UNESCO Bangkok

Community Learning Centres

Asia and Pacific Programme
of Education for All (APPEAL) Unit

Community
Learning Centres
Country Reports from Asia

Country Reports from Asia

UNESCO Bangkok

Asia and Pacific Programme

of Education for All (APPEAL) Unit

920 Sukhumvit Road

Prakanong, Bangkok 10110 Thailand
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.unesco/bangkok.org
Tel: +66-2-3910577 Fax: +66-2-3910866
 Community
Learning Centres
Country Report from Asia

UNESCO
Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education
Community Learning Centres: country report from Asia. Bangkok: UNESCO Bangkok, 2008.
110 pp.

1. Community learning centres. 2. Country reports. 3. Asia

ISBN 978-92-9223-182-8 (Print version)

ISBN 978-92-9223-183-5 (Electronic version)

© UNESCO 2008
Published by the
UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education
920 Sukhumvit Rd., Prakanong
Bangkok 10110, Thailand

Chief Editor: Caroline Haddad

Cover design: Pongsuda Vongsingha
Design/Layout: Sirisak Chaiyasook
Front cover picture: © UNESCO/S.Baker, APPEAL and © N. Rammal

Printed in Thailand

The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country,
territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries.

APL/08/OS/034-500
Preface
Community-based education programmes are not new to many countries. There have been many
innovative works undertaken by government and NGOs in the region over the years. Yet, such initiatives
are often time- and budget-bound projects without systematic or long-term strategies that actually link
with education policy and planning.

UNESCO's Asia-Pacific Programme of Education for All (APPEAL) Community Learning Centre (CLC)
project was started in 1998 to develop effective community-based non-formal education (NFE) delivery
mechanisms. The project has attempted to institutionalize CLCs as a key Education for All programme
strategy within the national education plans of various countries. In 2003, the United Nations Literacy
Decade (UNLD 2003 - 2012) highlighted the role of “community participation” as a key area of action and,
thus, further encouraged the establishment of CLCs.1 CLC experiences have also contributed to UNESCO’s
most recent initiative to promote literacy, the Literacy Initiative for Empowerment (LIFE) programme.

To further promote CLCs, it is important to present concrete evidence that demonstrates their effectiveness
and that can be disseminated to EFA stakeholders for strengthening and institutionalizing CLCs under
EFA national plans. Towards this aim, Community Learning Centres: Country Reports from Asia offers
comprehensive reviews on current practice and operation from nine Asian countries: Bangladesh, China,
Kazakhstan, Indonesia, Lebanon, Nepal, Thailand, Uzbekistan and Viet Nam. Lebanon’s participation in this
study is, indeed, a hopeful reflection of growing interest in using CLC modalities within the Arab States
region.

This publication consists of two parts. The first part is a synthesis of nine country research studies that
discuss the common and unique features of CLCs based on the findings concerning policies, activities,
management, achievements, and impact of CLCs in the countries. The second part features the summary
reports of each of the countries researched. Each summary report provides an overview, analysis and
recommendations further development of CLCs in the country. The full text of each research report is
included in the CD together with references, photographs and other materials related to the research.

We wish to express our appreciation to the host country researchers who provided these very informative
reports. Special thanks are extended to Dr. Prem Kasaju, who coordinated the development of the research
framework and synthesized main findings from the nine studies.

Sheldon Shaeffer
Director
UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education

1 Report of the Secretary General, 57th Session, United Nations General Assembly, 16 July 2002
Contents
Preface iii

Part I: Synthesis of Research Findings 1

Introduction 2
CLC Concept and Practice 2
CLC Organization and Management 3
Programme and Policy Linkages 7
Achievements, Outcomes and Impacts of CLCs in Participant Countries 8
Key Issues and Implications for the Future 10

Part II: Summaries of CLC Research Study Findings 13

Bangladesh 16
Introduction 16
Management and Operation of CLCs 17
CLC Linkages and Networking 18
Community Participation and Ownership 18
Costs, Financing and Sustainability of CLCs 18
Benefits from CLC Activities 20
Factors that Affect CLC Performance 24
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats 25
Recommendations 26
Conclusion 27
China 30
Introduction 30
Overview of CLCs in China 30
Profile of the Research Study 31
Analysis of CLC Experiences 32
CLC Case Studies 34
CLCs in Urban Areas of Shanghai 36
Major Findings 40
Recommendations 41
Indonesia 44
Introduction 44
Profile of the Research Study 44
Analysis of CLC Experiences 45
Impact/Outcomes 48
Recommendations 49
Kazakhstan 52
Introduction 52
Profile of the Research Study 52
Analysis of CLC Experiences 52
Impact/Outcomes 57
Major Findings 60
Recommendations 62
Lebanon 64
Introduction 64
Research Methology 64
Analysis of Clc Experiences 65
Impact/Outcomes 68
Major Findings 69
Recommendations 70
Nepal 74
Introduction 74
Profile of the Research Study 75
Analysis of CLC Experiences 76
Impact/Outcomes 77
Major Findings 79
Recommendations 81
Thailand 84
Introduction 84
Profiles of the Research Study 84
Analysis of CLC Experiences 85
Major Findings 87
Impact/Outcomes 88
Recommendations 88
Uzbekistan 92
Introduction 92
Profile of the Research Study 93
Analysis of CLC Experiences 95
Major Findings 97
Recommendations 99
Viet Nam 102
Introduction 102
Analysis of CLC Experiences 102
Major Findings 104
Recommendations 105
Annex 107
Annex 1: List of Contributors 107
Annex 2: References 108

CD Attachment Contents
Community Learning Centres: Country Reports from Asia (PDF)
Country Research Reports (full version)
Annex 1: Research Framework
Annex 2: Photos from Participating Countries
© BP-PLSP- Region II © UNESCO / APPEAL

© N. Rammal © UNESCO / APPEAL

Part I:
Synthesis of
Research Findings
Introduction*
UNESCO launched its community learning centre (CLC) project in 1998 within the framework of the Asia-
Pacific Programme of Education for All (APPEAL). It was created to generate grassroots-based interest and
participation in literacy and continuing education, especially for the disadvantaged and poor. The concept
has also been extended to the Arab region, where CLCs have been set up in Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, and
Morocco. As of September 2005, 24 Member States have established CLCs, and this number continues to
grow.

Community learning centre is a local educational institution outside the formal education system, usually
set up and managed by local people to provide various learning opportunities. The purpose of the CLC is
to promote human development by providing opportunities for lifelong learning to all people in the local
community. CLCs support empowerment, social transformation and improvement of the quality of life of
the people. The main functions of CLCs are to provide: i) education and training, ii) community information
and resource services, iii) community development activities, and iv) co-ordination and networking.

In June 2005, research specialists from CLC participant countries, namely Bangladesh, China, Indonesia,
Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Nepal, Thailand, Uzbekistan, and Viet Nam, met in Bangkok and collectively
formulated a commonly accepted research framework to undertake evaluative research of CLC practices
in their respective countries. It was then agreed that the proposed research would make an analysis of CLC
practices, focusing on their strengths, weaknesses and future potentials.

While the resultant studies do not as a rule follow a set, uniform format, certain main parameters (such as
the recipients, programme quality in terms of client satisfaction, materials, impact and linkages to macro
programmes and policies) were sufficiently delineated and defined. Thus, the research highlights presented
herein are not intended to be a comparable analysis, but a review of the various ways that community
learning centres have emerged, with each country’s unique experience and observable programme outputs
and impact.

