triangle ABC with side BC = 6 cm, AB = 5 cm and ∠ ABC = 60°. Then construct
3
a triangle whose sides are of the corresponding sides of the triangle ABC.
4
6. Draw a triangle ABC with side BC = 7 cm, ∠ B = 45°, ∠ A = 105°. Then, construct a
4
triangle whose sides are times the corresponding sides of ∆ ABC.
3
7. Draw a right triangle in which the sides (other than hypotenuse) are of lengths 4 cm and
5
3 cm. Then construct another triangle whose sides are times the corresponding sides
3
of the given triangle.
11.3 Construction of Tangents to a Circle

You have already studied in the previous chapter that if a point lies inside a circle,
there cannot be a tangent to the circle through this point. However, if a point lies on the
circle, then there is only one tangent to the circle at this point and it is perpendicular to
the radius through this point. Therefore, if you want to draw a tangent at a point of a
circle, simply draw the radius through this point and draw a line perpendicular to this
radius through this point and this will be the required tangent at the point.
You have also seen that if the point lies outside the circle, there will be two
tangents to the circle from this point.
We shall now see how to draw these tangents.
Construction 11.3 : To construct the tangents to a circle from a point outside it.
We are given a circle with centre O and a point P outside it. We have to construct
the two tangents from P to the circle.

CONSTRUCTIONS 221
Steps of Construction:
1. Join PO and bisect it. Let M be the mid-
point of PO.
2. Taking M as centre and MO as radius, draw
a circle. Let it intersect the given circle at
the points Q and R.
3. Join PQ and PR.
Then PQ and PR are the required two
tangents (see Fig. 11.5).
Now let us see how this construction works.
Join OQ. Then ∠ PQO is an angle in the
semicircle and, therefore, Fig. 11.5
∠ PQO = 90°
Can we say that PQ ⊥ OQ?
Since, OQ is a radius of the given circle, PQ has to be a tangent to the circle. Similarly,
PR is also a tangent to the circle.
Note : If centre of the circle is not given, you may locate its centre first by taking any
two non-parallel chords and then finding the point of intersection of their perpendicular
bisectors. Then you could proceed as above.
EXERCISE 11.2
In each of the following, give also the justification of the construction:
1. Draw a circle of radius 6 cm. From a point 10 cm away from its centre, construct the pair
of tangents to the circle and measure their lengths.
2. Construct a tangent to a circle of radius 4 cm from a point on the concentric circle of
radius 6 cm and measure its length. Also verify the measurement by actual calculation.
3. Draw a circle of radius 3 cm. Take two points P and Q on one of its extended diameter
each at a distance of 7 cm from its centre. Draw tangents to the circle from these two
points P and Q.
4. Draw a pair of tangents to a circle of radius 5 cm which are inclined to each other at an
angle of 60°.
5. Draw a line segment AB of length 8 cm. Taking A as centre, draw a circle of radius 4 cm
and taking B as centre, draw another circle of radius 3 cm. Construct tangents to each
circle from the centre of the other circle.

222 MATHEMATICS
6. Let ABC be a right triangle in which AB = 6 cm, BC = 8 cm and ∠ B = 90°. BD is the

perpendicular from B on AC. The circle through B, C, D is drawn. Construct the tangents
from A to this circle.
7. Draw a circle with the help of a bangle. Take a point outside the circle. Construct the pair
of tangents from this point to the circle.
11.4 Summary
In this chapter, you have learnt how to do the following constructions:
1. To divide a line segment in a given ratio.
2. To construct a triangle similar to a given triangle as per a given scale factor which
may be less than 1 or greater than 1.
3. To construct the pair of tangents from an external point to a circle.

Construction of a quadrilateral (or a polygon) similar to a given quadrilateral
(or a polygon) with a given scale factor can also be done following the
similar steps as used in Examples 1 and 2 of Construction 11.2.

AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLES 223

12.1 Introduction
You are already familiar with some methods of finding perimeters and areas of simple
plane figures such as rectangles, squares, parallelograms, triangles and circles from
your earlier classes. Many objects that we come across in our daily life are related to
the circular shape in some form or the other. Cycle wheels, wheel barrow (thela),
dartboard, round cake, papad, drain cover, various designs, bangles, brooches, circular
paths, washers, flower beds, etc. are some examples of such objects (see Fig. 12.1).
So, the problem of finding perimeters and areas related to circular figures is of great
practical importance. In this chapter, we shall begin our discussion with a review of
the concepts of perimeter (circumference) and area of a circle and apply this knowledge
in finding the areas of two special ‘parts’ of a circular region (or briefly of a circle)
known as sector and segment. We shall also see how to find the areas of some
combinations of plane figures involving circles or their parts.
Fig. 12.1

224 MATHEMATICS
12.2 Perimeter and Area of a Circle — A Review

Recall that the distance covered by travelling once around a circle is its perimeter,
usually called its circumference. You also know from your earlier classes, that
circumference of a circle bears a constant ratio with its diameter. This constant ratio
is denoted by the Greek letter π (read as ‘pi’). In other words,
circumference
= π
diameter
or, circumference = π × diameter
= π × 2r (where r is the radius of the circle)
= 2πr
The great Indian mathematician Aryabhata (C.E. 476 – 550) gave an approximate
62832 ,
value of π. He stated that π = which is nearly equal to 3.1416. It is also
20000
interesting to note that using an identity of the great mathematical genius Srinivas
Ramanujan (1887–1920) of India, mathematicians have been able to calculate the
value of π correct to million places of decimals. As you know from Chapter 1 of
Class IX, π is an irrational number and its decimal expansion is non-terminating and
non-recurring (non-repeating). However, for practical purposes, we generally take
22
the value of π as or 3.14, approximately.
7
You may also recall that area of a circle is πr2, where r is the radius of the circle.
Recall that you have verified it in Class VII, by cutting a circle into a number of
sectors and rearranging them as shown in Fig. 12.2.
Fig 12.2

1
You can see that the shape in Fig. 12.2 (ii) is nearly a rectangle of length × 2 π r
2
1
and breadth r. This suggests that the area of the circle = × 2πr × r = πr2. Let us
2
recall the concepts learnt in earlier classes, through an example.
Example 1 : The cost of fencing a circular field at the rate of ` 24 per metre is
` 5280. The field is to be ploughed at the rate of ` 0.50 per m2. Find the cost of
22
ploughing the field (Take π = ).
7
Total cost 5280
Solution : Length of the fence (in metres) = = = 220
Rate 24
So, circumference of the field = 220 m
Therefore, if r metres is the radius of the field, then
2πr = 220
22
or, 2× × r = 220
7
220 × 7
or, r= = 35
2 × 22
i.e., radius of the field is 35 m.
22
Therefore, area of the field = πr2 = × 35 × 35 m2 = 22 × 5 × 35 m2
7
Now, cost of ploughing 1 m2 of the field = ` 0.50
So, total cost of ploughing the field = ` 22 × 5 × 35 × 0.50 = ` 1925
EXERCISE 12.1
22
Unless stated otherwise, use π = .
7
1. The radii of two circles are 19 cm and 9 cm respectively.
Find the radius of the circle which has circumference equal
to the sum of the circumferences of the two circles.
2. The radii of two circles are 8 cm and 6 cm respectively. Find
the radius of the circle having area equal to the sum of the
areas of the two circles.
3. Fig. 12.3 depicts an archery target marked with its five
scoring regions from the centre outwards as Gold, Red, Blue,
Black and White. The diameter of the region representing
Gold score is 21 cm and each of the other bands is 10.5 cm
wide. Find the area of each of the five scoring regions. Fig. 12.3

226 MATHEMATICS
4. The wheels of a car are of diameter 80 cm each. How many complete revolutions does
each wheel make in 10 minutes when the car is travelling at a speed of 66 km per hour?
5. Tick the correct answer in the following and justify your choice : If the perimeter and the
area of a circle are numerically equal, then the radius of the circle is
(A) 2 units (B) π units (C) 4 units (D) 7 units
12.3 Areas of Sector and Segment of a Circle

You have already come across the terms sector and
segment of a circle in your earlier classes. Recall
that the portion (or part) of the circular region enclosed
by two radii and the corresponding arc is called a
sector of the circle and the portion (or part) of the
circular region enclosed between a chord and the
corresponding arc is called a segment of the circle.
Thus, in Fig. 12.4, shaded region OAPB is a sector
Fig. 12.4
of the circle with centre O. ∠ AOB is called the
angle of the sector. Note that in this figure, unshaded region OAQB is also a sector of
the circle. For obvious reasons, OAPB is called the minor sector and
OAQB is called the major sector. You can also see that angle of the major sector is
360° – ∠ AOB.
Now, look at Fig. 12.5 in which AB is a chord
of the circle with centre O. So, shaded region APB is
a segment of the circle. You can also note that
unshaded region AQB is another segment of the circle
formed by the chord AB. For obvious reasons, APB
is called the minor segment and AQB is called the
major segment.
Remark : When we write ‘segment’ and ‘sector’
we will mean the ‘minor segment’ and the ‘minor Fig. 12.5
sector’ respectively, unless stated otherwise.
Now with this knowledge, let us try to find some
relations (or formulae) to calculate their areas.
Let OAPB be a sector of a circle with centre
O and radius r (see Fig. 12.6). Let the degree
measure of ∠ AOB be θ.
You know that area of a circle (in fact of a
circular region or disc) is πr2.
Fig. 12.6

In a way, we can consider this circular region to be a sector forming an angle of

360° (i.e., of degree measure 360) at the centre O. Now by applying the Unitary
Method, we can arrive at the area of the sector OAPB as follows:
When degree measure of the angle at the centre is 360, area of the
sector = πr 2
So, when the degree measure of the angle at the centre is 1, area of the
πr 2
sector = ⋅
360
Therefore, when the degree measure of the angle at the centre is θ, area of the
πr 2 θ
sector = ×θ = × πr 2 .
360 360
Thus, we obtain the following relation (or formula) for area of a sector of a
circle:
θ
Area of the sector of angle θ = × πr 2 ,
360
where r is the radius of the circle and θ the angle of the sector in degrees.
Now, a natural question arises : Can we find
the length of the arc APB corresponding to this
sector? Yes. Again, by applying the Unitary
Method and taking the whole length of the circle
(of angle 360°) as 2πr, we can obtain the required
θ
length of the arc APB as × 2π r .
360
θ
So, length of an arc of a sector of angle θ = × 2πr .
360
Fig. 12.7
Now let us take the case of the area of the
segment APB of a circle with centre O and radius r
(see Fig. 12.7). You can see that :
Area of the segment APB = Area of the sector OAPB – Area of ∆ OAB
θ
= × πr 2 – area of ∆ OAB
360
Note : From Fig. 12.6 and Fig. 12.7 respectively, you can observe that :
Area of the major sector OAQB = πr2 – Area of the minor sector OAPB
and Area of major segment AQB = πr2 – Area of the minor segment APB

228 MATHEMATICS
Let us now take some examples to understand these concepts (or results).
Example 2 : Find the area of the sector of a circle

with radius 4 cm and of angle 30°. Also, find the area
of the corresponding major sector (Use π = 3.14).
Solution : Given sector is OAPB (see Fig. 12.8).
θ
Area of the sector = × πr 2
360
30
= × 3.14 × 4 × 4 cm 2
360 Fig. 12.8
12.56
= cm 2 = 4.19cm 2 (approx.)
3
Area of the corresponding major sector
= πr2 – area of sector OAPB
= (3.14 × 16 – 4.19) cm2

= 46.05 cm2 = 46.1 cm2 (approx.)
(360 – θ)
Alternatively, area of the major sector = × πr 2
360
 360 − 30  2
=   × 3.14 × 16 cm
 360 
330
= × 3.14 × 16cm 2 = 46.05 cm2
360
= 46.1 cm2 (approx.)
Example 3 : Find the area of the segment AYB

shown in Fig. 12.9, if radius of the circle is 21 cm and
22
∠ AOB = 120°. (Use π = )
7
Fig. 12.9

Solution : Area of the segment AYB

= Area of sector OAYB – Area of ∆ OAB (1)
120 22
Now, area of the sector OAYB = × × 21 × 21 cm2 = 462 cm2 (2)
360 7
For finding the area of ∆ OAB, draw OM ⊥ AB as shown in Fig. 12.10.
Note that OA = OB. Therefore, by RHS congruence, ∆ AMO ≅ ∆ BMO.
1
So, M is the mid-point of AB and ∠ AOM = ∠ BOM = × 120° = 60° .
2
Let OM = x cm
OM
So, from ∆ OMA, = cos 60°
OA
x 1  1
or, =  cos 60° =  Fig. 12.10
21 2  2
21
or, x=
2
21
So, OM = cm
2
AM 3
Also, = sin 60° =
OA 2
21 3
So, AM = cm
2
2 × 21 3
Therefore, AB = 2 AM = cm = 21 3 cm
2
1 1 21 2
So, area of ∆ OAB = AB × OM = × 21 3 × cm
2 2 2
441
= 3 cm 2 (3)
4
 441 
Therefore, area of the segment AYB =  462 − 3  cm 2 [From (1), (2) and (3)]
 4 
21
= (88 – 21 3)cm2
4

230 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 12.2
22
Unless stated otherwise, use π = .
7
1. Find the area of a sector of a circle with radius 6 cm if angle of the sector is 60°.
2. Find the area of a quadrant of a circle whose circumference is 22 cm.
3. The length of the minute hand of a clock is 14 cm. Find the area swept by the minute
hand in 5 minutes.
4. A chord of a circle of radius 10 cm subtends a right angle at the centre. Find the area of
the corresponding : (i) minor segment (ii) major sector. (Use π = 3.14)
5. In a circle of radius 21 cm, an arc subtends an angle of 60° at the centre. Find:
(i) the length of the arc (ii) area of the sector formed by the arc
(iii) area of the segment formed by the corresponding chord
6. A chord of a circle of radius 15 cm subtends an angle of 60° at the centre. Find the areas
of the corresponding minor and major segments of the circle.
(Use π = 3.14 and 3 = 1.73)
7. A chord of a circle of radius 12 cm subtends an
angle of 120° at the centre. Find the area of the
corresponding segment of the circle.
(Use π = 3.14 and 3 = 1.73)
8. A horse is tied to a peg at one corner of a square
shaped grass field of side 15 m by means of a 5 m
long rope (see Fig. 12.11). Find
(i) the area of that part of the field in which the
horse can graze.
(ii) the increase in the grazing area if the rope were Fig. 12.11
10 m long instead of 5 m. (Use π = 3.14)
9. A brooch is made with silver wire in the form of a
circle with diameter 35 mm. The wire is also used in
making 5 diameters which divide the circle into 10
equal sectors as shown in Fig. 12.12. Find :
(i) the total length of the silver wire required.
(ii) the area of each sector of the brooch.
Fig. 12.12

10. An umbrella has 8 ribs which are equally spaced

(see Fig. 12.13). Assuming umbrella to be a flat circle
of radius 45 cm, find the area between the two
consecutive ribs of the umbrella.
11. A car has two wipers which do not overlap. Each
wiper has a blade of length 25 cm sweeping through
an angle of 115°. Find the total area cleaned at each
sweep of the blades. Fig. 12.13
12. To warn ships for underwater rocks, a lighthouse
spreads a red coloured light over a sector of angle
80° to a distance of 16.5 km. Find the area of the sea
over which the ships are warned. (Use π = 3.14)
13. A round table cover has six equal designs as shown
in Fig. 12.14. If the radius of the cover is 28 cm, find
the cost of making the designs at the rate of
` 0.35 per cm2. (Use 3 = 1.7)
14. Tick the correct answer in the following : Fig. 12.14
Area of a sector of angle p (in degrees) of a circle with radius R is
p p p p
(A) × 2πR (B) × π R2 (C) × 2πR (D) × 2 π R2
180 180 360 720
12.4 Areas of Combinations of Plane Figures

So far, we have calculated the areas of different figures separately. Let us now try to
calculate the areas of some combinations of plane figures. We come across these
types of figures in our daily life and also in the form of various interesting designs.
Flower beds, drain covers, window designs, designs on table covers, are some of such
examples. We illustrate the process of calculating areas of these figures through some
examples.
Example 4 : In Fig. 12.15, two circular flower beds

have been shown on two sides of a square lawn
ABCD of side 56 m. If the centre of each circular
flower bed is the point of intersection O of the
diagonals of the square lawn, find the sum of the
areas of the lawn and the flower beds.
Fig. 12.15

232 MATHEMATICS
Solution : Area of the square lawn ABCD = 56 × 56 m2 (1)

Let OA = OB = x metres
So, x2 + x2 = 562
or, 2x2 = 56 × 56
or, x2 = 28 × 56 (2)
90 1
Now, area of sector OAB = × π x2 = × π x2
360 4
1 22
= × × 28 × 56 m 2 [From (2)] (3)
4 7
1
Also, area of ∆ OAB = × 56 × 56 m 2 (∠ AOB = 90°) (4)
4
 1 22 1 
So, area of flower bed AB =  × × 28 × 56 − × 56 × 56  m2
4 7 4 
[From (3) and (4)]
1  22 
= × 28 × 56  − 2  m2
4  7 
1 8
= × 28 × 56 × m 2 (5)
4 7
Similarly, area of the other flower bed
1 8
= × 28 × 56 × m 2 (6)
4 7
 1 8
Therefore, total area =  56 × 56 + × 28 × 56 ×
 4 7
1 8
+ × 28 × 56 ×  m2 [From (1), (5) and (6)]
4 7
 2 2 2
= 28 × 56  2 + +  m
 7 7
18 2
= 28 × 56 × m = 4032m2
7

Alternative Solution :
Total area = Area of sector OAB + Area of sector ODC
+ Area of ∆ OAD + Area of ∆ OBC
 90 22 90 22
=  × × 28 × 56 + × × 28 × 56
 360 7 360 7
1 1 
+ × 56 × 56 + × 56 × 56  m 2
4 4 
1  22 22 
= × 28 × 56  + + 2 + 2  m2
4  7 7 
7 × 56
= (22 + 22 + 14 + 14) m 2
7
= 56 × 72 m2 = 4032 m2
Example 5 : Find the area of the shaded region in

Fig. 12.16, where ABCD is a square of side 14 cm.
Solution : Area of square ABCD
= 14 × 14 cm2 = 196 cm2
14
Diameter of each circle = cm = 7 cm
2
7 Fig. 12.16
So, radius of each circle = cm
2
22 7 7
So, area of one circle = πr2 = × × cm2
7 2 2
154 77
= cm = cm 2
4 2
77 2
Therefore, area of the four circles = 4 × cm = 154 cm2
2
Hence, area of the shaded region = (196 – 154) cm2 = 42 cm2.

234 MATHEMATICS
Example 6 : Find the area of the shaded design in Fig. 12.17, where ABCD is a
square of side 10 cm and semicircles are drawn with each side of the square as
diameter. (Use π = 3.14)
Fig. 12.17 Fig. 12.18

Solution : Let us mark the four unshaded regions as I, II, III and IV (see Fig. 12.18).
Area of I + Area of III
= Area of ABCD – Areas of two semicircles of each of radius 5 cm
 1 2 2
= 10 × 10 – 2 × × π × 5  cm = (100 – 3.14 × 25) cm2
 2 
= (100 – 78.5) cm2 = 21.5 cm2
Similarly, Area of II + Area of IV = 21.5 cm2
So, area of the shaded design = Area of ABCD – Area of (I + II + III + IV)
= (100 – 2 × 21.5) cm2 = (100 – 43) cm2 = 57 cm2
EXERCISE 12.3
22
Unless stated otherwise, use π = ⋅
7
1. Find the area of the shaded region in Fig. 12.19, if
PQ = 24 cm, PR = 7 cm and O is the centre of the
circle.
Fig. 12.19

2. Find the area of the shaded region in Fig. 12.20, if radii of the two concentric circles with
centre O are 7 cm and 14 cm respectively and ∠ AOC = 40°.
Fig. 12.20 Fig. 12.21

3. Find the area of the shaded region in Fig. 12.21, if ABCD is a square of side 14 cm and
APD and BPC are semicircles.
4. Find the area of the shaded region in Fig. 12.22, where a circular arc of radius 6 cm has
been drawn with vertex O of an equilateral triangle OAB of side 12 cm as centre.
Fig. 12.22 Fig. 12.23

5. From each corner of a square of side 4 cm a quadrant of a circle of radius 1 cm is cut and
also a circle of diameter 2 cm is cut as shown in Fig. 12.23. Find the area of the remaining
portion of the square.
6. In a circular table cover of radius 32 cm, a
design is formed leaving an equilateral
triangle ABC in the middle as shown in
Fig. 12.24. Find the area of the design.
Fig. 12.24

236 MATHEMATICS
7. In Fig. 12.25, ABCD is a square of side 14 cm. With

centres A, B, C and D, four circles are drawn such
that each circle touch externally two of the remaining
three circles. Find the area of the shaded region.
Fig. 12.25
8. Fig. 12.26 depicts a racing track whose left and right ends are semicircular.
Fig. 12.26
The distance between the two inner parallel line
segments is 60 m and they are each 106 m long. If
the track is 10 m wide, find :
(i) the distance around the track along its inner edge
(ii) the area of the track.
9. In Fig. 12.27, AB and CD are two diameters of a
circle (with centre O) perpendicular to each other
and OD is the diameter of the smaller circle. If
Fig. 12.27
OA = 7 cm, find the area of the shaded region.
10. The area of an equilateral triangle ABC is 17320.5
cm2. With each vertex of the triangle as centre, a
circle is drawn with radius equal to half the length
of the side of the triangle (see Fig. 12.28). Find the
area of the shaded region. (Use π = 3.14 and
3 = 1.73205)
Fig. 12.28

11. On a square handkerchief, nine circular designs each of radius 7 cm are made
(see Fig. 12.29). Find the area of the remaining portion of the handkerchief.
Fig. 12.29 Fig. 12.30

12. In Fig. 12.30, OACB is a quadrant of a circle with centre O and radius 3.5 cm. If OD = 2 cm,
find the area of the
(i) quadrant OACB, (ii) shaded region.
13. In Fig. 12.31, a square OABC is inscribed in a quadrant OPBQ. If OA = 20 cm, find the
area of the shaded region. (Use π = 3.14)
Fig. 12.31 Fig. 12.32

14. AB and CD are respectively arcs of two concentric circles of radii 21 cm and 7 cm and
centre O (see Fig. 12.32). If ∠ AOB = 30°, find the area of the shaded region.
15. In Fig. 12.33, ABC is a quadrant of a circle of
radius 14 cm and a semicircle is drawn with BC
as diameter. Find the area of the shaded region.
Fig. 12.33

238 MATHEMATICS
16. Calculate the area of the designed region in

Fig. 12.34 common between the two quadrants
of circles of radius 8 cm each.
Fig. 12.34
12.5 Summary
1. Circumference of a circle = 2 π r.
2. Area of a circle = π r2.
3. Length of an arc of a sector of a circle with radius r and angle with degree measure θ is
θ
× 2 π r⋅
360
θ
4. Area of a sector of a circle with radius r and angle with degree measure θ is × π r 2⋅
360
5. Area of segment of a circle
= Area of the corresponding sector – Area of the corresponding triangle.

SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES 239
SURFACE AREAS AND

VOLUMES 13
13.1 Introduction
From Class IX, you are familiar with some of the solids like cuboid, cone, cylinder, and
sphere (see Fig. 13.1). You have also learnt how to find their surface areas and volumes.
Fig. 13.1
In our day-to-day life, we come across a number of solids made up of combinations
of two or more of the basic solids as shown above.
You must have seen a truck with a
container fitted on its back (see Fig. 13.2),
carrying oil or water from one place to
another. Is it in the shape of any of the four
basic solids mentioned above? You may
guess that it is made of a cylinder with two
hemispheres as its ends.
Fig. 13.2

240 MATHEMATICS
Again, you may have seen an object like the

one in Fig. 13.3. Can you name it? A test tube, right!
You would have used one in your science laboratory.
This tube is also a combination of a cylinder and a
hemisphere. Similarly, while travelling, you may have
seen some big and beautiful buildings or monuments
made up of a combination of solids mentioned above.
If for some reason you wanted to find the
surface areas, or volumes, or capacities of such
objects, how would you do it? We cannot classify
these under any of the solids you have already studied. Fig. 13.3
In this chapter, you will see how to find surface areas and volumes of such
objects.
13.2 Surface Area of a Combination of Solids

Let us consider the container seen in Fig. 13.2. How do we find the surface area of
such a solid? Now, whenever we come across a new problem, we first try to see, if
we can break it down into smaller problems, we have earlier solved. We can see that
this solid is made up of a cylinder with two hemispheres stuck at either end. It would
look like what we have in Fig. 13.4, after we put the pieces all together.
Fig. 13.4
If we consider the surface of the newly formed object, we would be able to see
only the curved surfaces of the two hemispheres and the curved surface of the cylinder.
So, the total surface area of the new solid is the sum of the curved surface
areas of each of the individual parts. This gives,
TSA of new solid = CSA of one hemisphere + CSA of cylinder
+ CSA of other hemisphere
where TSA, CSA stand for ‘Total Surface Area’ and ‘Curved Surface Area’
respectively.
Let us now consider another situation. Suppose we are making a toy by putting
together a hemisphere and a cone. Let us see the steps that we would be going
through.

