CAMPBELL BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

URRY • CAIN • WASSERMAN • MINORSKY • REECE

1
Introduction:
Evolution and the
Foundations of Biology
Lecture Presentations by
Kathleen Fitzpatrick and
Nicole Tunbridge,
Simon Fraser University

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. SECOND EDITION

 Overview: Inquiring About Life

▪ An organism’s adaptations to its environment are

the result of evolution
▪ For example, a beach mouse’s light, dappled fur acts
as camouflage, allowing the mouse to blend into its
surroundings
▪ Inland mice of the same species are darker in color,
matching their surroundings
▪ Evolution is the process of change that has
transformed life on Earth

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Figure 1.1

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Figure 1.2

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 ▪ Biology is the scientific study of life
▪ Biologists ask questions such as
▪ How does a single cell develop into an organism?
▪ How does the human mind work?
▪ How do different forms of life in a forest interact?

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 Concept 1.1: The study of life reveals common themes

▪ To organize and make sense of all the information

encountered in biology, focus on a few big ideas
▪ These unifying themes help to organize biological
information:
▪ Organization
▪ Information
▪ Energy and Matter
▪ Interactions
▪ Evolution

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 Theme: New Properties Emerge at Successive Levels
of Biological Organization
▪ Life can be studied at different levels, from
molecules to the entire living planet
▪ The study of life can be divided into different levels
of biological organization
▪ In reductionism, complex systems are reduced to
simpler components to make them more
manageable to study

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Figure 1.3

7
1 The Tissues
Biosphere

2 6 Organs
Ecosystems

3 8
Communities 10 Cells
Mole-
5 cules
Organ-
isms
4
Populations

9 Organelles
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Figure 1.3-1

1 The Biosphere

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Figure 1.3-2

2 Ecosystems

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Figure 1.3-3

3 Communities

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Figure 1.3-4

4 Populations

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Figure 1.3-5

5 Organisms

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Figure 1.3-6

6 Organs

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Figure 1.3-7

7 Tissues 50 m

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Figure 1.3-8

Cell 10 m

8 Cells

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Figure 1.3-9

Chloroplast 1 m

9 Organelles

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Figure 1.3-10

Atoms

Chlorophyll
molecule

10 Molecules

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 Emergent Properties

▪ Emergent properties result from the arrangement

and interaction of parts within a system
▪ Emergent properties characterize nonbiological
entities as well
▪ For example, a functioning bicycle emerges only
when all of the necessary parts connect in the correct
way

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 ▪ Biologists today complement reductionism with
systems biology, the exploration of a biological
system by analyzing the interactions among its
parts
▪ The systems approach poses questions such as
▪ How do networks of genes in our cells function to
generate our 24-hour cycle of wakefulness and
sleep?
▪ How does increasing CO2 alter the biosphere?

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 Structure and Function

▪ At each level of the biological hierarchy we find a

correlation between structure and function
▪ Analyzing a biological structure can give clues
about what it does and how it works

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 The Cell: An Organism’s Basic Unit of Structure and
Function
▪ The cell is the smallest unit of life that can perform
all the required activities
▪ All cells share certain characteristics, such as being
enclosed by a membrane
▪ The two main forms of cells are prokaryotic and
eukaryotic

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 ▪ A eukaryotic cell contains membrane-enclosed
organelles, including a DNA-containing nucleus
▪ Some organelles, such as the chloroplast, are
limited only to certain cell types, that is, those that
carry out photosynthesis
▪ Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus or other
membrane-bound organelles and are generally
smaller than eukaryotic cells

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Figure 1.4

Eukaryotic cell Prokaryotic cell

Membrane DNA
(no nucleus)
Cytoplasm
Membrane

Nucleus
(membrane-
enclosed)
Membrane-
DNA (throughout
enclosed
nucleus)
organelles
1 m

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Figure 1.4-1

Eukaryotic cell
Membrane
Cytoplasm

Nucleus
(membrane-
enclosed)
Membrane-
DNA (throughout
enclosed
nucleus)
organelles
1 m

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Figure 1.4-2

Prokaryotic cell
DNA
(no nucleus)

Membrane

1 m

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 Theme: Life’s Processes Involve the Expression and
Transmission of Genetic Information
▪ Chromosomes contain most of a cell’s genetic
material in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

