Geometric Design of Highway

1.2.1 Basic design control and Criteria: design Speed, design

vehicle, traffic volume and its composition, topography etc.
elements of highway cross section

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 1

The geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions & layout of
visible features of highway such as alignment, sight distance & intersections.
In fact it is the design of geometric elements of road with which the road user
is directly concerned. But it does not deal with the design of pavement,
structural & drainage components.
Geometric of highway should be designed for providing
• Optimum efficiency in traffic operations
• With maximum safety/ comfort
• At reasonable cost
Geometric design of highway deals with the following elements:-
1)Cross –section elements 2)Sight distance considerations 3)Horizontal
alignment details
4)Vertical alignment details 5)Intersection elements
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 2
Cross section elements
 Traffic lane,
 carriageway,
 shoulders,
 median strips
 right of way,
 side slope
 extra-widening of  Camber,
pavements,
 super- elevation,
 sight distance
across the road  noise barrier,

 Miscellaneous
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 3
Horizontal alignments details:-
• Sight distance along the road plan, Radius, Deflection angle, Tangents, EC, BC,
MC, super elevations
Vertical alignment details:-
• Sight distance along the road profile- grade & curves (summit &valley)
Sight distance: - SSD, OSD
Intersection elements: - for safe & efficient traffic movements
Criteria for geometric design: -
The geometric features of a highway with the consideration of above
mentioned governing factors are designed to meet the following four major
objectives:-
1) Speed 2) Safety 3) Comfort 4) Economy

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 4

Basic design control & criteria:
• Factors controlling geometric design are:-
• Design speed
• Design vehicle
• Topography, physical & manmade features
• Traffic volume & composition/ traffic factors
• Traffic capacity
• Road user behavior
• Environmental & other factors: - aesthetics, air pollution,
landscaping & noise pollution etc.

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 5

Design speed: -
• The design speed is the maximum permissible safe speed of a light
vehicle on a given road considered for the design of road elements.
It is the speed which may be adopted by a majority of skilled drivers
when there is no hindrance on road. NRS 2045 have recommended
the following values of design speed for the following different
types of road in different topographical conditions.
Design speed for the road according to type of terrain

Types of Level (0- Rolling (10- Mountainous(25 Steep

roads 10) % 25)% -60)% (>60) %
TR/NH 120 80 50 40

FR 100 60 40 30

DR 60 40 30 25
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 6
Design Vehicle: -
The geometric elements of road naturally depend on the design vehicle, its
characteristics, size, & shape using the road. It is therefore, essential to examine
various types of vehicles in use in the country.

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 7

Traffic volume & composition: -
Traffic volume is the number of vehicle crossing a section of road per unit time at
any selected period. The ratio of volume to capacity affects the level of service of
the road.
Topography, physical & manmade features: -
Topography in general influences the physical location of highway. The design
elements of a highway in hilly region are affected to a considerable degree by the
physical features such as hills, valleys, steepness of slope, stream crossings etc.
whereas in plain area the influencing factor may be the slope from drainage point
of views, grade separation etc.
Man-made features have pronounced effect on the highway geometrics. Road in
rural area may designed for higher speed where as in urban areas speed is
limited.

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 8

Traffic capacity: -
Traffic capacity of a highway is the sum total capacity of each lane
C= 1000* V/S C= veh/hr
Where V= Speed in Km/hr, S= average centre to centre spacing of vehicles
in m.
Road user characteristics: -
Once constructed the roads are used by peoples having different level of
education, awareness, knowledge & civic traffic sense. This parameter cannot
be related with any mathematical formulae.
Environmental

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Friction: -
friction plays vital role on moving, stopping & accelerating the vehicle. Lateral
friction required to counteracts the centrifugal force, while the vehicle
negotiates the horizontal curves.
Friction & braking efficiency are the important factors for vehicle operation &
safe driving.
Skid: - skid occurs when slide without revolving of wheel or when the
wheels partially revolves.
• Path travelled along the road surface is more than the circumferential
movements of wheels due to their rotation.
• Lateral skidding occurs in horizontal curves when centrifugal force is greater
than the counteracting force i.e. ( e+f)
• Lateral skidding considered dangerous since vehicle goes out of track
leading to an accident.
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• Slip: - slip occurs when a wheel revolves more than the
corresponding longitudinal movements along the road.
• It occurs normally when vehicle rapidly accelerates from stationary
position or from slow speed on pavement. ( i.e. slippery or with loose
mud)
• Coefficient of Friction:-
• Coefficient of longitudinal friction is 0.35 to 0.40
• Coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15 (As per IRC)

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 11

 Highway Curves
In geometry, the tangent line (or simply tangent) to a
plane curve at a given point is the straight line that "just touches"
the curve at that point

Types of curves
Highway Curves:- 1) Horizontal curves 2)Vertical curves
Horizontal curves: - 1) Circular curves (Simple, Reverse, Compound)
2) Transition curves (Spiral, Leminiscate, Cubic parabola)

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 12

Circular curves (Simple, Reverse, Compound)
Simple Curves:
The simple curve is an arc of a circle. It is the most commonly used. The radius
of the circle determines the “sharpness” or “flatness” of the curve. The larger
the radius, the “flatter” the curve.

