Factors affecting productivity

The measure of the rate at which work is performed is called “productivity”.

It is a ratio of production output to what is required to produce it. The
measure of productivity is defined as a total output per one unit of a total
input. In construction, the output is usually expressed in weight, length, or
volume, and the input resource is usually in cost of labor or man-hours.
There are many standards available in the construction industry for
contractors as reference values for purposes of construction cost
estimation. These standards may vary in values but most are similar in
principle. There are many factors that affect the productivity of labor in
construction. Here are some of the most recognized factors affecting labor
productivity in the industry:

1. Overtime
Scheduling of extended work days or weeks exceeding a standard eight-hour
work day or 40- hour work week lowers work output and efficiency through
physical fatigue and poor mental attitude.
2. Morale and Attitude
Spirit of workers based on willingness, confidence, discipline, and
cheerfulness to perform work or tasks can be lowered due to a variety of
issues, including increased conflicts, disputes, excessive hazards, overtime,
over-inspection, multiple contract changes, disruption of work rhythm, poor
site conditions, absenteeism, unkempt workspace, and so on.
3. Fatigue
Fatigue can be caused by prolonged or unusual physical exertion.
4. Absenteeism and Turnover
There is a great deal of time and money lost associated with high turnover
and absenteeism on projects. Construction projects in certain areas with low
manpower and high demand for labor will usually be more impacted than
others. Extreme weather conditions (such as extreme heat or cold) will also
increase absenteeism and turnover. Replacement workers are usually not
familiar with the work or area, and require experienced workers to stop work
and show them what to do. The impact can be up to four days of lost work for
each worker.
5. Mobilize/Demobilize
This relates to moving resources on and moving off to projects as a result
from changes or delays, causing work disruptions. Productivity may drop
during these periods as time is lost when crews move from one area or work
assignment to another.
6. Errors and Omissions
Increases in errors and omissions impact on labor productivity because
changes are then usually performed on a crash basis, out of sequence, cause
dilution of supervision, or any other negative impacts.
7. Start/Stop
This results from a work stoppage or suspension of work, which may cause a
break in the schedule, usually triggering a start/stop of work activity. Stop-
starts can have an impact on productivity and cost of a project. Work
scheduled or reassigned during holidays such as Thanksgiving, Christmas,
New Year’s, and so on are often impacted with stop-starts. Workers tend to
discuss the time off and lose previous momentum with a drop in productivity
before they get back in routine.
8. Reassignment of Manpower
When workers are reassigned, they experience unexpected or excessive
changes, losses caused by move-on or move-off, reorientation, and other
issues that result in a loss of productivity.
9. Late Crew Build-up
This is caused when the planned project manpower loading is altered and
causes manpower loading to build up slower than planned due to availability,
shortage of resources, or competition from resources. Impacts can be in
excess of 10 percent.
10. Crew Size Inefficiency
This is when the optimal crew size is altered by adding or deleting crew
members. When workers are added or deleted from a crew, it breaks up the
original team effort and rhythm of the crew and results in loss of
productivity.
11. Site Access
This is a result of interferences to the convenient or planned access to work
areas. This can be due to blocked stairways, roads, walkways, insufficient
man-lifts, or congested work sites.
12. Logistics
Insufficient or poor material handling, owner-furnished material,
procurement practices, or a lack of controls can cause procurement or
delivery problems, as well as other issues. This then prevents, delays, or
disrupts the normal material workflow to a work area, warehouse, or laydown
yard. This can also be a result from the additional replacement or substitution
of material due to contract changes, defects, or delays at the work site.
13. Learning Curve
When crew turnover causes new workers to be added to a crew or additional
manpower is needed within a crew, a period of orientation occurs in order to
become familiar with changed conditions. They must then learn work scope,
tool locations, work procedures, and so on.
14. Hazardous Work Area
This is caused when working in an area that is classified as hazardous,
requiring special safety equipment and clothing. Restrictions may limit time
and exposure of workers to the area, resulting in less time on tools in the area.
15. Dilution of Supervision
This occurs when supervision is diverted from productive, planned, and
scheduled work to analyze and plan contract changes, expedite delayed
material, manage added crews, or other changes not in the original work
scope and schedule. Dilution is also caused by an increase in manpower,
work areas, or project size without an increase in supervision.
16. Weather and Season Changes
Performing work in a change of season, temperature zone, or climate change
resulting in work performed in either very hot or very cold weather, rain or
dust, or other changes in temperature or climate can impact workers beyond
normal conditions.
17. Rain, Dust
Most crafts do not work in the rain or dust , but many do, especially those
who live in wet or dray weather regions of the country and must work or risk
losing too much in wages. Work can, and does occur in the rain, but not
without inefficiencies due to rain gear, visibility, safety, morale, discomfort,
hazards, and other issues.
18. Shift Work
This is when work is performed at any time other than the first shift or the
morning shift of a work day. Work on second and third shifts are less
efficient and may even be based on a shorter work period. The reduced
daylight hours and problems trying to pick up where the last shift left off
results in less productivity.
19. Working in Operating Area
Inefficiencies can result when work is in close proximity to operating units
such as heat from boilers, smoke from emissions, explosion zones, and so on.
This can cause work stoppages, need for protective clothing, work permits, or
other requirements.
20. Tool and Equipment Shortage
This is caused when there is insufficient quantity or quality of tools and
equipment to meet the needs of the project.
21. Area Practices
This can be the result of added or extended coffee breaks, unique observance
or custom, or other practices unique to the craft, owner, country, project
location, or other customary practices in the area.
22. Proximity of Work
This is caused by working in a remote area, proximity of tools, break areas,
material laydown yard, or other resources causing a loss of time for access.
23. Alternating, Staggered, or Rotating Work Schedules
This usually results in unusual or unique scheduled work periods designed to
optimize craft hours worked, attract labor to remote sites, compete for labor
resources, and minimize fatigue. Examples include allowing half the work
force to take every other Friday off, or staggered crews of 4-12s (working on
four days and then four days off), or rotating crews to work a week and then
take a week off.
24. Learning Curve
When crew turnover causes new workers to be added to a crew or additional
manpower is needed within a crew, a period of orientation occurs in order to
become familiar with changed conditions. They must then learn work scope,
tool locations, work procedures, and so on.
25. Logistics
Insufficient or poor material handling, owner-furnished material,
procurement practices, or a lack of controls can cause procurement or
delivery problems, as well as other issues. This then prevents, delays, or
disrupts the normal material workflow to a work area, warehouse, or laydown
yard. This can also be a result from the additional replacement or substitution
of material due to contract changes, defects, or delays at the work site.