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Figure 1.5

10 m
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Figure 1.5-1

10 m

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Figure 1.5-2

10 m

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 DNA, the Genetic Material

▪ A DNA molecule holds hundreds or thousands of

genes, each a stretch of DNA along the
chromosome
▪ Genes are the units of inheritance that transmit
information from parents to offspring
▪ As cells grow and divide, the genetic information
encoded by DNA directs their development

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Figure 1.6

Nuclei containing DNA

Sperm cell

Egg
cell

Fertilized egg
with DNA from
both parents Embryo’s cells
with copies of
inherited DNA
Offspring with
traits inherited
from both parents

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Figure 1.6-1

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 ▪ A DNA molecule is made of two long chains
(strands) arranged in a double helix
▪ Each link of a chain is one of four kinds of chemical
building blocks called nucleotides, abbreviated A, T,
C, and G

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Figure 1.7

Nucleus A
DNA C
Nucleotide T
Cell A
T
A
C
C
G
T
A
G
T
A

(a) DNA double helix (b) Single strand of DNA

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 ▪ DNA provides blueprints for making proteins, the
major players in building and maintaining a cell
▪ Genes control protein production indirectly, using
RNA as an intermediary
▪ Gene expression is the process of converting
information from gene to cellular product

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Figure 1.8
(b) A lens cell uses information in DNA to make
crystallin proteins.
Crystallin gene

(a) Lens cells are Lens

tightly packed cell
with transparent A C C A A A C C G A G T
proteins called DNA T G G T T T G G C T C A
crystallin.
TRANSCRIPTION

mRNA U G G U U U G G C U C A

TRANSLATION

Chain of amino
acids

PROTEIN FOLDING

Protein
Crystallin protein
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Figure 1.8-1

(a) Lens cells are Lens

tightly packed cell
with transparent
proteins called
crystallin.

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Figure 1.8-1a

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Figure 1.8-1b

Lens
cell

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Figure 1.8-2

(b) A lens cell uses information in DNA to make

crystallin proteins.
Crystallin gene

A C C A A A C C G A G T
DNA T G G T T T G G C T C A

TRANSCRIPTION

mRNA U G G U U U G G C U C A

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Figure 1.8-3

(b) A lens cell uses information in DNA to make

crystallin proteins.

mRNA U G G U U U G G C U C A

TRANSLATION

Chain of amino
acids

PROTEIN FOLDING

Protein
Crystallin protein
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 Genomics: Large-Scale Analysis of DNA Sequences

▪ An organism’s genome is its entire set of genetic

instructions
▪ Genomics is the study of sets of genes within and
between species
▪ Proteomics refers to the study of sets of proteins
and their properties
▪ The entire set of proteins expressed by a cell or
group of cells is called a proteome

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 ▪ “High-throughput” technology refers to tools that
can analyze biological samples very rapidly
▪ Bioinformatics is the use of computational tools to
store, organize, and analyze the huge volume of
data
▪ Interdisciplinary research teams aim to learn how
activities of all proteins and noncoding RNAs are
coordinated in cells and whole organisms

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 Theme: Life Requires the Transfer and
Transformation of Energy and Matter
▪ Input of energy, mainly from the sun, and
transformation of energy from one form to another
make life possible
▪ Plants and other photosynthetic organisms convert
the energy of sunlight into the chemical energy of
sugars
▪ This chemical energy of these producers is then
passed to consumers that feed on the producers

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 ▪ Energy flows through an ecosystem, generally
entering as light and exiting as heat
▪ Chemical elements are recycled within an
ecosystem

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Figure 1.9

ENERGY FLOW

Chemicals
pass to
L
organisms
that eat the
plants.

Light Plants
energy convert Heat is lost
comes sunlight to from the
from the chemical ecosystem.
sun. energy. Organisms use
chemical energy to
do work.
Decomposers
Plants take up return
chemicals chemicals to
from the soil the soil.
and air.