Compound Curves:
Surveyors often have to use a compound curve because of the terrain. This
curve normally consists of two simple curves curving in the same direction and
joined together.
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 Reverse Curves
A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined together but curving in
opposite directions. For safety reasons, the surveyor should not use this curve
unless absolutely necessary.

Transition curve is a curve whose radius changes from infinity to some finite
value. This curve is also called easement curve. When a transition curve is
introduced between a straight & circular curve, the radius of the transition
curve decreases & becomes minimum at the beginning of the circular curve.
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The main objectives of providing transition curves in a horizontal alignment of
highway are:-
• To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point &the
beginning of circular curve, avoiding a sudden jerk.
• To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort &
security.
• To enable gradual introduction of designed super elevation & extra widening
at the curve.
• To improve the aesthetic appearance of the road.
Types of transition curves are:-
• Spiral ( also called clothoid)
• Leminiscate
• Cubic parabola
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 15
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 16
Numerical
Q1. The radius of centre line of a circular curve of two lane highway
with a design speed of 70kmph is 220m. Assuming extra-widening is
not necessary. Calculate the length of the transition curve and shift of
the curve. Assume other necessary data approximately.
Ans: a) 62m
b) 0.73m

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 17

 Superelevation
Horizontal curves:
• P=wv2/gR, Here
P= centrifugal force, Kg v= speed of vehicle m/sec w= weight of vehicle, Kg
g= acceleration due to gravity 9.8 m/sec2 R=radius of the circular curve
The ratio of the centrifugal force to the weight of the vehicle, P/W is known as
the centrifugal ratio or the impact factor. The centrifugal ratio is thus equal to
v2/gR.
The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has two
effects:
• tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels &
• Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally outwards.

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 18

Overturning effect:

Centrifugal force= P*h

Restoring moment to weight of vehicle=w*b/2
At equilibrium, P*h= w*b/2…...1 OR, p/w=b/2h…………2 from 1 &2,
v2/gR=b/2h
• Note: - there is danger of overturning when the centrifugal ratio attains value
of b/2h Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 19
Transverse skidding effect:
The centrifugal force developed has also the tendency to push the vehicle
outward in the transverse direction.
At equilibrium,
P=Fa+Fb P= f (Ra+Rb)
P= fw
Here f is the coefficient of friction between the tyre & pavement in the
transverse direction Ra &Rb are normal reactions.
W is the weight of the vehicle Since p=fw p/w=f
• Note: - when the centrifugal ratio attains a value equal to the coefficient of
lateral friction there is a danger of lateral skidding.
# Thus to avoid overturning & lateral skidding on a horizontal curve, the
centrifugal ratio should be less than b/2h & also f.
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 20
Super elevation
In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force & to reduce the tendency
of the vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised
with respect to the inner edge, thus providing a transverse slope throughout
the length of the horizontal curve. Thus transverse inclination to the
pavement surface is known as super elevation or cant or banking.
The value of e depend on;-
• Speed of the vehicle (v) -
• Radius of the curve (R)
• Lateral frictional resistance (f)

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 21

Analysis of super elevation
The forces acting on the vehicle while moving on a circular curve of radius R
meters, at the speed of v m/sec
The centrifugal force p= wv2/gR acting horizontally outwards through the
center of gravity CG
The weight W of the vehicle acting vertically downwards through the CG
The frictional force developed between the wheels & the pavement
counteracts transversely along the pavement surface towards the centre of the
curvature.
For the equilibrium condition,
P cosϴ= w sinϴ+ Fa + Fb= wsinϴ+fRa+ fRb= wsinϴ+f (Ra+Rb)
= wsin ϴ+f (wcosϴ+Psinϴ)
p(cosϴ-finϴ)=wsinϴ+fwcosϴ dividing both side by wcosϴ
p/w(1-ftanϴ)=tanϴ+f p/w= (tanϴ+f)/(1-ftanϴ)
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since coefficient of lateral friction, f=0.15 for design purpose tanϴ= super
elevation=0.07 or above 1/15.
Then value of ftanϴ= 0.01, hence 1-ftanϴ=1-0.01= 0.99~ Approx.1
So, p/w=f + tanϴ
v2/gR= e+f
e+f = v2/gR
here, R= Radius of the horizontal curve g= acceleration due to
gravity, 9.8m/sec2
f= design value of lateral friction coefficient=0.15 v=speed of the vehicle m/sec
if v in Kmph, then
e+f= (0.278v)2/9.8R= v2/127R
(Hint: condition, e=0 or f=o)