First, we would take a cone and a hemisphere and bring their flat faces together.
Here, of course, we would take the base radius of the cone equal to the radius of the
hemisphere, for the toy is to have a smooth surface. So, the steps would be as shown
in Fig. 13.5.
Fig. 13.5
At the end of our trial, we have got ourselves a nice round-bottomed toy. Now if
we want to find how much paint we would require to colour the surface of this toy,
what would we need to know? We would need to know the surface area of the toy,
which consists of the CSA of the hemisphere and the CSA of the cone.
So, we can say:
Total surface area of the toy = CSA of hemisphere + CSA of cone
Now, let us consider some examples.
Example 1 : Rasheed got a playing top (lattu) as his

birthday present, which surprisingly had no colour on
it. He wanted to colour it with his crayons. The top is
shaped like a cone surmounted by a hemisphere
(see Fig 13.6). The entire top is 5 cm in height and
the diameter of the top is 3.5 cm. Find the area he
22
has to colour. (Take π = ) Fig. 13.6
7
Solution : This top is exactly like the object we have discussed in Fig. 13.5. So, we
can conveniently use the result we have arrived at there. That is :
TSA of the toy = CSA of hemisphere + CSA of cone
1
Now, the curved surface area of the hemisphere = (4πr 2 ) = 2πr 2
2
 22 3.5 3.5  2
= 2 × × ×  cm
 7 2 2 

.
242 MATHEMATICS
Also, the height of the cone = height of the top – height (radius) of the hemispherical part
 3.5 
= 5 −  cm = 3.25 cm
 2 
2
2 2  3.5  2
So, the slant height of the cone (l ) = r + h =   + (3.25) cm = 3.7 cm (approx.)
 2 
 22 3.5 
Therefore, CSA of cone = πrl =  × × 3.7  cm 2
 7 2 
This gives the surface area of the top as
 22 3.5 3.5  2  22 3.5 
= 2 × × ×  cm +  × × 3.7  cm 2
 7 2 2   7 2 
22 3.5 11
= × ( 3.5 + 3.7 ) cm 2 = × (3.5 + 3.7) cm 2 = 39.6 cm2 (approx.)
7 2 2
You may note that ‘total surface area of the top’ is not the sum of the total
surface areas of the cone and hemisphere.
Example 2 : The decorative block shown

in Fig. 13.7 is made of two solids — a cube
and a hemisphere. The base of the block is a
cube with edge 5 cm, and the hemisphere
fixed on the top has a diameter of 4.2 cm.
Find the total surface area of the block.
22
(Take π = )
7 Fig. 13.7
Solution : The total surface area of the cube = 6 × (edge)2 = 6 × 5 × 5 cm2 = 150 cm2.
Note that the part of the cube where the hemisphere is attached is not included in the
surface area.
So, the surface area of the block = TSA of cube – base area of hemisphere
+ CSA of hemisphere
= 150 – πr2 + 2 πr2 = (150 + πr2) cm2
 22 4.2 4.2 
= 150 cm2 +  × ×  cm 2
 7 2 2 
= (150 + 13.86) cm2 = 163.86 cm2

Example 3 : A wooden toy rocket is in the

shape of a cone mounted on a cylinder, as
shown in Fig. 13.8. The height of the entire
rocket is 26 cm, while the height of the conical
part is 6 cm. The base of the conical portion
has a diameter of 5 cm, while the base
diameter of the cylindrical portion is 3 cm. If
the conical portion is to be painted orange
and the cylindrical portion yellow, find the
area of the rocket painted with each of these
colours. (Take π = 3.14)
Solution : Denote radius of cone by r, slant
height of cone by l, height of cone by h, radius
of cylinder by r′ and height of cylinder by h′.
Then r = 2.5 cm, h = 6 cm, r′ = 1.5 cm,
h′ = 26 – 6 = 20 cm and Fig. 13.8
l= r 2 + h2 = 2.52 + 62 cm = 6.5 cm
Here, the conical portion has its circular base resting on the base of the cylinder, but
the base of the cone is larger than the base of the cylinder. So, a part of the base of the
cone (a ring) is to be painted.
So, the area to be painted orange = CSA of the cone + base area of the cone
– base area of the cylinder
= πrl + πr2 – π(r′)2
= π[(2.5 × 6.5) + (2.5)2 – (1.5)2] cm2
= π[20.25] cm2 = 3.14 × 20.25 cm2
= 63.585 cm2
Now, the area to be painted yellow = CSA of the cylinder
+ area of one base of the cylinder
= 2πr′h′ + π(r′)2
= πr′ (2h′ + r′)
= (3.14 × 1.5) (2 × 20 + 1.5) cm2
= 4.71 × 41.5 cm2
= 195.465 cm2

244 MATHEMATICS
Example 4 : Mayank made a bird-bath for his garden

in the shape of a cylinder with a hemispherical
depression at one end (see Fig. 13.9). The height of
the cylinder is 1.45 m and its radius is 30 cm. Find the
22
total surface area of the bird-bath. (Take π = )
7
Solution : Let h be height of the cylinder, and r the
common radius of the cylinder and hemisphere. Then, Fig. 13.9
the total surface area of the bird-bath = CSA of cylinder + CSA of hemisphere
= 2πrh + 2πr2 = 2π r (h + r)
22
= 2× × 30(145 + 30) cm 2
7
= 33000 cm2 = 3.3 m2
EXERCISE 13.1
22
Unless stated otherwise, take π = ⋅
7
1. 2 cubes each of volume 64 cm3 are joined end to end. Find the surface area of the
resulting cuboid.
2. A vessel is in the form of a hollow hemisphere mounted by a hollow cylinder. The
diameter of the hemisphere is 14 cm and the total height of the vessel is 13 cm. Find the
inner surface area of the vessel.
3. A toy is in the form of a cone of radius 3.5 cm mounted on a hemisphere of same radius.
The total height of the toy is 15.5 cm. Find the total surface area of the toy.
4. A cubical block of side 7 cm is surmounted by a hemisphere. What is the greatest
diameter the hemisphere can have? Find the surface area of the solid.
5. A hemispherical depression is cut out from one face of a cubical wooden block such
that the diameter l of the hemisphere is equal to the edge of the cube. Determine the
surface area of the remaining solid.
6. A medicine capsule is in the shape of a
cylinder with two hemispheres stuck to each
of its ends (see Fig. 13.10). The length of
the entire capsule is 14 mm and the diameter
of the capsule is 5 mm. Find its surface area. Fig. 13.10

7. A tent is in the shape of a cylinder surmounted by a conical top. If the height and
diameter of the cylindrical part are 2.1 m and 4 m respectively, and the slant height of the
top is 2.8 m, find the area of the canvas used for making the tent. Also, find the cost of
the canvas of the tent at the rate of ` 500 per m2. (Note that the base of the tent will not
be covered with canvas.)
8. From a solid cylinder whose height is 2.4 cm and diameter 1.4 cm, a conical cavity of the
same height and same diameter is hollowed out. Find the total surface area of the
remaining solid to the nearest cm2.
9. A wooden article was made by scooping
out a hemisphere from each end of a solid
cylinder, as shown in Fig. 13.11. If the
height of the cylinder is 10 cm, and its
base is of radius 3.5 cm, find the total
surface area of the article.
13.3 Volume of a Combination of Solids Fig. 13.11

In the previous section, we have discussed how to find the surface area of solids made
up of a combination of two basic solids. Here, we shall see how to calculate their
volumes. It may be noted that in calculating the surface area, we have not added the
surface areas of the two constituents, because some part of the surface area disappeared
in the process of joining them. However, this will not be the case when we calculate
the volume. The volume of the solid formed by joining two basic solids will actually be
the sum of the volumes of the constituents, as we see in the examples below.
Example 5 : Shanta runs an industry in

a shed which is in the shape of a cuboid
surmounted by a half cylinder (see Fig.
13.12). If the base of the shed is of
dimension 7 m × 15 m, and the height of
the cuboidal portion is 8 m, find the volume
of air that the shed can hold. Further,
suppose the machinery in the shed
occupies a total space of 300 m3, and
there are 20 workers, each of whom
occupy about 0.08 m 3 space on an
average. Then, how much air is in the
Fig. 13.12
22
shed? (Take π = )
7

246 MATHEMATICS
Solution : The volume of air inside the shed (when there are no people or machinery)
is given by the volume of air inside the cuboid and inside the half cylinder, taken
together.
Now, the length, breadth and height of the cuboid are 15 m, 7 m and 8 m, respectively.
Also, the diameter of the half cylinder is 7 m and its height is 15 m.
1
So, the required volume = volume of the cuboid + volume of the cylinder
2
 1 22 7 7 
= 15 × 7 × 8 + × × × × 15 m3 = 1128.75 m3
 2 7 2 2 
Next, the total space occupied by the machinery = 300 m3
And the total space occupied by the workers = 20 × 0.08 m3 = 1.6 m3
Therefore, the volume of the air, when there are machinery and workers
= 1128.75 – (300.00 + 1.60) = 827.15 m3
Example 6 : A juice seller was serving his
customers using glasses as shown in Fig. 13.13.
The inner diameter of the cylindrical glass was
5 cm, but the bottom of the glass had a
hemispherical raised portion which reduced the
capacity of the glass. If the height of a glass
was 10 cm, find the apparent capacity of the
glass and its actual capacity. (Use π = 3.14.) Fig. 13.13
Solution : Since the inner diameter of the glass = 5 cm and height = 10 cm,
the apparent capacity of the glass = πr 2 h
= 3.14 × 2.5 × 2.5 × 10 cm3 = 196.25 cm3
But the actual capacity of the glass is less by the volume of the hemisphere at the
base of the glass.
2 3 2 3
i.e., it is less by πr = × 3.14 × 2.5 × 2.5 × 2.5 cm = 32.71 cm3
3 3
So, the actual capacity of the glass = apparent capacity of glass – volume of the
hemisphere
= (196.25 – 32.71) cm3
= 163.54 cm3

Example 7 : A solid toy is in the form of a

hemisphere surmounted by a right circular cone. The
height of the cone is 2 cm and the diameter of the
base is 4 cm. Determine the volume of the toy. If a
right circular cylinder circumscribes the toy, find the
difference of the volumes of the cylinder and the toy.
(Take π = 3.14)
Fig. 13.14
Solution : Let BPC be the hemisphere and ABC be the cone standing on the base
of the hemisphere (see Fig. 13.14). The radius BO of the hemisphere (as well as
1
of the cone) = × 4 cm = 2 cm.
2
2 3 1 2
So, volume of the toy = πr + πr h
3 3
2 1 
=  × 3.14 × (2)3 + × 3.14 × (2) 2 × 2 cm3 = 25.12 cm3
3 3 
Now, let the right circular cylinder EFGH circumscribe the given solid. The radius of
the base of the right circular cylinder = HP = BO = 2 cm, and its height is
EH = AO + OP = (2 + 2) cm = 4 cm
So, the volume required = volume of the right circular cylinder – volume of the toy
= (3.14 × 22 × 4 – 25.12) cm3
= 25.12 cm3
Hence, the required difference of the two volumes = 25.12 cm3.
EXERCISE 13.2
22
Unless stated otherwise, take π = .
7
1 . A solid is in the shape of a cone standing on a hemisphere with both their radii being
equal to 1 cm and the height of the cone is equal to its radius. Find the volume of the solid
in terms of π.
2. Rachel, an engineering student, was asked to make a model shaped like a cylinder with
two cones attached at its two ends by using a thin aluminium sheet. The diameter of the
model is 3 cm and its length is 12 cm. If each cone has a height of 2 cm, find the volume
of air contained in the model that Rachel made. (Assume the outer and inner dimensions
of the model to be nearly the same.)

248 MATHEMATICS
3. A gulab jamun, contains sugar syrup up to about

30% of its volume. Find approximately how much
syrup would be found in 45 gulab jamuns, each
shaped like a cylinder with two hemispherical ends
with length 5 cm and diameter 2.8 cm (see Fig. 13.15).
4. A pen stand made of wood is in the shape of a Fig. 13.15

cuboid with four conical depressions to hold pens.
The dimensions of the cuboid are 15 cm by 10 cm by
3.5 cm. The radius of each of the depressions is 0.5
cm and the depth is 1.4 cm. Find the volume of
wood in the entire stand (see Fig. 13.16).
5. A vessel is in the form of an inverted cone. Its
height is 8 cm and the radius of its top, which is
open, is 5 cm. It is filled with water up to the brim.
When lead shots, each of which is a sphere of radius
0.5 cm are dropped into the vessel, one-fourth of
the water flows out. Find the number of lead shots
dropped in the vessel. Fig. 13.16
6. A solid iron pole consists of a cylinder of height 220 cm and base diameter 24 cm, which
is surmounted by another cylinder of height 60 cm and radius 8 cm. Find the mass of the
pole, given that 1 cm3 of iron has approximately 8g mass. (Use π = 3.14)
7. A solid consisting of a right circular cone of height 120 cm and radius 60 cm standing on
a hemisphere of radius 60 cm is placed upright in a right circular cylinder full of water
such that it touches the bottom. Find the volume of water left in the cylinder, if the radius
of the cylinder is 60 cm and its height is 180 cm.
8. A spherical glass vessel has a cylindrical neck 8 cm long, 2 cm in diameter; the diameter
of the spherical part is 8.5 cm. By measuring the amount of water it holds, a child finds its
volume to be 345 cm3. Check whether she is correct, taking the above as the inside
measurements, and π = 3.14.
13.4 Conversion of Solid from One Shape to Another

We are sure you would have seen candles.
Generally, they are in the shape of a cylinder.
You may have also seen some candles
shaped like an animal (see Fig. 13.17).
Fig. 13.17

How are they made? If you want a candle of any special shape, you will have to
heat the wax in a metal container till it becomes completely liquid. Then you will have to
pour it into another container which has the special shape that you want. For example,
take a candle in the shape of a solid cylinder, melt it and pour whole of the molten wax
into another container shaped like a rabbit. On cooling, you will obtain a candle in the
shape of the rabbit. The volume of the new candle will be the same as the volume of
the earlier candle. This is what we
have to remember when we come
across objects which are converted
from one shape to another, or when
a liquid which originally filled one
container of a particular shape is
poured into another container of a
different shape or size, as you see in Fig. 13.18
Fig 13.18.
To understand what has been discussed, let us consider some examples.
Example 8: A cone of height 24 cm and radius of base 6 cm is made up of modelling

clay. A child reshapes it in the form of a sphere. Find the radius of the sphere.
1
Solution : Volume of cone = × π × 6 × 6 × 24 cm3
3
4 3
If r is the radius of the sphere, then its volume is π r .
3
Since, the volume of clay in the form of the cone and the sphere remains the same, we
have
4 1
× π × r 3 = × π × 6 × 6 × 24
3 3
i.e., r3 = 3 × 3 × 24 = 33 × 23
So, r= 3×2=6
Therefore, the radius of the sphere is 6 cm.
Example 9 : Selvi’s house has an overhead tank in the shape of a cylinder. This
is filled by pumping water from a sump (an underground tank) which is in the
shape of a cuboid. The sump has dimensions 1.57 m × 1.44 m × 95cm. The
overhead tank has its radius 60 cm and height 95 cm. Find the height of the water
left in the sump after the overhead tank has been completely filled with water
from the sump which had been full. Compare the capacity of the tank with that of
the sump. (Use π = 3.14)

250 MATHEMATICS
Solution : The volume of water in the overhead tank equals the volume of the water
removed from the sump.
Now, the volume of water in the overhead tank (cylinder) = πr2h
= 3.14 × 0.6 × 0.6 × 0.95 m3
The volume of water in the sump when full = l × b × h = 1.57 × 1.44 × 0.95 m3
The volume of water left in the sump after filling the tank
= [(1.57 × 1.44 × 0.95) – (3.14 × 0.6 × 0.6 × 0.95)] m3 = (1.57 × 0.6 × 0.6 × 0.95 × 2) m3
volume of water left in the sump
So, the height of the water left in the sump =
l×b
1.57 × 0.6 × 0.6 × 0.95 × 2
= m
1.57 × 1.44
= 0.475 m = 47.5 cm
Capacity of tank 3.14 × 0.6 × 0.6 × 0.95 1

Also, = =
Capacity of sump 1.57 × 1.44 × 0.95 2
Therefore, the capacity of the tank is half the capacity of the sump.
Example 10 : A copper rod of diameter 1 cm and length 8 cm is drawn into a wire of

length 18 m of uniform thickness. Find the thickness of the wire.
2
1
Solution : The volume of the rod = π ×   × 8 cm3 = 2 π cm3 .
2
The length of the new wire of the same volume = 18 m = 1800 cm
If r is the radius (in cm) of cross-section of the wire, its volume = π × r2 × 1800 cm3
Therefore, π × r2 × 1800 = 2π
1
i.e., r2 =
900
1
i.e., r=
30
1
So, the diameter of the cross section, i.e., the thickness of the wire is cm,
15
i.e., 0.67mm (approx.).
4
Example 11 : A hemispherical tank full of water is emptied by a pipe at the rate of 3
7
litres per second. How much time will it take to empty half the tank, if it is 3m in
22
diameter? (Take π = )
7

3
Solution : Radius of the hemispherical tank = m
2
3
2 22  3  99 3
Volume of the tank = × ×   m3 = m
3 7 2 14
1 99 3 99
So, the volume of the water to be emptied = × m = × 1000 litres
2 14 28
99000
= litres
28
25 99000
Since, litres of water is emptied in 1 second, litres of water will be emptied
7 28
99000 7
in × seconds, i.e., in 16.5 minutes.
28 25
EXERCISE 13.3
22
Take π = , unless stated otherwise.
7
1. A metallic sphere of radius 4.2 cm is melted and recast into the shape of a cylinder of
radius 6 cm. Find the height of the cylinder.
2. Metallic spheres of radii 6 cm, 8 cm and 10 cm, respectively, are melted to form a single
solid sphere. Find the radius of the resulting sphere.
3. A 20 m deep well with diameter 7 m is dug and the earth from digging is evenly spread out
to form a platform 22 m by 14 m. Find the height of the platform.
4. A well of diameter 3 m is dug 14 m deep. The earth taken out of it has been spread evenly
all around it in the shape of a circular ring of width 4 m to form an embankment. Find the
height of the embankment.
5. A container shaped like a right circular cylinder having diameter 12 cm and height 15 cm
is full of ice cream. The ice cream is to be filled into cones of height 12 cm and diameter
6 cm, having a hemispherical shape on the top. Find the number of such cones which can
be filled with ice cream.
6. How many silver coins, 1.75 cm in diameter and of thickness 2 mm, must be melted to form
a cuboid of dimensions 5.5 cm × 10 cm × 3.5 cm?

252 MATHEMATICS
7. A cylindrical bucket, 32 cm high and with radius of base 18 cm, is filled with sand. This
bucket is emptied on the ground and a conical heap of sand is formed. If the height of the
conical heap is 24 cm, find the radius and slant height of the heap.
8. Water in a canal, 6 m wide and 1.5 m deep, is flowing with a speed of 10 km/h. How much
area will it irrigate in 30 minutes, if 8 cm of standing water is needed?
9. A farmer connects a pipe of internal diameter 20 cm from a canal into a cylindrical tank in
her field, which is 10 m in diameter and 2 m deep. If water flows through the pipe at the
rate of 3 km/h, in how much time will the tank be filled?
13.5 Frustum of a Cone

In Section 13.2, we observed objects that are formed when two basic solids were
joined together. Let us now do something different. We will take a right circular cone
and remove a portion of it. There are so many ways
in which we can do this. But one particular case that
we are interested in is the removal of a smaller right
circular cone by cutting the given cone by a plane
parallel to its base. You must have observed that the
glasses (tumblers), in general, used for drinking water,
are of this shape. (See Fig. 13.19) Fig. 13.19
Activity 1 : Take some clay, or any other such material (like plasticine, etc.) and form
a cone. Cut it with a knife parallel to its base. Remove the smaller cone. What are you
left with?You are left with a solid called a frustum of the cone. You can see that this
has two circular ends with different radii.
So, given a cone, when we slice (or cut) through it with a plane parallel to its base
(see Fig. 13.20) and remove the cone that is formed on one side of that plane, the part
that is now left over on the other side of the plane is called a frustum* of the cone.
Fig. 13.20
*‘Frustum’ is a latin word meaning ‘piece cut off’, and its plural is ‘frusta’.

How can we find the surface area and volume of a frustum of a cone? Let
us explain it through an example.
Example 12 : The radii of the ends of a frustum

of a cone 45 cm high are 28 cm and 7 cm
(see Fig. 13.21). Find its volume, the curved
surface area and the total suface area
22
(Take π = ).
7
Solution : The frustum can be viewed as a dif-
ference of two right circular cones OAB and
OCD (see Fig. 13.21). Let the height (in cm)
of the cone OAB be h1 and its slant height l1,
i.e., OP = h1 and OA = OB = l1. Let h2 be the
height of cone OCD and l2 its slant height. Fig. 13.21
We have : r1 = 28 cm, r2 = 7 cm
and the height of frustum (h) = 45 cm. Also,
h1 = 45 + h2 (1)
We first need to determine the respective heights h1 and h2 of the cone OAB
and OCD.
Since the triangles OPB and OQD are similar (Why?), we have
h1 28 4
= = (2)
h2 7 1
From (1) and (2), we get h2 = 15 and h1 = 60.
Now, the volume of the frustum
= volume of the cone OAB – volume of the cone OCD
 1 22 1 22 
=  ⋅ ⋅ (28) 2 ⋅ (60) − ⋅ ⋅ (7) 2 ⋅ (15)  cm3 = 48510 cm3
3 7 3 7 
The respective slant height l2 and l1 of the cones OCD and OAB are given
by
l2 = (7)2 + (15) 2 = 16.55 cm (approx.)
l1 = (28) 2 + (60) 2 = 4 (7) 2 + (15) 2 = 4 × 16.55 = 66.20 cm

254 MATHEMATICS
Thus, the curved surface area of the frustum = πr1l1 – πr2l2

22 22
= (28)(66.20) – (7)(16.55) = 5461.5 cm2
7 7
Now, the total surface area of the frustum
= the curved surface area + πr12 + πr22
22 22 2 2
= 5461.5 cm2 + (28) 2 cm 2 + (7) cm
7 7
= 5461.5 cm2 + 2464 cm2 + 154 cm2 = 8079.5 cm2.
Let h be the height, l the slant height and r1 and r2 the radii of the ends
(r1 > r2) of the frustum of a cone. Then we can directly find the volume, the
curved surace area and the total surface area of frustum by using the formulae
given below :
1
(i) Volume of the frustum of the cone = πh(r12 + r22 + r1r2 ) .
3
(ii) the curved surface area of the frustum of the cone = π(r1 + r2)l
where l = h2 + (r1 − r2 ) 2 .
(iii) Total surface area of the frustum of the cone = πl (r1 + r2) + πr12 + πr22,
where l = h2 + (r1 − r2 ) 2 .
These formulae can be derived using the idea of similarity of triangles but we
shall not be doing derivations here.
Let us solve Example 12, using these formulae :
1
(i) Volume of the frustum = π h r12 + r22 + r1r2
( )
3
1 22
= ⋅ ⋅ 45 ⋅ (28) 2 + (7) 2 + (28)(7)  cm3
3 7
= 48510 cm3
2
(ii) We have l= h 2 + ( r1 − r2 ) = (45) 2 + (28 − 7) 2 cm
= 3 (15) 2 + (7) 2 = 49.65 cm

So, the curved surface area of the frustum
22
= π(r1 + r2) l = (28 + 7) (49.65) = 5461.5 cm2
7
(iii) Total surface area of the frustum
2 2
= π ( r1 + r2 ) l + πr1 + πr2
 22 22 2 
= 5461.5 + (28)2 + (7)  cm2 = 8079.5 cm2
 7 7 
Let us apply these formulae in some examples.
Example 13 : Hanumappa and his wife Gangamma are

busy making jaggery out of sugarcane juice. They have
processed the sugarcane juice to make the molasses,
which is poured into moulds in the shape of a frustum of
a cone having the diameters of its two circular faces as
30 cm and 35 cm and the vertical height of the mould is
14 cm (see Fig. 13.22). If each cm3 of molasses has
Fig. 13.22
mass about 1.2 g, find the mass of the molasses that can
 22 
be poured into each mould.  Take π =
 7 
Solution : Since the mould is in the shape of a frustum of a cone, the quantity (volume)
π
of molasses that can be poured into it = h ( r12 + r22 + r1 r2 ) ,
3
where r1 is the radius of the larger base and r2 is the radius of the smaller base.
1 22  35 2  30 2  35 30  3
= 3 × 7 × 14  2  +  2  +  2 × 2  cm = 11641.7 cm3.
     
It is given that 1 cm3 of molasses has mass 1.2g. So, the mass of the molasses that can
be poured into each mould = (11641.7 × 1.2) g
= 13970.04 g = 13.97 kg = 14 kg (approx.)