Chemicals

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 Theme: Organisms Interact with Other Organisms
and the Physical Environment
▪ Every organism interacts with other organisms and
with physical factors in its environment
▪ Both organisms and their environments are affected
by the interactions between them
▪ For example, a plant takes up water and minerals
from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air; the tree
releases oxygen to the air, and roots help form soil

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 ▪ Interactions between organisms include those that
benefit both organisms and those in which both
organisms are harmed
▪ Interactions affect individual organisms and the way
that populations evolve over time

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Figure 1.10

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 ▪ Scientists calculate that the CO2 that human
activities have added to the atmosphere has
increased the average temperature of the planet by
1°C since 1900
▪ Climate change is a directional change in global
climate that lasts three decades or more
▪ Climate change has already affected organisms and
their habitats all over the planet

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Figure 1.11

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 Evolution, the Core Theme of Biology

▪ Evolution makes sense of everything we know

about living organisms
▪ Evolution explains patterns of unity and diversity in
living organisms
▪ Similar traits among organisms are explained by
descent from common ancestors
▪ Differences among organisms are explained by the
accumulation of heritable changes

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 Concept 1.2: The Core Theme: Evolution accounts
for the unity and diversity of life
▪ The remarkably diverse forms of life on this planet
arose by evolutionary processes

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 Classifying the Diversity of Life

▪ Humans group diverse items according to their

similarities and relationships to each other
▪ Careful analysis of form and function has been used
to classify life-forms
▪ New methods of assessing species relationships,
especially comparisons of DNA sequences, have
led to a reevaluation of larger groupings

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 ▪ Biologists currently divide the kingdoms of life into
three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
▪ Domains Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotes

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 ▪ Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotic organisms
▪ Domain Eukarya includes three multicellular
kingdoms: Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia
▪ Plants produce their own food by photosynthesis
▪ Fungi absorb nutrients
▪ Animals ingest their food

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Figure 1.12

(a) Domain Bacteria (b) Domain Archaea

2 m
2 m
(c) Domain Eukarya
Kingdom
Animalia

100 m

Kingdom
Plantae

Kingdom Fungi Protists

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Figure 1.12-1

(a) Domain Bacteria

2 m
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Figure 1.12-2

(b) Domain Archaea

2 m
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Figure 1.12-3

(c) Domain Eukarya

Kingdom
Animalia

100 m

Kingdom
Plantae

Kingdom Fungi Protists

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Figure 1.12-3a

(c) Domain Eukarya

Kingdom Plantae

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Figure 1.12-3b

(c) Domain Eukarya

Kingdom Fungi

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Figure 1.12-3c

(c) Domain Eukarya

Kingdom Animalia

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Figure 1.12-3d

(c) Domain Eukarya

Protists 100 m

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 Unity in the Diversity of Life

▪ A striking unity underlies the diversity of life

▪ For example, DNA is the universal genetic language
common to all organisms
▪ Similarities between organisms are evident at all
levels of the biological hierarchy
▪ Fossils and other evidence document the evolution
of life on Earth over billions of years

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Figure 1.13

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 Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection

▪ Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species

by Means of Natural Selection in 1859
▪ Darwin made two main points
▪ Species showed evidence of “descent with
modification” from common ancestors
▪ Natural selection is the mechanism behind “descent
with modification”
▪ Darwin’s theory captured the duality of unity and
diversity

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Figure 1.14

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Figure 1.14-1

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Figure 1.14-2

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Figure 1.15

European robin
American flamingo

Gentoo penguin

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Figure 1.15-1

American flamingo

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Figure 1.15-2

European robin

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Figure 1.15-3

Gentoo penguin

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 ▪ Darwin observed that
▪ Individuals in a population vary in their traits, many of
which are heritable
▪ More offspring are produced than survive, and
competition is inevitable
▪ Species generally suit their environment

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 ▪ Darwin inferred that
▪ Individuals that are best suited to their environment
are more likely to survive and reproduce
▪ Over time, more individuals in a population will have
the advantageous traits

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 ▪ In other words, the environment “selects” for the
propagation of beneficial traits
▪ Darwin called this process natural selection

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Figure 1.16-s1

Population with
varied inherited
traits

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Figure 1.16-s2

Population with Elimination of

varied inherited individuals with
traits certain traits

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Figure 1.16-s3

Population with Elimination of Reproduction

varied inherited individuals with of survivors
traits certain traits

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Figure 1.16-s4

Population with Elimination of Reproduction Increased

varied inherited individuals with of survivors frequency
traits certain traits of traits that
enhance
survival