The findings of the country research reports were presented at the CLC Review Meeting, which was jointly
organized by UNESCO Bangkok and the Chinese National Commission for UNESCO in Shanghai from 27 to
31 October 2005. The research teams from the nine countries presented their findings, including analyses
of responses from CLC beneficiary participants regarding the overall the overall impact on communities
served by the CLCs. These deliberations have also been integrated into this publication.

CLC Concept and Practice

Community learning centres are interpreted, understood and practised in the participant countries as
community-driven entities that embody sustained initiative. They are principally focused on literacy and
continuing education in support of Education for All (EFA). The activities organized by CLCs cover a wide
range of community-based development programmes in health, agriculture, education and entrepreneurial
skills for out-of-school children, youth, women, the under-privileged and the rural poor.

The CLC is increasingly seen as an important modality for socio-economic development through non-
formal education and adult learning in Bangladesh. In Nepal, education and rural development initiatives
have envisioned local schools as community development centres. Tackling illiteracy and promoting non-
formal education for children are important aspects addressed by community learning centres in Indonesia.
The Indonesian report states that CLCs serve as places for obtaining appropriate information for lifelong
learning to improve people’s quality of life.

Viet Nam reports a literacy rate of 94 percent. Illiteracy, therefore, is not a severe problem in this country. The
areas of concern are, rather, equivalency and continuing education in order to avoid regression into illiteracy
and to boost promotion of income-generating activities. The Viet Nam study states that the ultimate purpose
of CLCs is to enhance its population’s quality of life and to accelerate the country’s pace of development.
Similarly, the Lebanese study states that CLCs in Lebanon are focused on the underdeveloped rural poor
areas that have hitherto not received enough attention from governmental and donor agencies.

* Written by Dr. Prem Kasaju, former Coordinator of APPEAL, UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education

2
In Thailand, the objective of CLCs is viewed not merely in terms of improving the literacy status, but also
of providing learning experience about better conditions of life and society that make for a sustainable
and self-sufficient community. The Thai experience encourages all members of the community—children,
youth, farmers, senior citizens and others—to participate in CLC programmes and activities. CLCs target
all members of a community. The underlying approach is that CLCs should aim to bring about social
transformation by providing opportunities for lifelong education by focusing on improving all people's
overall quality of life through active, broadly-based grassroots involvement.

In Kazakhstan, 98 percent of the population is reported to be literate. The principal focus of CLC programmes
in Kazakhstan is, thus, on education. Like Thailand, its CLC programmes and activities aim to empower
individuals and promote community development through lifelong education for all people. The major
programmes are in vocational areas, life skills development and cultural activities that have been chosen
and decided upon as per the socio-economic needs of the individual community that is being served.

The Uzbekistan study asserts that, with a literacy rate of 99 percent, universal primary education has
essentially already been achieved there. However, the study cautions that emerging disparities in access
to quality education are growing and will lead to wider income inequality if not tackled efficiently. For this
reason, the report notes that CLCs have been of great service to those living in rural areas, who make up
a significant proportion of the country’s population. Programmes provide an opportunity for individuals
to acquire knowledge and skills essential to gain employment, reduce poverty and contribute to the
preservation of important cultural heritage of the country. Importantly, the study further recognizes that
the concept of lifelong education promotes a strong sense of “community belonging.”

In China, CLCs were set up in 1997-98 in the rural areas of three provinces, namely Gansu, Yunnan and
the Guangxi autonomous region. CLC programmes and activities in these rural areas focus on achieving
Education for All goals and lifelong learning, with an emphasis on poverty reduction through the
promotion of literacy education and training in practical life skills. The CLC movement in China has served
as a foundation for the establishment of a lifelong learning system in rural communities through linkages
with community education (CE) programmes operating in selected urban areas.

Literacy and basic education have been the principal emphases of community learning centres in the
countries researched. However, the country studies indicate that the community learning centres also
organize a wide range of activities focused on community development issues pertaining essentially to
health and hygiene, income generation, and equal rights for women. The main programmes as highlighted
in the participant country research reports are illustrated in Table 1, on page 4-5.

CLC Organization and Management

CLCs in the participant countries have come into existence largely at the initiative and with the support of
local community groups, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), external donors and/or development
agencies. In certain cases, they’ve been created through support from local and national government
authorities. CLCs are principally managed, supervised and financed in collaboration with local, national
and external support, however, their organization and management patterns in the participant countries
vary considerably.

In Bangladesh, CLCs are principally initiated and supported by local communities and NGOs with assistance
from aid agencies, donors and development partners. Local management and executing bodies have taken
up responsibility for organizing and overseeing CLC operations with modest start-up financial contributions
from local community members. In certain cases, they generate resources by organizing income-generating
activities such as collecting voluntary contributions, receiving charitable funds from philanthropic sources
charging CLC membership fees. CLCs that principally focus on literacy and non-formal education also
sometimes receive financial assistance from the government. CLCs that are organized and supported by
leading NGOs and outside agencies such as Dhaka Ahsania Mission (DAM) and Action Aid make elaborate
arrangements for CLC committees, training of facilitators and support personnel. They also prepare locally-
tailored materials.

3
Table 1: Major Programmes and Activities Organized by CLCs
Bangladesh Indonesia China Nepal Thailand
Acting as drop- Equivalency Literacy education Preservation of Sustainable
in centres for programmes A, B, C natural resources, agricultural
Training in practical
adolescents environment, development
Reading shelter skills
historical places
Helping children Growing chemical
Early childhood Training focused
in acquiring basic Health, hygiene and free vegetables
care and education, on change of
literacy skills counseling
mainly in rural areas occupations Fresh water culture
Post-literacy Women’s rights
Functional literacy Family education Raising traditional
and continuing
Reproductive health chicken
education (literacy Maternity clinic Social education
resource centres points, mainly rural Tourism promotion Mushroom culture
Leisure time
and library services) CLCs and small enterprise
engagements Pig farming
development,
Balancing general Culture, sports, and
including small Rice farming
education and recreation, mainly
hotel management
technical education urban Producing
Local construction household items
Skill training for Internship/ fee
skills training
income-generating support mainly Thai herbal
support
activities, savings, industrial CLCs traditional
and credit services Support to conflict- medicines
Vocation skills
affected children
Improving the Farm produce
Entrepreneurial skills
quality of life/ Animal raising: management
standard of living buffalo, goats
Capital
Promotion of Small businesses, management
personal qualities conserving bio-
Welfare
and talents diversity
development
Development of Vegetable farming/
Community
new skills and agriculture
economy/
knowledge to enterprises
Human rights
match future
requirements Peace campaigns Public health
Settlement of Tourism promotion
conflicts Learning and
Occasional health mental health
services development
Recreation, religious, Community forest
and social get- management
together Water management
Awareness-raising Traditional healing
and empowerment and treatment
to protect civic
rights Handicrafts
Lanna language and
sculpture
Integrated farming
and community
rituals
Art and culture, folk
dancing, traditional
music, martial arts,
and painting