256 MATHEMATICS
Example 14 : An open metal bucket is in the

shape of a frustum of a cone, mounted on a
hollow cylindrical base made of the same me-
tallic sheet (see Fig. 13.23). The diameters of
the two circular ends of the bucket are 45 cm
and 25 cm, the total vertical height of the bucket
is 40 cm and that of the cylindrical base is
6 cm. Find the area of the metallic sheet used
to make the bucket, where we do not take into
account the handle of the bucket. Also, find
the volume of water the bucket can hold. Fig. 13.23
22
Take π = .
7
Solution : The total height of the bucket = 40 cm, which includes the height of the
base. So, the height of the frustum of the cone = (40 – 6) cm = 34 cm.
Therefore, the slant height of the frustum, l = h2 + (r1 − r2 ) 2 ,
where r1 = 22.5 cm, r2 = 12.5 cm and h = 34 cm.
So, l= 342 + (22.5 − 12.5) 2 cm
= 342 + 102 = 35.44 cm
The area of metallic sheet used = curved surface area of frustum of cone
+ area of circular base
+ curved surface area of cylinder
= [π × 35.44 (22.5 + 12.5) + π × (12.5)2

+ 2π × 12.5 × 6] cm2
22
= (1240.4 + 156.25 + 150) cm2
7
= 4860.9 cm2

Now, the volume of water that the bucket can hold (also, known as the capacity
of the bucket)
π×h
= × ( r12 + r22 + r1r2 )
3
22 34
= × × [(22.5) 2 + (12.5) 2 + 22.5 × 12.5] cm3
7 3
22 34
= × × 943.75 = 33615.48 cm3
7 3
= 33.62 litres (approx.)
EXERCISE 13.4
22
Use π = unless stated otherwise.
7
1. A drinking glass is in the shape of a frustum of a
cone of height 14 cm. The diameters of its two
circular ends are 4 cm and 2 cm. Find the capacity of
the glass.
2. The slant height of a frustum of a cone is 4 cm and
the perimeters (circumference) of its circular ends
are 18 cm and 6 cm. Find the curved surface area of
the frustum.
3. A fez, the cap used by the Turks, is shaped like the
frustum of a cone (see Fig. 13.24). If its radius on the
open side is 10 cm, radius at the upper base is 4 cm
and its slant height is 15 cm, find the area of material Fig. 13.24
used for making it.
4. A container, opened from the top and made up of a metal sheet, is in the form of a
frustum of a cone of height 16 cm with radii of its lower and upper ends as 8 cm and 20
cm, respectively. Find the cost of the milk which can completely fill the container, at the
rate of ` 20 per litre. Also find the cost of metal sheet used to make the container, if it
costs ` 8 per 100 cm2. (Take π = 3.14)
5. A metallic right circular cone 20 cm high and whose vertical angle is 60° is cut into two
parts at the middle of its height by a plane parallel to its base. If the frustum so obtained
1
be drawn into a wire of diameter cm, find the length of the wire.
16

258 MATHEMATICS

1. A copper wire, 3 mm in diameter, is wound about a cylinder whose length is 12 cm, and
diameter 10 cm, so as to cover the curved surface of the cylinder. Find the length and
mass of the wire, assuming the density of copper to be 8.88 g per cm3.
2. A right triangle, whose sides are 3 cm and 4 cm (other than hypotenuse) is made to
revolve about its hypotenuse. Find the volume and surface area of the double cone so
formed. (Choose value of π as found appropriate.)
3. A cistern, internally measuring 150 cm × 120 cm × 110 cm, has 129600 cm3 of water in it.
Porous bricks are placed in the water until the cistern is full to the brim. Each brick
absorbs one-seventeenth of its own volume of water. How many bricks can be put in
without overflowing the water, each brick being 22.5 cm × 7.5 cm × 6.5 cm?
4. In one fortnight of a given month, there was a rainfall of 10 cm in a river valley. If the area
of the valley is 7280 km2, show that the total rainfall was approximately equivalent to
the addition to the normal water of three rivers each 1072 km long, 75 m wide and 3 m
deep.
5. An oil funnel made of tin sheet consists of a
10 cm long cylindrical portion attached to a
frustum of a cone. If the total height is 22 cm,
diameter of the cylindrical portion is 8 cm and
the diameter of the top of the funnel is 18 cm,
find the area of the tin sheet required to make
the funnel (see Fig. 13.25).
Fig. 13.25
6. Derive the formula for the curved surface area and total surface area of the frustum of a
cone, given to you in Section 13.5, using the symbols as explained.
7. Derive the formula for the volume of the frustum of a cone, given to you in Section 13.5,
using the symbols as explained.
13.6 Summary
1. To determine the surface area of an object formed by combining any two of the basic
solids, namely, cuboid, cone, cylinder, sphere and hemisphere.
2. To find the volume of objects formed by combining any two of a cuboid, cone, cylinder,
sphere and hemisphere.

3. Given a right circular cone, which is sliced through by a plane parallel to its base, when
the smaller conical portion is removed, the resulting solid is called a Frustum of a Right
Circular Cone.
4. The formulae involving the frustum of a cone are:
1
(i) Volume of a frustum of a cone = πh r12 + r22 + r1r2 .
( )
3
2
(ii) Curved surface area of a frustum of a cone = πl(r1 + r2) where l = h2 + ( r1 − r2 ) .
(iii) Total surface area of frustum of a cone = πl(r1 + r2) + π(r12 + r22) where
h = vertical height of the frustum, l = slant height of the frustum
r1 and r2 are radii of the two bases (ends) of the frustum.

260 MATHEMATICS
STATISTICS 14
14.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you have studied the classification of given data into ungrouped as well as
grouped frequency distributions. You have also learnt to represent the data pictorially
in the form of various graphs such as bar graphs, histograms (including those of varying
widths) and frequency polygons. In fact, you went a step further by studying certain
numerical representatives of the ungrouped data, also called measures of central
tendency, namely, mean, median and mode. In this chapter, we shall extend the study
of these three measures, i.e., mean, median and mode from ungrouped data to that of
grouped data. We shall also discuss the concept of cumulative frequency, the
cumulative frequency distribution and how to draw cumulative frequency curves, called
ogives.
14.2 Mean of Grouped Data

The mean (or average) of observations, as we know, is the sum of the values of all the
observations divided by the total number of observations. From Class IX, recall that if
x1, x2,. . ., xn are observations with respective frequencies f1, f2, . . ., fn, then this
means observation x1 occurs f1 times, x2 occurs f2 times, and so on.
Now, the sum of the values of all the observations = f1x1 + f2x2 + . . . + fnxn, and
the number of observations = f1 + f2 + . . . + fn.
So, the mean x of the data is given by
f x + f 2 x2 + + f n xn
x = 1 1
f1 + f 2 + + f n
Recall that we can write this in short form by using the Greek letter Σ (capital
sigma) which means summation. That is,

STATISTICS 261
∑fx
i =1
i i
x = n
∑f
i =1
i
Σ fi xi
which, more briefly, is written as x = , if it is understood that i varies from
Σ fi
1 to n.
Let us apply this formula to find the mean in the following example.
Example 1 : The marks obtained by 30 students of Class X of a certain school in a

Mathematics paper consisting of 100 marks are presented in table below. Find the
mean of the marks obtained by the students.
Marks obtained 10 20 36 40 50 56 60 70 72 80 88 92 95
(x i )
Number of 1 1 3 4 3 2 4 4 1 1 2 3 1
students ( fi)
Solution: Recall that to find the mean marks, we require the product of each xi with
the corresponding frequency fi. So, let us put them in a column as shown in Table 14.1.
Table 14.1
Marks obtained (xi ) Number of students ( fi ) f ix i
10 1 10
20 1 20
. 36 3 108
40 4 160
50 3 150
56 2 112
60 4 240
70 4 280
72 1 72
80 1 80
88 2 176
92 3 276
95 1 95
Total Σfi = 30 Σfi xi = 1779

262 MATHEMATICS
Σ fi xi 1779
Now, x= = = 59.3
Σ fi 30
Therefore, the mean marks obtained is 59.3.

In most of our real life situations, data is usually so large that to make a meaningful
study it needs to be condensed as grouped data. So, we need to convert given ungrouped
data into grouped data and devise some method to find its mean.
Let us convert the ungrouped data of Example 1 into grouped data by forming
class-intervals of width, say 15. Remember that, while allocating frequencies to each
class-interval, students falling in any upper class-limit would be considered in the next
class, e.g., 4 students who have obtained 40 marks would be considered in the class-
interval 40-55 and not in 25-40. With this convention in our mind, let us form a grouped
frequency distribution table (see Table 14.2).
Table 14.2
Class interval 10 - 25 25 - 40 40 - 55 55 - 70 70 - 85 85 - 100
Number of students 2 3 7 6 6 6
Now, for each class-interval, we require a point which would serve as the
representative of the whole class. It is assumed that the frequency of each class-
interval is centred around its mid-point. So the mid-point (or class mark) of each
class can be chosen to represent the observations falling in the class. Recall that we
find the mid-point of a class (or its class mark) by finding the average of its upper and
lower limits. That is,
Upper class limit + Lower class limit
Class mark =
2
10 + 25
With reference to Table 14.2, for the class 10-25, the class mark is , i.e.,
2
17.5. Similarly, we can find the class marks of the remaining class intervals. We put
them in Table 14.3. These class marks serve as our xi’s. Now, in general, for the ith
class interval, we have the frequency fi corresponding to the class mark xi. We can
now proceed to compute the mean in the same manner as in Example 1.

STATISTICS 263
Table 14.3
Class interval Number of students ( fi ) Class mark (xi ) fi xi

10 - 25 2 17.5 35.0
25 - 40 3 32.5 97.5
40 - 55 7 47.5 332.5
55 - 70 6 62.5 375.0
70 - 85 6 77.5 465.0
85 - 100 6 92.5 555.0
Total Σ fi = 30 Σ fi xi = 1860.0
The sum of the values in the last column gives us Σ fi xi. So, the mean x of the
given data is given by
Σfi xi 1860.0
x = = = 62
Σ fi 30
This new method of finding the mean is known as the Direct Method.
We observe that Tables 14.1 and 14.3 are using the same data and employing the
same formula for the calculation of the mean but the results obtained are different.
Can you think why this is so, and which one is more accurate? The difference in the
two values is because of the mid-point assumption in Table 14.3, 59.3 being the exact
mean, while 62 an approximate mean.
Sometimes when the numerical values of xi and fi are large, finding the product
of xi and fi becomes tedious and time consuming. So, for such situations, let us think of
a method of reducing these calculations.
We can do nothing with the fi’s, but we can change each xi to a smaller number
so that our calculations become easy. How do we do this? What about subtracting a
fixed number from each of these xi’s? Let us try this method.
The first step is to choose one among the xi’s as the assumed mean, and denote
it by ‘a’. Also, to further reduce our calculation work, we may take ‘a’ to be that xi
which lies in the centre of x1, x2, . . ., xn. So, we can choose a = 47.5 or a = 62.5. Let
us choose a = 47.5.
The next step is to find the difference di between a and each of the xi’s, that is,
the deviation of ‘a’ from each of the xi’s.
i.e., di = xi – a = xi – 47.5

264 MATHEMATICS
The third step is to find the product of di with the corresponding fi, and take the sum
of all the fi di’s. The calculations are shown in Table 14.4.
Table 14.4
Class interval Number of Class mark di = xi – 47.5 fid i

students ( fi ) (xi )
10 - 25 2 17.5 –30 –60
25 - 40 3 32.5 –15 –45
40 - 55 7 47.5 0 0
55 - 70 6 62.5 15 90
70 - 85 6 77.5 30 180
85 - 100 6 92.5 45 270
Total Σfi = 30 Σfidi = 435
Σfi di
So, from Table 14.4, the mean of the deviations, d = .
Σfi
Now, let us find the relation between d and x .

Since in obtaining di, we subtracted ‘a’ from each xi, so, in order to get the mean
x , we need to add ‘a’ to d . This can be explained mathematically as:
Σfi di
Mean of deviations, d =
Σfi
Σfi ( xi − a )
So, d =
Σfi
Σfi xi Σf i a
= −
Σf i Σfi
Σfi
= x −a
Σfi
= x−a
So, x = a+ d
Σfi di
i.e., x = a+
Σfi

STATISTICS 265
Substituting the values of a, Σfidi and Σfi from Table 14.4, we get
435
x = 47.5 + = 47.5 + 14.5 = 62 .
30
Therefore, the mean of the marks obtained by the students is 62.
The method discussed above is called the Assumed Mean Method.
Activity 1 : From the Table 14.3 find the mean by taking each of xi (i.e., 17.5, 32.5,
and so on) as ‘a’. What do you observe? You will find that the mean determined in
each case is the same, i.e., 62. (Why ?)
So, we can say that the value of the mean obtained does not depend on the
choice of ‘a’.
Observe that in Table 14.4, the values in Column 4 are all multiples of 15. So, if
we divide the values in the entire Column 4 by 15, we would get smaller numbers to
multiply with fi. (Here, 15 is the class size of each class interval.)
xi − a
So, let ui = , where a is the assumed mean and h is the class size.
h
Now, we calculate ui in this way and continue as before (i.e., find fi ui and
then Σ fi ui). Taking h = 15, let us form Table 14.5.
Table 14.5
xi – a
Class interval fi xi di = xi – a ui = fi ui
h
10 - 25 2 17.5 –30 –2 –4
25 - 40 3 32.5 –15 –1 –3
40 - 55 7 47.5 0 0 0
55 - 70 6 62.5 15 1 6
70 - 85 6 77.5 30 2 12
85 - 100 6 92.5 45 3 18
Total Σfi = 30 Σfiui = 29
Σfi ui
Let u =
Σf i
Here, again let us find the relation between u and x .

266 MATHEMATICS
xi − a
We have, ui =
h
( xi − a )
Σfi  Σfi xi − a Σfi 
u = h 1
Therefore, =  
Σf i h  Σfi 
1  Σfi xi Σf 
=  −a i
h  Σf i Σfi 
1
= [ x − a]
h
So, hu = x − a
i.e., x = a + hu
 Σf u 
So, x = a + h i i 
 Σfi 
Now, substituting the values of a, h, Σfiui and Σfi from Table 14.5, we get
 29 
x = 47.5 + 15 ×  
 30 
= 47.5 + 14.5 = 62
So, the mean marks obtained by a student is 62.
The method discussed above is called the Step-deviation method.
We note that :
l the step-deviation method will be convenient to apply if all the di’s have a
common factor.
l The mean obtained by all the three methods is the same.
l The assumed mean method and step-deviation method are just simplified
forms of the direct method.
l The formula x = a + h u still holds if a and h are not as given above, but are
xi − a
any non-zero numbers such that ui = .
h
Let us apply these methods in another example.

STATISTICS 267
Example 2 : The table below gives the percentage distribution of female teachers in
the primary schools of rural areas of various states and union territories (U.T.) of
India. Find the mean percentage of female teachers by all the three methods discussed
in this section.
Percentage of 15 - 25 25 - 35 35 - 45 45 - 55 55 - 65 65 - 75 75 - 85
female teachers
Number of 6 11 7 4 4 2 1
States/U.T.
Source : Seventh All India School Education Survey conducted by NCERT
Solution : Let us find the class marks, xi, of each class, and put them in a column
(see Table 14.6):
Table 14.6
Percentage of female Number of xi

teachers States /U.T. ( f i )
15 - 25 6 20
25 - 35 11 30
35 - 45 7 40
45 - 55 4 50
55 - 65 4 60
65 - 75 2 70
75 - 85 1 80
xi − 50
Here we take a = 50, h = 10, then di = xi – 50 and ui = .
10
We now find di and ui and put them in Table 14.7.

268 MATHEMATICS
Table 14.7
Percentage of Number of xi di = xi – 50 xi −50 fi xi fi di fi ui

ui =
female states/U.T. 10
teachers ( fi )
15 - 25 6 20 –30 –3 120 –180 –18

25 - 35 11 30 –20 –2 330 –220 –22
35 - 45 7 40 –10 –1 280 –70 –7
45 - 55 4 50 0 0 200 0 0
55 - 65 4 60 10 1 240 40 4
65 - 75 2 70 20 2 140 40 4
75 - 85 1 80 30 3 80 30 3
Total 35 1390 –360 –36
From the table above, we obtain Σfi = 35, Σfixi = 1390,

Σfi di = – 360, Σfiui = –36.
Σf i xi 1390
Using the direct method, x = = = 39.71
Σfi 35
Using the assumed mean method,
Σfi di ( −360)
x = a+ = 50 + = 39.71
Σfi 35
Using the step-deviation method,
 Σf u   – 36 
x = a +  i i  × h = 50 +   × 10 = 39.71
 Σf i   35 
Therefore, the mean percentage of female teachers in the primary schools of
rural areas is 39.71.
Remark : The result obtained by all the three methods is the same. So the choice of
method to be used depends on the numerical values of xi and fi. If xi and fi are
sufficiently small, then the direct method is an appropriate choice. If xi and fi are
numerically large numbers, then we can go for the assumed mean method or
step-deviation method. If the class sizes are unequal, and xi are large numerically, we
can still apply the step-deviation method by taking h to be a suitable divisor of all the di’s.

STATISTICS 269
Example 3 : The distribution below shows the number of wickets taken by bowlers in
one-day cricket matches. Find the mean number of wickets by choosing a suitable
method. What does the mean signify?
Number of 20 - 60 60 - 100 100 - 150 150 - 250 250 - 350 350 - 450
wickets
Number of 7 5 16 12 2 3
bowlers
Solution : Here, the class size varies, and the xi,s are large. Let us still apply the step-
deviation method with a = 200 and h = 20. Then, we obtain the data as in Table 14.8.
Table 14.8
di
Number of Number of xi di = xi – 200 ui = u i fi
20
wickets bowlers
taken ( fi )
20 - 60 7 40 –160 –8 –56
60 - 100 5 80 –120 –6 –30
100 - 150 16 125 –75 –3.75 –60
150 - 250 12 200 0 0 0
250 - 350 2 300 100 5 10
350 - 450 3 400 200 10 30
Total 45 –106
−106  −106 
So, u = ⋅ Therefore, x = 200 + 20   = 200 – 47.11 = 152.89.
45  45 
This tells us that, on an average, the number of wickets taken by these 45 bowlers
in one-day cricket is 152.89.
Now, let us see how well you can apply the concepts discussed in this section!

270 MATHEMATICS
Activity 2 :
Divide the students of your class into three groups and ask each group to do one of the
following activities.
1. Collect the marks obtained by all the students of your class in Mathematics in the
latest examination conducted by your school. Form a grouped frequency distribution
of the data obtained.
2. Collect the daily maximum temperatures recorded for a period of 30 days in your
city. Present this data as a grouped frequency table.
3. Measure the heights of all the students of your class (in cm) and form a grouped
frequency distribution table of this data.
After all the groups have collected the data and formed grouped frequency
distribution tables, the groups should find the mean in each case by the method which
they find appropriate.
EXERCISE 14.1
1. A survey was conducted by a group of students as a part of their environment awareness
programme, in which they collected the following data regarding the number of plants in
20 houses in a locality. Find the mean number of plants per house.
Number of plants 0-2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 14
Number of houses 1 2 1 5 6 2 3
Which method did you use for finding the mean, and why?
2. Consider the following distribution of daily wages of 50 workers of a factory.
Daily wages (in `) 500 - 520 520 -540 540 - 560 560 - 580 580 -600
Number of workers 12 14 8 6 10
Find the mean daily wages of the workers of the factory by using an appropriate method.
3. The following distribution shows the daily pocket allowance of children of a locality.
The mean pocket allowance is Rs 18. Find the missing frequency f.
Daily pocket 11 - 13 13 - 15 15 - 17 17 - 19 19 - 21 21 - 23 23 - 25
allowance (in `)
Number of children 7 6 9 13 f 5 4

STATISTICS 271
4. Thirty women were examined in a hospital by a doctor and the number of heartbeats per
minute were recorded and summarised as follows. Find the mean heartbeats per minute
for these women, choosing a suitable method.
Number of heartbeats 65 - 68 68 - 71 71 - 74 74 - 77 77 - 80 80 - 83 83 - 86
per minute
Number of women 2 4 3 8 7 4 2
5. In a retail market, fruit vendors were selling mangoes kept in packing boxes. These
boxes contained varying number of mangoes. The following was the distribution of
mangoes according to the number of boxes.
Number of mangoes 50 - 52 53 - 55 56 - 58 59 - 61 62 - 64
Number of boxes 15 110 135 115 25
Find the mean number of mangoes kept in a packing box. Which method of finding
the mean did you choose?
6. The table below shows the daily expenditure on food of 25 households in a locality.
Daily expenditure 100 - 150 150 - 200 200 - 250 250 - 300 300 - 350
(in `)
Number of 4 5 12 2 2
households
Find the mean daily expenditure on food by a suitable method.

7. To find out the concentration of SO2 in the air (in parts per million, i.e., ppm), the data
was collected for 30 localities in a certain city and is presented below:
Concentration of SO2 (in ppm) Frequency
0.00 - 0.04 4
0.04 - 0.08 9
0.08 - 0.12 9
0.12 - 0.16 2
0.16 - 0.20 4
0.20 - 0.24 2
Find the mean concentration of SO2 in the air.

272 MATHEMATICS
8. A class teacher has the following absentee record of 40 students of a class for the whole
term. Find the mean number of days a student was absent.
Number of 0-6 6 - 10 10 - 14 14 - 20 20 - 28 28 - 38 38 - 40
days
Number of 11 10 7 4 4 3 1
students
9. The following table gives the literacy rate (in percentage) of 35 cities. Find the mean
literacy rate.
Literacy rate (in %) 45 - 55 55 - 65 65 - 75 75 - 85 85 - 95
Number of cities 3 10 11 8 3
14.3 Mode of Grouped Data

Recall from Class IX, a mode is that value among the observations which occurs most
often, that is, the value of the observation having the maximum frequency. Further, we
discussed finding the mode of ungrouped data. Here, we shall discuss ways of obtaining
a mode of grouped data. It is possible that more than one value may have the same
maximum frequency. In such situations, the data is said to be multimodal. Though
grouped data can also be multimodal, we shall restrict ourselves to problems having a
single mode only.
Let us first recall how we found the mode for ungrouped data through the following
example.
Example 4 : The wickets taken by a bowler in 10 cricket matches are as follows:

2 6 4 5 0 2 1 3 2 3
Find the mode of the data.
Solution : Let us form the frequency distribution table of the given data as follows:
Number of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
wickets
Number of 1 1 3 2 1 1 1
matches

STATISTICS 273
Clearly, 2 is the number of wickets taken by the bowler in the maximum number
(i.e., 3) of matches. So, the mode of this data is 2.
In a grouped frequency distribution, it is not possible to determine the mode by
looking at the frequencies. Here, we can only locate a class with the maximum
frequency, called the modal class. The mode is a value inside the modal class, and is
given by the formula:
 f1 − f0 
Mode = l +  ×h
 2 f1 − f 0 − f 2 
where l = lower limit of the modal class,
h = size of the class interval (assuming all class sizes to be equal),
f1 = frequency of the modal class,
f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class,
f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class.
Let us consider the following examples to illustrate the use of this formula.
Example 5 : A survey conducted on 20 households in a locality by a group of students

resulted in the following frequency table for the number of family members in a
household:
Family size 1-3 3-5 5-7 7-9 9 - 11
Number of 7 8 2 2 1
families
Find the mode of this data.

Solution : Here the maximum class frequency is 8, and the class corresponding to this
frequency is 3 – 5. So, the modal class is 3 – 5.
Now
modal class = 3 – 5, lower limit (l ) of modal class = 3, class size (h) = 2
frequency ( f1 ) of the modal class = 8,
frequency ( f0 ) of class preceding the modal class = 7,
frequency ( f2 ) of class succeeding the modal class = 2.
Now, let us substitute these values in the formula :

274 MATHEMATICS
 f1 − f0 
Mode = l +  ×h
 2 f1 − f 0 − f 2 
 8−7  2
= 3+  × 2 = 3 + = 3.286
2×8 − 7 − 2 7
Therefore, the mode of the data above is 3.286.
Example 6 : The marks distribution of 30 students in a mathematics examination are

given in Table 14.3 of Example 1. Find the mode of this data. Also compare and
interpret the mode and the mean.
Solution : Refer to Table 14.3 of Example 1. Since the maximum number of students
(i.e., 7) have got marks in the interval 40 - 55, the modal class is 40 - 55. Therefore,
the lower limit ( l ) of the modal class = 40,
the class size ( h) = 15,
the frequency ( f1 ) of modal class = 7,
the frequency ( f0 ) of the class preceding the modal class = 3,
the frequency ( f2 ) of the class succeeding the modal class = 6.
Now, using the formula:
 f1 − f0 
Mode = l +   × h,
 2 f1 − f 0 − f 2 
 7−3 
we get Mode = 40 +   × 15 = 52
 14 − 6 − 3 
So, the mode marks is 52.
Now, from Example 1, you know that the mean marks is 62.
So, the maximum number of students obtained 52 marks, while on an average a
student obtained 62 marks.
Remarks :
1. In Example 6, the mode is less than the mean. But for some other problems it may
be equal or more than the mean also.
2. It depends upon the demand of the situation whether we are interested in finding the
average marks obtained by the students or the average of the marks obtained by most

STATISTICS 275
of the students. In the first situation, the mean is required and in the second situation,
the mode is required.
Activity 3 : Continuing with the same groups as formed in Activity 2 and the situations
assigned to the groups. Ask each group to find the mode of the data. They should also
compare this with the mean, and interpret the meaning of both.
Remark : The mode can also be calculated for grouped data with unequal class sizes.
However, we shall not be discussing it.
EXERCISE 14.2
1. The following table shows the ages of the patients admitted in a hospital during a year:
Age (in years) 5 - 15 15 - 25 25 - 35 35 - 45 45 - 55 55 - 65
Number of patients 6 11 21 23 14 5
Find the mode and the mean of the data given above. Compare and interpret the two
measures of central tendency.
2. The following data gives the information on the observed lifetimes (in hours) of 225
electrical components :
Lifetimes (in hours) 0 - 20 20 - 40 40 - 60 60 - 80 80 - 100 100 - 120
Frequency 10 35 52 61 38 29
Determine the modal lifetimes of the components.