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 Video: Albatross Courtship

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 Video: Soaring Hawk

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 Video: Boobies Courtship

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 Video: Galápagos Islands

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 Video: Marine Iguana

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 Video: Sea Lion

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 Video: Tortoise

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 The Tree of Life

▪ The forelimb of a human, foreleg of a horse, flipper

of a whale, and wing of a bat all share a common
skeletal architecture
▪ The shared anatomy of mammalian limbs reflects
inheritance of a limb structure from a common
ancestor
▪ The diversity of mammalian limbs results from
modification by natural selection over millions of
years

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 ▪ Darwin proposed that natural selection could cause
an ancestral species to give rise to two or more
descendent species
▪ For example, the finch species of the Galápagos
Islands are descended from a common ancestor
▪ Evolutionary relationships are often illustrated with
treelike diagrams that show ancestors and their
descendants

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Figure 1.17

Green warbler finch

Certhidea olivacea
(insect-eater)

ANCESTRAL Vegetarian finch

FINCH Platyspiza crassirostris
(fruit-eater)
Woodpecker finch
Camarhynchus pallidus
(insect-eater)
Small tree finch
Camarhynchus parvulus
(insect-eater)
Common cactus finch
Geospiza scandens
(cactus-eater)
Large ground finch
Geospiza
magnirostris
(seed-eater)

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 Concept 1.3: In studying nature, scientists form and
test hypotheses
▪ The word science is derived from a Latin verb
meaning “to know”
▪ Inquiry is the search for information and
explanation
▪ The scientific process includes making
observations, forming logical hypotheses, and
testing them

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 Exploration and Discovery

▪ Biology begins with careful observations

▪ Biologists describe natural structures and processes
▪ By reading about and understanding past studies,
scientists can build on the foundations of existing
knowledge

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 Gathering and Analyzing Data

▪ Recorded observations are called data

▪ Data fall into two categories
▪ Qualitative data, or descriptions rather than
measurements
▪ For example, Jane Goodall’s observations of
chimpanzee behavior
▪ Quantitative data, or recorded measurements, which
are sometimes organized into tables and graphs

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Figure 1.18

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Figure 1.18-1

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Figure 1.18-2

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 ▪ Inductive reasoning draws conclusions through
the logical process of induction
▪ Through induction, generalizations are drawn from
a large number of observations
▪ For example, “all organisms are made of cells” was
based on two centuries of microscopic observations

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 Forming and Testing Hypotheses

▪ In science, a hypothesis is a rational accounting for

a set of observations, guided by inductive reasoning
▪ It is an explanation on trial
▪ A scientific hypothesis leads to predictions that
can be tested with additional observations or an
experiment
▪ An experiment is a scientific test, often carried out
under controlled conditions

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 ▪ The initial observations may lead to multiple
hypotheses to be tested
▪ For example
▪ Observation: Your desk lamp doesn’t work
▪ Question: Why doesn’t your lamp work?
▪ Hypothesis 1: The bulb is burnt out
▪ Hypothesis 2: The lamp is broken
▪ Both these hypotheses are testable

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 Deductive Reasoning

▪ Deductive reasoning extrapolates from general

premises to specific predictions
▪ The hypothesis is then tested experimentally

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 ▪ A hypothesis can never be conclusively proven to
be true because we can never test all the
alternatives
▪ Hypotheses gain credibility by surviving multiple
attempts at falsification, while alternative
hypotheses are eliminated by testing

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 Questions That Can and Cannot Be Addressed by
Science
▪ A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable
▪ For example, hypotheses involving supernatural
explanations cannot be tested
▪ Such explanations are outside the bounds of
science

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 The Flexibility of the Scientific Process

▪ Very few scientific studies adhere rigidly to the

sequence of steps typically used to describe the
scientific method

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Figure 1.19

EXPLORATION
AND
DISCOVERY

FORMING
AND
TESTING
HYPOTHESES
SOCIETAL COMMUNITY
BENEFITS ANALYSIS
AND AND
OUTCOMES FEEDBACK

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Figure 1.19-1

Testing Ideas
• Forming hypotheses
• Predicting results
• Doing experiments and/or
making observations
• Gathering data
• Analyzing results

