Complexity, Governance, and Networks: Perspectives From Public Administration

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Complexity, Governance & Networks (2014) 1–10 1

DOI: 10.7564/14-CGN3

Complexity, Governance, and Networks:


Perspectives from Public Administration
Naim Kapucu
University of Central Florida
E-mail: kapucu@ucf.edu

Complex public policy problems require a productive collaboration among different actors
from multiple sectors. Networks are widely applied as a public management tool and strategy.
This warrantrs a deeper analysis of networks and network management in public
administration. There is a strong interest in both in practice and theory of networks in public
administration. This requires an analysis of complex networks within public governance
settings. In this this essay I briefly discuss research streams on complex networks, network
governance, and current re- search challenges in public administration.
Keywords: Complexity, networks, network governance, network analysis.

1. Introduction

Complex public problems require a productive collaboration across different orga-


nizations, professions, and sectors. Network governance refers to inclusive and participa-
tory approaches to policy-making, collective action, and implementation. In addressing
the complex policy problems, public managers, civic leaders, and professionals are often
being expected to cooperate with each other. In difficult times, collaborative strategies
and cross-boundary institutions gain importance for sharing resources, solving complex
policy problems, and leveraging experience and knowledge. Devolution, privatization,
and regulation are social, political, and economic trends that have resulted in an
increased use of networks in the U.S. and affected their structures and functions. The
move to privatize public services involves transfers of ownership to increase efficiency in
them.
As the popularity of the New Public Management approach waned (Polidano,
2001), network governance and collaborative management approaches in administering
pro- grams to provide public services have gained popularity (McGuire, 2006; Provan &
Kenis, 2007). The network governance approach has become influential also in the
literature on public policy deliberation, design, and implementation, as policy processes
have involved increasingly multiple stakeholders and deregulation. The new forms of
governance have been depicted in terms of network relations in the literatures of public
administration and public policy. It is argued that governance, policy, or public
management networks help

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the public sector mobilize resources from non-state actors in order to deliver effective
ser- vices and formulate and implement public policies (Frederickson, 1999; Ingold &
Varone, 2012; Kapucu, 2012; Powell, 1990; Rhodes & Williams, 1996).
The literature has identified various types of networks such as collaborative net-
works, policy networks, public management networks, and governance networks
(Heaney, 2006; Isett, Mergel, LeRoux, Mischen, & Rethemeyer, 2011). The literature on
policy net- works is the oldest; the focus of this literature is mainly on public policy
decision-making and involves policy making actors. The term collaborative networks is
commonly used to depict the networks of governmental and non-governmental
organizations in the adminis- tration of public programs and the delivery of public
services. The term governance net- works emphasize the governance process to achieve
cross-sector and inter-organizational goals in the public sector (Isett et al., 2011).
Governance networks conceptualization call to the attention the fact that government
agencies, or the public sector in general, cannot solve today’s complex policy problems
by themselves and they need the help of non-state actors (Lecy, Mergel, & Schmitz,
2013). In the public administration and policy literature, often the terms policy,
collaborative, and governance networks are used interchangeably.

2. Complexity, Governance, and Networks

Networks can offer the complex, interdependent responses to complex policy prob-
lems that have uncertain solutions and can lead to political disagreements (Provan &
Lemaire, 2012). Complex problems “lack a definite formulation” and a “stopping rule”;
“[e]numerable sets of potential solutions” do not exist for these wicked problems, and
the solutions are just “better or worse,” not right or wrong (Koliba, Meek, & Zia, 2011a,
p. 15). Networks are also necessary when political processes complicate administrative
strategies (Kettl, 2006). Networks can combine human capital in order to participate in
collaborative problem-solving activities. The use of network concept can be traced back
to the beginning of the studies on federalism in the U.S. (Kettl, 2006; Koliba et al.,
2011a). Scholars connected network governance to intergovernmental cooperation in the
1960s (Emerson, Nabatchi, & Balogh, 2012).
As public problems have become more and more complex, there has been a real-
ization that individual government agencies working alone can no longer handle them.
Instead, there has been a growing emphasis on replacing hierarchical bureaucratic struc-
tures with more integrated horizontal networks. These networks have been the focus of
recent works on collaborative public management involving a variety of network
arrange- ments. Although these types of collaborative efforts are increasing in numbers,
a related growing concern is whether such arrangements have been any more effective
than those involving single-agency or hierarchical structures. The measures that are often
used to answer this question are those that apply to individual organizations, rather than
network arrangements.
Networks are complex systems that have emergent qualities, they are adaptive to
changing conditions, and they have the capability to self-organize. In both systems
theory
N. Kapucu / Complexity, Governance, and Networks 3

and complexity theory, the roles of feedback and interactions play a central role in under-
standing society (Koliba et al., 2011a). As complex systems, networks change according
to the “relative strength of feedback loops” (Koliba et al., 2011a, p. 92). Negative feed-
back are “controls placed over the system that come into effect when the system deviates
from a goal” (Koliba et al., 2011a, p. 175). Positive feedback are rewards to the system
that accentuates as a result of the two forces of mimicking and attention shifting, which
together lead to saliency of previously ignored policy issues in a debate. The medium of
feedback in governance networks may be explicit or tacit in the following possible
forms: policy tools – grants, contract agreements, and regulations, representation and
interest group competition, acts of administration, accountability, and performance
measurement (Koliba et al., 2011a).