Construction productivity measurement techniques

Some of the techniques used are designed to measure
the productivity of specific crafts at different kinds of
construction work (Song et al. (2003)), while others measure
productivity at firm or site level and include every participant
involved in construction (Alarcon and Rodrigo (2003)).
Furthermore, related literature reveals that no universally
accepted productivity measurement standard exists (CII (2000),
Park et al. (2005)), something which is considered to be the
main reason for the existence of so many measurement
methods.
The methods and techniques presented are, according to
the interviews, the most widely used in an effort to
measure, and evaluate productivity in a construction site or in a
firm level. Some of those methods are experience based while
others are applied with the use of mathematical and
statistical models, technological tools, and computer-based
applications. By recording industry trends in measuring
construction productivity it was observed that the majority of
independent engineering companies, and smaller construction
firms tend to use experience based models for conducting
measurements, or they do not even track productivity at all,
while large firms, companies and construction organizations
(mostly in the US) tend to use measure productivity by using
more complex, computer based models and work sampling
with the help of technology tools.
 Moreover, for the same activity, productivity may be
measured by different people in different ways, and so the
resulting productivity values may not be directly comparable.

3.1 Input/ Output (man hours per unit)

Input/output ratio (for example work hours per square feet of wall
painted), is mostly used for measuring productivity at an activity level
(labor productivity), and its lower values indicate better productivity-
performance. Furthermore, when measured by that method labor
productivity often depicts how efficiently labor is combined with
other factors of production, a clue which can be very useful for
activity planning and scheduling. Therefore, if productivity is
reported as work hours per unit, the cost engineer can easily determine
project costs by multiplying productivity times the estimated quantity
and the wage rate. The present form of measurement has the
disadvantage of being very simplistic, and it cannot depict the real
on-site situation by not taking into account any of the factors affecting
site activities. That model could be helpful for having an estimation
of labor productivity, but the same could not be claimed for the
productivity of organizational and off-site staff, management staff
(whose works’ input and output cannot easily be defined) , nor for
productivity at a firm level.