Interpreting Results
Data may…
• Support a hypothesis
• Contradict a hypothesis
• Inspire a revised or new
hypothesis

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Figure 1.19-2

• Observing nature
• Asking questions
• Reading the
scientific literature

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Figure 1.19-3

• Developing
technology
• Informing policy
• Solving problems
• Building
knowledge

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Figure 1.19-4

• Feedback and
peer review
• Replication of
findings
• Publication
• Consensus
building

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Figure 1.19-5

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Figure 1.19-6

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Figure 1.19-7

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Figure 1.19-8

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 A Case Study in Scientific Inquiry: Investigating Coat
Coloration in Mouse Populations
▪ Color patterns in animals vary widely in nature,
even among members of the same species
▪ Two mouse populations that reside in different
habitats have different coat colors
▪ What accounts for the “match” between the coat
colors of the mice and the color of the sand or soil in
their habitats?

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Figure 1.20

Florida Inland
Beach population population

GULF OF
Beach
MEXICO
population

Inland population

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Figure 1.20-1

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Figure 1.20-2

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Figure 1.20-3

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Figure 1.20-4

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 ▪ The natural predators of the mice are all visual
hunters
▪ Francis Bertody Sumner hypothesized that the color
patterns in the mice had evolved as adaptations that
camouflage the mice to protect them from predation
▪ Recently Hopi Hoekstra and a group of her students
tested the predictions of this hypothesis

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 ▪ Prediction: Mice with coloration that does not match
the habitat should suffer heavier predation than the
native, well-matched mice
▪ The group built many models of mice that
resembled either beach or inland mice and placed
equal numbers of models randomly in both habitats
▪ The results showed that the camouflaged models
suffered much lower rates of predation than the
mismatched ones

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Figure 1.21

Results
Beach habitat Inland habitat
100
attacked models
Percentage of

50

0
Light models Dark models Light models Dark models

Camouflaged Non-camouflaged Non-camouflaged Camouflaged

(control) (experimental) (experimental) (control)

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Figure 1.21-1

Camouflaged
(control)

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Figure 1.21-2

Non-camouflaged
(experimental)

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Figure 1.21-3

Non-camouflaged
(experimental)

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Figure 1.21-4

Camouflaged
(control)

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 Experimental Variables and Controls

▪ A controlled experiment compares an

experimental group (the non-camouflaged mice)
with a control group (the camouflaged mice)
▪ The factor that is manipulated and the effect of the
factor on the system are both experimental
variables
▪ The factor manipulated by the researchers—color—
is called the independent variable
▪ The effect of the manipulated factor—amount of
predation—is called the dependent variable

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 ▪ Researchers usually control unwanted variables not
by eliminating them, but by canceling them out
using control groups

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 Theories in Science

▪ In the context of science, a theory is

▪ Broader in scope than a hypothesis
▪ General enough to lead to new testable hypotheses
▪ Supported by a large body of evidence in comparison
to a hypothesis

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 Science as a Social Process

▪ Anyone who becomes a scientist benefits from the

rich storehouse of discoveries by others who have
come before
▪ Most scientists work in teams
▪ Scientists working in the same research field often
check one another’s claims by attempting to confirm
observations or repeat experiments

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 ▪ The relationship between science and society is
clearer when technology is considered
▪ The goal of technology is to apply scientific
knowledge for some specific purpose
▪ Science and technology are interdependent

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Figure 1.UN01

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Figure 1.UN02-1

40 Light coat 40 Light coat

Number of mice caught

Number of mice caught

35 Dark coat 35 Dark coat

30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
Full moon No moon Full moon No moon
A: Light-colored soil B: Dark-colored soil
Data from D. W. Kaufman, Adaptive coloration in Peromyscus polionotus:
Experimental selection by owls, Journal of Mammalogy 55:271–283 (1974).

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Figure 1.UN02-2

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Figure 1.UN03

ENERGY FLOW

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Figure 1.UN03-1

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Figure 1.UN03-2

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Figure 1.UN03-3

ENERGY FLOW

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Figure 1.UN03-4

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Figure 1.UN03-5

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Figure 1.UN04

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