SURVEYING

Introduction

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 Introduction to Surveying
► Definition:
Surveying is the science and art of
determining the relative positions of points
above, on, or beneath the earth’s surface
and locating the points in the field.

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 The work of the surveyor
consists of 5 phases:
1. Decision Making – selecting method, equipment and
final point locations.
2. Fieldwork & Data Collection – making measurements
and recording data in the field.
3. Computing & Data Processing – preparing
calculations based upon the recorded data to
determine locations in a useable form.
4. Mapping or Data Representation – plotting data to
produce a map, plot, or chart in the proper form.
5. Stakeout – locating and establishing monuments or
stakes in the proper locations in the field.
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Object of Surveying
► Theprimary object of survey is the
preparation of plan of estate or buildings
roads, railways, pipelines, canals, etc. Or to
measure area of field, state, nation.

► Objectof geodetic surveying is to determine

precise positions on the surface of the earth
of widely distant points.
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Uses of Surveying
► Toprepare a topographical map this shows
the hills, valley, rivers, villages, town, etc, of
a country.

► Toprepare a cadastral map showing the

boundaries of fields houses, and other
properties.

► Toprepare an engineering map to show

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

details like roads, railways, canals, etc.

 Uses of Surveying
► To prepare military map showing roads and
railways, communication with different parts
of country.

► Toprepare contour map and to determine

capacity of a reservoirs and ton find the
best possible route for roads, railways etc.

► Toprepare archeological map including

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places where ancient relics exist.

Types of Surveying
Classification

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 A. Primary Classification or
Primary Division :

1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic surveying

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 1. Plane Surveying
➢ The shape of the earth is spherical. Thus
the surface is obviously curved. But in plane
surveying the curvature of earth is not
taken into account. This is because plane
surveying is carried out over a small area,
so the surface of the earth is considered as
a plane. The degree of accuracy required in
this type of surveying is completely low.
Plane surveying is done on an area of less
than 250 sq.km.
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 2. Geodetic surveying
➢ Ingeodetic surveying the curvature of the
earth is taken into consideration. It is
extended over a large area greater than 250
sq.km. The line joining any two points
considered as a curved line. Very refined
methods and instruments are used in this
type of surveying. In this method very high
precision or accuracy is required.

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 B. Secondary Classification
► Survey can be classified on different bases:

1. Based on instrument:
► Chain Survey
► Compass survey
► Plane Table survey
► Theodolite survey
► Tacheometric Survey
► Photographic surveyEr.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 2. Based on methods:

►Triangulation Survey

►Traverse Survey

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 3. Based on Objects:
► Geological survey

► Mine survey

► Archeological Survey

► Military survey

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 4. Based on nature of field
►Land Survey

►Marine survey

►Astronomical survey

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 Other Types of Surveys:
1. Photogrammetry – mapping utilizing data obtained
by camera or other sensors carried in airplanes or
satellites.
2. Boundary Surveying – establishing property corners,
boundaries, and areas of land parcels.
3. Control Surveying – establish a network of horizontal
and vertical monuments that serve as a reference
framework for other survey projects.
4. Engineering Surveying – providing points and
elevations for the building Civil Engineering projects.

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 Other Types of Surveys:
5. Topographic Surveying – collecting data and
preparing maps showing the locations of natural
man-made features and elevations of points of the
ground for multiple uses.
6. Route Surveys – topographic and other surveys for
long – narrow projects associated with Civil
Engineering projects.
▪ Highways, railroads, pipelines, and transmission lines.
7. Hydrographic Surveying – mapping of shorelines and
the bottom of bodies of water.
▪ Also known as bathymetric surveying.
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Brief History of Surveying:
1. Surveying had it’s beginning in Egypt about 1400 BC
▪ Land along the Nile River was divided for taxation.
Divisions were washed away by annual floods.
▪ “ROPE-STRETCHERS” Egyptian surveyors were created to
relocate the land divisions (measurements were made with
ropes having knots at unit distances).
▪ Extensive use of surveying in building of Egyptian
monuments
2. Greeks: expanded Egyptian work and developed
Geometry.
▪ Developed one of the earliest surveying instruments
– Diopter (a form of level).