3. Complexity and Networks

Networks involve a number of actors that are not only connected to each other, but
also interdependent (Agranoff, 2007; Agranoff & McGuire, 2001). According to
Sørensen (2006) the term governance implies “a complex governing process in which a
multitude of public and private actors interact to govern society” (p. 99). Governance
networks are characterized by the complexity of the interactions and decision-making
process as well as the policy development and implementation (Klijn, Edelenbos, &
Steijn, 2010). Complex- ity is described as the challenges and uncertainties that arise
when managing and govern- ing through networks, making policy decisions, and policy
implementations. The high level of interdependence, number of functions, and number of
actors involved in networks increase their complexity. Sørensen (2006) specifically
states that the multitude of actors (and expected functions and tasks) involved in the
process of governance increases the complexity of network governance. The different
perceptions, cultures, goal convergence, institutional frameworks, and power structures
of actors involved in the networks also cause complexity (O’Leary & Vij, 2012).
The existence of uncertainties contributes to complexity of networks in addition to
the other factors highlighted above. Bueren, Klijn, and Koppenjan (2003) identify three
types of uncertainties that typify policy problems: cognitive, strategic, and institutional
uncertainty. Cognitive uncertainty, as the name implies deals with the lack of a clear un-
derstanding of the causal relationships that underlie the problem and are a result of a
lack of scientific knowledge on the subject matter. Strategic uncertainty results from the
multiple perspectives coming from multiple actors trying to address the wicked prob-
lem. Conflicting strategies and diverging perceptions may result in a lack of progress in
formulating solutions and also unexpected consequences. Institutional uncertainty is the
result of the nature of decision-making that takes place through complex policy networks
that are polycentric in nature, fragmented and belong to multiple arenas and levels (local,
regional, country-level, global).
Some in the literature highlight the complexity and uncertainty in governing net-
works and focus on how to deal with policy problems by utilizing networks and
governance
4 N. Kapucu / Complexity, Governance, and Networks

effectively. Acknowledging complexity of network governance is one thing; developing


capacities in effective network governance is another. For example, Termeer, Dewulf,
Breeman, and Stiller (2012) identify four governance capabilities that are important for
addressing these potential problems in managing complex networks. These capabilities
are: (1) reflexivity (capability to prevent tunnel vision and appreciate different perspec-
tives and frames); (2) resilience (capability to adjust actions to unpredictable
consequences and changing conditions); (3) responsiveness (capability to respond to
diverse demands, changing expectations and issues); (4) revitalizing (capability to
overcome stagnations and recuperate policy processes).
Complexity is not only a characteristic of policy problems that networks aim to
solve, but it is a characteristic of the governance of the networks as well. Collaboration
between actors in the network involves a struggle for advantage and compromise to
determine the real impact and value of managing in networks (Meier & O’Toole, 2007).
Thus, although actors and agencies are working towards achieving collaborative
advantage, they also seek to maintain their institutional identity, influence and power
(Koliba et al., 2011a). Accord- ing to Sørensen and Torfing (2009), governance networks
aim to solve policy problems and “enhance democratic participation in public policy-
making, but it may also create conflicts and deadlocks and make public governance less
transparent and accountable” (p. 234). In their comparative analysis of the governance
networks literature, Klijn and Edelenbos (2013) observe that most of the literature in the
US has focused on service delivery and policy implementation networks, while the
European literature utilizes net- works to describe policy creation and decision-making
in dealing with complex problems.

4. Network Governance

This section briefly highlights network governance perspectives in dealing complex


policy issues and implementation. Network governance includes non-state actors; it is a
participatory approach to policy-making, collective action, and implementation
(Bingham, Nabatchi, & O’Leary, 2005; Provan & Huang, 2012). The emphasis is on the
complex interactions between different entities to manage governance processes and
provision of public services. “Networked governance is a particular framing of collective
decision mak- ing that is characterized by a trend for a wider range of participants to be
seen as legitimate members of the decision-making process in the context of
considerable uncertainty and complexity” (Stoker, 2006, p. 41). The term network
governance is commonly substituted with network management in the public
administration literature. This literature has fo- cused on how management in networks is
different or similar compared to managing in more traditional settings of the hierarchy or
a market-based system (Agranoff & McGuire, 2001; Fung, 2006; Meier & O’Toole,
2001). Agranoff and McGuire (2001) have identified key network management
behaviors and strategies in network governance.
Another major stream of literature concerns the effectiveness and the performance
of network governance. Some scholars study the performance of local public networks
N. Kapucu / Complexity, Governance, and Networks 5