4
Viet Nam Kazakhstan Lebanon Uzbekistan
Women’s empowerment Vocational programmes: Computer training Ecology and preservation
• Computer of the environment
Reproductive health and Summer camps and non-
family planning • Sewing formal education for basic Legal studies
• Tailoring learning courses
Safety and prevention of • Modeling Maternity protection and
transportation accidents • English Vocational training health for children
• Miners workshops on productive
Personal health and Profession-oriented
• Electric welding projects
hygiene education
Life skills programmes: Cultural activities
Drug prevention/ Problem of public health
combating prostitution • Healthcare life styles
• Family planning Problems of feminine
Improved agricultural • Massage lessons emancipation
practices • Furniture and shoe repair Culture, art and public
Veterinary training • National crafts creative activities
• Carpentry
Utilization of forestry • Handicrafts Tourism, business and
resources • Pickle making entrepreneurship
Environmental sanitation • Patchwork Social protection for
• Gardening families with moderate
Preservation of cultural
• Cheese-making means, retirees, orphans,
and historical sites
HIV/ AIDS and marginalized
Art, culture, dancing, and population groups
music Drug prevention

National and international Culinary

laws Farming and agricultural
Disabled self support practices

Economic development Cultural activities

and enterprises Ecological activities
Sports activities

5
The Bangladesh study reports that, overall, CLCs in Bangladesh suffer from a shortage of funds, motivated
personnel and lack of materials. There is also the problem of half-hearted local participation. Major
problems cited are inadequate manpower (a “one man show” in many instances) staff lacking required
efficiency and skill, insufficient equipment and tools, poor stock of books and reading materials, shortage
of funds, inadequate and inappropriate housing facilities, stereotyped and boring activities, and ineffective
management.

In Indonesia, emphasis is on community initiative, involvement and support of people at the grassroots
level for organizing CLCs. The government and local district NFE offices are responsible for providing a major
part of the funding requirement and for ensuring execution, monitoring and evaluation of programmes.
It is noted that CLC funding is largely dependent on government allocation - as much as half the total
requirement. Additional funding needs are generated by organizing bazaars, market fairs, and cultural or
sports events. The CLC venues (including buildings, material support and other logistics) are considered to
be the responsibility of the community and relevant district NFE offices.

Indonesia has developed elaborate provisions for advisory committees, consisting of programme co-
ordinators, secretaries, treasurers, programme leaders and tutors who oversee and run CLC operations. The
roles and responsibilities of these functionaries, including the specific responsibilities of the district NFE
officers, are well defined. The report notes that “the important characteristic of the organizational structure
is its dominant top-down administrative relationship.”

The Viet Nam study states that CLCs were launched in its four northern provinces with the support of
UNESCO APPEAL in 1998-99. The study gives an analysis of five major CLC centres, and draws inferences
about their state of operation based on the responses given by facilitators, managers and others linked to
the management of CLC programmes. It is stated that the provision of local CLC committees and managers
is in place to steer and oversee their operations. Some funds have been received from the government, and
various efforts are made to supplement this income with local funds, though these are often small.

In Lebanon, CLCs are organized and looked after by NGOs and local municipalities with the participation of
volunteers from the local communities. Some of these CLCs enjoy active and positive leadership, whereas
others have only a few individuals running the show.

Organization and management of CLCs in Nepal appear to vary from place to place, and from one sponsor
to another. Advisory and local management committees have been set up that are responsible for planning,
execution and supervision of programmes in collaboration with the district education offices and NFE cells.
They are organized and supported by NGOs that are principally sponsored by project funds and grants from
UN bodies and development agencies dealing with issues related to children, women, the underprivileged,
and human rights.

The Thailand study presents an in-depth analysis of selected CLCs that were initiated by the local
communities. Researchers reported that these CLCs do not receive any direct financing or programme
support from the Thai Government. The Thai study team deliberately chose to include those CLCs that have
demonstrated some degree of success in attaining their intended objectives. These CLCs are managed by
the local people, who organize and supervise programmes around topics that are relevant to the local
people and which can be implemented by locally available human resources: teachers, artisans, intellectuals,
senior citizens and the elderly who possess specialized knowledge and skills in specific areas. As necessary,
they draw upon the services of district and other offices that are capable of rendering technical support.
Their operations are largely locally-based and self-reliant.

CLCs in Kazakhstan are mainly in rural areas. They are seen as multi-purpose centres for community
development, and they serve as an integral part of the socio-economic and cultural spheres of local
community life. CLC committees in Kazakhstan consist of representatives from district education offices,
health care and social protection fields; the business community; NGOs; retired individuals; and local
community people. CLC facilitators and trainers are skilled community leaders, such as local school teachers,
retired people with specific skills, and people from various walks of life with specialized professional and
vocational backgrounds. The target groups served include unemployed youth and adults, women with
many children, repatriates, school children, the physically disabled and retired people.

6
Programme and Policy Linkages
Effective programme and policy linkages determine the extent of a CLC’s success, as well as its long-term,
system-wide benefit and application. UNESCO Member States that have launched APPEAL-supported
CLC projects have recognized this as the most critical condition for ensuring a CLC’s contribution to the
promotion of literacy and continuing education as tools for social change and transformation.

The Bangladesh study identifies networking, collaboration and co-operation as important elements for
promoting effective programme and policy linkages. Linkages amongst district, divisional and national
bodies are crucial. However, it is reported that linkages and co-ordination amongst the district level
government offices that are responsible for education, agriculture and health are too superficial, inadequate
and almost non-existent. The study states that CLC networking (particularly at the national level) in
Bangladesh is sorely inadequate and poor. Likewise, the extent of sharing and exchange of experience
has been very narrow and limited in scope. It is reported that certain NGOs seem to have forged linkages
with government ministries and other agencies. However, the benefits have been confined to programmes
organized and sponsored by specific agencies that are unable to spread across the larger system. The study
suggests that co-operation between NGOs and government extension departments in the development
of programmes, materials, and training, as well as in programme execution, can contribute positively to
developing complementary programme linkages.

The Indonesian study stipulates that CLC stakeholders in Indonesia include the national Directorate of
Non-formal Education and NFE provincial offices at the district and sub-district levels. Though specific
roles are defined for them, the report points out that in practice, the operational linkages have not been
satisfactorily achieved.

The Lebanon study refers to the importance of linkages between CLCs and relevant ministries. It reports
that contacts have been established, but neither technical nor financial support has been received. The
study alludes to the need for seeking co-operation from the dominant political groups in order to enlist and
ensure their support for the success of CLC programmes.

The Nepal study dwells considerably on the critical importance of turning policy into action in reference
to the country’s National Tenth Five-Year Development Plan. Although this document recognizes the CLC
modality as an instrumental strategy and method for reducing illiteracy, meeting basic education goals and
promoting continuing education for development, tangible steps towards implementing the Plan appear
to be lacking.

In Viet Nam, policy and programme linkages between CLCs and national EFA literacy policies appear to
have been well visualized. The study refers to the need to promote effective networking of local CLCs to
forge linkages among and between them.

The Thailand study states that the element of self-dependence promoted by CLCs based on local
knowledge, wisdom and skills has already been integrated into the Thai national education policy as an
important component of CLC development strategy. CLCs selected based on their merit and impact have
also been showcased, and their approaches included as exemplars of CLC national development strategy
in Thailand.

The Kazakhstan study states that non-formal and informal education does not surface meaningfully in
either the national education legislation or in any national education policy document. The study, thus
emphazizes that the experiences gained from CLCs have amply shown their potential for linking them to
national and sub-national programmes that can effectively contribute towards realizing the goals of early
childhood care, family and community development, and learning opportunities for vulnerable sections of
the rural population. As a next important step, the study proposes maximizing effective dissemination of
the findings to high level policy planning officials and specialists.