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 23

 Numerical
Q1. The radius of the horizontal circular curve is 140m. The design speed is
60kmph and the design coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15. a) Calculate the
super elevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop. B)
Calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no super elevation is provided.
C) Calculate the equilibrium super elevation if the pressure on inner outer
wheels should be equal.
Ans: a) 0.052 b) 0.202 c)0.202

Q2. The design speed of a road is 80 km/hr. There is a horizontal curve of

a radius R=100m on a certain locality. Calculate the super elevation needed
to maintain this speed, if the maximum super elevation of 1:15 should not
exceed. Calculate the maximum comfortable speed.
Ans: a) 0.07 b) 50 Km/hr
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 24
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD):
SSD is the minimum distance required with in which a vehicle moving at
designed speed can be stopped without colliding with an object on the road
surface. The sight distance available on road to a driver at any instances
depends on features of the road ahead, height of the drivers’ eye above the
road surface & height of the object above road surface.
• Factors affecting stopping sight distances are:-
• The speed of the vehicle
• Efficiency of brakes
• Frictional resistance between road surface & vehicle tyres
• Longitudinal slope of the road/ gradient of the road
• Total reaction time of the driver ( Perception time + Brake reaction time)

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 25

Perception time: - the perception time is the time required for a driver to realize
that brakes must be applied. The brake reaction time also depends on several
factors including the skill of the driver, type of problems & various other
environmental factors. Often the total brake reaction time of the driver is taken
together.
PIEV Theory:
• Perception : perceiving through eye & ear etc
• Intellection: analyzing the situation i.e. knowledge
• Emotion : time lapsed for emotional feeling like fear, anger etc
• Volition : time to take final action/ to make final decision
The PIEV time of a driver depends on several factors such as physical &
psychological characteristics of a driver, type of the problem involved,
environmental condition & temporary factors (e.g. motive of the trip, travel
speed, fatigue, consumption alcohol etc.). The total reaction time of an average
driver may vary from 0.5 secondsAssistant
for professor
simple Mohan situation
Dhoja K.C. to as much as 3 to 4 sec.
26
Analysis of stopping Distance:
Lag distance: distance travelled by the vehicle during the total reaction time=
v* t (2.5 seconds, IRC)
Braking distance: distance travelled by vehicle after applying brakes.
Braking distance is obtained by equating work done in stopping= kinetic energy
of moving vehicle
F*L=0.50 mv2
If F is the maximum frictional force developed & the braking distance is L, then
work done against friction force in stopping the vehicle is F*L=f wL, where w is
the total weight of the vehicle.
0.50 mv2=F*L fwL=wv2/2g L=v2/2gf
where, L= braking distance
v=velocity of vehicle m/s f=design coefficient of friction (0.40 to 0.35
depending on speed 30 t0 80 Kmph)Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 27
g= accelerating due to gravity=9.8 m/sec2
stopping distance (SD), m= lag distance + braking distance
= v*t + v2/2gf
If speed in Kmph, SD, m=0.278 v*t + v2/254f
Stopping distance at slopes:
S.D (m) = v*t + v2/2g (f±0.01n) S.D. (m) = 0.278 v*t+ v2/254 (f±0.01n)

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 28

NRS -2070

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 29

 Numerical
Q1. Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid head on collision
with a car approaching from the opposite direction if both the cars are
speeding at 60kmph. Use a total perception and brake reaction time of 2sec,
coefficient of longitudinal friction 0.40 and brake efficiency 50%. The section of
the road under consideration has a grade 10%. (Ans: 218)

Q2. Calculate the minimum stopping distance for a design speed of 50kmph
for a) two way traffic in a two lane road b) two way traffic in single lane road c)
one way traffic in a two lane road. Assume all data suitably.
(Ans: a) 62.82m b) 125.64 m c) 62.82m) (hint: f=0.35, t=2.5 sec.)