3. The following data gives the distribution of total monthly household expenditure of 200
families of a village. Find the modal monthly expenditure of the families. Also, find the
mean monthly expenditure :
Expenditure (in `) Number of families
1000 - 1500 24
1500 - 2000 40
2000 - 2500 33
2500 - 3000 28
3000 - 3500 30
3500 - 4000 22
4000 - 4500 16
4500 - 5000 7

276 MATHEMATICS
4. The following distribution gives the state-wise teacher-student ratio in higher

secondary schools of India. Find the mode and mean of this data. Interpret the two
measures.
Number of students per teacher Number of states / U .T.
15 - 20 3
20 - 25 8
25 - 30 9
30 - 35 10
35 - 40 3
40 - 45 0
45 - 50 0
50 - 55 2
5. The given distribution shows the number of runs scored by some top batsmen of the
world in one-day international cricket matches.
Runs scored Number of batsmen
3000 - 4000 4
4000 - 5000 18
5000 - 6000 9
6000 - 7000 7
7000 - 8000 6
8000 - 9000 3
9000 - 10000 1
10000 - 11000 1
Find the mode of the data.
6. A student noted the number of cars passing through a spot on a road for 100
periods each of 3 minutes and summarised it in the table given below. Find the mode
of the data :
Number of cars 0 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50 50 - 60 60 - 70 70 - 80
Frequency 7 14 13 12 20 11 15 8

STATISTICS 277
14.4 Median of Grouped Data

As you have studied in Class IX, the median is a measure of central tendency which
gives the value of the middle-most observation in the data. Recall that for finding the
median of ungrouped data, we first arrange the data values of the observations in
 n + 1
ascending order. Then, if n is odd, the median is the   th observation. And, if n
 2 
n n 
is even, then the median will be the average of the th and the  + 1 th observations.
2 2 
Suppose, we have to find the median of the following data, which gives the
marks, out of 50, obtained by 100 students in a test :
Marks obtained 20 29 28 33 42 38 43 25
Number of students 6 28 24 15 2 4 1 20
First, we arrange the marks in ascending order and prepare a frequency table as
follows :
Table 14.9
Marks obtained Number of students

(Frequency)
20 6
25 20
28 24
29 28
33 15
38 4
42 2
43 1
Total 100

278 MATHEMATICS
Here n = 100, which is even. The median will be the average of the
n th and the
2
n 
 + 1  th observations, i.e., the 50th and 51st observations. To find these
2 
observations, we proceed as follows:
Table 14.10
20 6
upto 25 6 + 20 = 26
upto 28 26 + 24 = 50
upto 29 50 + 28 = 78
upto 33 78 + 15 = 93
upto 38 93 + 4 = 97
upto 42 97 + 2 = 99
upto 43 99 + 1 = 100
Now we add another column depicting this information to the frequency table
above and name it as cumulative frequency column.
Table 14.11
Marks obtained Number of students Cumulative frequency
20 6 6
25 20 26
28 24 50
29 28 78
33 15 93
38 4 97
42 2 99
43 1 100

STATISTICS 279
From the table above, we see that:

50th observaton is 28 (Why?)
51st observation is 29
28 + 29
So, Median = = 28.5
2
Remark : The part of Table 14.11 consisting Column 1 and Column 3 is known as
Cumulative Frequency Table. The median marks 28.5 conveys the information that
about 50% students obtained marks less than 28.5 and another 50% students obtained
marks more than 28.5.
Now, let us see how to obtain the median of grouped data, through the following
situation.
Consider a grouped frequency distribution of marks obtained, out of 100, by 53
students, in a certain examination, as follows:
Table 14.12
Marks Number of students
0 - 10 5
10 - 20 3
20 - 30 4
30 - 40 3
40 - 50 3
50 - 60 4
60 - 70 7
70 - 80 9
80 - 90 7
90 - 100 8
From the table above, try to answer the following questions:

How many students have scored marks less than 10? The answer is clearly 5.

280 MATHEMATICS
How many students have scored less than 20 marks? Observe that the number
of students who have scored less than 20 include the number of students who have
scored marks from 0 - 10 as well as the number of students who have scored marks
from 10 - 20. So, the total number of students with marks less than 20 is 5 + 3, i.e., 8.
We say that the cumulative frequency of the class 10 -20 is 8.
Similarly, we can compute the cumulative frequencies of the other classes, i.e.,
the number of students with marks less than 30, less than 40, . . ., less than 100. We
give them in Table 14.13 given below:
Table 14.13

(Cumulative frequency)
Less than 10 5
Less than 20 5+3=8
Less than 30 8 + 4 = 12
Less than 40 12 + 3 = 15
Less than 50 15 + 3 = 18
Less than 60 18 + 4 = 22
Less than 70 22 + 7 = 29
Less than 80 29 + 9 = 38
Less than 90 38 + 7 = 45
Less than 100 45 + 8 = 53
The distribution given above is called the cumulative frequency distribution of

the less than type. Here 10, 20, 30, . . . 100, are the upper limits of the respective
class intervals.
We can similarly make the table for the number of students with scores, more
than or equal to 0, more than or equal to 10, more than or equal to 20, and so on. From
Table 14.12, we observe that all 53 students have scored marks more than or equal to
0. Since there are 5 students scoring marks in the interval 0 - 10, this means that there
are 53 – 5 = 48 students getting more than or equal to 10 marks. Continuing in the
same manner, we get the number of students scoring 20 or above as 48 – 3 = 45, 30 or
above as 45 – 4 = 41, and so on, as shown in Table 14.14.

STATISTICS 281
Table 14.14

(Cumulative frequency)
More than or equal to 0 53

More than or equal to 10 53 – 5 = 48
The table above is called a cumulative frequency distribution of the more

than type. Here 0, 10, 20, . . ., 90 give the lower limits of the respective class intervals.
Now, to find the median of grouped data, we can make use of any of these
cumulative frequency distributions.
Let us combine Tables 14.12 and 14.13 to get Table 14.15 given below:
Table 14.15
Marks Number of students ( f ) Cumulative frequency (cf )
0 - 10 5 5
10 - 20 3 8
20 - 30 4 12
30 - 40 3 15
40 - 50 3 18
50 - 60 4 22
60 - 70 7 29
70 - 80 9 38
80 - 90 7 45
90 - 100 8 53
Now in a grouped data, we may not be able to find the middle observation by
looking at the cumulative frequencies as the middle observation will be some value in

282 MATHEMATICS
a class interval. It is, therefore, necessary to find the value inside a class that divides
the whole distribution into two halves. But which class should this be?
n
To find this class, we find the cumulative frequencies of all the classes and .
2
We now locate the class whose cumulative frequency is greater than (and nearest to)
n n
⋅ This is called the median class. In the distribution above, n = 53. So, = 26.5.
2 2
Now 60 – 70 is the class whose cumulative frequency 29 is greater than (and nearest
n
to) , i.e., 26.5.
2
Therefore, 60 – 70 is the median class.
After finding the median class, we use the following formula for calculating the
median.
n 
 2 − cf 
Median = l +   × h,
 f 
 
where l = lower limit of median class,
n = number of observations,
cf = cumulative frequency of class preceding the median class,
f = frequency of median class,
h = class size (assuming class size to be equal).
n
Substituting the values = 26.5, l = 60, cf = 22, f = 7, h = 10
2
in the formula above, we get
 26.5 − 22 
Median = 60 +   × 10
 7 
45
= 60 +
7
= 66.4
So, about half the students have scored marks less than 66.4, and the other half have
scored marks more than 66.4.

STATISTICS 283
Example 7 : A survey regarding the heights (in cm) of 51 girls of Class X of a school
was conducted and the following data was obtained:
Height (in cm) Number of girls
Less than 140 4

Less than 145 11
Less than 150 29
Less than 155 40
Less than 160 46
Less than 165 51
Find the median height.

Solution : To calculate the median height, we need to find the class intervals and their
corresponding frequencies.
The given distribution being of the less than type, 140, 145, 150, . . ., 165 give the
upper limits of the corresponding class intervals. So, the classes should be below 140,
140 - 145, 145 - 150, . . ., 160 - 165. Observe that from the given distribution, we find
that there are 4 girls with height less than 140, i.e., the frequency of class interval
below 140 is 4. Now, there are 11 girls with heights less than 145 and 4 girls with
height less than 140. Therefore, the number of girls with height in the interval
140 - 145 is 11 – 4 = 7. Similarly, the frequency of 145 - 150 is 29 – 11 = 18, for
150 - 155, it is 40 – 29 = 11, and so on. So, our frequency distribution table with the
given cumulative frequencies becomes:
Table 14.16
Class intervals Frequency Cumulative frequency
Below 140 4 4
140 - 145 7 11
145 - 150 18 29
150 - 155 11 40
155 - 160 6 46
160 - 165 5 51

284 MATHEMATICS
n 51
Now n = 51. So, = = 25.5 . This observation lies in the class 145 - 150. Then,
2 2
l (the lower limit) = 145,
cf (the cumulative frequency of the class preceding 145 - 150) = 11,
f (the frequency of the median class 145 - 150) = 18,
h (the class size) = 5.
n 
 2 − cf 
Using the formula, Median = l +   × h , we have
 f 
 
 25.5 − 11 
Median = 145 +  ×5
 18 
72.5
= 145 + = 149.03.
18
So, the median height of the girls is 149.03 cm.
This means that the height of about 50% of the girls is less than this height, and
50% are taller than this height.
Example 8 : The median of the following data is 525. Find the values of x and y, if the
total frequency is 100.
Class interval Frequency
0 - 100 2
100 - 200 5
200 - 300 x
300 - 400 12
400 - 500 17
500 - 600 20
600 - 700 y
700 - 800 9
800 - 900 7
900 - 1000 4

STATISTICS 285
Solution :
Class intervals Frequency Cumulative frequency
0 - 100 2 2
100 - 200 5 7
200 - 300 x 7+x
300 - 400 12 19 + x
400 - 500 17 36 + x
500 - 600 20 56 + x
600 - 700 y 56 + x + y
700 - 800 9 65 + x + y
800 - 900 7 72 + x + y
900 - 1000 4 76 + x + y
It is given that n = 100

So, 76 + x + y = 100, i.e., x + y = 24 (1)
The median is 525, which lies in the class 500 – 600
So, l = 500, f = 20, cf = 36 + x, h = 100
n 
 − cf 
Using the formula : Median = l +  2  h, we get
 f 
 
 50 − 36 − x 
525 = 500 +   × 100
 20 
i.e., 525 – 500 = (14 – x) × 5
i.e., 25 = 70 – 5x
i.e., 5x = 70 – 25 = 45
So, x= 9
Therefore, from (1), we get 9 + y = 24
i.e., y = 15

286 MATHEMATICS
Now, that you have studied about all the three measures of central tendency, let
us discuss which measure would be best suited for a particular requirement.
The mean is the most frequently used measure of central tendency because it
takes into account all the observations, and lies between the extremes, i.e., the largest
and the smallest observations of the entire data. It also enables us to compare two or
more distributions. For example, by comparing the average (mean) results of students
of different schools of a particular examination, we can conclude which school has a
better performance.
However, extreme values in the data affect the mean. For example, the mean of
classes having frequencies more or less the same is a good representative of the data.
But, if one class has frequency, say 2, and the five others have frequency 20, 25, 20,
21, 18, then the mean will certainly not reflect the way the data behaves. So, in such
cases, the mean is not a good representative of the data.
In problems where individual observations are not important, and we wish to find
out a ‘typical’ observation, the median is more appropriate, e.g., finding the typical
productivity rate of workers, average wage in a country, etc. These are situations
where extreme values may be there. So, rather than the mean, we take the median as
a better measure of central tendency.
In situations which require establishing the most frequent value or most popular
item, the mode is the best choice, e.g., to find the most popular T.V. programme being
watched, the consumer item in greatest demand, the colour of the vehicle used by
most of the people, etc.
Remarks :
1. There is a empirical relationship between the three measures of central tendency :
3 Median = Mode + 2 Mean
2. The median of grouped data with unequal class sizes can also be calculated. However,
we shall not discuss it here.

STATISTICS 287
EXERCISE 14.3
1. The following frequency distribution gives the monthly consumption of electricity of
68 consumers of a locality. Find the median, mean and mode of the data and compare
them.
Monthly consumption (in units) Number of consumers
65 - 85 4
85 - 105 5
105 - 125 13
125 - 145 20
145 - 165 14
165 - 185 8
185 - 205 4
2. If the median of the distribution given below is 28.5, find the values of x and y.
Class interval Frequency
0 - 10 5
10 - 20 x
20 - 30 20
30 - 40 15
40 - 50 y
50 - 60 5
Total 60
3. A life insurance agent found the following data for distribution of ages of 100 policy
holders. Calculate the median age, if policies are given only to persons having age 18
years onwards but less than 60 year.

288 MATHEMATICS
Age (in years) Number of policy holders
Below 20 2
Below 25 6
Below 30 24
Below 35 45
Below 40 78
Below 45 89
Below 50 92
Below 55 98
Below 60 100
4. The lengths of 40 leaves of a plant are measured correct to the nearest millimetre, and
the data obtained is represented in the following table :
Length (in mm) Number of leaves
118 - 126 3
127 - 135 5
136 - 144 9
145 - 153 12
154 - 162 5
163 - 171 4
172 - 180 2
Find the median length of the leaves.

(Hint : The data needs to be converted to continuous classes for finding the median,
since the formula assumes continuous classes. The classes then change to
117.5 - 126.5, 126.5 - 135.5, . . ., 171.5 - 180.5.)

STATISTICS 289
5. The following table gives the distribution of the life time of 400 neon lamps :
Life time (in hours) Number of lamps
1500 - 2000 14
2000 - 2500 56
2500 - 3000 60
3000 - 3500 86
3500 - 4000 74
4000 - 4500 62
4500 - 5000 48
Find the median life time of a lamp.

6. 100 surnames were randomly picked up from a local telephone directory and the
frequency distribution of the number of letters in the English alphabets in the surnames
was obtained as follows:
Number of letters 1-4 4-7 7 - 10 10 - 13 13 - 16 16 - 19
Number of surnames 6 30 40 16 4 4
Determine the median number of letters in the surnames. Find the mean number of
letters in the surnames? Also, find the modal size of the surnames.
7. The distribution below gives the weights of 30 students of a class. Find the median
weight of the students.
Weight (in kg) 40 - 45 45 - 50 50 - 55 55 - 60 60 - 65 65 - 70 70 - 75
Number of students 2 3 8 6 6 3 2
14.5 Graphical Representation of Cumulative Frequency Distribution

As we all know, pictures speak better than words. A graphical representation helps us
in understanding given data at a glance. In Class IX, we have represented the data
through bar graphs, histograms and frequency polygons. Let us now represent a
cumulative frequency distribution graphically.
For example, let us consider the cumulative frequency distribution given in
Table 14.13.

290 MATHEMATICS
Recall that the values 10, 20, 30,

. . ., 100 are the upper limits of the
respective class intervals. To represent
the data in the table graphically, we mark
the upper limits of the class intervals on
the horizontal axis (x-axis) and their
corresponding cumulative frequencies
on the vertical axis ( y-axis), choosing a
convenient scale. The scale may not be
the same on both the axis. Let us now
plot the points corresponding to the
ordered pairs given by (upper limit,
corresponding cumulative frequency), Fig. 14.1
i.e., (10, 5), (20, 8), (30, 12), (40, 15),
(50, 18), (60, 22), (70, 29), (80, 38), (90, 45), (100, 53) on a graph paper and join them
by a free hand smooth curve. The curve we get is called a cumulative frequency
curve, or an ogive (of the less than type). (See Fig. 14.1)
The term ‘ogive’ is pronounced as ‘ojeev’ and is derived from the word ogee.
An ogee is a shape consisting of a concave arc flowing into a convex arc, so
forming an S-shaped curve with vertical ends. In architecture, the ogee shape
is one of the characteristics of the 14th and 15th century Gothic styles.
Next, again we consider the cumulative frequency distribution given in

Table 14.14 and draw its ogive (of the more than type).
Recall that, here 0, 10, 20, . . ., 90
are the lower limits of the respective class
intervals 0 - 10, 10 - 20, . . ., 90 - 100. To
represent ‘the more than type’ graphically,
we plot the lower limits on the x-axis and
the corresponding cumulative frequencies
on the y-axis. Then we plot the points
(lower limit, corresponding cumulative
frequency), i.e., (0, 53), (10, 48), (20, 45),
(30, 41), (40, 38), (50, 35), (60, 31),
(70, 24), (80, 15), (90, 8), on a graph paper,
Fig. 14.2
and join them by a free hand smooth curve.
The curve we get is a cumulative frequency curve, or an ogive (of the more than
type). (See Fig. 14.2)

STATISTICS 291
Remark : Note that both the ogives (in Fig. 14.1 and Fig. 14.2) correspond to the
same data, which is given in Table 14.12.
Now, are the ogives related to the median in any way? Is it possible to obtain the
median from these two cumulative frequency curves corresponding to the data in
Table 14.12? Let us see.
One obvious way is to locate
n 53
= = 26.5 on the y-axis (see Fig.
2 2
14.3). From this point, draw a line parallel
to the x-axis cutting the curve at a point.
From this point, draw a perpendicular to
the x-axis. The point of intersection of
this perpendicular with the x-axis
determines the median of the data (see
Fig. 14.3). Fig. 14.3
Another way of obtaining the
median is the following :
Draw both ogives (i.e., of the less

than type and of the more than type) on
the same axis. The two ogives will
intersect each other at a point. From this
point, if we draw a perpendicular on the
x-axis, the point at which it cuts the
x-axis gives us the median (see Fig. 14.4).
Fig. 14.4
Example 9 : The annual profits earned by 30 shops of a shopping complex in a
locality give rise to the following distribution :
Profit (Rs in lakhs) Number of shops (frequency)


292 MATHEMATICS
Draw both ogives for the data above.

Hence obtain the median profit.
Solution : We first draw the coordinate
axes, with lower limits of the profit along
the horizontal axis, and the cumulative
frequency along the vertical axes. Then,
we plot the points (5, 30), (10, 28), (15, 16),
(20, 14), (25, 10), (30, 7) and (35, 3). We
join these points with a smooth curve to
get the ‘more than’ ogive, as shown in
Fig. 14.5.
Now, let us obtain the classes, their
frequencies and the cumulative frequency Fig. 14.5
from the table above.
Table 14.17
Classes 5 - 10 10 - 15 15 - 20 20 - 25 25 - 30 30 - 35 35 - 40
No. of shops 2 12 2 4 3 4 3
Cumulative 2 14 16 20 23 27 30
frequency
Using these values, we plot the points

(10, 2), (15, 14), (20, 16), (25, 20), (30, 23),
(35, 27), (40, 30) on the same axes as in
Fig. 14.5 to get the ‘less than’ ogive, as
shown in Fig. 14.6.
The abcissa of their point of intersection is
nearly 17.5, which is the median. This can
also be verified by using the formula.
Hence, the median profit (in lakhs) is
` 17.5.
Remark : In the above examples, it may
be noted that the class intervals were
continuous. For drawing ogives, it should
be ensured that the class intervals are
continuous. (Also see constructions of Fig. 14.6
histograms in Class IX)

STATISTICS 293
EXERCISE 14.4
1. The following distribution gives the daily income of 50 workers of a factory.
Daily income (in `) 100 - 120 120 - 140 140 - 160 160 - 180 180 - 200
Number of workers 12 14 8 6 10
Convert the distribution above to a less than type cumulative frequency distribution,
and draw its ogive.
2. During the medical check-up of 35 students of a class, their weights were recorded as
follows:
Weight (in kg) Number of students
Less than 38 0
Less than 40 3
Less than 42 5
Less than 44 9
Less than 46 14
Less than 48 28
Less than 50 32
Less than 52 35
Draw a less than type ogive for the given data. Hence obtain the median weight from
the graph and verify the result by using the formula.
3. The following table gives production yield per hectare of wheat of 100 farms of a village.
Production yield 50 - 55 55 - 60 60 - 65 65 - 70 70 - 75 75 - 80
(in kg/ha)
Number of farms 2 8 12 24 38 16
Change the distribution to a more than type distribution, and draw its ogive.
14.6 Summary
1. The mean for grouped data can be found by :
Σfi xi
(i) the direct method : x =
Σfi

294 MATHEMATICS
Σ f i di
(ii) the assumed mean method : x = a +
Σf i
 Σf u 
(iii) the step deviation method : x = a +  i i  × h ,
 Σf i 
with the assumption that the frequency of a class is centred at its mid-point, called its
class mark.
2. The mode for grouped data can be found by using the formula:
 f1 − f 0 
Mode = l +  ×h
2
 1 f − f 0 − f 2 
where symbols have their usual meanings.
3. The cumulative frequency of a class is the frequency obtained by adding the frequencies
of all the classes preceding the given class.
4. The median for grouped data is formed by using the formula:
n 
 2 − cf 
Median = l +  × h,
 f 
 
where symbols have their usual meanings.

5. Representing a cumulative frequency distribution graphically as a cumulative frequency
curve, or an ogive of the less than type and of the more than type.
6. The median of grouped data can be obtained graphically as the x-coordinate of the point
of intersection of the two ogives for this data.

For calculating mode and median for grouped data, it should be
ensured that the class intervals are continuous before applying the
formulae. Same condition also apply for construction of an ogive.
Further, in case of ogives, the scale may not be the same on both the axes.

PROBABILITY 295
PROBABILITY 15
The theory of probabilities and the theory of errors now constitute
a formidable body of great mathematical interest and of great
practical importance.
– R.S. Woodward
15.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you have studied about experimental (or empirical) probabilities of events
which were based on the results of actual experiments. We discussed an experiment
of tossing a coin 1000 times in which the frequencies of the outcomes were as follows:
Head : 455 Tail : 545
455
Based on this experiment, the empirical probability of a head is , i.e., 0.455 and
1000
that of getting a tail is 0.545. (Also see Example 1, Chapter 15 of Class IX Mathematics
Textbook.) Note that these probabilities are based on the results of an actual experiment
of tossing a coin 1000 times. For this reason, they are called experimental or empirical
probabilities. In fact, experimental probabilities are based on the results of actual
experiments and adequate recordings of the happening of the events. Moreover,
these probabilities are only ‘estimates’. If we perform the same experiment for another
1000 times, we may get different data giving different probability estimates.
In Class IX, you tossed a coin many times and noted the number of times it turned up
heads (or tails) (refer to Activities 1 and 2 of Chapter 15). You also noted that as the
number of tosses of the coin increased, the experimental probability of getting a head
1
(or tail) came closer and closer to the number ⋅ Not only you, but many other
2

296 MATHEMATICS
persons from different parts of the world have done this kind of experiment and recorded
the number of heads that turned up.
For example, the eighteenth century French naturalist Comte de Buffon tossed a
coin 4040 times and got 2048 heads. The experimental probabilility of getting a head,
in this case, was 2048 , i.e., 0.507. J.E. Kerrich, from Britain, recorded 5067 heads in
4040
10000 tosses of a coin. The experimental probability of getting a head, in this case,
5067
was = 0.5067 . Statistician Karl Pearson spent some more time, making 24000
10000
tosses of a coin. He got 12012 heads, and thus, the experimental probability of a head
obtained by him was 0.5005.
Now, suppose we ask, ‘What will the experimental probability of a head be if the
experiment is carried on upto, say, one million times? Or 10 million times? And so on?’
You would intuitively feel that as the number of tosses increases, the experimental
probability of a head (or a tail) seems to be settling down around the number 0.5 , i.e.,
1
, which is what we call the theoretical probability of getting a head (or getting a
2
tail), as you will see in the next section. In this chapter, we provide an introduction to
the theoretical (also called classical) probability of an event, and discuss simple problems
based on this concept.
15.2 Probability — A Theoretical Approach

Let us consider the following situation :
Suppose a coin is tossed at random.
When we speak of a coin, we assume it to be ‘fair’, that is, it is symmetrical so

that there is no reason for it to come down more often on one side than the other.
We call this property of the coin as being ‘unbiased’. By the phrase ‘random toss’,
we mean that the coin is allowed to fall freely without any bias or interference.
We know, in advance, that the coin can only land in one of two possible ways —
either head up or tail up (we dismiss the possibility of its ‘landing’ on its edge, which
may be possible, for example, if it falls on sand). We can reasonably assume that each
outcome, head or tail, is as likely to occur as the other. We refer to this by saying that
the outcomes head and tail, are equally likely.

PROBABILITY 297
For another example of equally likely outcomes, suppose we throw a die

once. For us, a die will always mean a fair die. What are the possible outcomes?
They are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Each number has the same possibility of showing up. So
the equally likely outcomes of throwing a die are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
Are the outcomes of every experiment equally likely? Let us see.
Suppose that a bag contains 4 red balls and 1 blue ball, and you draw a ball
without looking into the bag. What are the outcomes? Are the outcomes — a red ball
and a blue ball equally likely? Since there are 4 red balls and only one blue ball, you
would agree that you are more likely to get a red ball than a blue ball. So, the outcomes
(a red ball or a blue ball) are not equally likely. However, the outcome of drawing a
ball of any colour from the bag is equally likely. So, all experiments do not necessarily
have equally likely outcomes.
However, in this chapter, from now on, we will assume that all the experiments
have equally likely outcomes.
In Class IX, we defined the experimental or empirical probability P(E) of an
event E as
Number of trials in which the event happened
P(E) =
Total number of trials
The empirical interpretation of probability can be applied to every event associated
with an experiment which can be repeated a large number of times. The requirement
of repeating an experiment has some limitations, as it may be very expensive or
unfeasible in many situations. Of course, it worked well in coin tossing or die throwing
experiments. But how about repeating the experiment of launching a satellite in order
to compute the empirical probability of its failure during launching, or the repetition of
the phenomenon of an earthquake to compute the empirical probability of a multi-
storeyed building getting destroyed in an earthquake?
In experiments where we are prepared to make certain assumptions, the repetition
of an experiment can be avoided, as the assumptions help in directly calculating the
exact (theoretical) probability. The assumption of equally likely outcomes (which is
valid in many experiments, as in the two examples above, of a coin and of a die) is one
such assumption that leads us to the following definition of probability of an event.
The theoretical probability (also called classical probability) of an event E,
written as P(E), is defined as
Number of outcomes favourable to E ,

P(E) =
Number of all possible outcomes of the experiment

298 MATHEMATICS
where we assume that the outcomes of the experiment are equally likely.
We will briefly refer to theoretical probability as probability.
This definition of probability was given by Pierre Simon Laplace in 1795.
Probability theory had its origin in the 16th century when

an Italian physician and mathematician J.Cardan wrote the
first book on the subject, The Book on Games of Chance.
Since its inception, the study of probability has attracted
the attention of great mathematicians. James Bernoulli
(1654 – 1705), A. de Moivre (1667 – 1754), and
Pierre Simon Laplace are among those who made significant
contributions to this field. Laplace’s Theorie Analytique
des Probabilités, 1812, is considered to be the greatest
contribution by a single person to the theory of probability. Pierre Simon Laplace
In recent years, probability has been used extensively in (1749 – 1827)
many areas such as biology, economics, genetics, physics,
sociology etc.
Let us find the probability for some of the events associated with experiments
where the equally likely assumption holds.
Example 1 : Find the probability of getting a head when a coin is tossed once. Also
find the probability of getting a tail.
Solution : In the experiment of tossing a coin once, the number of possible outcomes
is two — Head (H) and Tail (T). Let E be the event ‘getting a head’. The number of
outcomes favourable to E, (i.e., of getting a head) is 1. Therefore,
Number of outcomes favourable to E 1

P(E) = P (head) = =
Number of all possible outcomes 2
Similarly, if F is the event ‘getting a tail’, then
1
P(F) = P(tail) = (Why ?)
2
Example 2 : A bag contains a red ball, a blue ball and a yellow ball, all the balls being
of the same size. Kritika takes out a ball from the bag without looking into it. What is
the probability that she takes out the
(i) yellow ball? (ii) red ball? (iii) blue ball?