The China report states that the success of CLCs in China is due largely to the excellent policy and programme
support received by the CLCs from the central, provincial and local governments along with the involvement
of the people at the grassroots. The study suggests that practical and skills-based training programmes be
linked to the requirements of factories, other possible employment agencies and development ministries/
departments in order to more effectively accord benefits to participants and the local community.

7
Achievements, Outcomes and Impacts of CLCs in
Participant Countries
The community learning centres have had a considerable positive impact on the promotion of literacy and
continuing education across participant countries. Authorities have recognized the rich potential of CLCs
in their Education for All (EFA) campaigns, literacy promotion and community development activities and,
thus, consider CLCs an important part of their strategies for reducing illiteracy and attaining EFA.

Bangladesh characterizes CLCs as those owned by people, serving commonly agreed interests, directed
towards meeting immediate community needs through collective action and, in many cases, designed
specifically to serve people in remote and isolated rural areas. The Bangladesh report states, “The CLC
programme is often hailed for its contributions to development……raising sensitivity to gender issues at
the community level, creating a supportive environment for community development, imparting literacy
training particularly among women, providing access to skill training and consequent enhancement of
income earning capacity, and enhancing access to development resources and services from government
and other agencies.”2

The local participant beneficiaries in Bangladesh have appeared to be quite positive about CLCs since
they have served as literacy centres for rural illiterate adults, with particular emphasis given to: 1) teaching
out-of-school girls and women, 2) providing opportunities for local people to study and read newspapers,
and 3) imparting livelihood skills in poultry/cattle-raising, sewing, embroidery, tailoring, fish culture, and
vegetable cultivation/nurseries. CLC participants also reported that they have benefited from programmes
that have focused on issues pertaining to human rights, such as the tragic consequences of dowry, early
marriage and polygamy; prevention of child and women trafficking; and drug addiction.

The Bangladesh study reports that 89 percent of those surveyed expressed the view that their status in the
family had improved as a result of the knowledge and skills they gained by participating in CLC activities. It
is also reported that, of the 220 respondents, 204 indicated that there had been some improvement in their
housing condition and 203 indicated that they had been able to improve their food, clothing and health
care practices.

The Indonesian study reports that CLC programmes have started to demonstrate positive impacts on the
learner communities. Those programmes that are particularly successful relate to literacy - with emphasis
on reading and writing - which have enabled them to join industrial companies, security services, and other
productive skills, including the small home industries. It is quite significant that the Indonesian National
EFA Action Plan has endorsed and incorporated early childhood development, learning appropriate life
skills, ensuring social equity and gender parity, ensuring indigenous people’s right to basic education and
attaining universal adult literacy as the principal areas that CLCs should address and cover in their sphere
of activities.

The Indonesian study notes, “From national perspectives, the presence of CLC institutions with their
programmes to a greater extent have brought about positive educational impacts among the Indonesian
community. The programmes are capable of improving incomes, fulfilling educational aspirations, and
the raising of children.”3 The Indonesian study recognizes that continued participation in educational
programmes, improved income-generating skills, enhanced parental motivation to support schooling,
enhanced healthy lifestyles and improved participation in local democratic activities are all positive
outcomes of CLC activities. The study reports that the responses in respect to all the indicators described
here ranged between 65-82% in favour of CLCs.

The Lebanon study reveals that CLC computer courses have contributed to the birth of a computer-literate
generation in hitherto neglected underdeveloped areas of that country. The study further states that
CLC-sponsored summer camps have also led volunteers who participate in such programmes to attend
additional courses and skill-building workshops. Through participatory activities, children have also
been taught about environmental conservation, sustainable development and other concepts related to

2 Bangladesh CLC Research Report, p. 51 (see original report on attached CD).

3 Indonesia CLC Research Report, pp. 40-41 (see original report on attached CD).

8
enhancing one’s quality and perception of life, which are particularly important for children living in conflict
areas. Women who attended CLC programmes reported that the handicraft skills they acquired had given
them a sense of personal fulfillment, while the volunteers who attended the informative cultural seminars
developed an active interest in both community activities and the operation of the centre.

The most important influence and impact of the CLC movement in Nepal is that the CLC concept has been
recognized as an important programme strategy in the country’s Tenth Five-Year Development Plan for
reducing illiteracy and achieving EFA goals as early as possible. The Nepal study, however, laments that the
government has not put in place effective measures to translate this policy into practice with adequate
pro-active planning, implementation mechanisms and financial provision that are commensurate with the
policy statements.

The Nepal study makes an in-depth case analysis of selected CLCs and analyzes the impact of those
programmes. Analysis of CLC participant responses makes it abundantly clear that the CLC programmes
have made positive impacts in participants’ lives. Women participants, in particular, were quite happy about
the tailoring skills they were able to develop. They noted that their family members were equally happy
about their newly acquired skills, though which a large number of them generated new income.

In areas inhabited by Muslims, Nepal’s CLCs have contributed significantly to empowering women and
enabling them to come out, participate in educational activities and take an interest in their children’s
education (particularly of girls). Likewise, CLCs have taken the lead in launching literacy programmes
for adults, which has resulted in a substantial increase in literacy rates among women. Finally, CLCs have
worked to instill an appreciation of cultural heritage through projects that promote teamwork to protect
and uphold cultural identity. People have participated in these projects with understanding and interest.

The Viet Nam study reports that the total number of CLCs at present is 5,384. A five-year comprehensive
report on education in Viet Nam states that the CLC is an important tool for contributing to the stabilization
of the country’s political situation and for promoting socio-economic development. Through the amended
Law of Education, the CLC delivery mechanism was institutionalized and officially incorporated into the
Vietnamese National Education System as a continuing educational institution in January 2006.

CLCs in Viet Nam focus on a large range of areas, including state and party policies; knowledge about
family and society, especially family planning; sports and competitive activities; culture and arts; health and
safety measures, including prevention of HIV/AIDS, drug use and prostitution; respect for war invalids and
martyrs; improvement of agricultural practices and making upper secondary education universal. The Viet
Nam study reports that the CLC programmes and activities contributed significantly to transmitting useful
knowledge and income-generating skills and to the empowerment of youth, women, the underprivileged
and the exploited.

The analysis of CLC programmes included in the in-depth analysis of the Thailand study demonstrates
that local communities have significantly benefited in re-orienting their way of living. CLC participants
utilize the new skills they gain in a wide range of occupational pursuits: diversified forestry management,
management of local crops and animals, revival of local cultural values and wisdom, and application of
agricultural and information technology adapted to suit local conditions.

The four CLC clusters included in the Thailand study have contributed to a series of tangible outcomes
that have directly benefited the CLC participant communities. These outcomes have been manifested in
the form of: (a) economic reward and well-being instilled and generated by new and improved skills; (b)
promoting a living culture which is in balance with nature; (c) integration of knowledge, culture and local
wisdom that sustains and advances local development and well-being; and (d) enhanced quality and value
of non-formal education to meet local education needs.

Kazakhstan presents an analysis of 2,417 CLC attendants based on a range of characteristics: age, gender,
marital status, level of education and employment status. It is reported that 46% of participants were 30+
years, 32% between 20 and 30 years, and 22% aged up to 20 years; men 31%, women 69%; married 55%,
single 34% and divorced 11%. Of these participants, 46% had completed secondary general, 29% secondary
vocational and 35% higher education. About half of participants (46%) were unemployed.