3.2 Experience-based models

Probably the first attempts to measure and understand productivity
in the construction industry were totally based on the experience of
engineers and constructors in general. In the times where advanced
technology and measurement techniques were not available, the
actual productivity in a construction site was perceived and
evaluated by experience-based estimations based on daily
observations on the job site. Despite the industry’s technological
advancement and the numerous measuring techniques now existing,
surveys revealed that more than 20% of contractors still rely on
estimators’ experience and notions for the majority of their estimates.
Obviously, the accuracy and reliability of this approach are
influenced by personal prejudice and can be highly subjective. When
using models and techniques highly related on experience, the most
reliable estimate can be made by combining that experience with past
project data. However, such empirical practices do not guarantee a
consistent estimate due to the lack of an efficient binding
mechanism that could relate the present case to past patterns.
3.3 Measuring productivity using project milestones
Another broadly used method is measuring productivity by using
project milestones. At the beginning of a project, construction
managers and other administrative personnel of a project’s general
contractor, define some project milestones, which need to be completed
by specific deadlines. By the end of a pre-defined time spam (one or two
weeks), staff meetings are held in order to review the work progress
and discuss about the completion percentage of the milestones. During
those meetings, an evaluation of the general work progress plan takes
place and the productivity of the whole project is defined by
examining the completion percentages of project tasks usually with
the help of a project planning software. Despite being easy to follow,
the milestone method does not provide any outcomes that could help
defining the root of a possible productivity loss. Furthermore, it is
not useful for defining on-site productivity and it does not give any
numerical results which could enable construction managers to
compare each week’s productivity with previously recorded data. It
can be claimed that this method is more a broadly used,
experienced based technique than a broadly accepted scientific
method which can generate safe and accurate outcomes.
3.4 Activity model (Work sampling)
Activity model is based on work sampling, a method that employs
statistical sampling theory to measure the utilization of labor,
measured in time. Work sampling is based on probability theory. The
ratio of the number of observations of a given activity to the total
number of observations of all activities approximates the percentage
of time that the work process spends on that activity. If the number of
random observations from a large group of craft activities on a
project is large enough, the percentage of time found by work
sampling spent on an activity will differ little from the actual time
spent on that activity in the work process developed on the project
site. The needed data can be collected with ways varying from
observation tours, to the use of video-recording, time lapse photography,
and others. It is important that sampling is conducted randomly,
and without bias by trained construction or maintenance analysts.
Covering the entire labor workforce on-site, each worker is counted as
one sampling observation. Usually, most data is recorded in three
categories: Direct work, support work, and delays. Work sampling
provides the researcher with ratio estimates (waiting/total) which
are a very convenient way to measure productivity. Furthermore,
the method is easy to administer and fairly cheap and in the same time
collects useful facts during project execution that are not normally
collected by other methods, while it has no, or minimal, interference
with the worker’s normal activities. On the other hand, some major
disadvantages are the human errors that may occur, and the possible
limited accuracy of results. Furthermore, work sampling does not
differentiate rework from original work and is frequently reviewed
with great suspicion by craftsmen and foremen.

3.5 Factor models

Factor models are multi-variant approaches to modeling the
productivity of a crew rather than of an individual, based on the factors
that affect it. The quantification of factors involves the statistical
analysis of crew productivity and related factors (Thomas and
Yiakoumis (1987)). Their applicability and accuracy makes them
valuable tools for measuring and predicting productivity at site
level. The many factor models now existing have implemented many
mathematical and statistical methods and software in order to
generate more accurate results and simultaneously take under
consideration many factors. The key limitation of those models is that
they do not address interactions within, and across projects and
hence they are not applicable at firm level.

3.6 Cost reporting method

Many construction companies, which do not use any statistical or
mathematical techniques and software, try to make estimations about
their productivity rates by monitoring and comparing project costs.
The method they follow for productivity estimation is usually based
on the simplistic approach that when the cost is increased, work is
unproductive. In order to have the ability to compare costs of
similar projects, a database containing historical data of costs for
materials, wages, and others is needed. Such data can be collected
from previous projects and are used not only for measuring
productivity of a specific project but also for predicting future
productivity trends. This kind of method has the advantage of being
very simple and easy to use. On the other hand, it does not pinpoint the
root of possible low productivity, and data collection may become a
costly and time consuming procedure, with high possibilities for
human errors in estimating input and output, when compared to other
available techniques for measuring productivity.