PROBABILITY 299
Solution : Kritika takes out a ball from the bag without looking into it. So, it is equally
likely that she takes out any one of them.
Let Y be the event ‘the ball taken out is yellow’, B be the event ‘the ball taken
out is blue’, and R be the event ‘the ball taken out is red’.
Now, the number of possible outcomes = 3.
(i) The number of outcomes favourable to the event Y = 1.
1
So, P(Y) =
3
1 1
Similarly, (ii) P(R) = and (iii) P(B) = ⋅
3 3
Remarks :
1. An event having only one outcome of the experiment is called an elementary
event. In Example 1, both the events E and F are elementary events. Similarly, in
Example 2, all the three events, Y, B and R are elementary events.
2. In Example 1, we note that : P(E) + P(F) = 1
In Example 2, we note that : P(Y) + P(R) + P(B) = 1
Observe that the sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of
an experiment is 1. This is true in general also.
Example 3 : Suppose we throw a die once. (i) What is the probability of getting a
number greater than 4 ? (ii) What is the probability of getting a number less than or
equal to 4 ?
Solution : (i) Here, let E be the event ‘getting a number greater than 4’. The number
of possible outcomes is six : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, and the outcomes favourable to E are 5
and 6. Therefore, the number of outcomes favourable to E is 2. So,
2 1
P(E) = P(number greater than 4) = =
6 3
(ii) Let F be the event ‘getting a number less than or equal to 4’.
Number of possible outcomes = 6
Outcomes favourable to the event F are 1, 2, 3, 4.
So, the number of outcomes favourable to F is 4.
4 2
Therefore, P(F) = =
6 3

300 MATHEMATICS
Are the events E and F in the example above elementary events? No, they are
not because the event E has 2 outcomes and the event F has 4 outcomes.
Remarks : From Example 1, we note that
1 1
P(E) + P(F) = + =1 (1)
2 2
where E is the event ‘getting a head’ and F is the event ‘getting a tail’.
From (i) and (ii) of Example 3, we also get
1 2
P(E) + P(F) = + =1 (2)
3 3
where E is the event ‘getting a number >4’ and F is the event ‘getting a number ≤ 4’.
Note that getting a number not greater than 4 is same as getting a number less
than or equal to 4, and vice versa.
In (1) and (2) above, is F not the same as ‘not E’? Yes, it is. We denote the event
‘not E’ by E .
So, P(E) + P(not E) = 1
i.e., P(E) + P( E ) = 1, which gives us P( E ) = 1 – P(E).
In general, it is true that for an event E,
P( E ) = 1 – P(E)
The event E , representing ‘not E’, is called the complement of the event E.
We also say that E and E are complementary events.
Before proceeding further, let us try to find the answers to the following questions:
(i) What is the probability of getting a number 8 in a single throw of a die?
(ii) What is the probability of getting a number less than 7 in a single throw of a die?
Let us answer (i) :
We know that there are only six possible outcomes in a single throw of a die. These
outcomes are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Since no face of the die is marked 8, so there is no
outcome favourable to 8, i.e., the number of such outcomes is zero. In other words,
getting 8 in a single throw of a die, is impossible.
0
So, P(getting 8) = =0
6

PROBABILITY 301
That is, the probability of an event which is impossible to occur is 0. Such an

event is called an impossible event.
Let us answer (ii) :
Since every face of a die is marked with a number less than 7, it is sure that we
will always get a number less than 7 when it is thrown once. So, the number of
favourable outcomes is the same as the number of all possible outcomes, which is 6.
6
Therefore, P(E) = P(getting a number less than 7) = =1
6
So, the probability of an event which is sure (or certain) to occur is 1. Such an event
is called a sure event or a certain event.
Note : From the definition of the probability P(E), we see that the numerator (number
of outcomes favourable to the event E) is always less than or equal to the denominator
(the number of all possible outcomes). Therefore,
0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
Now, let us take an example related to playing cards. Have you seen a deck of
playing cards? It consists of 52 cards which are divided into 4 suits of 13 cards each—
spades (♠), hearts (♥), diamonds (♦) and clubs (♣). Clubs and spades are of black
colour, while hearts and diamonds are of red colour. The cards in each suit are ace,
king, queen, jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2. Kings, queens and jacks are called face
cards.
Example 4 : One card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Calculate the
probability that the card will
(i) be an ace,
(ii) not be an ace.
Solution : Well-shuffling ensures equally likely outcomes.
(i) There are 4 aces in a deck. Let E be the event ‘the card is an ace’.
The number of outcomes favourable to E = 4
The number of possible outcomes = 52 (Why ?)
4 1
Therefore, P(E) = =
52 13
(ii) Let F be the event ‘card drawn is not an ace’.
The number of outcomes favourable to the event F = 52 – 4 = 48 (Why?)

302 MATHEMATICS
The number of possible outcomes = 52

48 12
Therefore, P(F) = =
52 13
Remark : Note that F is nothing but E . Therefore, we can also calculate P(F) as
1 12
follows: P(F) = P( E ) = 1 – P(E) = 1 − = ⋅
13 13
Example 5 : Two players, Sangeeta and Reshma, play a tennis match. It is known
that the probability of Sangeeta winning the match is 0.62. What is the probability of
Reshma winning the match?
Solution : Let S and R denote the events that Sangeeta wins the match and Reshma
wins the match, respectively.
The probability of Sangeeta’s winning = P(S) = 0.62 (given)
The probability of Reshma’s winning = P(R) = 1 – P(S)
[As the events R and S are complementary]
= 1 – 0.62 = 0.38
Example 6 : Savita and Hamida are friends. What is the probability that both will
have (i) different birthdays? (ii) the same birthday? (ignoring a leap year).
Solution : Out of the two friends, one girl, say, Savita’s birthday can be any day of the
year. Now, Hamida’s birthday can also be any day of 365 days in the year.
We assume that these 365 outcomes are equally likely.
(i) If Hamida’s birthday is different from Savita’s, the number of favourable outcomes
for her birthday is 365 – 1 = 364
364
So, P (Hamida’s birthday is different from Savita’s birthday) =
365
(ii) P(Savita and Hamida have the same birthday)
= 1 – P (both have different birthdays)
364
= 1− [Using P( E ) = 1 – P(E)]
365
1
=
365

PROBABILITY 303
Example 7 : There are 40 students in Class X of a school of whom 25 are girls and 15
are boys. The class teacher has to select one student as a class representative. She
writes the name of each student on a separate card, the cards being identical. Then
she puts cards in a bag and stirs them thoroughly. She then draws one card from the
bag. What is the probability that the name written on the card is the name of (i) a girl?
(ii) a boy?
Solution : There are 40 students, and only one name card has to be chosen.
(i) The number of all possible outcomes is 40
The number of outcomes favourable for a card with the name of a girl = 25 (Why?)
25 5
Therefore, P (card with name of a girl) = P(Girl) = =
40 8
(ii) The number of outcomes favourable for a card with the name of a boy = 15 (Why?)
15 3
Therefore, P(card with name of a boy) = P(Boy) = =
40 8
Note : We can also determine P(Boy), by taking
5 3
P(Boy) = 1 – P(not Boy) = 1 – P(Girl) = 1 − =
8 8
Example 8 : A box contains 3 blue, 2 white, and 4 red marbles. If a marble is drawn
at random from the box, what is the probability that it will be
(i) white? (ii) blue? (iii) red?
Solution : Saying that a marble is drawn at random is a short way of saying that all the
marbles are equally likely to be drawn. Therefore, the
number of possible outcomes = 3 +2 + 4 = 9 (Why?)
Let W denote the event ‘the marble is white’, B denote the event ‘the marble is blue’
and R denote the event ‘marble is red’.
(i) The number of outcomes favourable to the event W = 2
2
So, P(W) =
9
3 1 4
Similarly, (ii) P(B) = = and (iii) P(R) =
9 3 9
Note that P(W) + P(B) + P(R) = 1.

304 MATHEMATICS
Example 9 : Harpreet tosses two different coins simultaneously (say, one is of ` 1

and other of ` 2). What is the probability that she gets at least one head?
Solution : We write H for ‘head’ and T for ‘tail’. When two coins are tossed
simultaneously, the possible outcomes are (H, H), (H, T), (T, H), (T, T), which are all
equally likely. Here (H, H) means head up on the first coin (say on ` 1) and head up
on the second coin (` 2). Similarly (H, T) means head up on the first coin and tail up on
the second coin and so on.
The outcomes favourable to the event E, ‘at least one head’ are (H, H), (H, T)
and (T, H). (Why?)
So, the number of outcomes favourable to E is 3.
3
Therefore, P(E) =
4
3
i.e., the probability that Harpreet gets at least one head is ⋅
4
Note : You can also find P(E) as follows:
1 3  1
P (E) = 1 – P(E) = 1 – =  Since P(E) = P(no head) = 
4 4  4
Did you observe that in all the examples discussed so far, the number of possible
outcomes in each experiment was finite? If not, check it now.
There are many experiments in which the outcome is any number between two
given numbers, or in which the outcome is every point within a circle or rectangle, etc.
Can you now count the number of all possible outcomes? As you know, this is not
possible since there are infinitely many numbers between two given numbers, or there
are infinitely many points within a circle. So, the definition of (theoretical) probability
which you have learnt so far cannot be applied in the present form. What is the way
out? To answer this, let us consider the following example :
Example 10* : In a musical chair game, the person playing the music has been
advised to stop playing the music at any time within 2 minutes after she starts playing.
What is the probability that the music will stop within the first half-minute after starting?
Solution : Here the possible outcomes are all the numbers between 0 and 2. This is
the portion of the number line from 0 to 2 (see Fig. 15.1).
Fig. 15.1

PROBABILITY 305
Let E be the event that ‘the music is stopped within the first half-minute’.
1
The outcomes favourable to E are points on the number line from 0 to .
2
1 1
The distance from 0 to 2 is 2, while the distance from 0 to is .
2 2
Since all the outcomes are equally likely, we can argue that, of the total distance
1
of 2, the distance favourable to the event E is .
2
1
Distance favourable to the event E 2 =1
So, P(E) = =
Total distance in which outcomes can lie 2 4
Can we now extend the idea of Example 10 for finding the probability as the ratio of
the favourable area to the total area?
Example 11* : A missing helicopter is reported to have crashed somewhere in the

rectangular region shown in Fig. 15.2. What is the probability that it crashed inside the
lake shown in the figure?
Fig. 15.2
Solution : The helicopter is equally likely to crash anywhere in the region.
Area of the entire region where the helicopter can crash
= (4.5 × 9) km2 = 40.5 km2

306 MATHEMATICS
Area of the lake = (2.5 × 3) km2 = 7.5 km2

7.5 75 5
Therefore, P (helicopter crashed in the lake) = = =
40.5 405 27
Example 12 : A carton consists of 100 shirts of which 88 are good, 8 have minor
defects and 4 have major defects. Jimmy, a trader, will only accept the shirts which
are good, but Sujatha, another trader, will only reject the shirts which have major
defects. One shirt is drawn at random from the carton. What is the probability that
(i) it is acceptable to Jimmy?
(ii) it is acceptable to Sujatha?
Solution : One shirt is drawn at random from the carton of 100 shirts. Therefore,
there are 100 equally likely outcomes.
(i) The number of outcomes favourable (i.e., acceptable) to Jimmy = 88 (Why?)

88
Therefore, P (shirt is acceptable to Jimmy) = = 0.88
100
(ii) The number of outcomes favourable to Sujatha = 88 + 8 = 96 (Why?)
96
So, P (shirt is acceptable to Sujatha) = = 0.96
100
Example 13 : Two dice, one blue and one grey, are thrown at the same time. Write
down all the possible outcomes. What is the probability that the sum of the two numbers
appearing on the top of the dice is
(i) 8? (ii) 13? (iii) less than or equal to 12?
Solution : When the blue die shows ‘1’, the grey die could show any one of the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The same is true when the blue die shows ‘2’, ‘3’, ‘4’, ‘5’ or
‘6’. The possible outcomes of the experiment are listed in the table below; the first
number in each ordered pair is the number appearing on the blue die and the second
number is that on the grey die.

PROBABILITY 307
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)
Fig. 15.3
Note that the pair (1, 4) is different from (4, 1). (Why?)
So, the number of possible outcomes = 6 × 6 = 36.
(i) The outcomes favourable to the event ‘the sum of the two numbers is 8’ denoted
by E, are: (2, 6), (3, 5), (4, 4), (5, 3), (6, 2) (see Fig. 15.3)
i.e., the number of outcomes favourable to E = 5.
5
Hence, P(E) =
36
(ii) As you can see from Fig. 15.3, there is no outcome favourable to the event F,
‘the sum of two numbers is 13’.
0
So, P(F) = =0
36
(iii) As you can see from Fig. 15.3, all the outcomes are favourable to the event G,
‘sum of two numbers ≤ 12’.
36
So, P(G) = =1
36

308 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 15.1
1. Complete the following statements:
(i) Probability of an event E + Probability of the event ‘not E’ = .
(ii) The probability of an event that cannot happen is . Such an event is
called .
(iii) The probability of an event that is certain to happen is . Such an event
is called .
(iv) The sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of an experiment is
.
(v) The probability of an event is greater than or equal to and less than or
equal to .
2. Which of the following experiments have equally likely outcomes? Explain.
(i) A driver attempts to start a car. The car starts or does not start.
(ii) A player attempts to shoot a basketball. She/he shoots or misses the shot.
(iii) A trial is made to answer a true-false question. The answer is right or wrong.
(iv) A baby is born. It is a boy or a girl.
3. Why is tossing a coin considered to be a fair way of deciding which team should get the
ball at the beginning of a football game?
4. Which of the following cannot be the probability of an event?
2
(A) (B) –1.5 (C) 15% (D) 0.7
3
5. If P(E) = 0.05, what is the probability of ‘not E’?
6. A bag contains lemon flavoured candies only. Malini takes out one candy without
looking into the bag. What is the probability that she takes out
(i) an orange flavoured candy?
(ii) a lemon flavoured candy?
7. It is given that in a group of 3 students, the probability of 2 students not having the
same birthday is 0.992. What is the probability that the 2 students have the same
birthday?
8. A bag contains 3 red balls and 5 black balls. A ball is drawn at random from the bag.
What is the probability that the ball drawn is (i) red ? (ii) not red?
9. A box contains 5 red marbles, 8 white marbles and 4 green marbles. One marble is taken
out of the box at random. What is the probability that the marble taken out will be
(i) red ? (ii) white ? (iii) not green?

PROBABILITY 309
10. A piggy bank contains hundred 50p coins, fifty ` 1 coins, twenty ` 2 coins and ten ` 5
coins. If it is equally likely that one of the coins will fall out when the bank is turned
upside down, what is the probability that the coin (i) will be a 50 p coin ? (ii) will not be
a ` 5 coin?
11. Gopi buys a fish from a shop for his aquarium. The
shopkeeper takes out one fish at random from a
tank containing 5 male fish and 8 female fish (see
Fig. 15.4). What is the probability that the fish taken
out is a male fish?
12. A game of chance consists of spinning an arrow

which comes to rest pointing at one of the numbers Fig. 15.4
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (see Fig. 15.5 ), and these are equally
likely outcomes. What is the probability that it will
point at
(i) 8 ?
(ii) an odd number?
(iii) a number greater than 2?
(iv) a number less than 9?
Fig. 15.5
13. A die is thrown once. Find the probability of getting
(i) a prime number; (ii) a number lying between 2 and 6; (iii) an odd number.
14. One card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Find the probability of getting
(i) a king of red colour (ii) a face card (iii) a red face card
(iv) the jack of hearts (v) a spade (vi) the queen of diamonds
15. Five cards—the ten, jack, queen, king and ace of diamonds, are well-shuffled with their
face downwards. One card is then picked up at random.
(i) What is the probability that the card is the queen?
(ii) If the queen is drawn and put aside, what is the probability that the second card
picked up is (a) an ace? (b) a queen?
16. 12 defective pens are accidentally mixed with 132 good ones. It is not possible to just
look at a pen and tell whether or not it is defective. One pen is taken out at random from
this lot. Determine the probability that the pen taken out is a good one.
17. (i) A lot of 20 bulbs contain 4 defective ones. One bulb is drawn at random from the lot.
What is the probability that this bulb is defective?
(ii) Suppose the bulb drawn in (i) is not defective and is not replaced. Now one bulb
is drawn at random from the rest. What is the probability that this bulb is not
defective ?
18. A box contains 90 discs which are numbered from 1 to 90. If one disc is drawn at random
from the box, find the probability that it bears (i) a two-digit number (ii) a perfect
square number (iii) a number divisible by 5.

310 MATHEMATICS
19. A child has a die whose six faces show the letters as given below:
A B C D E A
The die is thrown once. What is the probability of getting (i) A? (ii) D?
20*. Suppose you drop a die at random on the rectangular region shown in Fig. 15.6. What is
the probability that it will land inside the circle with diameter 1m?
3m
2m
Fig. 15.6
21. A lot consists of 144 ball pens of which 20 are defective and the others are good. Nuri
will buy a pen if it is good, but will not buy if it is defective. The shopkeeper draws one
pen at random and gives it to her. What is the probability that
(i) She will buy it ?
(ii) She will not buy it ?
22. Refer to Example 13. (i) Complete the following table:
Event :
‘Sum on 2 dice’ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 5 1
Probability
36 36 36
(ii) A student argues that ‘there are 11 possible outcomes 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and
1
12. Therefore, each of them has a probability . Do you agree with this argument?
11
Justify your answer.
23. A game consists of tossing a one rupee coin 3 times and noting its outcome each time.
Hanif wins if all the tosses give the same result i.e., three heads or three tails, and loses
otherwise. Calculate the probability that Hanif will lose the game.
24. A die is thrown twice. What is the probability that
(i) 5 will not come up either time? (ii) 5 will come up at least once?
[Hint : Throwing a die twice and throwing two dice simultaneously are treated as the
same experiment]

PROBABILITY 311
25. Which of the following arguments are correct and which are not correct? Give reasons
for your answer.
(i) If two coins are tossed simultaneously there are three possible outcomes —two
heads, two tails or one of each. Therefore, for each of these outcomes, the
1
probability is ⋅
3
(ii) If a die is thrown, there are two possible outcomes— an odd number or an even
1
number. Therefore, the probability of getting an odd number is .
2

1. Two customers Shyam and Ekta are visiting a particular shop in the same week (Tuesday
to Saturday). Each is equally likely to visit the shop on any day as on another day. What
is the probability that both will visit the shop on (i) the same day? (ii) consecutive
days? (iii) different days?
2. A die is numbered in such a way that its faces show the numbers 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 6. It is
thrown two times and the total score in two throws is noted. Complete the following
table which gives a few values of the total score on the two throws:
Number in first throw
+ 1 2 2 3 3 6
Number in second throw
1 2 3 3 4 4 7
2 3 4 4 5 5 8
2 5
3
3 5 9
6 7 8 8 9 9 12
What is the probability that the total score is

(i) even? (ii) 6? (iii) at least 6?
3. A bag contains 5 red balls and some blue balls. If the probability of drawing a blue ball
is double that of a red ball, determine the number of blue balls in the bag.
4. A box contains 12 balls out of which x are black. If one ball is drawn at random from the
box, what is the probability that it will be a black ball?
If 6 more black balls are put in the box, the probability of drawing a black ball is now
double of what it was before. Find x.

312 MATHEMATICS
5. A jar contains 24 marbles, some are green and others are blue. If a marble is drawn at
2
random from the jar, the probability that it is green is ⋅ Find the number of blue balls
3
in the jar.
15.3 Summary
1. The difference between experimental probability and theoretical probability.
2. The theoretical (classical) probability of an event E, written as P(E), is defined as
Number of outcomes favourable to E

P (E) =
Number of all possible outcomes of the experiment
where we assume that the outcomes of the experiment are equally likely.
3. The probability of a sure event (or certain event) is 1.
4. The probability of an impossible event is 0.
5. The probability of an event E is a number P(E) such that
0 ≤ P (E) ≤ 1
6. An event having only one outcome is called an elementary event. The sum of the
probabilities of all the elementary events of an experiment is 1.
7. For any event E, P (E) + P ( E ) = 1, where E stands for ‘not E’. E and E are called
complementary events.

The experimental or empirical probability of an event is based on
what has actually happened while the theoretical probability of the
event attempts to predict what will happen on the basis of certain
assumptions. As the number of trials in an experiment, go on
increasing we may expect the experimental and theoretical
probabilities to be nearly the same.

PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS 313
PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS A1
A1.1 Introduction
The ability to reason and think clearly is extremely useful in our daily life. For example,
suppose a politician tells you, ‘If you are interested in a clean government, then you
should vote for me.’ What he actually wants you to believe is that if you do not vote for
him, then you may not get a clean government. Similarly, if an advertisement tells you,
‘The intelligent wear XYZ shoes’, what the company wants you to conclude is that if
you do not wear XYZ shoes, then you are not intelligent enough. You can yourself
observe that both the above statements may mislead the general public. So, if we
understand the process of reasoning correctly, we do not fall into such traps
unknowingly.
The correct use of reasoning is at the core of mathematics, especially in constructing
proofs. In Class IX, you were introduced to the idea of proofs, and you actually proved
many statements, especially in geometry. Recall that a proof is made up of several
mathematical statements, each of which is logically deduced from a previous statement
in the proof, or from a theorem proved earlier, or an axiom, or the hypotheses. The
main tool, we use in constructing a proof, is the process of deductive reasoning.
We start the study of this chapter with a review of what a mathematical statement
is. Then, we proceed to sharpen our skills in deductive reasoning using several examples.
We shall also deal with the concept of negation and finding the negation of a given
statement. Then, we discuss what it means to find the converse of a given statement.
Finally, we review the ingredients of a proof learnt in Class IX by analysing the proofs
of several theorems. Here, we also discuss the idea of proof by contradiction, which
you have come across in Class IX and many other chapters of this book.
A1.2 Mathematical Statements Revisited

Recall, that a ‘statement’ is a meaningful sentence which is not an order, or an
exclamation or a question. For example, ‘Which two teams are playing in the

314 MATHEMATICS
Cricket World Cup Final?’ is a question, not a statement. ‘Go and finish your homework’
is an order, not a statement. ‘What a fantastic goal!’ is an exclamation, not a statement.
Remember, in general, statements can be one of the following:

• always true
• always false
• ambiguous
In Class IX, you have also studied that in mathematics, a statement is
acceptable only if it is either always true or always false. So, ambiguous sentences
are not considered as mathematical statements.
Let us review our understanding with a few examples.
Example 1 : State whether the following statements are always true, always false or
ambiguous. Justify your answers.
(i) The Sun orbits the Earth.
(ii) Vehicles have four wheels.
(iii) The speed of light is approximately 3 × 105 km/s.
(iv) A road to Kolkata will be closed from November to March.
(v) All humans are mortal.
Solution :
(i) This statement is always false, since astronomers have established that the Earth
orbits the Sun.
(ii) This statement is ambiguous, because we cannot decide if it is always true or
always false. This depends on what the vehicle is — vehicles can have 2, 3, 4, 6,
10, etc., wheels.
(iii) This statement is always true, as verified by physicists.
(iv) This statement is ambiguous, because it is not clear which road is being referred
to.
(v) This statement is always true, since every human being has to die some time.
Example 2 : State whether the following statements are true or false, and justify your
answers.
(i) All equilateral triangles are isosceles.
(ii) Some isosceles triangles are equilateral.
(iii) All isosceles triangles are equilateral.
(iv) Some rational numbers are integers.

(v) Some rational numbers are not integers.