The report states that non-formal education is not reflected in the Kazakhstan National Law on Education,
and the emphasis on adult education is marginal. The research teams’ assessment is that CLC programmes

9
have the potential to fill this gap in guaranteeing wide access to lifelong learning, particularly for adults, the
unemployed, women, youth, repatriates, and the disabled. The report further states that, since non-formal
education is not well developed in Kazakhstan, CLCs can serve as effective models for meeting people’s
need to acquire employable life skills that can ensure stable incomes.

The China study reports that CLC programmes and activities have demonstrated clear benefits to
participants in the rural communities in terms of increased literacy skills; positive outlook; and level of
increased awareness about the value of literacy and education for adults, youth and children. It is also
reported that an increased number of parents who participated in CLC programmes have sent their children
to school willingly. Those who move to urban areas have been found confident and well-adapted to new
job situations with minimum difficulty. In respect to CLC participants in urban areas, it is reported that their
quality of life and their personal happiness index have improved considerably.

Key Issues and Implications for the Future

CLCs in the participant countries have been set up so that they mainly operate in under-served rural and
suburban areas. Primarily, programmes and activities pertain to literacy; basic and continuing education;
training in life and vocational skills; health and sanitation; women’s empowerment; protection of civic and
human rights; preservation and protection of art, culture, heritage and the environment; and promotion of
peace. CLCs’ impact on the promotion of literacy, basic education and community development has been
quite positive. The outcomes and impact described in the country research reports amply demonstrate the
valuable contributions CLCs can make in helping countries attain their EFA goals.

Some of the key issues that have implications for future development of CLCs are briefly outlined below:

Funding - This is an issue apparently raised in almost all country reports. Thailand presents an analysis of
those CLCs which were not initiated and supported by the government. It recommends that the government
should extend financial support to those CLCs with a view to augmenting the quality and coverage of
programmes. CLCs in Indonesia are set up and function with the support of NFE departments and agencies
at the district and local levels. The Indonesian study observes that the present level of funding is inadequate,
and it recommends that measures be taken to augment the present level of funding to improve both the
quality of inputs and of their management by the existing CLCs. Bangladesh, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Nepal,
Uzbekistan and Viet Nam have all cited funding as a major issue, whether the CLCs emanate from the
local communities, the national governments, the UN and its specialized agencies, development partners,
donor agencies and/or international non-governmental organizations. To harness and sustain the valuable
contributions of CLCs and their future potential for reducing illiteracy and promoting basic education,
effective arrangements must be made or explored to strengthen and augment the CLCs’ financial base
within the broader framework of country-level programme support and funding.

Linking CLCs to National Policy and Programmes - It is imperative that CLCs forge intimate operational
linkages with the overall national policy and programmes, be it on literacy, adult education, education for
out-of-school children and/or community programmes on health, women, youth development, income-
generating skills, etc. A coherent articulation of CLC missions and objectives, as well as policy commitment
backed by operational linkages in support of country programmes for the promotion of literacy and
achieving EFA, would be critical to ensure CLCs’ effective long-term impact. This concern is echoed in
almost all country reports. It has been reported that the Nepali Government has already incorporated the
CLC concept into its Tenth Five-Year Development Plan as a programme strategy for reducing illiteracy and
attaining EFA goals. The studies from Bangladesh, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Uzbekistan and Viet Nam have
also emphasized the need for formal policy recognition as an important programme strategy to optimize
the benefits and impact of CLCs. Thailand reports that certain aspects of CLC programme outcomes have
already been reflected in national policy and programmeming documents. However, it argues that the
purpose would be not to prescribe a uniform mode of programme operation and policy linkages, but
rather, to articulate what and how CLCs would complement and support the overall campaign of literacy
and EFA.

10
Management of CLCs - What organizational and management structure and practice for CLCs at the local
level could be meaningful and practical as guidelines? The experiences of the nine countries illustrate
that CLCs need to be based at the grassroots, where they are sustained and supported by local needs
and capabilities. It is not necessarily creating a new building set-up, nor an elaborate new infrastructure
and management system with a stream of staff and personnel, but linkages to existing local programmes,
resources and management structures that need to be forged and harnessed. The CLC agenda must not be
for creating separate additional educational set-ups. CLCs must develop as an inseparable and integral part
of education and blend well with the development programmes of the people at the very grassroots level.

UN and Donor Agencies’ Support for CLCs - Various UN and specialized agencies, donors and other
development partners are engaged in a variety of community development and non-formal education
programmes focused on health, skill training, and empowerment of women in the CLC participant countries.
Programme and operational linkage strategies need to be developed to dovetail these community-based
initiatives with CLCs.

Scope of CLC Programmes - The range of programmes and activities undertaken at present by CLCs
varies widely in scope and operation modalities. Measures to delineate and systematize the scope and
coverage of programme activities should be based on priority needs, availability of resources and technical
expertise. CLCs must not claim to do everything, everywhere. CLCs must select and choose programmes
and activities that are deemed most essential by the locals, and those that can be managed and supported
by the resources available to them.

CLCs Support to Education for All (EFA) - The rate of illiteracy and the proportion of children in the Asian
region who do not attend school are simply astounding. The tasks ahead are monumental! The time
available is very short to meet the 2015 Dakar deadline on literacy and basic education. The present scale
and magnitude of CLC support to literacy and EFA must, thus, be scaled up to match even the smallest
fraction of the unfinished tasks to achieve EFA. Experience with CLCs has shown that they have abundant
potential to help eliminate illiteracy and promote basic education at the grassroots level. But CLCs must be
empowered and mobilized in greater numbers to cope with this challenge.

Linking Literacy and NFE to Development Programmes - Dovetailing literacy and non-formal education
programmes with other programmes from development-oriented ministries continues to be a difficult
and sensitive issue. The challenge remains as to how and by what methods to forge optimal programme
linkages and complementarities between and among programmes that are organized and managed by
various development ministries and/or departments.

According Equivalence to Literacy and NFE Programmes - Equivalency is a key issue in all participant
countries. Indonesia and Thailand have introduced certain measures to promote equivalency and
certification of certain literacy and non-formal education programmes. New initiatives need to be explored
to address this issue and promote inter-country sharing of experiences.

Local Contributions for CLCs - The need to generate funds at the local level is another important issue. At
least a token contribution from the local level should be considered. Would it be viable and sustainable
and if it would, to what degree, particularly when the programmes are located and have their focus on the
underprivileged, marginalized, and the poor in the remote, rural and disadvantaged areas?

Collaborative Networking - All nine countries that participated in the research study on CLCs have noted
that closer collaborative working linkages and mechanisms between and among the grassroots-based
NGOs/NPOs is indispensable to enhance and optimize CLC contributions to literacy and basic education.
Collective programme strategies and modalities need to be formulated to promote closer co-operation
and shared utilization of various resources among grassroots-based local agenciess to reduce illiteracy and
enhance peoples’ participation in basic education. The same efforts at collaboration also must apply to
the wide array of sub-national (local, district, provincial and regional) and national bodies, development
ministries, international agencies, and outside non-governmental organizations. All actors need to create
effective networking arrangements for sharing and converging experiences in planning and developing
programmes, developing curriculum/materials, training staff and monitoring/evaluating progress.