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 Brief History of Surveying:
3. Romans: developed surveying into a science to
create the Roman roads, aqueducts, and land
division systems.
▪ Surveyors held great power, had schools and a
professional organization
▪ Developed several instruments:
• Groma – cross instrument used to determine lines and right angles
• Libella – “A” frame with a plumb bob used for leveling
• Chorobates – 20’ straight edge with oil in notch for leveling
4. Middle Ages: Land division of Romans continued in
Europe.
▪ Quadrans – square brass frame capable of turning angles
up to 90° and has a graduated scale developed by an
Italian named Von Piso.
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Brief History of Surveying:
5. 18th & 19th Century in the New World: the need for
mapping and marking land claims caused extensive
surveying, especially by the English.
▪ 1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of public
lands into one mile square sections
• 30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System
(also called the Rectangular System)
▪ 1807: United States Geological Survey founded to
establish an accurate control network and mapping
▪ Famous American Surveyors: George Washington, Thomas
Jefferson, George Rogers Clark, Abe Lincoln and many
more.
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Brief History of Surveying:
6. 20th Century and Beyond: As technology advanced,
population increased, and land value caused
development of licensure for surveyors in all states.
▪ Educational requirements for licensure began in the early
1990’s
▪ Capable of electronic distance measurement, positioning
using global positioning systems, construction machine
control, and lidar (scanning) mapping
▪ Involvement in rebuilding of the infrastructure and
geographic information systems (GIS)
▪ Shortage of licensed professionals is projected well into
the 21st century
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Measurement of Distance

► Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying and

even though angles may be read precisely, the length
of at least one line in a tract must be measured to
supplement the angles in locating points.

► Old surveys were often measured using a Surveyors

Chain. These were literally chains made up of 100
links. Each Chain was 66 feet long. Each link was
0.666 of a foot.
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Units of Measurement
►Acre - The (English) acre is a unit of area
equal to 43560 square feet, or 10 square
chains. A square mile is 640 acres. The
Scottish acre is 1.27 English acres.

►Chain - Unit of length usually understood to

be Gunter's chain, from the heavy metal chain
of 100 links that was used by surveyors to
measure property bounds.
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Units of Measurement
►Hectare - Metric unit of area equal to
10,000 square meters, or 2.471 acres.
►Link - Unit of length equal to 1/100 chain
(7.92 inches).
►Rood - Unit of area usually equal to 1/4
acre.
►Engineer's Chain - A 100 foot chain
containing 100 links of one foot a piece.
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 Units of Measurement
►Furlong - Unit of length equal to 40 poles
(220 yards).

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 Methods of Measuring Distance
► Direct Method of Measuring Distance:
1. Pacing: Where approximate result is required,
distance may be determined by pacing. This method is
used for reconnaissance survey, for preparation of
military plans. Also used for approximate checking
distance. The method consists of walking over a line and
counting the number of paces (80cm) the required
distance may be obtained by multiplying the number of
paces by the average length of pace.

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 Methods of Measuring Distance
❖ The length of pace varies with the:

► Individual, age, height and physical

condition
► The nature of the ground (uphill and down
hill)
► The slope of the country and
► The speed of pacing
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Methods of Measuring Distance
2. Passometer:
It is a pocket instrument. It automatically
records the number of paces. It should be
carried vertically, in waistcoat pocket or
suspended from a button. The mechanism
being operated by motion and strain of the
body.

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 Methods of Measuring Distance
3. Pedometer:

► It is similar to passometer. But it registers the

distance walked by the persons carrying it. The
distance is read by means of an indicator. It is
fitted with a stud or knob, which when pressed
release indicator to zero, it may be carried in the
same way as the passometer.
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Methods of Measuring Distance

4. Odometer:

It measures the distance approximately. It can be

attached to the wheel of any vehicle, such as
carriage, cart bicycle, etc. It registers the number of
revolution of the wheel. Knowing the circumference
of the wheel, the distance traversed may be
obtained by multiplying the number of revolutions.
By the circumference of the wheel
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Methods of Measuring Distance
5. Speedometer: The Speedometer of an
automobile may be used to measure distances
approximately. It gives better results than
pacing, provided the route is smooth.