(vi) Not all integers are rational.
(vii) Between any two rational numbers there is no rational number.
Solution :
(i) This statement is true, because equilateral triangles have equal sides, and therefore
are isosceles.
(ii) This statement is true, because those isosceles triangles whose base angles are
60° are equilateral.
(iii) This statement is false. Give a counter-example for it.
p
(iv) This statement is true, since rational numbers of the form , where p is an
3 q
integer and q = 1, are integers (for example, 3 = ).
1 p
(v) This statement is true, because rational numbers of the form , p, q are integers
3 q
and q does not divide p, are not integers (for example, ).
2
(vi) This statement is the same as saying ‘there is an integer which is not a rational
number’. This is false, because all integers are rational numbers.
(vii) This statement is false. As you know, between any two rational numbers r and s
r +s
lies , which is a rational number.
2
Example 3 : If x < 4, which of the following statements are true? Justify your answers.
(i) 2x > 8 (ii) 2x < 6 (iii) 2x < 8
Solution :
(i) This statement is false, because, for example, x = 3 < 4 does not satisfy 2x > 8.
(ii) This statement is false, because, for example, x = 3.5 < 4 does not satisfy 2x < 6.
(iii) This statement is true, because it is the same as x < 4.
Example 4 : Restate the following statements with appropriate conditions, so that

they become true statements:
(i) If the diagonals of a quadrilateral are equal, then it is a rectangle.
(ii) A line joining two points on two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side.
(iii) p is irrational for all positive integers p.

(iv) All quadratic equations have two real roots.

316 MATHEMATICS
Solution :
(i) If the diagonals of a parallelogram are equal, then it is a rectangle.
(ii) A line joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side.
(iii) p is irrational for all primes p.
(iv) All quadratic equations have at most two real roots.
Remark : There can be other ways of restating the statements above. For instance,
(iii) can also be restated as ‘ p is irrational for all positive integers p which are not a
perfect square’.
EXERCISE A1.1
1. State whether the following statements are always true, always false or ambiguous.
Justify your answers.
(i) All mathematics textbooks are interesting.

(ii) The distance from the Earth to the Sun is approximately 1.5 × 108 km.
(iii) All human beings grow old.
(iv) The journey from Uttarkashi to Harsil is tiring.
(v) The woman saw an elephant through a pair of binoculars.
2. State whether the following statements are true or false. Justify your answers.
(i) All hexagons are polygons. (ii) Some polygons are pentagons.
(iii) Not all even numbers are divisible by 2. (iv) Some real numbers are irrational.
(v) Not all real numbers are rational.
3. Let a and b be real numbers such that ab ≠ 0. Then which of the following statements are
true? Justify your answers.
(i) Both a and b must be zero. (ii) Both a and b must be non-zero.
(iii) Either a or b must be non-zero.
4. Restate the following statements with appropriate conditions, so that they become true.
(i) If a2 > b2, then a > b. (ii) If x2 = y2 , then x = y.
(iii) If (x + y)2 = x2 + y2, then x = 0. (iv) The diagonals of a quadrilateral
bisect each other.
A1.3 Deductive Reasoning

In Class IX, you were introduced to the idea of deductive reasoning. Here, we will
work with many more examples which will illustrate how deductive reasoning is

used to deduce conclusions from given statements that we assume to be true. The
given statements are called ‘premises’ or ‘hypotheses’. We begin with some examples.
Example 5 : Given that Bijapur is in the state of Karnataka, and suppose Shabana
lives in Bijapur. In which state does Shabana live?
Solution : Here we have two premises:
(i) Bijapur is in the state of Karnataka (ii) Shabana lives in Bijapur
From these premises, we deduce that Shabana lives in the state of Karnataka.
Example 6 : Given that all mathematics textbooks are interesting, and suppose you
are reading a mathematics textbook. What can we conclude about the textbook you
are reading?
Solution : Using the two premises (or hypotheses), we can deduce that you are
reading an interesting textbook.
Example 7 : Given that y = – 6x + 5, and suppose x = 3. What is y?
Solution : Given the two hypotheses, we get y = – 6 (3) + 5 = – 13.
Example 8 : Given that ABCD is a parallelogram,

and suppose AD = 5 cm, AB = 7 cm (see Fig. A1.1).
What can you conclude about the lengths of DC and
BC?
Solution : We are given that ABCD is a parallelogram.
So, we deduce that all the properties that hold for a Fig. A1.1
parallelogram hold for ABCD. Therefore, in particular,
the property that ‘the opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal to each other’, holds.
Since we know AD = 5 cm, we can deduce that BC = 5 cm. Similarly, we deduce that
DC = 7 cm.
Remark : In this example, we have seen how we will often need to find out and use
properties hidden in a given premise.
Example 9 : Given that p is irrational for all primes p, and suppose that 19423 is a
prime. What can you conclude about 19423 ?
Solution : We can conclude that 19423 is irrational.
In the examples above, you might have noticed that we do not know whether the
hypotheses are true or not. We are assuming that they are true, and then applying
deductive reasoning. For instance, in Example 9, we haven’t checked whether 19423

318 MATHEMATICS
is a prime or not; we assume it to be a prime for the sake of our argument.What we

are trying to emphasise in this section is that given a particular statement, how we use
deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion. What really matters here is that we use
the correct process of reasoning, and this process of reasoning does not depend on the
trueness or falsity of the hypotheses. However, it must also be noted that if we start
with an incorrect premise (or hypothesis), we may arrive at a wrong conclusion.
EXERCISE A1.2
1. Given that all women are mortal, and suppose that A is a woman, what can we conclude
about A?
2. Given that the product of two rational numbers is rational, and suppose a and b are
rationals, what can you conclude about ab?
3. Given that the decimal expansion of irrational numbers is non-terminating, non-recurring,
and 17 is irrational, what can we conclude about the decimal expansion
of 17 ?
4. Given that y = x2 + 6 and x = – 1, what can we conclude about the value of y?
5. Given that ABCD is a parallelogram and ∠ B = 80°. What can you conclude about the
other angles of the parallelogram?
6. Given that PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral and also its diagonals bisect each other. What
can you conclude about the quadrilateral?
7. Given that p is irrational for all primes p and also suppose that 3721 is a prime. Can
you conclude that 3721 is an irrational number? Is your conclusion correct? Why or
why not?
A1.4 Conjectures, Theorems, Proofs and Mathematical Reasoning

Consider the Fig. A1.2. The first circle
has one point on it, the second two points,
the third three, and so on. All possible
lines connecting the points are drawn in
each case.
The lines divide the circle into
mutually exclusive regions (having no
common portion). We can count these
and tabulate our results as shown :
Fig. A1.2

Number of points Number of regions
1 1
2 2
3 4
4 8
5
7
Some of you might have come up with a formula predicting the number of regions
given the number of points. From Class IX, you may remember that this intelligent
guess is called a ‘conjecture’.
Suppose your conjecture is that given ‘n’ points on a circle, there are 2n – 1
mutually exclusive regions, created by joining the points with all possible lines. This
seems an extremely sensible guess, and one can check that if n = 5, we do get 16
regions. So, having verified this formula for 5 points, are you satisfied that for any n
points there are 2n – 1 regions? If so, how would you respond, if someone asked you,
how you can be sure about this for n = 25, say? To deal with such questions, you
would need a proof which shows beyond doubt that this result is true, or a counter-
example to show that this result fails for some ‘n’. Actually, if you are patient and try
it out for n = 6, you will find that there are 31 regions, and for n = 7 there are 57
regions. So, n = 6, is a counter-example to the conjecture above. This demonstrates
the power of a counter-example. You may recall that in the Class IX we discussed
that to disprove a statement, it is enough to come up with a single counter-
example.
You may have noticed that we insisted on a proof regarding the number
of regions in spite of verifying the result for n = 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Let us consider
a few more examples. You are familiar with the following result (given in Chapter 5):
n ( n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = . To establish its validity, it is not enough to verify the
2
result for n = 1, 2, 3, and so on, because there may be some ‘n’ for which this result is
not true (just as in the example above, the result failed for n = 6). What we need is a
proof which establishes its truth beyond doubt. You shall learn a proof for the same in
higher classes.

320 MATHEMATICS
Now, consider Fig. A1.3, where PQ and PR

are tangents to the circle drawn from P.
You have proved that PQ = PR (Theorem 10.2).
You were not satisfied by only drawing several such
figures, measuring the lengths of the respective
tangents, and verifying for yourselves that the result
was true in each case. Fig. A1.3
Do you remember what did the proof consist of ? It consisted of a sequence of
statements (called valid arguments), each following from the earlier statements in
the proof, or from previously proved (and known) results independent from the result
to be proved, or from axioms, or from definitions, or from the assumptions you had
made. And you concluded your proof with the statement PQ = PR, i.e., the statement
you wanted to prove. This is the way any proof is constructed.
We shall now look at some examples and theorems and analyse their proofs to
help us in getting a better understanding of how they are constructed.
We begin by using the so-called ‘direct’ or ‘deductive’ method of proof. In this
method, we make several statements. Each is based on previous statements. If
each statement is logically correct (i.e., a valid argument), it leads to a logically correct
conclusion.
Example 10 : The sum of two rational numbers is a rational number.

Solution :
S.No. Statements Analysis/Comments
1. Let x and y be rational numbers. Since the result is about

rationals, we start with x and
y which are rational.
m p
2. Let x = , n ≠ 0 and y = , q ≠ 0 Apply the definition of
n q
rationals.
where m, n, p and q are integers.
m p mq + np The result talks about the

3. So, x + y = + =
n q nq sum of rationals, so we look
at x + y.

4. Using the properties of integers, we see Using known properties of

that mq + np and nq are integers. integers.
5. Since n ≠ 0 and q ≠ 0, it follows that Using known properties of

nq ≠ 0. integers.
mq + np
6. Therefore, x + y = is a rational Using the definition of a
number nq rational number.
Remark : Note that, each statement in the proof above is based on a previously
established fact, or definition.
Example 11 : Every prime number greater than 3 is of the form 6k + 1 or 6k + 5,
where k is some integer.
Solution :
S.No. Statements Analysis/Comments
1. Let p be a prime number greater than 3. Since the result has to do

with a prime number
greater than 3, we start with
such a number.
2. Dividing p by 6, we find that p can be of Using Euclid’s

the form 6k, 6k + 1, 6k + 2, division lemma.
6k + 3, 6k + 4, or 6k + 5, where k is
an integer.
3. But 6k = 2(3k), 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1), We now analyse the

6k + 4 = 2(3k + 2), remainders given that
and 6k + 3 = 3(2k + 1). So, they are p is prime.
not primes.
4. So, p is forced to be of the We arrive at this conclusion

form 6k + 1 or 6k + 5, for some having eliminated the other
integer k. options.
Remark : In the above example, we have arrived at the conclusion by eliminating

different options. This method is sometimes referred to as the Proof by Exhaustion.

322 MATHEMATICS
Theorem A1.1 (Converse of the

Pythagoras Theorem) : If in a triangle the
square of the length of one side is equal
to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides, then the angle opposite the first side
is a right angle.
Proof : Fig. A1.4
S.No. Statements Analysis
1. Let ∆ABC satisfy the hypothesis Since we are proving a
AC2 = AB2 + BC2. statement about such a
triangle, we begin by taking
this.
2. Construct line BD perpendicular to This is the intuitive step we
AB, such that BD = BC, and join A to D. have talked about that we
often need to take for
proving theorems.
3. By construction, ∆ABD is a right We use the Pythagoras
triangle, and from the Pythagoras theorem, which is already
Theorem, we have AD2 = AB2 + BD2. proved.
4. By construction, BD = BC. Therefore, Logical deduction.

we have AD2 = AB2 + BC2.
5. Therefore, AC2 = AB2 + BC2 = AD2. Using assumption, and

previous statement.
6. Since AC and AD are positive, we Using known property of

have AC = AD. numbers.
7. We have just shown AC = AD. Also Using known theorem.

BC = BD by construction, and AB is
common. Therefore, by SSS,
∆ABC ≅ ∆ABD.
8. Since ∆ABC ≅ ∆ABD, we get Logical deduction, based on

∠ABC = ∠ABD, which is a right angle. previously established fact.

Remark : Each of the results above has been proved by a sequence of steps, all
linked together. Their order is important. Each step in the proof follows from previous
steps and earlier known results. (Also see Theorem 6.9.)
EXERCISE A1.3
In each of the following questions, we ask you to prove a statement. List all the steps in each
proof, and give the reason for each step.
1. Prove that the sum of two consecutive odd numbers is divisible by 4.
2. Take two consecutive odd numbers. Find the sum of their squares, and then add 6 to the
result. Prove that the new number is always divisible by 8.
3. If p ≥ 5 is a prime number, show that p2 + 2 is divisible by 3.
[Hint: Use Example 11].
4. Let x and y be rational numbers. Show that xy is a rational number.
5. If a and b are positive integers, then you know that a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b, where q is a whole
number. Prove that HCF (a, b) = HCF (b, r).
[Hint : Let HCF (b, r) = h. So, b = k1h and r = k2h, where k1 and k2 are coprime.]
6. A line parallel to side BC of a triangle ABC, intersects AB and AC at D and E respectively.
AD AE
Prove that = ⋅
DB EC
A1.5 Negation of a Statement

In this section, we discuss what it means to ‘negate’ a statement. Before we start, we
would like to introduce some notation, which will make it easy for us to understand
these concepts. To start with, let us look at a statement as a single unit, and give it a
name. For example, we can denote the statement ‘It rained in Delhi on 1 September
2005’ by p. We can also write this by
p: It rained in Delhi on 1 September 2005.
Similarly, let us write
q: All teachers are female.
r: Mike’s dog has a black tail.
s: 2 + 2 = 4.
t: Triangle ABC is equilateral.
This notation now helps us to discuss properties of statements, and also to see
how we can combine them. In the beginning we will be working with what we call
‘simple’ statements, and will then move onto ‘compound’ statements.

324 MATHEMATICS
Now consider the following table in which we make a new statement from each
of the given statements.
Original statement New statement
p: It rained in Delhi on ~p: It is false that it rained in Delhi

1 September 2005 on 1 September 2005.
q: All teachers are female. ~ q: It is false that all teachers are
female.
r: Mike’s dog has a black tail. ~r: It is false that Mike’s dog has a
black tail.
s: 2 + 2 = 4. ~s: It is false that 2 + 2 = 4.
t: Triangle ABC is equilateral. ~t: It is false that triangle ABC is
equilateral.
Each new statement in the table is a negation of the corresponding old statement.
That is, ~p, ~q, ~r, ~s and ~t are negations of the statements p, q, r, s and t, respectively.
Here, ~p is read as ‘not p’. The statement ~p negates the assertion that the statement
p makes. Notice that in our usual talk we would simply mean ~p as ‘It did not rain in
Delhi on 1 September 2005.’ However, we need to be careful while doing so. You
might think that one can obtain the negation of a statement by simply inserting the
word ‘not’ in the given statement at a suitable place. While this works in the case of
p, the difficulty comes when we have a statement that begins with ‘all’. Consider, for
example, the statement q: All teachers are female. We said the negation of this statement
is ~q: It is false that all teachers are female. This is the same as the statement ‘There
are some teachers who are males.’ Now let us see what happens if we simply insert
‘not’ in q. We obtain the statement: ‘All teachers are not female’, or we can obtain the
statement: ‘Not all teachers are female.’ The first statement can confuse people. It
could imply (if we lay emphasis on the word ‘All’) that all teachers are male! This is
certainly not the negation of q. However, the second statement gives the meaning of
~q, i.e., that there is at least one teacher who is not a female. So, be careful when
writing the negation of a statement!
So, how do we decide that we have the correct negation? We use the following
criterion.
Let p be a statement and ~p its negation. Then ~p is false whenever p is
true, and ~p is true whenever p is false.

For example, if it is true that Mike’s dog has a black tail, then it is false that
Mike’s dog does not have a black tail. If it is false that ‘Mike’s dog has a black tail’,
then it is true that ‘Mike’s dog does not have a black tail’.
Similarly, the negations for the statements s and t are:
s: 2 + 2 = 4; negation, ~s: 2 + 2 ≠ 4.
t: Triangle ABC is equilateral; negation, ~t: Triangle ABC is not equilateral.
Now, what is ~(~s)? It would be 2 + 2 = 4, which is s. And what is ~(~t)? This
would be ‘the triangle ABC is equilateral’, i.e., t. In fact, for any statement p, ~(~p)
is p.
Example 12 : State the negations for the following statements:

(i) Mike’s dog does not have a black tail.
(ii) All irrational numbers are real numbers.
(iii) 2 is irrational.
(iv) Some rational numbers are integers.
(v) Not all teachers are males.
(vi) Some horses are not brown.
(vii) There is no real number x, such that x2 = – 1.
Solution :
(i) It is false that Mike’s dog does not have a black tail, i.e., Mike’s dog has a black
tail.
(ii) It is false that all irrational numbers are real numbers, i.e., some (at least one)
irrational numbers are not real numbers. One can also write this as, ‘Not all
irrational numbers are real numbers.’
(iii) It is false that 2 is irrational, i.e., 2 is not irrational.
(iv) It is false that some rational numbers are integers, i.e., no rational number is an
integer.
(v) It is false that not all teachers are males, i.e., all teachers are males.
(vi) It is false that some horses are not brown, i.e., all horses are brown.
(vii) It is false that there is no real number x, such that x2 = – 1, i.e., there is at least
one real number x, such that x2 = – 1.
Remark : From the above discussion, you may arrive at the following Working Rule
for obtaining the negation of a statement :
(i) First write the statement with a ‘not’.
(ii) If there is any confusion, make suitable modification , specially in the statements
involving ‘All’ or ‘Some’.

326 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE A1.4
1. State the negations for the following statements :
(i) Man is mortal. (ii) Line l is parallel to line m.
(iii) This chapter has many exercises. (iv) All integers are rational numbers.
(v) Some prime numbers are odd. (vi) No student is lazy.
(vii) Some cats are not black.
(viii) There is no real number x, such that x = −1 .

(ix) 2 divides the positive integer a. (x) Integers a and b are coprime.
2. In each of the following questions, there are two statements. State if the second is the
negation of the first or not.
(i) Mumtaz is hungry. (ii) Some cats are black.
Mumtaz is not hungry. Some cats are brown.
(iii) All elephants are huge. (iv) All fire engines are red.
One elephant is not huge. All fire engines are not red.
(v) No man is a cow.
Some men are cows.
A1.6 Converse of a Statement

We now investigate the notion of the converse of a statement. For this, we need the
notion of a ‘compound’ statement, that is, a statement which is a combination of one or
more ‘simple’ statements. There are many ways of creating compound statements,
but we will focus on those that are created by connecting two simple statements with
the use of the words ‘if’ and ‘then’. For example, the statement ‘If it is raining, then it
is difficult to go on a bicycle’, is made up of two statements:
p: It is raining
q: It is difficult to go on a bicycle.
Using our previous notation we can say: If p, then q. We can also say ‘p implies
q’, and denote it by p ⇒ q.
Now, supose you have the statement ‘If the water tank is black, then it contains
potable water.’ This is of the form p ⇒ q, where the hypothesis is p (the water tank
is black) and the conclusion is q (the tank contains potable water). Suppose we
interchange the hypothesis and the conclusion, what do we get? We get q ⇒ p, i.e., if
the water in the tank is potable, then the tank must be black. This statement is called
the converse of the statement p ⇒ q.

In general, the converse of the statement p ⇒ q is q ⇒ p, where p and q are

statements. Note that p ⇒ q and q ⇒ p are the converses of each other.
Example 13 : Write the converses of the following statements :

(i) If Jamila is riding a bicycle, then 17 August falls on a Sunday.
(ii) If 17 August is a Sunday, then Jamila is riding a bicycle.
(iii) If Pauline is angry, then her face turns red.
(iv) If a person has a degree in education, then she is allowed to teach.
(v) If a person has a viral infection, then he runs a high temperature.
(vi) If Ahmad is in Mumbai, then he is in India.
(vii) If triangle ABC is equilateral, then all its interior angles are equal.
(viii) If x is an irrational number, then the decimal expansion of x is non-terminating
non-recurring.
(ix) If x – a is a factor of the polynomial p(x), then p(a) = 0.
Solution : Each statement above is of the form p ⇒ q. So, to find the converse, we
first identify p and q, and then write q ⇒ p.
(i) p: Jamila is riding a bicycle, and q: 17 August falls on a Sunday. Therefore, the
converse is: If 17 August falls on a Sunday, then Jamila is riding a bicycle.
(ii) This is the converse of (i). Therefore, its converse is the statement given in
(i) above.
(iii) If Pauline’s face turns red, then she is angry.
(iv) If a person is allowed to teach, then she has a degree in education.
(v) If a person runs a high temperature, then he has a viral infection.
(vi) If Ahmad is in India, then he is in Mumbai.
(vii) If all the interior angles of triangle ABC are equal, then it is equilateral.
(viii) If the decimal expansion of x is non-terminating non-recurring, then x is an
irrational number.
(ix) If p(a) = 0, then x – a is a factor of the polynomial p(x).
Notice that we have simply written the converse of each of the statements
above without worrying if they are true or false. For example, consider the following
statement: If Ahmad is in Mumbai, then he is in India. This statement is true. Now
consider the converse: If Ahmad is in India, then he is in Mumbai. This need not be
true always – he could be in any other part of India.

328 MATHEMATICS
In mathematics, especially in geometry, you will come across many situations

where p ⇒ q is true, and you will have to decide if the converse, i.e., q ⇒ p, is also
true.
Example 14 : State the converses of the following statements. In each case, also
decide whether the converse is true or false.
(i) If n is an even integer, then 2n + 1 is an odd integer.
(ii) If the decimal expansion of a real number is terminating, then the number is
rational.
(iii) If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then each pair of corresponding
angles is equal.
(iv) If each pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral is equal, then the quadrilateral is
a parallelogram.
(v) If two triangles are congruent, then their corresponding angles are equal.
Solution :
(i) The converse is ‘If 2n + 1 is an odd integer, then n is an even integer.’ This is a
false statement (for example, 15 = 2(7) + 1, and 7 is odd).
(ii) ‘If a real number is rational, then its decimal expansion is terminating’, is the
converse. This is a false statement, because a rational number can also have a
non-terminating recurring decimal expansion.
(iii) The converse is ‘If a transversal intersects two lines in such a way that each
pair of corresponding angles are equal, then the two lines are parallel.’ We have
assumed, by Axiom 6.4 of your Class IX textbook, that this statement is true.
(iv) ‘If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then each pair of its opposite sides is equal’,
is the converse. This is true (Theorem 8.1, Class IX).
(v) ‘If the corresponding angles in two triangles are equal, then they are congruent’,
is the converse. This statement is false. We leave it to you to find suitable counter-
examples.
EXERCISE A1.5
1. Write the converses of the following statements.
(i) If it is hot in Tokyo, then Sharan sweats a lot.
(ii) If Shalini is hungry, then her stomach grumbles.
(iii) If Jaswant has a scholarship, then she can get a degree.
(iv) If a plant has flowers, then it is alive.
(v) If an animal is a cat, then it has a tail.

2. Write the converses of the following statements. Also, decide in each case whether the
converse is true or false.
(i) If triangle ABC is isosceles, then its base angles are equal.
(ii) If an integer is odd, then its square is an odd integer.
(iii) If x2 = 1, then x = 1.
(iv) If ABCD is a parallelogram, then AC and BD bisect each other.
(v) If a, b and c, are whole numbers, then a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c.
(vi) If x and y are two odd numbers, then x + y is an even number.
(vii) If vertices of a parallelogram lie on a circle, then it is a rectangle.
A1.7 Proof by Contradiction

So far, in all our examples, we used direct arguments to establish the truth of the
results. We now explore ‘indirect’ arguments, in particular, a very powerful tool in
mathematics known as ‘proof by contradiction’. We have already used this method in
Chapter 1 to establish the irrationality of several numbers and also in other chapters to
prove some theorems. Here, we do several more examples to illustrate the idea.
Before we proceed, let us explain what a contradiction is. In mathematics, a
contradiction occurs when we get a statement p such that p is true and ~p, its negation,
is also true. For example,
a
p: x = , where a and b are coprime.
b
q: 2 divides both ‘a’ and ‘b’.
If we assume that p is true and also manage to show that q is true, then we have
arrived at a contradiction, because q implies that the negation of p is true. If you
remember, this is exactly what happened when we tried to prove that 2 is irrational
(see Chapter 1).
How does proof by contradiction work? Let us see this through a specific example.
Suppose we are given the following :
All women are mortal. A is a woman. Prove that A is mortal.
Even though this is a rather easy example, let us see how we can prove this by
contradiction.
l Let us assume that we want to establish the truth of a statement p (here we
want to show that p : ‘A is mortal’ is true).

330 MATHEMATICS
l So, we begin by assuming that the statement is not true, that is, we assume that
the negation of p is true (i.e., A is not mortal).
l We then proceed to carry out a series of logical deductions based on the truth of
the negation of p. (Since A is not mortal, we have a counter-example to the
statement ‘All women are mortal.’ Hence, it is false that all women are mortal.)
l If this leads to a contradiction, then the contradiction arises because of our faulty
assumption that p is not true. (We have a contradiction, since we have shown
that the statement ‘All women are mortal’ and its negation, ‘Not all women are
mortal’ is true at the same time. This contradiction arose, because we assumed
that A is not mortal.)
l Therefore, our assumption is wrong, i.e., p has to be true. (So, A is mortal.)
Let us now look at examples from mathematics.
Example 15 : The product of a non-zero rational number and an irrational number is

irrational.
Solution :
Statements Analysis/Comment
We will use proof by contradiction. Let r be a non-

zero rational number and x be an irrational number.
m
Let r = , where m, n are integers and m ≠ 0,
n
n ≠ 0. We need to prove that rx is irrational.
Assume rx is rational. Here, we are assuming the

negation of the statement that
we need to prove.
p
Then rx = , q ≠ 0, where p and q are integers. This follow from the
q
previous statement and the
definition of a rational
number.
p
Rearranging the equation rx = , q ≠ 0, and
q
m p np
using the fact that r = , we get x = = .
n rq mq

Since np and mq are integers and mq ≠ 0, Using properties of integers,

x is a rational number. and definition of a rational
number.
This is a contradiction, because we have shown x This is what we were looking

to be rational, but by our hypothesis, we have x for — a contradiction.
is irrational.
The contradiction has arisen because of the faulty Logical deduction.

assumption that rx is rational. Therefore, rx
is irrational.
We now prove Example 11, but this time using proof by contradiction. The proof
is given below:
Let us assume that the statement is note true. As we saw earlier, this is the
starting point for an argument
using ‘proof by contradiction’.
So we suppose that there exists a prime number This is the negation of the
p > 3, which is not of the form 6n + 1 or 6n + 5, statement in the result.
where n is a whole number.
Using Euclid’s division lemma on division by 6, Using earlier proved results.
and using the fact that p is not of the form 6n + 1
or 6n + 5, we get p = 6n or 6n + 2 or 6n + 3
or 6n + 4.
Therefore, p is divisible by either 2 or 3. Logical deduction.
So, p is not a prime. Logical deduction.
This is a contradiction, because by our hypothesis Precisely what we want!
p is prime.
The contradiction has arisen, because we assumed
that there exists a prime number p > 3 which is
not of the form 6n + 1 or 6n + 5.
Hence, every prime number greater than 3 is of the We reach the conclusion.
form 6n + 1 or 6n + 5.