11
© E. Imamov © CERID

© UNESCO / APPEAL © UNESCO / APPEAL

 Part II:
Summaries of CLC Research
Study Findings
© UNESCO / APPEAL
Bangladesh*
Introduction
Community learning centres (CLCs) are now drawing increasing attention in many developing countries
as special institutions for adult and non-formal education. These are literacy and skills training centres that
allow all those who are no longer or have never been in primary education to go through some learning
process, be it literacy, livelihood trades/vocational skills training, training in primary health care, protection
of civil rights, community welfare, environmental conservation, or leadership development. The present
study of CLCs in Bangladesh aims to look at the activities of CLCs in the country, their management and
linkage activities and their impact on the lives of their members. It has been conducted through both
desk research and a field survey. The desk research comprised a review of the existing literature on CLCs in
Bangladesh, followed by the processing and analysis of data generated from the field survey. This survey
consisted of questionnaires distributed to a sample of CLC members, area studies, focus group discussions,
case studies and interviews of a selected number of people at the grassroots level.

One of the major problems in the study was the lack of information about the number of different types
of CLCs that actually operate in various locations of the country. The problem appeared more complicated
when we discovered that the NGOs offering a huge range of socio-economic services, although not of the
same scale and dimension in all areas and locations, experienced confusion in understanding about CLCs.
CLCs in Bangladesh are almost invariably the creation of NGOs that also simultaneously carry out other
activities. The local branches or field units of many NGOs in the country treat their programmes of literacy
or training in income-generating activities as those of CLCs.

For the field survey work, the present study selected 25 CLCs located in different upazilas (literally, sub-
districts that are local administrative units comprising a number of unions which are the lowest tier of local
government formed with a number of villages) of the districts of Kurigram and Bogra (Rajshahi Division),
Satkhira and Khulna (Khulna Divison) Patuakhali (Barisal Division), Chittagong (Chittagong Division) and
Dhaka, Netrokona and Jamalpur (Dhaka Division). These CLCs are sponsored by foreign NGOs such as
ActionAid, national-level NGOs such as South Asia Partnership (SAP) and Nari Maitree, or local-level NGOs
such as Concerned Women for Family Development (CWFD) and Rupantar (Transformation). The number
of members at a CLC varies from 40 to 60. Ten members (distributed more or less evenly between men and
women) from each selected sample CLC were randomly picked for interviews. In all sample locations, at
least 10 persons representing members of the local public, such as social workers, schoolteachers, local
government representatives, the business community, and workers of NGOs or voluntary organizations,
were consulted. Although members of CLCs formed by the Dhaka Ahsania Mission (DAM) make up the
major part of the CLC population in Bangladesh, the sample population described above did not include
these members. This was because the principal investigator of the present study had recently conducted a
special study on the CLCs of DAM and their impact on the lives of the rural people [Rahman, S. M. M, 2005].
The present report incorporates the findings of that study.

In the Bangladesh context, a CLC is a local institution of functional literacy outside the formal education
system for disadvantaged people of rural and urban slum areas. Such centres are usually set up and managed
by community people, with some funding and technical support from a local, national or international
NGO. CLCs in Bangladesh usually do not use local facilities and buildings such as primary schools, mosques
or temples. Instead, they operate in separate single-room structures with limited sanitation and other
facilities. CLCs provide various learning opportunities for community development and improvement of
the quality of life. Members of a CLC are usually homogenous in terms of their social and economic status.
Within most CLCs, more than 60 percent of the members are women. CLCs are designed to function as
the venue for education, information and services for improvement in the quality of life. The various CLC
activities for development of the community people fall into the following areas:

(a) Functional literacy and continuing education: diverse learning opportunities; remedial measures for
children in difficulty; community library

* Written by Prof. S. M. Mahfuzur Rahman, Department of Finance and Banking, University of Dhaka

15
(b) Skill development and human resource development: training in livelihood skills, income-generating
activities (IGA) and leadership; savings and credit services; workshops; inoculation, early childhood care
(ECC) and agriculture extension services
(c) Community development services: exchange of ideas; activities for community development,
resource mobilization; discussion of issues related to family and community; venue for extension and
development service providers
(d) Awareness and cultural development: raising awareness about education, health care, family planning,
human rights, gender and environment; socializing and recreation
CLCs sponsored by different agencies and located at different places have some variations in programmes
and mode of operation. They have a wide variety of functions, all leading to the creation of an overall
environment for community development. CLCs vary in type and activities, but their main focus is more
or less the same. For example, BRAC (Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee), a leading NGO in
Bangladesh, has Kishoree Kendra (a CLC for adolescent girls attending regular schools and those who
have never attended school or are dropouts). BRAC also has ganokendras (people’s centres), the target
population of which comprises illiterates, semi-literates, neo-literates and literates. These CLCs provide
non-formal education (NFE) and continuing education services, including reading facilities and textbook
lending, skill training and socio-cultural activities. CLCs sponsored by Save the Children USA are called
lokakendra (folk schools). They serve pre-primary, secondary-level and out-of-school children with limited
literacy skills and provide services such as continuing education, social awareness development, library
facilities, skills development, and information dissemination. Other NGOs such as Plan Bangladesh and
ActionAid Bangladesh also have CLCs of their own names that have more or less similar programmes/
activities for disadvantaged out-of-school children and youth. However, the NGO that operates the largest
number of CLCs in Bangladesh is the Dhaka Ahsania Mission (DAM), which calls its CLCs ganokendra (or GK,
people’s centres), that are based on village libraries and are usually established in an independent small
house (almost invariably a one-room structure). GKs provide services such as literacy (adult and non-formal
education), continuing education, training in life skills and IGA, awareness and leadership development,
and access to information and resources. In 2004, DAM had about 1,050 CLCs in the country. DAM operated
nearly 64 percent of them with local support and the remaining 36 percent in collaboration with other
NGOs.

Management and Operation of CLCs

The responsibility for overall management of a CLC lies with a CLC Management Committee (CMC), which
is elected for a period of two years. Members of a CMC (including its chairman) are representatives of the
local community. Before 2000, according to practice in Bangladesh, CMCs had from five to seven members.
At present, the CMC of a DAM-organized CLC has from seven to thirteen members. The following is the
management structure of a typical CLC in the country:

Figure 1: CLC Management Structure (Monoharkhali Development Centre)

11-member
5-member Advisory
Management Chairman Committee
Committee (CMC)

Manager
CLC
members

Support by CFWD
and ActionAid Facilitator

16
The day-to-day CLC activities are managed by a community worker (facilitator or manager), who is usually
a local young woman. She is overburdened with responsibilities such as registering members, keeping
the CLCs open for the use of members, teaching literates and neo-literates, collecting fees and donations,
carrying out training and other programmes, keeping records (minutes of meetings, daily attendance,
membership fees, training registers, financial transactions, etc.), keeping the premises and its surroundings
clean, reading out and explaining stories from books and newspapers, and making home visits to ensure that
CLC members attend. A community worker, thus, has problems in managing time for providing continuing
education services (which is sometimes treated as a secondary function), organizing vocational training,
conducting issue-based discussions, carrying out social development and awareness campaigns, and
developing linkages with government agencies and NGOs. CMC members could take these responsibilities,
but in reality CMCs are merely titular bodies and are practically inactive. CMC meetings are not regularly
held in many places, and CMC members (which include local primary school teachers, knowledgeable
farmers, community leaders, doctors or businessmen) often remain absent from CMC meetings. There is
little evidence about rapport between CLCs and these groups of local people for carrying out training,
awareness and motivation activities.