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 Methods of Measuring Distance

6. Perambulator:
It can measure distance rapidly. It consist a
single wheel provided with forks and a handle. It
is wheeled along the line, the length of which is
desired. The distance traversed is automatically
registered on the dial. The reading approximates
on rough ground.

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 Methods of Measuring Distance
7. Judging distance:
This is very rough method of determining
distance. It is used reconnaissance survey.

8. Time Measurement:
Distance is roughly determined by time intervals
of travel. Knowing the average time per km for a
person at walk or a horse, the distance traversed
may be easily obtained.
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Methods of Measuring Distance
9. Chaining: Measuring distance with chain or
rope is the most accurate and common method,
called as chaining. For work of ordinary precision
a chain is used. Where great accuracy is
required, a steel tape is used.

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 Measurement of Distance
► Taping: applying the known length of a graduated
tape directly to a line a number of times.

2 Problems exist in Taping:

1. Measuring the distance between two existing points
2. Laying out a known distance with only the starting
point in place

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 Measurement of Distance
6 Steps of Taping
1. Lining in – shortest distance between two points is a
straight line.
2. Applying tension – rear chain is anchor and head
chain applies required tension.
3. Plumbing – horizontal distance requires tape to be
horizontal.
4. Marking tape lengths – each application of the tape
requires marking using chaining pins to obtain total
length.
5. Reading the tape – the graduated tape must be read
correctly.
6. Recording the distance – the total length must be
reported and recorded correctly.
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Types of Chains and Tapes
► Before the ability to make steel rods and bands, sticks
were cut into lengths of 16.5’ (Rod) and they were
laid end to end to measure.
► Gunter’s Chain
▪ 66’ long with 100 link w/each link being 7.92 inches or 0.66
feet long.
▪ Developed by Edmund Gunter in 1600’s in England and
made with individual wires with a loop at each end
connected
▪ Chain had between 600-800 wearing surfaces which with
hard use would wear and cause chain to elongate
▪ Measurements were recorded in chains and links
▪ 7ch 94.5lk = 7.945 ch = 7.945 X 66’/ch = 524.37’
▪ 1 chain = 4 rods; 80 chains =__AAAD
Er.Ashwini Patil 1 mile
 Types of Chains and Tapes
► Engineer’s Chain
▪ Same construction as Gunter’s Chain, but each link is 1.0’
long and was used for engineering projects
► Surveyor’s and Engineer’s Tapes
▪ Made of ¼” to 3/8” wide steel tapes in 100’; 200’; 300’
lengths

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 Types of Chains and Tapes
► Invar Tapes
▪ Made of special nickel steel to reduce length variations due
to temperature changes
▪ The tapes are extremely brittle and expensive
▪ Used most of the time for standard comparison of tapes
► Cloth, Fiberglass, and PVC Tapes:
▪ Lower accuracy and stored on reels. Used for measurement
of 0.1’ accuracy requirements
Accessories
1. Chaining Pins – set of 11, used to mark the tape lengths
2. Hand Level – used to determine required plumbing height
3. Plumb Bob – used to transfer the mark from the tape to ground
4. Tension Handle – used toEr.Ashwini
maintain correct tension on tape
Patil __AAAD
 Taping (Field Process)
1. The line to be taped should be marked at both ends
▪ Keeps measurement on line
▪ Rear chain person should keep the head chain person on
line
▪ 1’ of line error/100’ = 0.01’ error in length
2. Applying Tension
▪ Rear chainman is anchor and should hold 100’ mark over
point
► Tension is applied by head chain person – normally 12 to 30 pounds
of pull
► Tapes are standardized at 12 lbs., but greater is utilized to
compensate for sag
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
 Taping (Field Process)
3. Plumbing
▪ One end of tape is raised to maintain a horizontal
measuring plane. ONLY one end is elevated
► This allows measurements to be made on uneven ground
► If a high spot exists in center, “break” tape by measuring to the
top and then move forward to complete the distance

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

 Slope Measurements:
► Generally, measurements are made horizontally, but
on even, often man-made slopes the distance can be
measured directly on the slope, but the vertical or
zenith angle must be obtained.
▪ Horizontal Distance = sin Zenith Angle X Slope Distance
▪ Horizontal Distance = cos Vertical Angle X Slope Distance

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD

Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD
Er.Ashwini Patil __AAAD