332 MATHEMATICS
Remark : The example of the proof above shows you, yet again, that there can be
several ways of proving a result.
Theorem A1.2 : Out of all the line segments, drawn from a point to points of a
line not passing through the point, the smallest is the perpendicular to the line.
Proof :
Fig. A1.5
Let XY be the given line, P a point not lying on XY Since we have to prove that
and PM, PA1, PA2, . . . etc., be the line segments out of all PM, PA1, PA2, . . .
drawn from P to the points of the line XY, out of etc., the smallest is perpendi-
which PM is the smallest (see Fig. A1.5). cular to XY, we start by
taking these line segments.
Let PM be not perpendicular to XY This is the negation of the

statement to be proved by
contradiction.
Draw a perpendicular PN on the line XY, shown We often need

by dotted lines in Fig. A1.5. constructions to prove our
results.
PN is the smallest of all the line segments PM, Side of right triangle is less
PA1, PA2, . . . etc., which means PN < PM. than the hypotenuse and
known property of numbers.
This contradicts our hypothesis that PM is the Precisely what we want!

smallest of all such line segments.
Therefore, the line segment PM is perpendicular We reach the conclusion.

to XY.

EXERCISE A1.6
1. Suppose a + b = c + d, and a < c. Use proof by contradiction to show b > d.
2. Let r be a rational number and x be an irrational number. Use proof by contradiction to
show that r + x is an irrational number.
3. Use proof by contradiction to prove that if for an integer a, a2 is even, then so is a.
[Hint : Assume a is not even, that is, it is of the form 2n + 1, for some integer n, and then
proceed.]
4. Use proof by contradiction to prove that if for an integer a, a2 is divisible by 3, then a is
divisible by 3.
5. Use proof by contradiction to show that there is no value of n for which 6n ends with the
digit zero.
6. Prove by contradiction that two distinct lines in a plane cannot intersect in more than
one point.
A1.8 Summary
In this Appendix, you have studied the following points :
1. Different ingredients of a proof and other related concepts learnt in Class IX.
2. The negation of a statement.
3. The converse of a statement.
4. Proof by contradiction.

334 MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING A2
A2.1 Introduction
 An adult human body contains approximately 1,50,000 km of arteries and veins
that carry blood.
 The human heart pumps 5 to 6 litres of blood in the body every 60 seconds.
 The temperature at the surface of the Sun is about 6,000° C.
Have you ever wondered how our scientists and mathematicians could possibly
have estimated these results? Did they pull out the veins and arteries from some adult
dead bodies and measure them? Did they drain out the blood to arrive at these results?
Did they travel to the Sun with a thermometer to get the temperature of the Sun?
Surely not. Then how did they get these figures?
Well, the answer lies in mathematical modelling, which we introduced to you
in Class IX. Recall that a mathematical model is a mathematical description of some
real-life situation. Also, recall that mathematical modelling is the process of creating a
mathematical model of a problem, and using it to analyse and solve the problem.
So, in mathematical modelling, we take a real-world problem and convert it to an
equivalent mathematical problem. We then solve the mathematical problem, and interpret
its solution in the situation of the real-world problem. And then, it is important to see
that the solution, we have obtained, ‘makes sense’, which is the stage of validating the
model. Some examples, where mathematical modelling is of great importance, are:
(i) Finding the width and depth of a river at an unreachable place.
(ii) Estimating the mass of the Earth and other planets.
(iii) Estimating the distance between Earth and any other planet.
(iv) Predicting the arrrival of the monsoon in a country.

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 335
(v) Predicting the trend of the stock market.

(vi) Estimating the volume of blood inside the body of a person.
(vii) Predicting the population of a city after 10 years.
(viii) Estimating the number of leaves in a tree.
(ix) Estimating the ppm of different pollutants in the atmosphere of a city.
(x) Estimating the effect of pollutants on the environment.
(xi) Estimating the temperature on the Sun’s surface.
In this chapter we shall revisit the process of mathematical modelling, and take
examples from the world around us to illustrate this. In Section A2.2 we take you
through all the stages of building a model. In Section A2.3, we discuss a variety of
examples. In Section A2.4, we look at reasons for the importance of mathematical
modelling.
A point to remember is that here we aim to make you aware of an important way
in which mathematics helps to solve real-world problems. However, you need to know
some more mathematics to really appreciate the power of mathematical modelling. In
higher classes some examples giving this flavour will be found.
A2.2 Stages in Mathematical Modelling

In Class IX, we considered some examples of the use of modelling. Did they give you
an insight into the process and the steps involved in it? Let us quickly revisit the main
steps in mathematical modelling.
Step 1 (Understanding the problem) : Define the real problem, and if working in a
team, discuss the issues that you wish to understand. Simplify by making assumptions
and ignoring certain factors so that the problem is manageable.
For example, suppose our problem is to estimate the number of fishes in a lake. It is
not possible to capture each of these fishes and count them. We could possibly capture
a sample and from it try and estimate the total number of fishes in the lake.
Step 2 (Mathematical description and formulation) : Describe, in mathematical
terms, the different aspects of the problem. Some ways to describe the features
mathematically, include:
 define variables
 write equations or inequalities
 gather data and organise into tables
 make graphs
 calculate probabilities

336 MATHEMATICS
For example, having taken a sample, as stated in Step 1, how do we estimate the
entire population? We would have to then mark the sampled fishes, allow them to mix
with the remaining ones in the lake, again draw a sample from the lake, and see how
many of the previously marked ones are present in the new sample. Then, using ratio
and proportion, we can come up with an estimate of the total population. For instance,
let us take a sample of 20 fishes from the lake and mark them, and then release them
in the same lake, so as to mix with the remaining fishes. We then take another sample
(say 50), from the mixed population and see how many are marked. So, we gather our
data and analyse it.
One major assumption we are making is that the marked fishes mix uniformly
with the remaining fishes, and the sample we take is a good representative of the
entire population.
Step 3 (Solving the mathematical problem) : The simplified mathematical problem
developed in Step 2 is then solved using various mathematical techniques.
For instance, suppose in the second sample in the example in Step 2, 5 fishes are
5, 1
marked. So, i.e., , of the population is marked. If this is typical of the whole
50 10
1
population, then th of the population = 20.
10
So, the whole population = 20 × 10 = 200.
Step 4 (Interpreting the solution) : The solution obtained in the previous step
is now looked at, in the context of the real-life situation that we had started with in
Step 1.
For instance, our solution in the problem in Step 3 gives us the population of
fishes as 200.
Step 5 (Validating the model) : We go back to the original situation and see if the
results of the mathematical work make sense. If so, we use the model until new
information becomes available or assumptions change.
Sometimes, because of the simplification assumptions we make, we may lose
essential aspects of the real problem while giving its mathematical description. In
such cases, the solution could very often be off the mark, and not make sense in the
real situation. If this happens, we reconsider the assumptions made in Step 1 and
revise them to be more realistic, possibly by including some factors which were not
considered earlier.

For instance, in Step 3 we had obtained an estimate of the entire population of

fishes. It may not be the actual number of fishes in the pond. We next see whether
this is a good estimate of the population by repeating Steps 2 and 3 a few times, and
taking the mean of the results obtained. This would give a closer estimate of the
population.
Another way of visualising the process of mathematical modelling is shown
in Fig. A2.1.
Real-life problem
Simplify
Describe the problem

in mathematical terms
Solve the
Change problem
assumptions
Interpret the
solution in the
real-life situation
Does the solution Yes Model is

No
capture the real-life suitable
situation?
Fig. A2.1
Modellers look for a balance between simplification (for ease of solution) and
accuracy. They hope to approximate reality closely enough to make some progress.
The best outcome is to be able to predict what will happen, or estimate an outcome,
with reasonable accuracy. Remember that different assumptions we use for simplifying
the problem can lead to different models. So, there are no perfect models. There are
good ones and yet better ones.

338 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE A2.1
1. Consider the following situation.
A problem dating back to the early 13th century, posed by Leonardo Fibonacci asks
how many rabbits you would have if you started with just two and let them reproduce.
Assume that a pair of rabbits produces a pair of offspring each month and that each
pair of rabbits produces their first offspring at the age of 2 months. Month by month
the number of pairs of rabbits is given by the sum of the rabbits in the two preceding
months, except for the 0th and the 1st months.
Month Pairs of Rabbits
0 1
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 5
5 8
6 13
7 21
8 34
9 55
10 89
11 144
12 233
13 377
14 610
15 987
16 1597
After just 16 months, you have nearly 1600 pairs of rabbits!

Clearly state the problem and the different stages of mathematical modelling in this
situation.

A2.3 Some Illustrations

Let us now consider some examples of mathematical modelling.
Example 1 (Rolling of a pair of dice) : Suppose your teacher challenges you to the
following guessing game: She would throw a pair of dice. Before that you need to
guess the sum of the numbers that show up on the dice. For every correct answer, you
get two points and for every wrong guess you lose two points. What numbers would
be the best guess?
Solution :
Step 1 (Understanding the problem) : You need to know a few numbers which
have higher chances of showing up.
Step 2 (Mathematical description) : In mathematical terms, the problem translates
to finding out the probabilities of the various possible sums of numbers that the dice
could show.
We can model the situation very simply by representing a roll of the dice as a random
choice of one of the following thirty six pairs of numbers.
(1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
(2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)
(3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
(4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
(5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
(6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)
The first number in each pair represents the number showing on the first die, and the
second number is the number showing on the second die.
Step 3 (Solving the mathematical problem) : Summing the numbers in each pair
above, we find that possible sums are 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. We have to find
the probability for each of them, assuming all 36 pairs are equally likely.
We do this in the following table.
Sum 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
Probability
36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
Observe that the chance of getting a sum of a seven is 1/6, which is larger than the
chances of getting other numbers as sums.

340 MATHEMATICS
Step 4 (Interpreting the solution) : Since the probability of getting the sum 7 is the
highest, you should repeatedly guess the number seven.
Step 5 (Validating the model) : Toss a pair of dice a large number of times and
prepare a relative frequency table. Compare the relative frequencies with the
corresponding probabilities. If these are not close, then possibly the dice are biased.
Then, we could obtain data to evaluate the number towards which the bias is.
Before going to the next example, you may need some background.
Not having the money you want when you need it, is a common experience for
many people. Whether it is having enough money for buying essentials for daily living,
or for buying comforts, we always require money. To enable the customers with limited
funds to purchase goods like scooters, refrigerators, televisions, cars, etc., a scheme
known as an instalment scheme (or plan) is introduced by traders.
Sometimes a trader introduces an instalment scheme as a marketing strategy to
allure customers to purchase these articles. Under the instalment scheme, the customer
is not required to make full payment of the article at the time of buying it. She/he is
allowed to pay a part of it at the time of purchase, and the rest can be paid in instalments,
which could be monthly, quarterly, half-yearly, or even yearly. Of course, the buyer
will have to pay more in the instalment plan, because the seller is going to charge some
interest on account of the payment made at a later date (called deferred payment).
Before we take a few examples to understand the instalment scheme, let us
understand the most frequently used terms related to this concept.
The cash price of an article is the amount which a customer has to pay as full
payment of the article at the time it is purchased. Cash down payment is the amount
which a customer has to pay as part payment of the price of an article at the time of
purchase.
Remark : If the instalment scheme is such that the remaining payment is completely
made within one year of the purchase of the article, then simple interest is charged on
the deferred payment.
In the past, charging interest on borrowed money was often considered evil, and,
in particular, was long prohibited. One way people got around the law against
paying interest was to borrow in one currency and repay in another, the interest
being disguised in the exchange rate.
Let us now come to a related mathematical modelling problem.

Example 2 : Juhi wants to buy a bicycle. She goes to the market and finds that the
bicycle she likes is available for  1800. Juhi has  600 with her. So, she tells the
shopkeeper that she would not be able to buy it. The shopkeeper, after a bit of
calculation, makes the following offer. He tells Juhi that she could take the bicycle by
making a payment of  600 cash down and the remaining money could be made in two
monthly instalments of  610 each. Juhi has two options one is to go for instalment
scheme or to make cash payment by taking loan from a bank which is available at the
rate of 10% per annum simple interest. Which option is more economical to her?
Solution :
Step 1 (Understanding the problem) : What Juhi needs to determine is whether
she should take the offer made by the shopkeeper or not. For this, she should know the
two rates of interest— one charged in the instalment scheme and the other charged
by the bank (i.e., 10%).
Step 2 (Mathematical description) : In order to accept or reject the scheme, she
needs to determine the interest that the shopkeeper is charging in comparison to the
bank. Observe that since the entire money shall be paid in less than a year, simple
interest shall be charged.
We know that the cash price of the bicycle =  1800.
Also, the cashdown payment under the instalment scheme =  600.
So, the balance price that needs to be paid in the instalment scheme =  (1800 – 600)
=  1200.
Let r % per annum be the rate of interest charged by the shopkeeper.
Amount of each instalment =  610
Amount paid in instalments =  610 +  610 =  1220
Interest paid in instalment scheme =  1220 –  1200 =  20 (1)
Since, Juhi kept a sum of  1200 for one month, therefore,
Principal for the first month =  1200
Principal for the second month =  (1200 – 610) =  590
Balance of the second principal  590 + interest charged ( 20) = monthly instalment
( 610) = 2nd instalment
So, the total principal for one month =  1200 +  590 =  1790
1790 × r × 1
Now, interest =  (2)
100 × 12

342 MATHEMATICS
Step 3 (Solving the problem) : From (1) and (2)
1790 × r × 1
= 20
100 × 12
20 × 1200
or r= = 13.14 (approx.)
1790
Step 4 (Interpreting the solution) : The rate of interest charged in the instalment
scheme = 13.14 %.
The rate of interest charged by the bank = 10%
So, she should prefer to borrow the money from the bank to buy the bicycle which is
more economical.
Step 5 (Validating the model) : This stage in this case is not of much importance
here as the numbers are fixed. However, if the formalities for taking loan from the
bank such as cost of stamp paper, etc., which make the effective interest rate more
than what it is the instalment scheme, then she may change her opinion.
Remark : Interest rate modelling is still at its early stages and validation is still a
problem of financial markets. In case, different interest rates are incorporated in fixing
instalments, validation becomes an important problem.
EXERCISE A2.2
In each of the problems below, show the different stages of mathematical modelling for solving
the problems.
1. An ornithologist wants to estimate the number of parrots in a large field. She uses a net
to catch some, and catches 32 parrots, which she rings and sets free. The following
week she manages to net 40 parrots, of which 8 are ringed.
(i) What fraction of her second catch is
ringed?
(ii) Find an estimate of the total number
of parrots in the field.
2. Suppose the adjoining figure represents
an aerial photograph of a forest with each
dot representing a tree. Your purpose is to
find the number of trees there are on this
tract of land as part of an environmental
census.

3. A T.V. can be purchased for  24000 cash or for  8000 cashdown payment and six
monthly instalments of  2800 each. Ali goes to market to buy a T.V., and he has
 8000 with him. He has now two options. One is to buy TV under instalment scheme
or to make cash payment by taking loan from some financial society. The society
charges simple interest at the rate of 18% per annum simple interest. Which option
is better for Ali?
A2.4 Why is Mathematical Modelling Important?

As we have seen in the examples, mathematical modelling is an interdisciplinary subject.
Mathematicians and specialists in other fields share their knowledge and expertise to
improve existing products, develop better ones, or predict the behaviour of certain
products.
There are, of course, many specific reasons for the importance of modelling, but
most are related in some ways to the following :
 To gain understanding. If we have a mathematical model which reflects the
essential behaviour of a real-world system of interest, we can understand that
system better through an analysis of the model. Furthermore, in the process of
building the model we find out which factors are most important in the system,
and how the different aspects of the system are related.
 To predict, or forecast, or simulate. Very often, we wish to know what a real-
world system will do in the future, but it is expensive, impractical or impossible to
experiment directly with the system. For example, in weather prediction, to study
drug efficacy in humans, finding an optimum design of a nuclear reactor, and so
on.
Forecasting is very important in many types of organisations, since
predictions of future events have to be incorporated into the decision-making
process. For example:
In marketing departments, reliable forecasts of demand help in planning of
the sale strategies.
A school board needs to able to forecast the increase in the number of
school going children in various districts so as to decide where and when to
start new schools.
Most often, forecasters use the past data to predict the future. They first analyse
the data in order to identify a pattern that can describe it. Then this data and
pattern is extended into the future in order to prepare a forecast. This basic
strategy is employed in most forecasting techniques, and is based on the assumption
that the pattern that has been identified will continue in the future also.

344 MATHEMATICS
 To estimate. Often, we need to estimate large values. You’ve seen examples of

the trees in a forest, fish in a lake, etc. For another example, before elections, the
contesting parties want to predict the probability of their party winning the elections.
In particular, they want to estimate how many people in their constituency would
vote for their party. Based on their predictions, they may want to decide on the
campaign strategy. Exit polls have been used widely to predict the number of
seats, a party is expected to get in elections.
EXERCISE A2.3
1. Based upon the data of the past five years, try and forecast the average percentage of
marks in Mathematics that your school would obtain in the Class X board examination
at the end of the year.
A2.5 Summary
In this Appendix, you have studied the following points :
1. A mathematical model is a mathematical description of a real-life situation. Mathematical
modelling is the process of creating a mathematical model, solving it and using it to
understand the real-life problem.
2. The various steps involved in modelling are : understanding the problem, formulating
the mathematical model, solving it, interpreting it in the real-life situation, and, most
importantly, validating the model.
3. Developed some mathematical models.
4. The importance of mathematical modelling.

ANSWERS/HINTS 345
APPENDIX 1
ANSWERS/ HINTS
EXERCISE 1.1
1. (i) 45 (ii) 196 (iii) 51
2. An integer can be of the form 6q, 6q + 1, 6q + 2, 6q + 3, 6q + 4 or 6q + 5.
3. 8 columns
4. An integer can be of the form 3q, 3q + 1 or 3q + 2. Square all of these integers.
5. An integer can be of the form 9q, 9q + 1, 9q + 2, 9q + 3, . . ., or 9q + 8.
EXERCISE 1.2
2
1. (i) 2 × 5 × 7 (ii) 22 × 3 × 13 (iii) 32 × 52 × 17
(iv) 5 × 7 × 11 × 13 (v) 17 × 19 × 23
2. (i) LCM = 182; HCF = 13 (ii) LCM = 23460; HCF = 2 (iii) LCM = 3024; HCF = 6
3. (i) LCM = 420; HCF = 3 (ii) LCM = 11339; HCF = 1 (iii) LCM = 1800; HCF = 1
4. 22338 7. 36 minutes
EXERCISE 1.4
1. (i) Terminating (ii) Terminating
(iii) Non-terminating repeating (iv) Terminating
(v) Non-terminating repeating (vi) Terminating
(vii) Non-terminating repeating (viii) Terminating
(ix) Terminating (x) Non-terminating repeating
2. (i) 0.00416 (ii) 2.125 (iv) 0.009375
(vi) 0.115 (viii) 0.4 (ix) 0.7

346 MATHEMATICS
3. (i) Rational, prime factors of q will be either 2 or 5 or both only.

(ii) Not rational
(iii) Rational, prime factors of q will also have a factor other than 2 or 5.
EXERCISE 2.1
1. (i) No zeroes (ii) 1 (iii) 3 (iv) 2 (v) 4 (vi) 3
EXERCISE 2.2
1 1 1 3
1. (i) –2, 4 (ii) , (iii) − ,
2 2 3 2
4
(iv) –2, 0 (v) − 15, 15 (vi) –1,
3
2. (i) 4x2 – x – 4 (ii) 3 x2 − 3 2 x + 1 (iii) x2 + 5

(iv) x2 – x + 1 (v) 4x2 + x + 1 (vi) x2 – 4x + 1
EXERCISE 2.3
1. (i) Quotient = x – 3 and remainder = 7x – 9
(ii) Quotient = x2 + x – 3 and remainder = 8
(iii) Quotient = – x2 – 2 and remainder = – 5x + 10
2. (i) Yes (ii) Yes (iii) No 3. –1, –1 4. g(x) = x2 – x + 1
5. (i) p(x) = 2x2 – 2x + 14, g(x) = 2, q(x) = x2 – x + 7, r(x) = 0
(ii) p(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1, g(x) = x2 – 1, q(x) = x + 1, r(x) = 2x + 2
(iii) p(x) = x3 + 2x2 – x + 2, g(x) = x2 – 1, q(x) = x + 2, r(x) = 4
There can be several examples in each of (i), (ii) and (iii).
2. x3 – 2x2 – 7x + 14 3. a = 1, b = ± 2
4. – 5, 7 5. k = 5 and a = –5
EXERCISE 3.1
1. Algebraically the two situations can be represented as follows:
x – 7y + 42 = 0; x – 3y – 6 = 0, where x and y are respectively the present ages of Aftab and

ANSWERS/HINTS 347
his daughter. To represent the situations graphically, you can draw the graphs of these
two linear equations.
x + 2y = 1300; x + 3y = 1300, where x and y are respectively the costs (in `) of a bat and a
ball. To represent the situations graphically, you can draw the graphs of these two linear
equations.
2x + y = 160; 4x + 2y = 300, where x and y are respectively the prices (in ` per kg) of apples
and grapes. To represent the situations graphically, you can draw the graphs of these
two linear equations.
EXERCISE 3.2
1. (i) Required pair of linear equations is
x + y = 10; x – y = 4, where x is the number of girls and y is the number of boys.
To solve graphically draw the graphs of these equations on the same axes on graph
paper.
Girls = 7, Boys = 3.
(ii) Required pair of linear equations is
5x + 7y = 50; 7x + 5y = 46, where x and y represent the cost (in `) of a pencil and of
a pen respectively.
To solve graphically, draw the graphs of these equations on the same axes on graph
paper.
Cost of one pencil = ` 3, Cost of one pen = ` 5
2. (i) Intersect at a point (ii) Coincident (iii) Parallel
3. (i) Consistent (ii) Inconsistent (iii) Consistent
(iv) Consistent (v) Consistent
4. (i) Consistent (ii) Inconsistent (iii) Consistent (iv) Inconsistent
The solution of (i) above, is given by y = 5 – x, where x can take any value, i.e., there are
infinitely many solutions.
The solution of (iii) above is x = 2, y = 2, i.e., unique solution.
5. Length = 20 m and breadth = 16 m.
6. One possible answer for the three parts:
(i) 3x + 2y – 7 = 0 (ii) 2x + 3y – 12 = 0 (iii) 4x + 6y – 16 = 0
7. Vertices of the triangle are (–1, 0), (4, 0) and (2, 3).

348 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 3.3
1. (i) x = 9, y = 5 (ii) s = 9, t = 6 (iii) y = 3x – 3,
where x can take any value, i.e., infinitely many solutions.
(iv) x = 2, y = 3 (v) x = 0, y = 0 (vi) x = 2, y = 3
2. x = –2, y = 5; m = –1
3. (i) x – y = 26, x = 3y, where x and y are two numbers (x > y); x = 39, y = 13.
(ii) x – y = 18, x + y = 180, where x and y are the measures of the two angles in degrees;
x = 99, y = 81.
(iii) 7x + 6y = 3800, 3x + 5y = 1750, where x and y are the costs (in `) of one bat and one
ball respectively; x = 500, y = 50.
(iv) x + 10y = 105, x + 15y = 155, where x is the fixed charge (in `) and y is the charge (in
` per km); x =5, y = 10; ` 255.
(v) 11x – 9y + 4 = 0, 6x – 5y + 3 = 0, where x and y are numerator and denominator of the
7
fraction; ( x = 7, y = 9).
9
(vi) x – 3y – 10 = 0, x – 7y + 30 = 0, where x and y are the ages in years of Jacob and his
son; x = 40, y = 10.
EXERCISE 3.4
19 6 9 5
1. (i) x = , y= (ii) x = 2, y = 1 (iii) x = ,y= −
5 5 13 13
(iv) x = 2, y = –3
2. (i) x – y + 2 = 0, 2x – y – 1 = 0, where x and y are the numerator and denominator of the
3
fraction; ⋅
5
(ii) x – 3y + 10 = 0, x – 2y – 10 = 0, where x and y are the ages (in years) of Nuri and Sonu
respectively. Age of Nuri (x) = 50, Age of Sonu (y) = 20.
(iii) x + y = 9, 8x – y = 0, where x and y are respectively the tens and units digits of the
number; 18.
(iv) x + 2y = 40, x + y = 25, where x and y are respectively the number of ` 50 and ` 100
notes; x = 10, y = 15.
(v) x + 4y = 27, x + 2y = 21, where x is the fixed charge (in `) and y is the additional
charge (in `) per day; x = 15, y = 3.