The responsibility for supervision of CLCs, assistance to community workers, and arranging monthly
meetings, training and other programmes lies with the supervisor of the sponsor NGO. The supervisor visits
CLCs two or three times a month. During these visits, the supervisor usually checks registers and discusses
problems with community workers and the CLC members, the performance of CLCs and ways to improve
it. He/she also consults with local community members on all these issues.

CLC Linkages and Networking

The linkage activities of CLCs are useful in many aspects, such as funding or manpower, equipment or
technical support, training in income-generating activities and the registration of CLC members in
enterprise development programmes. Also important are savings and/or loans/micro-credit programmes
of other agencies/organizations, the marketing of products/services of CLC members, and the access of
CLC members to the extension and social welfare services of various government departments.

CLC members are associated, as members or in other ways, with other local organizations. According to
some estimates, more than half of the CLCs had links with micro-credit agencies such as ASA (Association
for Social Advancement), BRAC or the Grameen Bank, and about 80 percent of CLCs receive support from
other organizations. The support comes in the form of training, financial help and the supply of labour,
construction materials, fixtures and books. Evaluation reports, however, say that the scale and magnitude
of support from other organizations, especially from governmental organizations, is still very low. There
isI also scope for expanding the network functions with NGOs and government offices for meeting CLCs’
needs.

Community Participation and Ownership

Experience suggests that the participation of community people in the process of CLC operations is not
always voluntary. In addition, participation does not automatically create the feeling of ownership or the
sense of belongingness to CLCs. One of the main reasons is the lack of ability and confidence of community
people to take certain responsibilities in the management of CLCs. The CLC members, however, have a
feeling of ownership, and they justify it in many ways. For example, they say that the CLC is a forum for
getting together and working together, CLCs teach them how to live better, CLCs have been formed by
the members themselves, the CLC is a useful forum for discussion of their problems, CLCs teach them to
earn more, or that they can learn many new things through CLCs. At the same time, CLCs have yet to earn
credibility in terms of their value as service providers. In many places, people strongly lack the feeling of
ownership and feel that it is not worth paying for the services they offer.

Costs, Financing and Sustainability of CLCs

The three main sources of CLC funding in Bangladesh are contributions from the headquarters of the
sponsor NGO, donations by local people, organizations and institutions including local government bodies,
and monthly fees paid by CLC members. However, the financial support provided by sponsor organizations

17
Figure 2: CLC Operational Linkages (Katakhali Village Development Centre)

CLC at
Katakhali
Village

Offices of the
ActionAid Literacy;
Central Government
Awareness Patuakahli
Registration
development; District Office with Social Welfare
Civil rights; Department for
IGA the right to act as change
agent; Services of
government extension
departments

South Asia Rangabali Upazila

Partnership Office

Programming activities; Baishdia Union

funding support; Office
training support; support for
liaison with other agencies;
exchange of forms and Membership
methods of work in CLC; community
support for CLC; land and
other resources mobilization
for CLC; enlistment of CLC
members for entitlement to
government’s social welfare
programs; dzispute
settlement

is often not adequate for the proper functioning of CLCs. In addition, fees paid by members and donations
by local community people are not sufficient to cover the deficits. Records relating to costs and financing
of CLC programmes are not readily available in CLC offices or at the offices of their sponsor organizations.
Findings from personal interviews with DAM CLC personnel suggest that DAM provides approximately
one-fourth of the total cost of construction of a modest CLC house and the remaining part of the cost is
met by contributions from local community people. It has been estimated that the total annual cost of
operation of a CLC of the existing type in a rural location of Bangladesh is about Tk 30,000. If a CLC has
about 100 members on average, the cost per member (per year) stands at Tk 300.00. This estimate is based
on having a one-room CLC house on free land, with a token honorarium to a minimum number of CLC staff
with minimum furniture and equipment.

The sustainability of CLCs in Bangladesh has become a major concern because of the lack of interest and
commitment of the local communities in many places. People of the local community, including members
of CLC management committees, are not very enthusiastic about contributing funds for CLC operations.
Moreover, CLCs in the country can only expect (but not rely on) the availability of some allocations from
the government budget, since CLCs have yet to get recognition from the government as useful literacy
institutions. They, however, get some funding and technical assistance support from local NGOs, which are
expected to continue providing this support so long as they themselves have prospects of getting funding
assistance from the government or external donor agencies for their welfare activities.

18
One of many useful suggestions is to link the issue of CLC sustainability with improved income-generating
activities for households. Better livelihood training for members and increased access to credit can create
opportunities for additional income. This can motivate members to contribute more to financing CLCs.
CLCs can generate resources through a system of sharing profits from trades and businesses promoted
by them. For this purpose, the CLC may sign contracts with its programme beneficiaries. For the CLCs to
be sustainable, they must have visible impact and be developed and treated by local communities as
institutions for which they feel responsible.

Benefits from CLC Activities

The following are the major observations on the nature and extent of benefits from CLC activities:

• Benefits are not equal for all; members who regularly take part in CLC activities are benefited more than
those who do not.
• NFE provided by CLCs is quick and relatively effective; the literacy training makes about one-third of the
CLC members literate at Level A (Grade Five) in three years, which in a regular primary school would take
five to seven years.
• Functional literacy provided by CLCs enables members to orient themselves to practical situations and the
practice of learning by doing at CLCs is their training in livelihood trades (income-generating activities),
as well as in managing household accounts and even the accounts of small businesses.
• CLCs develop the capacity of their members to take better care of the family and children and increase
their awareness about society and the environment.
• CLCs act as a forum where members can discuss their problems and try to find out ways to solve them.
• Active participation in CLC programmes/activities empowers members to be able to solve problems at
personal, household or community levels and enhances their confidence, community consciousness and
social integrity.
Evidence from the field suggests that CLCs have significant impacts on the lives of the target beneficiary
people:

(a) There is an increase in community awareness about the importance of education, primary health care,
sanitation, environmental conservation, civic rights and participation in community activities.
(b) There is a re-orientation of the mindset from seeking jobs in enterprises of other people or in government
offices/departments to self-employment in income-generating activities.
(c) Poor people, especially disadvantaged women, are empowered to acquire more confidence in decision-
making.
(d) There is an increase in incomes and improvement of the quality of life through newly acquired training
and livelihood skills.
(e) The status of CLC members in their families and communities is significantly enhanced.
Members of CLCs consider that the CLC is a useful organization for them. A field survey of 220 respondents
revealed a number of reasons why they think so, and the findings are presented in Table 2. However, a
significant number of CLC members are not satisfied with CLC services. More than three-fourths (about
77%) of the CLC members interviewed in the survey expressed their dissatisfaction, and the proportion of
dissatisfied CLC members was higher among the male members than among the female ones. The reasons
for dissatisfaction include the following: CLCs do not provide adequate services; they do not give money
(credit); they cannot solve all the different problems of the members; they lack skilled/trained staff and
because a CLC often has only one person to look after everything, she or he cannot perform all the tasks;
they do not provide the training required; members undergoing training cannot use it effectively because
of problems in funding and marketing; CLCs do not work well and do not take proper care and/or organize
follow-ups.

19
Table 2: CLC Usefulness by Skill-building and Activity

Skill Activity
CLCs increased: In CLCs the members can:
Confidence 17 Read books 41
Income 32 Watch TV 27
Savings 33 Learn from useful discussions 13
Awareness 44 Get training 10
Literacy Skills 56 Discuss problems 44
Develop mutual understanding 3
Enjoy gossiping 18
Source: Field survey
Note: Not all responded to the question and some respondents indicated multiple reasons.