Ways of improving productivity

Construction is an extremely important job for accuracy. However, clients
usually want their buildings and projects done as quickly as possible.
This is why it’s important to stress productivity with your construction
workers.

1. Communicate Clearly
Communication is the most important productivity booster in any job. No one
will get the job done well if they have no idea what’s going on.
It’s important you clearly communicate your goals to your crew before you
start a new project and continue keeping them updated throughout the
project.
Send out frequent emails and memos if there are any changes that might
affect your workers. Be considerate and never leave your employees in the
dark about what’s happening in a project.

2. Set Realistic Goals

Rome wasn’t built in a day and your new building won’t be either.
Construction takes time so it’s important you set realistic goals. Make sure
the entire crew understands the goal for each day, each week, each month,
and even each year.
It’s important that people have goals to strive towards each and every day.
Setting small goals makes a big project seem easier to accomplish.

3. Reward Regularly
Construction is often hot and tiring work. Your workers are putting in hour
after hour of manual labor.
In order to increase productivity, offer incentives in the form of rewards.
Whenever your crew meets a goal, treat them to pizza and beer at a local
restaurant.
This will make your workers feel appreciated and eager to push forward.

4. Train Your Troops

One thing that will quickly squash productivity is inadequate training.
If you want a work site the runs efficiently, you have to train your workers.
Make sure they’re all trained before you begin a project.
Yes, this will often cost extra money but it will be worth it. Training also
reduces the number of injuries on a job which will, in turn, increase
productivity.

5. Listen Well
To be a good leader, you have to listen well to those you’re employing.
It’s not enough to communicate with people if you’re not open to hearing
their responses. Your workers will have a firsthand idea of what does and
doesn’t work on site.
They will sometimes come to you and tell you that a goal isn’t realistic, or
that they need new tools. Don’t brush these things off. Instead, take them
into consideration and try to find a solution for your crew.

6. Plan with Purpose

Before starting a construction project you need to have a detailed plan laid
out for how you’re going to accomplish the job.
This includes schedules for workers, materials needed, and countless other
logistics.
The more thoroughly you plan your project beforehand, the better it will turn
out. You also need to keep this plan updated to reflect on how the project is
moving.

7. Hire Good Management

Hiring good management is one of the key ways to increase productivity on
site.
If you have managers who are respectful yet firm in their leadership, your
team will respond. Managers help keep workers focused and working
towards your goals.
Managers also work as middlemen between construction workers and upper
management in order to relay problems.

8. Keep Track of Your Materials

There’s nothing worse than thinking you have enough construction materials
to finish a project only to run out at the last minute.
You should be regularly checking inventory in order to prevent this. You need
to make sure you have the materials to complete at least one week’s worth
of work.
If you don’t, you need to order new materials well in advance to give them
enough time to come in. You don’t want your whole project to screech to a
halt because you didn’t take the time to take proper inventory.
9. Give Your Workers Time Off
As mentioned above, construction is hot and tiring work. It requires a ton of
manual labor that puts stress on the body.
In order to increase productivity, it is important to give you workers
adequate time off. If you’ve been working them hard for a few weeks in a
row, give them a long weekend to recover.
This will demonstrate that you care about your workers and they will be
happier for it. When they return to work they’ll be eager to get back to the
project after being well rested.

10. Convey The End Goal

It always helps people stay on task if they’re reminded of what they’re
working towards.
Put up pictures of the end result around the site to remind the workers why
they’re working. Maybe they’re building a hospital for the sick or a school for
the young. Construction work is so important as it develops communities and
creates secure spaces for people to live and grow.
Remind your workers of the end result of all their hard work. Show them
what an impact they’re going to make in their community.

Adherence to work requirements

Section 4(a) of the OSH Law, or Republic Act 11058, states that it is
the duty of employers, contractors, and subcontractors to inform
their workers about the hazards and risks involved in the occupation
entered in and provide appropriate job instruction and orientation
regarding OSH.

The OSH Law also states in Section 16 (b) that all workers are
required to attend an eight-hour OSH seminar which should include
a joint employer-employee orientation on safety and health
standards.

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