Q3. Calculate the values of I) Head light sight distance and (ii) Intermediate
sight distance for a highway with a design speed of 80kmph. Assume suitable
data if necessary. (Ans: I) 128m Assistant
ii) 256m) (hint: f=0.35, t=2.5 sec.)
professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 30
 Set back distance
The clearance or set back distance depends upon the following factors:-
-Required sight distance -Radius of horizontal curve
- Length of the curve, Lc which may be greater or less than SD.
Case I, Length of curve (Ls) > sight Distance (s).
• For the narrow roads or single lane, the angle subtended at the centre, α=s/R
• For the half central angle is given by α/2=s/2R radians= 180s/2πR
The distance from the obstruction to the centre is R cos α/2
#setback distance (m) = R-R cos α/2
# For wide roads with two or more lanes, d= the distance between the centre
line of the road& the centre line of the inside lane in meters
• in such conditions, sight distance is measured along the middle of the inner
side lane & the set back distance, m is given by m= R- (R-d) cos α/2
• where, α/2= 180s/2π(R-d) degrees.
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 31
Case II Length of curve (Ls) < sight Distance (s).
• α/2= 180Lc/2π(R-d) degrees.
• Set back distance (m) = CG+GF = R-(R-d) cos α/2+ (s-Lc)/2*sin α/2

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 32

 Numerical
Q1. A four lane divided carriageway has a curve 1000m long and a radius of
550m. The safe stopping sight distance of 250m. Calculate the minimum set
back distance from the inner edge of a building to ensure safe visibility. The
pavement width per lane is 3.5m
(Ans: 19.43m)

Q2. The radius of centre line of a circular curve is 650m and the sight
distance required is 400m. The length of the curve is 300m. Find out the set
back from an obstruction to the centre line.
(Ans: 30.46m)

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 33

 Vertical curves
Vertical curves are provided at the intersection of different grades to smoothen
the vertical profile & ease off the changes in gradients for the fast moving
vehicle.
Types of vertical curves;-
• Summit curves/ crest/ convexity upwards
• Valley curves/ sag/ concavity upwards

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 34

 Summit Curves
Summit curves: summit curves with convexity upwards are formed in any
one of the following cases:-
• Designs of summit curves are governed only by considerations of sight
distances, Transition curves are not necessary.
• Simple parabola is provided for vertical curves, since it is very easy for
arithmetic manipulation for computing ordinates.
• Since the deviation angles are very small & so between the same tangent
points, a simple parabola is nearly congruent with a circular arc, hence
simple parabola is provided as a vertical curve.
When the length of curve is greater than the sight distance (L>SSD)
L= NS2/ (√2H+√2h) 2
L= NS2/4.4
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 35
 Summit Curves
When the length of curve is less than the sight distance (L<SSD)
L= 2S-(√2H+√2h)2/N ;L=2s-4.4/N

Length of summit curve for overtaking sight distance (OSD):