ANSWERS/HINTS 349
EXERCISE 3.5
1. (i) No solution (ii) Unique solution; x = 2, y = 1
(iii) Infinitely many solutions (iv) Unique solution; x = 4, y = –1
2. (i) a = 5, b = 1 (ii) k = 2 3. x = –2, y = 5
4. (i) x + 20y = 1000, x + 26y = 1180, where x is the fixed charges (in `) and y is the charges
(in `) for food per day; x = 400, y = 30.
(ii) 3x – y – 3 = 0, 4x – y – 8 = 0, where x and y are the numerator and denominator of the
5
fraction; ⋅
12
(iii) 3x – y = 40, 2x – y = 25, where x and y are the number of right answers and wrong
answers respectively; 20.
(iv) u – v = 20, u + v = 100, where u and v are the speeds (in km/h) of the two cars; u = 60,
v = 40.
(v) 3x – 5y – 6 = 0, 2x + 3y – 61 = 0, where x and y are respectively the length and breadth
(in units) of the rectangle; length (x) = 17, breadth (y) = 9.
EXERCISE 3.6
1, 1 1,
1. (i) x = y= (ii) x = 4, y = 9 (iii) x = y = –2
2 3 5
(iv) x = 4, y = 5 (v) x = 1, y = 1 (vi) x = 1, y = 2
(vii) x = 3, y = 2 (viii) x = 1, y = 1
2. (i) u + v = 10, u – v = 2, where u and v are respectively speeds (in km/h) of rowing and
current; u = 6, v = 4.
2 5 1 , 3 6 1,
(ii) + = + = where n and m are the number of days taken by 1 woman
n m 4 n m 3
and 1 man to finish the embroidery work; n = 18, m = 36.
60 240 100 200 25 ,
(iii) + = 4, + = where u and v are respectively the speeds
u v u v 6
(in km/h) of the train and bus; u = 60, v = 80.

1. Age of Ani is 19 years and age of Biju is 16 years or age of Ani 21 years and age of Biju
24 years.
2. ` 40, ` 170. Let the money with the first person (in `) be x and the money with the second
person (in `) be y.
x + 100 = 2( y – 100), y + 10 = 6 (x – 10)

350 MATHEMATICS
3. 600 km 4. 36 5. ∠ A = 20°, ∠ B = 40°, ∠ C = 120°

6. Coordinates of the vertices of the triangle are (1, 0), (0, –3), (0, –5).
c ( a − b) − b , c ( a − b) + a
7. (i) x = 1, y = – 1 (ii) x = y=
a 2 − b2 a 2 − b2
2ab
(iii) x = a, y = b (iv) x = a + b, y = − (v) x = 2, y = 1
a+b
8. ∠ A = 120°, ∠ B = 70°, ∠ C = 60°, ∠ D = 110°
EXERCISE 4.1
1. (i) Yes (ii) Yes (iii) No (iv) Yes
(v) Yes (vi) No (vii) No (viii) Yes
2
2. (i) 2x + x – 528 = 0, where x is breadth (in metres) of the plot.
(ii) x2 + x – 306 = 0, where x is the smaller integer.
(iii) x2 + 32x – 273 = 0, where x (in years) is the present age of Rohan.
(iv) u2 – 8u – 1280 = 0, where u (in km/h) is the speed of the train.
EXERCISE 4.2
3 5 ,
1. (i) – 2, 5 (ii) – 2, (iii) − − 2
2 2
1, 1 1, 1
(iv) (v)
4 4 10 10
2. (i) 9, 36 (ii) 25, 30
3. Numbers are 13 and 14. 4. Positive integers are 13 and 14.
5. 5 cm and 12 cm 6. Number of articles = 6, Cost of each article = ` 15
EXERCISE 4.3
1, −1 − 33 , −1 + 33 3, 3
1. (i) 3 (ii) (iii) − −
2 4 4 2 2
(iv) Do not exist
3 − 13 , 3 + 13
2. Same as 1 3. (i) (ii) 1, 2 4. 7 years
2 2

ANSWERS/HINTS 351
5. Marks in mathematics = 12, marks in English = 18;

or, Marks in mathematics = 13, marks in English = 17
6. 120 m, 90 m 7. 18, 12 or 18, –12
8. 40 km/h 9. 15 hours, 25 hours
10. Speed of the passenger train = 33 km/h, speed of express train = 44 km/h
11. 18 m, 12 m
EXERCISE 4.4
2 , 2 3± 3
1. (i) Real roots do not exist (ii) Equal roots; (iii) Distinct roots;
3 3 2
2. (i) k = ± 2 6 (ii) k = 6
3. Yes. 40 m, 20 m 4. No 5. Yes. 20 m, 20 m
EXERCISE 5.1
1. (i) Yes. 15, 23, 31, . . . forms an AP as each succeeding term is obtained by adding 8 in
its preceding term.
2
3V ,  3 
(ii) No. Volumes are V,   V, (iii) Yes. 150, 200, 250, . . . form an AP.
4 4
2 3
 8 ,  8  ,  8  ,
(iv) No. Amounts are 10000  1 +  10000 1 +  10000 1 + 
 100   100   100 
2. (i) 10, 20, 30, 40 (ii) – 2, – 2, – 2, – 2 (iii) 4, 1, – 2, – 5
1 1
(iv) –1, − , 0, (v) – 1.25, – 1. 50, – 1.75, – 2.0
2 2
3. (i) a = 3, d = – 2 (ii) a = – 5, d = 4
1, 4
(iii) a = d = (iv) a = 0.6, d = 1.1
3 3
1 9
4. (i) No (ii) Yes. d = ; 4, , 5
2 2
(iii) Yes. d = – 2; – 9.2, –11.2, – 13.2 (iv) Yes. d = 4; 6, 10, 14
(v) Yes. d = 2 ; 3 + 4 2, 3 + 5 2, 3 + 6 2 (vi) No
1 1 1
(vii) Yes. d = – 4; – 16, – 20, – 24 (viii) Yes. d = 0; − , − , −
2 2 2

352 MATHEMATICS
(ix) No (x) Yes. d = a; 5a, 6a, 7a
(xi) No (xii) Yes. d = 2; 50 , 72 , 98

(xiii) No (xiv) No (xv) Yes. d = 24; 97, 121, 145
EXERCISE 5.2
1. (i) an = 28 (ii) d = 2 (iii) a = 46 (iv) n = 10 (v) an = 3.5
2. (i) C (ii) B
3. (i) 14 (ii) 18 , 8 (iii) 6 12 , 8
(iv) – 2 , 0 , 2 , 4 (v) 53 , 23 , 8 , –7
4. 16th term 5. (i) 34 (ii) 27
6. No 7. 178 8. 64
9. 5th term 10. 1 11. 65th term
12. 100 13. 128 14. 60
15. 13 16. 4, 10, 16, 22, . . .
17. 20th term from the last term is 158.
18. –13, –8, –3 19. 11th year 20. 10
EXERCISE 5.3
33
1. (i) 245 (ii) –180 (iii) 5505 (iv)
20
1
2. (i) 1046 (ii) 286 (iii) – 8930
2
7,
3. (i) n = 16, Sn = 440 (ii) d = S = 273 (iii) a = 4, S12 = 246
3 13
35 , 85
(iv) d = –1, a10 = 8 (v) a = − a9 = (vi) n = 5, an = 34
3 3
54
(vii) n = 6, d = (viii) n = 7, a = – 8 (ix) d = 6
5
(x) a = 4

ANSWERS/HINTS 353
n
4. 12. By putting a = 9, d = 8, S = 636 in the formula S = [2a + (n − 1) d ], we get a quadratic
2
53
equation 4n2 + 5n – 636 = 0. On solving, we get n = − , 12 . Out of these two roots only
4
one root 12 is admissible.
8
5. n = 16, d = 6. n = 38, S = 6973 7. Sum = 1661
3
8. S51 = 5610 9. n 2 10. (i) S15 = 525 (ii) S15 = – 465
11. S1 = 3, S2 = 4; a2 = S2 – S1 = 1; S3 = 3, a3 = S3 – S2 = –1,
a10 = S10 – S9 = – 15; an = Sn – Sn – 1 = 5 – 2n.
12. 4920 13. 960 14. 625 15. ` 27750
16. Values of the prizes (in `) are 160, 140, 120, 100, 80, 60, 40.
17. 234 18. 143 cm
19. 16 rows, 5 logs are placed in the top row. By putting S = 200, a = 20, d = –1 in the formula
n
S = [2a + (n − 1) d ], we get, 41n – n2 = 400. On solving, n = 16, 25. Therefore, the
2
number of rows is either 16 or 25. a25 = a + 24 d = – 4
i.e., number of logs in 25th row is – 4 which is not possible. Therefore n = 25 is not
possible. For n = 16, a16 = 5. Therefore, there are 16 rows and 5 logs placed in the top
row.
20. 370 m

1. 32nd term 2. S16 = 20, 76 3. 385 cm
4. 35 5. 750 m3
EXERCISE 6.1
1. (i) Similar (ii) Similar (iii) Equilateral
(iv) Equal, Proportional 3. No
EXERCISE 6.2
1. (i) 2 cm (ii) 2.4 cm
2. (i) No (ii) Yes (iiii) Yes
9. Through O, draw a line parallel to DC, intersecting AD and BC at E and F respectively.

354 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 6.3
1. (i) Yes. AAA, ∆ ABC ~ ∆ PQR (ii) Yes. SSS, ∆ ABC ~ ∆ QRP
(iii) No (iv) Yes. SAS, ∆ MNL ~ ∆ QPR
(v) No (vi) Yes. AA, ∆ DEF ~ ∆ PQR
2. 55°, 55°, 55°
14. Produce AD to a point E such that AD = DE and produce PM to a point N such that
PM = MN. Join EC and NR.
15. 42 m
EXERCISE 6.4
1. 11.2 cm 2. 4 : 1 5. 1 : 4 8. C 9. D
EXERCISE 6.5
1. (i) Yes, 25 cm (ii) No (iii) No (iv) Yes, 13 cm
6. a 3 9. 6 m 10. 6 7 m 11. 300 61 km

12. 13 m 17. C

1. Through R, draw a line parallel to SP to intersect QP produced at T. Show PT = PR.
6. Use result (iii) of Q.5 of this Exercise. 7. 3 m, 2.79 m
EXERCISE 7.1
1. (i) 2 2 (ii) 4 2 (iii) 2 a 2 + b 2
2. 39; 39 km 3. No 4. Yes 5. Champa is correct.

6. (i) Square (ii) No quadrilateral (iii) Parallelogram
7. (– 7, 0) 8. – 9, 3 9. ± 4, QR = 41, PR = 82 , 9 2
10. 3x + y – 5 = 0
EXERCISE 7.2
 5  7
1. (1, 3) 2.  2, −  ;  0, − 
 3  3

ANSWERS/HINTS 355
3. 61 m; 5th line at a distance of 22.5 m 4. 2 : 7
 3 
5. 1 : 1 ;  − , 0 6. x = 6, y = 3 7. (3, – 10)
 2 
 2 20 
8.  − , − 
 7  13 
9.  −1,  , (0,5), 1,  10. 24 sq. units
 7 7   2   2
EXERCISE 7.3
21
1. (i) sq. units (ii) 32 sq. units 2. (i) k = 4 (ii) k = 3
2
3. 1 sq. unit; 1 : 4 4. 28 sq. units

1. 2 : 9 2. x + 3y – 7 = 0 3. (3, – 2) 4. (1, 0), (1, 4 )
5. (i) (4, 6), (3, 2), (6, 5); taking AD and AB as coordinate axes
9
(ii) (12, 2), (13, 6), (10, 3); taking CB and CD as coordinate axes. sq. units,
2
9
sq. units; areas are the same in both the cases.
2
15
6. sq. units; 1 : 16
32
7 9  11 11 
7. (i) D  ,  (ii) P  , 
2 2 3 3
 11 11   11 11 
(iii) Q  ,  , R  ,  (iv) P, Q, R are the same point.
3 3 3 3
 x + x2 + x3 , y1 + y2 + y3 
(v)  1  8. Rhombus
 3 3 
EXERCISE 8.1
7 , 24 24 , 7
1. (i) sin A = cos A = (ii) sin C = cos C =
25 25 25 25
7, 3 15 , 17
2. 0 3. cos A = tan A = 4. sin A = sec A =
4 7 17 8

356 MATHEMATICS
5, 12 5 12 , 13
5. sin θ = cos θ = , tan θ = , cot θ = cosec θ =
13 13 12 5 5
49 49
7. (i) (ii) 8. Yes
64 64
12 , 5 12
9. (i) 1 (ii) 0 10. sin P = cos P = , tan P =
13 13 5
11. (i) False (ii) True (iii) False (iv) False (v) False
EXERCISE 8.2
3 2 − 6 43 − 24 3 67
1. (i) 1 (ii) 2 (iii) (iv) (v)
8 11 12
2. (i) A (ii) D (iii) A (iv) C 3. ∠ A = 45°, ∠ B = 15°
4. (i) False (ii) True (iii) False (iv) False (v) True
EXERCISE 8.3
1. (i) 1 (ii) 1 (iii) 0 (iv) 0
3. ∠ A = 36° 5. ∠ A = 22° 7. cos 23° + sin 15°
EXERCISE 8.4
1 1 , 1 + cot 2 A
1. sin A = , tan A = sec A =
1 + cot 2 A cot A cot A
sec 2 A – 1 , 1 ,
2. sin A = cos A = tan A = sec 2 A – 1
sec A sec A
1 , cosec A = sec A
cot A =
2
sec A – 1 sec 2 A – 1
3. (i) 1 (ii) 1 4. (i) B (ii) C (iii) D (iv) D
EXERCISE 9.1
1. 10 m 2. 8 3 m 3. 3m, 2 3 m 4. 10 3 m

ANSWERS/HINTS 357
5. 40 3 m 6. 19 3 m 7. 20 ( )
3 −1 m 8. 0.8 ( 3 +1 m)
2
9. 16 m
3
10. 20 3 m, 20 m, 60 m 11. 10 3 m, 10m 12. 7 ( )
3 +1 m
13. 75( 3 − 1)m 14. 58 3 m 15. 3 seconds
EXERCISE 10.1
1. Infinitely many
2. (i) One (ii) Secant (iii) Two (iv) Point of contact 3. D
EXERCISE 10.2
1. A 2. B 3. A 6. 3 cm
7. 8 cm 12. AB = 15 cm, AC = 13 cm
EXERCISE 12.1
1. 28 cm 2. 10 cm
3. Gold : 346.5 cm2; Red : 1039.5 cm2; Blue : 1732.5 cm2; Black : 2425.5 cm2; White : 3118.5 cm2.
4. 4375 5. A
EXERCISE 12.2
132 2 77 2 154 2
1. cm 2. cm 3. cm
7 8 3
4. (i) 28.5 cm2 (ii) 235.5 cm2
 441 3  2
5. (i) 22 cm (ii) 231 cm2 (iii)  231 −  cm
 4 
6. 20.4375 cm2 ; 686.0625 cm2 7. 88.44 cm2

385
8. (i) 19.625 m2 (ii) 58.875 cm2 9. (i) 285 mm (ii) mm 2
4
22275 158125
10. cm 2 11. cm2 12. 189.97 km2
28 126
13. ` 162.68 14. D

358 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE 12.3
4523 2 154 2
1. cm 2. cm 3. 42 cm2
28 3
 660  68  22528 
4.  + 36 3  cm 2 5. cm 2 6.  − 768 3  cm 2
 7  7  7 
2804
7. 42 cm2 8. (i) m (ii) 4320 m2
7
9. 66.5 cm2 10. 1620.5 cm2 11. 378 cm2
77 49
12. (i) cm 2 (ii) cm 2 13. 228 cm2
8 8
308 256
14. cm 2 15. 98 cm2 16. cm2
3 7
EXERCISE 13.1
1. 160 cm2 2. 572 cm2 3. 214.5 cm2
4. Greatest diameter = 7 cm,surface area = 332.5 cm2
1 2
5. l ( π + 24 ) 6. 220 mm2 7. 44 m2, ` 22000
4
8. 18 cm2 9. 374 cm2
EXERCISE 13.2
1. π cm3
2. 66 cm3. Volume of the air inside the model = Volume of air inside (cone + cylinder + cone)
1 1 
=  π r 2 h1 + π r 2 h2 + π r 2 h1  , where r is the radius of the cone and the cylinder, h1 is
3 3 
the height (length) of the cone and h2 is the height (length) of the cylinder.
1 2
Required Volume = π r ( h1 + 3 h2 + h1 ) .
3
3. 338 cm3 4. 523.53 cm3 5. 100 6. 892.26 kg
3 3
7. 1.131 m (approx.) 8. Not correct. Correct answer is 346.51 cm .

ANSWERS/HINTS 359
EXERCISE 13.3
1. 2.74 cm 2. 12 cm 3. 2.5 m
4. 1.125 m 5. 10 6. 400
2
7. 36 cm; 12 13 cm 8. 562500 m or 56.25 hectares. 9. 100 minutes
EXERCISE 13.4
2 2
1. 102 cm3 2. 48 cm2 3. 710 cm 2
3 7
4. Cost of milk is ` 209 and cost of metal sheet is ` 156.75. 5. 7964.4 m

1. 1256 cm; 788g (approx) 2. 30.14 cm3; 52.75 cm2
4
3. 1792 5. 782 cm 2
7
EXERCISE 14.1
1. 8.1 plants. We have used direct method because numerical values of xi and fi are small.
2. ` 545.20 3. f = 20 4. 75.9
5. 57.19 6. ` 211 7. 0.099 ppm
8. 12.48 days 9. 69.43 %
EXERCISE 14.2
1. Mode = 36.8 years, Mean = 35.37 years. Maximum number of patients admitted in the
hospital are of the age 36.8 years (approx.), while on an average the age of a patient
admitted to the hospital is 35.37 years.
2. 65.625 hours
3. Modal monthly expenditure = ` 1847.83, Mean monthly expenditure = ` 2662.5.
4. Mode : 30.6, Mean = 29.2. Most states/U.T. have a student teacher ratio of 30.6 and on
an average, this ratio is 29.2.
5. Mode = 4608.7 runs 6. Mode = 44.7 cars
EXERCISE 14.3
1. Median = 137 units, Mean = 137.05 units, Mode = 135.76 units.
The three measures are approximately the same in this case.

360 MATHEMATICS
2. x = 8, y = 7 3. Median age = 35.76 years

4. Median length = 146.75 mm 5. Median life = 3406.98 hours
6. Median = 8.05, Mean = 8.32, Modal size = 7.88
7. Median weight = 56.67 kg
EXERCISE 14.4
1.
Daily income (in `) Cumulative
frequency
Less than 120 12

Less than 140 26 Draw ogive by plotting the points :
Less than 160 34 (120, 12), (140, 26), (160, 34),
Less than 180 40 (180, 40) and (200, 50)
Less than 200 50
2. Draw the ogive by plotting the points : (38, 0), (40, 3), (42, 5), (44, 9), (46, 14), (48, 28),
n
(50, 32) and (52, 35). Here = 17.5. Locate the point on the ogive whose ordinate is 17.5.
2
The x-coordinate of this point will be the median.
3.
Production yield Cumulative

(kg/ha) frequency

Now, draw the ogive by plotting the points : (50, 100), (55, 98), (60, 90), (65, 78), (70, 54)
and (75, 16).

ANSWERS/HINTS 361
EXERCISE 15.1
1. (i) 1 (ii) 0, impossible event (iii) 1, sure or certain event
(iv) 1 (v) 0, 1
2. The experiments (iii) and (iv) have equally likely outcomes.
3. When we toss a coin, the outcomes head and tail are equally likely. So, the result of an
individual coin toss is completely unpredictable.
4. B 5. 0.95 6. (i) 0 (ii) 1
3 5
7. 0.008 8. (i) (ii)
8 8
5 8 13 5 17
9. (i) (ii) (iii) 10. (i) (ii)
17 17 17 9 18
5 1 1 3
11. 12. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 1
13 8 2 4
1 1 1
13. (i) (ii) (iii)
2 2 2
1 3 3 1 1 1
14. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
26 13 26 52 4 52
1 1 11
15. (i) (ii) (a) (b) 0 16.
5 4 12
1 15 9 1 1
17. (i) (ii) 18. (i) (ii) (iii)
5 19 10 10 5
1 1 π 31 5
19. (i) (ii) 20. 21. (i) (ii)
3 6 24 36 36
22. (i)
Sum on 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
2 dice
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
Probability
36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
(ii) No. The eleven sums are not equally likely.

362 MATHEMATICS
3
23. ; Possible outcomes are : HHH, TTT, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH. Here, THH
4
means tail in the first toss, head on the second toss and head on the third toss and so on.
25 11
24. (i) (ii)
36 36
25. (i) Incorrect. We can classify the outcomes like this but they are not then ‘equally
likely’. Reason is that ‘one of each’ can result in two ways — from a head on first
coin and tail on the second coin or from a tail on the first coin and head on the
second coin. This makes it twicely as likely as two heads (or two tails).
(ii) Correct. The two outcomes considered in the question are equally likely.
1 8 4
1. (i) (ii) (iii)
5 25 5
2. 1 2 2 3 3 6
1 2 3 3 4 4 7
2 3 4 4 5 5 8
2 3 4 4 5 5 8
3 4 5 5 6 6 9
3 4 5 5 6 6 9
6 7 8 8 9 9 12
1 1 5
(i) (ii) (iii)
2 9 12
x,
3. 10 4. x=3 5. 8
12
EXERCISE A1.1
1. (i) Ambiguous (ii) True (iii) True (iv) Ambiguous
(v) Ambiguous

ANSWERS/HINTS 363
2. (i) True (ii) True (iii) False (iv) True (v) True
3. Only (ii) is true.
4. (i) If a > 0 and a2 > b2, then a > b.
(ii) If xy > 0 and x2 = y2, then x = y.
(iii) If (x + y)2 = x2 + y2 and y ≠ 0, then x = 0.
(iv) The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
EXERCISE A1.2
1. A is mortal 2. ab is rational
3. Decimal expansion of 17 is non-terminating non -recurring.
4. y = 7 5. ∠ A = 100°, ∠ C = 100°, ∠ D = 180°
6. PQRS is a rectangle.
7. Yes, because of the premise. No, because 3721 = 61 which is not irrational. Since the
premise was wrong, the conclusion is false.
EXERCISE A1.3
1. Take two consecutive odd numbers as 2n + 1 and 2n + 3 for some integer n.
EXERCISE A1.4
1. (i) Man is not mortal.
(ii) Line l is not parallel to line m.
(iii) The chapter does not have many exercises.
(iv) Not all integers are rational numbers.
(v) All prime numbers are not odd.
(vi) Some students are lazy.
(vii) All cats are black.
(viii) There is at least one real number x, such that x = – 1.
(ix) 2 does not divide the positive integer a.
(x) Integers a and b are not coprime.
2. (i) Yes (ii) No (iii) No (iv) No (v) Yes

364 MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE A1.5
1. (i) If Sharan sweats a lot, then it is hot in Tokyo.
(ii) If Shalini’s stomach grumbles, then she is hungry.
(iii) If Jaswant can get a degree, then she has a scholarship.
(iv) If a plant is alive, then it has flowers.
(v) If an animal has a tail, then it is a cat.
2. (i) If the base angles of triangle ABC are equal, then it is isosceles. True.
(ii) If the square of an integer is odd, then the integer is odd. True.
(iii) If x = 1, then x2 = 1. True.
(iv) If AC and BD bisect each other, then ABCD is a parallelogram. True.
(v) If a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c, then a, b and c are whole numbers. False.
(vi) If x + y is an even number, then x and y are odd. False.
(vii) If a parallelogram is a rectangle, its vertices lie on a circle. True.
EXERCISE A1.6
1. Suppose to the contrary b ≤ d.
3. See Example 10 of Chapter 1.
6. See Theorem 5.1 of Class IX Mathematics Textbook.
EXERCISE A2.2
1
1. (i) (ii) 160
5
2. Take 1 cm2 area and count the number of dots in it. Total number of trees will be the
product of this number and the area (in cm2).
3. Rate of interest in instalment scheme is 17.74 %, which is less than 18 %.
EXERCISE A2.3
1. Students find their own answers.

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Download all NCERT books PDF from www.ncert.

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December 2016 Pausa 1938 NCERT Campus

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contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals

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l As far as possible, give the children motivation for results used.

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Textbook Development Committee

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4.3 Solution of a Quadratic Equation by Factorisation 74

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9. Some Applications of Trigonometry 195

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14.4 Median of Grouped Data 277

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1.2 Euclid’s Division Lemma

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Theorem 1.1 (Euclid’s Division Lemma) : Given positive integers a and b,

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An algorithm is a series of well defined steps

Euclid’s division algorithm is a technique to compute the Highest Common Factor

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Euclid’s division lemma/algorithm has several applications related to finding

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1.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

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So we have factorised 32760 as 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 as a product of

Theorem 1.2 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) : Every composite number

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An equivalent version of Theorem 1.2 was probably first

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic says that every composite number

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So, HCF (6, 72, 120) = 21 × 31 = 2 × 3 = 6

1.4 Revisiting Irrational Numbers

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which you are already familiar, are :

Theorem 1.4 : 2 is irrational.

factor to get a , where a and b are coprime.

* Not from the examination point of view.

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Substituting for a, we get 2b2 = 4c2, that is, b2 = 2c2.

Example 9 : Prove that 3 is irrational.

l the sum or difference of a rational and an irrational number is irrational and

l the product and quotient of a non-zero rational and irrational number is

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Example 10 : Show that 5 – 3 is irrational.

So, we conclude that 5 − 3 is irrational.

Example 11 : Show that 3 2 is irrational.

3. Prove that the following are irrationals :

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1.5 Revisiting Rational Numbers and Their Decimal Expansions