through empirical analysis (Span, Luijkx, Schols, & Schalk, 2012), while most others
rely on conceptual and theoretical discussions on the outcomes of collaborative
arrangements (Rogers & Weber, 2010), network management strategies and performance
measurements of networks (Herranz, 2008, 2010; Provan & Milward, 2001), and
network performance and effectiveness (Provan & Lemaire, 2012; Provan & Milward,
1995).
There is also a literature on the implications of network governance for democracy
(Bogason & Musso, 2006; Heikkila & Isett, 2007; Klijn & Edelenbos, 2013; Mathur &
Skelcher, 2007; Sørensen, 2006; Sørensen & Torfing, 2009; Zeemering, 2012). There is
an emphasis on enhancing accountability and promoting democratic values in networks
by the involvement of citizens (Bogason & Musso, 2006; Fung, 2006). Klijn and
Skelcher (2007) suggest that more recently scholars have started studying the
relationship between representative democracy and governance networks, or as Klijn and
Skelcher (2007) call it the “democratic dimension of governance networks.”
Other recent topics and areas of study concern the influence of trust in the
performance of governance networks (Klijn et al., 2010), accountability of networks
(Koliba, Mills, & Zia, 2011b), economic development networks (Feiock, Lee, & Park,
2012), and environmental management (Robins, Bates, & Pattison, 2011). Some recent
studies applied new innovative methods of analyzing performance of networks, such as
comparing effectiveness of disaster response networks by comparing planned networks
with emergent/actual networks during disasters (Brooks, Bodeau, & Fedorowicz, 2012;
Choi & Brower, 2006; Kapucu & Demiroz, 2011; Nohrstedt, 2013).

5. Methodological Issues

As governing of complex networks provides several challenges, so does studying


of the complex network governance. Recently the concept of network and network gov-
ernance have received increasing attention in public administration and policy circles. I
personally see network analysis is one of the appropriate methods in studying network
governance. In the study of network governance, questions arise about whether
boundaries (mission, resources, capacity, responsibility, and accountability) should exist,
how they are drawn, and how to deal with their trade-offs. The mission of a network is to
address a spe- cific complex problem by allocating resources and a large budget while
managing its inter- organizational capacity and expertise. Each actor in the network must
have defined roles and responsibilities to ensure proper contribution to the mission, but
the inability to hold any one actor accountable amidst shared responsibility is a potential
issue (Kettl, 2006).
Most of the literature that exists on network governance is conceptual and
theoretical in nature and there are only few occasions in which the concepts were tested
empirically. Most of the researchers did not operationalize the term network; they rather
used it as a metaphor. The most popular method used in studying networks in public
administration is case studies. This is somehow expected since the contextual nature of
networks impacts the characteristics and structure of governance networks. The context
is also integral to
6 N. Kapucu / Complexity, Governance, and Networks

understanding the complexities and processes involved in the interactions and exchanges
that make up a governance network. Other researchers used comparative case studies
(Herranz, 2010; Nowell, 2009; Rogers & Weber, 2010).
Most studies on networks either relied on interviews of network actors, or some
document or content analysis. Elite interviews are a common source of data for research
on governance networks (e.g., Sørensen, 2006; Zeemering, 2012). Sørensen (2006) relied
on elite interviews to understand the outcomes of network governance in four Danish
municipalities, for example. Even though limited, some of the articles used social
network analysis (SNA) as a method. Among the measures used, whole network such as
density, visual maps, and centralization measures along with ego network measures,
such as de- gree centrality and betweenness centrality were most common.
SNA is utilized as an analysis method in analyzing theoretical constructs that are
defined as relational. These constructs can be processes and outcomes (Knox, Savage, &
Harvey, 2006; Wasserman & Faust, 1994). SNA analyzes ties among actors or nodes
with in a network. Actors within a network can represent individuals, organizations, and
commu- nities. These ties can indicate communication, information exchange, formal
contractual relations, or, informal friendship ties between nodes. SNA provides ways to
analyze dy- namic relationships between various actors and examining complex
processes and various types of interactions within network governance systems. Both
intra- organizational and inter-organizational relationships can be studied using SNA.

6. Conclusion

The ability for organizations to collaboratively work across sectors in order to


solve complex public policy problems exists through networks, governance networks,
collaborative governance, and collaborative public management. Several principles from
economics, organization behavior, political science and policy studies, sociology, and
human behavior were utilized in addressing complexity networks across individuals,
organizations, and sectors.
Even though the essay used limited number of journals in the field of public
administration for a limited time period and books, the growth in studying complexity,
governance, and networks in public administration is a noticeable fact. A major body of
research on network governance in public administration concerns the performance of
networks or the effectiveness of managing through networks. Some progress has been
made in using different methods, such as case study method, different tools such as
social network analysis, as recommended by Berry et al. (2004), to advance research on
network governance in public administration. Yet, significant challenge remains to be
addressed by the researchers in the future.
The number of network research has significantly increased since O’Toole’s (1997)
call for more rigorous and systemic research on networks. Yet methodological advance-
ments of network research is still behind the need in public administration. Compared
with the rapidly growing interest in collaborative governance and network research,
empirical
N. Kapucu / Complexity, Governance, and Networks 7

studies on networks remain limited. I hope that Complexity, Governance, and Networks
will provide a platform for researchers from interdisciplinary perspectives, including
pub- lic administration, to advance research on complex governance networks.

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