• L> S (OSD) L= NS2/(√2H+√2h)2 (H=h=1.2) L=NS2/9.6
• L<S(OSD) L= 2S-(√2H+√2h)2/N L= 2S-9.6/N
Factors to be considered to design valley curve:-
• Impact-free movement of vehicles at design speed
• Consideration of headlight distances during night time
• The lowest point in the valley curve may be located from considerations of
cross drainage
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 36
Valley Curves
The length of transition curve Ls for comfort condition , Ls=v3/CR, Value of
R=Ls/N
• Ls=N* v3/(C*Ls) Ls2= N* v3/C, Ls=√ N* v3/C, L=2Ls=2*√ N* v3/C,
• N= deviation angle, v m/sec, C= allowable rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration =0.60m/sec3
• If V Kmph, L= 0.38=√ N* v3 (c= 0.60m/sec3 is taken)
The length of valley curve for head light sight distances
• L> SSD If the valley curve is assumed to be of parabolic shape, with equation
Y=ax2, a=N/2L
• h1+ stanα=as2= NS2/2L L= NS2/(2(h1+ stanα)) (Taken, h1=0.75, α=10)
• L= NS2/(1.5+ 0.035S)
Where , L= total length of valley curve, m S=SSD, m N= Deviation angle
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 37
L<SSD
• h1+ stanα=(s-L/2)N, L=2S-(2h1+2stanα)/N
• L=2S- (1.5+0.035S)/N
Gradient: gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with
respect to the horizontal. It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in X (1 vertical & X
horizontal). Sometimes the gradient is also expressed as a percentage i.e. n in
100
Ascending gradient is denoted as = +n%
Descending gradient is denoted as = -n%
Gradients are divided into the following categories:-
• Ruling gradient
• Limiting gradient
• Exceptional gradient
• Minimum gradient Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 38
 Numerical
• Design a vertical curve for the following data: I1=+2.5%, i2=-1.2%, SD=245m, height
of driver’s eye from the road surface=1.22m. (Ans: 230m)
• A 2% gradient meets a-0.25% gradient at a chain-age of 1085m and at the reduced
level of 76.55m, if the sight distance be 304.8m, determine the length of the
vertical curve and the reduced levels of the tangents points and the highest point
on the curve. Assume that the eye level of the driver eye is 1.143m the height of
the obstruction is 0.1m.
(Ans: I) L=550m ii) BVC=71.05m iii) EVC=75.8625m)
 Design the total length of the valley curve at the junction of the descending
gradient of 1 in 40 and an ascending gradient of 1 in 30 if the design speed is
100kmph. So as to fulfill both comfort condition and head light sight distance for
night driving. Locate the lowest point and the end of curve point too. Calculate
their elevations if the elevation of the beginning of the curve is 312.56m above sea
level. Assume other necessary data reasonably. (Ans: I) L=250m ii) R.L.of
lowest=311.22m, EVC=313.61m) Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 39
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 40
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 41
 Recommendation for alignment for design
• Alignment should be as directional as possible
• Alignment should be consistent with topography and should generally
conform to the natural contours. A line cutting across the contours involves
high fills and deep cuts, mars of landscapes and is difficult for maintenance.
• The number of curves should be in general kept minimum
• The alignment should avoid abrupt turns. Winding alignment consisting of
short curves should be avoided.
• Road alignment should be consistent throughout without any sudden
change of design standards.
• A sharp curve at the end of a long tangent is extremely hazardous and
should be avoided. If sharp curvature is unavoidable over a portion of the
route selected, it is preferable that this portion of the road be preceded by
successive sharper curves. Proper signage well in advance of a sharp
horizontal curve is essential. Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 42
 Recommendation for alignment for design
Short curves giving appearance of kinks should be avoided, especially for
small deflection angles. The curves should be sufficiently long to provide
pleasing appearance and smooth driving on important highway. They should
be at least 150m long for a deflection angle of 5 degree, and the minimum
length should be increased by 30m for each 1 degree in the deflection angle.
Curves same direction short separated by short tangents are called broken-
back curves. They should be avoided as they are not pleasing in appearance
and are hazardous.
Compound curves may be use in difficult topography in preference to broken-
back arrangement ,but they should be used only if it is impossible to fit in a
single circular curve. To ensure safe and smooth transition from curve to
curve, a radius of the flatter curve should not be disproportional to the radius
of the sharper curve. A ratio of 2:1 or preferably 1.5:1 should be adopted.
Length of transition curve should not be less than ¼ of the length of the
circular curve. Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 43
 Recommendation for alignment for design

For a particular design speed, as large radius as possible should be adopted.

The minimum radius should be reserved only for critical locations.
The use of sharp curves should be avoided on high fills. In the absence of cut
slopes, shrubs, trees etc. above the roadway, the drivers may have difficulty in
estimating the extent of curvature and fail to adjust to the conditions.
While abrupt reversal in curvature is to be avoided, the use of reverse curves
becomes unavoidable in hilly terrain. When they are provided, adequately
long transitional curves should be inserted for super-elevation run-off.

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 44

 Coordination of horizontal and vertical alignment
• Straight alignment or flat horizontal curves imposed on a road with steep or
long grades or excessive curvature imposed on a road with flat grade are both
poor designs. The compromise between two offers the best in safety, capacity,
ease and uniformity of operation.
• Vertical curvature superimposed upon horizontal curvature, or vice-versa
generally effects in a pleasing effect.
• From the safety point of view, sharp horizontal curvature should not be
introduced at or near the top of a pronounced summit vertical curve. In such
situations, the horizontal curve is made longer than the vertical curve.
• Sharp horizontal curves should be avoided at or near the low point of a
pronounced sag curves.

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 45

 Coordination of horizontal and vertical alignment
• On divided highways, variations in the width of the median and the use of
separate profiles and horizontal alignments should be considered to derive
design and operational advantages of one-way roadways.
• As far as possible horizontal and vertical curves should be overlapped. It is
desirable that horizontal curve be slightly longer than vertical curve. The IP’s
of horizontal and vertical curves should be offset to a distance not more than
¼ of the length of shorter of these curves.
• Ends of horizontal curves should not coincide with the beginning of vertical
curves.
• on two lane highways, the need for safe passing sections at frequent intervals
and for an appreciable percentage of the length of the highway often
supersedes the general desirable to have a long straight sections to secure
sufficient passing sight distance in design.
Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 46
 Coordination of horizontal and vertical alignment
• Horizontal curvature and vertical profile should be made as flat as possible at
the highway intersections where sight distance is important and vehicles may
have to slow or stop.

Assistant professor Mohan Dhoja K.C. 47