CLCs Provide Literacy Services

CLC literacy programmes help in retaining and upgrading neo-literate literacy skills and in improving their
lifestyles. However, members', irregular attendance in CLC literacy activities significantly scales down the
effect and impact of programmes. Although achievements in reading, writing and accounting skills remain
far from the intended results of an ideal CLC, the CLC achievements in these areas are better than those
attained by learners under government-run NFE programmes. Evidence on this count from the field survey
conducted for the present study is presented in Table 3. The table shows that a little more than one-fourth of
the respondents did not attain any literacy skill after joining CLCs, but nearly one-third could demonstrate
literacy equivalent to Grade One, about one-eighth equivalent to Grade Two and one-ninth to Grade Three.
About one-tenth of the respondents reported that CLCs helped them in completing education at the
secondary school certificate level or higher.

Table 3: Distribution of Respondents by Acquired Level of Literacy/Education

Number
Attained literacy/education of equivalent grade /certificate)
Male Female Total
None (did not attain literacy/education) 17 42 59
Grade one 28 40 68
Grade two 8 19 27
Grade three 7 4 11
Grade four 3 3 6
Grade five 4 7 11
Grade seven 3 4 7
Grade eight 2 7 9
Grade nine 2 1 3
Secondary School Certificate 6 9 15
Higher 2 2 4
Total 82 138 220
Source: Field survey

CLCs Create Opportunities

Many CLCs provide training in income-generating activities, but only a few provide savings and credit
services. CLC members, especially women, significantly benefit from the combination of training and
loan services, which improve their livelihood. At present, the credit support by CLCs is very negligible,
but CLC members can get credit from banks, cooperative societies or NGOs operating in the locality or its
surrounding area. A special study on GKs belonging to DAM conducted in 2001 found that membership
in CLCs could create a difference in the income of individuals: the income of CLC members at the personal
level more than doubled – from Tk 319 to Tk 728. However, at the family level, the change is insignificant as
Table 4 illustrates.

20
Table 4: Average Monthly Income of CLC Members as Compared to Others

CLC members Non-CLC Members

Current Previous Current Previous
Personal level 728 319 1,066 821
Family level 3,634 2,970 3,690 2,816

Source: FREPD, 2001

CLCs Develop Social Awareness and Empowerment

The information, counseling and resource services offered by a CLC include the dissemination of information
related to community development, counseling for acute problems such as contamination of water by
arsenic, the observance of nationally important days, and discussions of important news or about market
prices or the environment. CLCs also conduct issue-based discussions and act as forums for socialization
and the development of social awareness.

CLC members think that their participation in a number of CLC activities enhances their status in the
community. Evidence suggests that CLCs have some contribution to the development of people’s awareness
about the need for conserving the environment and creating an atmosphere of mutual understanding in
the community. However, the changes in various aspects of the lives of the rural people, including the CLC
members, cannot be attributed exclusively to interventions by CLCs. CLC interventions only reinforce the
process, in which many other parties, such as the government, mass media and NGOs, have a substantial
contribution.

In 2001, the Foundation for Research on Educational Planning and Development (FREPD) conducted a
survey of CLCs. The survey revealed that the social awareness and survival skills of neo-literate CLC members
were higher compared to those of non-members (see Table 5). The survey for the present study also found
that CLC training had an impact on members in terms of changing their occupation. CLCs had contributed
to change in the occupational status of the women, especially those who had been housewives before.
Self-employment was the predominant form of new occupation for these women (see Table 6). Also, it is
interesting to observe that none of the 220 respondents had any business activity before they joined the
CLC, but after they joined, 17 among them got involved in business as their new occupation.

Table 5: Level of Awareness and Application of Skills by CLC Members

% neo-literates in CLC % non-CLC member

member households households
Capability to write letters Male 61 51
Female 43 35
Married couples adopting family planning 73 58
Households having access to sanitary latrine 85 69
Households using soap after defecation and before 65 51
meals
Membership of any organization 35 15
Female respondents to which people come to seek 61 43
advice

Source: FREPD, 2001

21
Table 6: Incidence of Change of Profession by Gender

Number of Respondents in the Given Profession

Profession Before joining CLC At present (after joining CLC)
Male Female Male Female
Job in a govt./private office 1 6 4 16
Business 14 - 18 17
Agriculture 30 1 31 2
Wage labour 16 2 15 1
Housewife/housekeeping 4 101 1 62
Self-employment (IGA) 3 2 13 51
Unemployed 10 14 0 8
Source: Field survey

An earlier evaluation of DAM-operated CLCs [Rahman, S. M. M, 2005] shows that, thanks to participation
in CLC training programmes on income-generating activities (and presumably loans taken from CLCs),
23 percent of the regular CLC members could increase their monthly income by amounts up to Tk 700,
40 percent by amounts between Tk 701 and 1,000, about 27 percent between Tk 1,001 and 1,500, and
10 percent between Tk 1,500 and 2,000. These observations about the impact of CLCs in terms of their
contribution to members’ increased incomes have been confirmed in the survey conducted during the
present study. It found that about 70 percent of the CLC members could increase their household income
by amounts up to Tk 1,000 (see Table 7). The corresponding figure was estimated at 67 percent in the
previous study, which also recorded that literacy, development of social and community awareness, and
increase in the monthly income of CLC women members contributed to the enhancement of their status
in their families. Furthermore, 204 among the 220 respondents reported improvements in their housing
conditions and 203 reported improvement in their food, clothes and health care. The improvement in living
conditions as indicated by the respondents was of different degrees (see Table 8), although figures show
that some improvement had taken place for nearly 85 percent of the CLC members.

Table 7: Incidence of Increase in Monthly Household Income and Expenditure

Range of increase Number of households Range of increase Number of households

in monthly average in the range (N=190) in monthly average in the range (N=172)
household income household expenditure
Less than Tk 100 11 Less than Tk 100 51
Tk 100 – Tk 200 35 Tk 100 – Tk 200 29
Tk 201 – Tk 500 68 Tk 201 – Tk 500 49
Tk 501 – Tk 1,000 37 Tk 501 – Tk 1,000 26
Tk 1,001 – Tk 1,500 16 Tk 1,001 – Tk 1,500 10
Tk 1,501– Tk 2,000 12 Tk 1,501– Tk 2,000 4
Tk 2,001 and above 11 Tk 2,001 and above 3
Source: Field survey

Table 8: Improvement in the Living Conditions of CLC Members

Number of Respondents Claiming Improvement of Different Degrees

Indicator Male Female All
high moderate low high mod low high mod low
Housing conditions 33 30 17 55 49 20 88 79 37
Food/clothing/health 32 41 7 61 62 10 93 103 17
care
Source: Field survey

22
 Table 9 shows that CLC members are better off in terms of their children studying in schools and receiving
required vaccinations. The members are also more active in practicing family planning, participating in
decision-making processes and attending public meetings. The table also presents some evidence of how
disadvantaged people are being gradually empowered. CLCs enable members to change their attitudes
through increasing their awareness, confidence and the ability to serve their own families, as well as
their communities. They now aspire to live a life with human dignity. Thus, CLCs play an important role in
empowerment of the poor and of women. Table 10 shows the position of the 220 field survey respondents
in this regard.

Table 9: Position of CLC Members by Awareness Indicators

In families with In families that do not

Indicator
member of a CLC have a CLC member
% of school age children enrolled in primary schools 76 46
% of children aged <6 taking all vaccines 85 50
Contraceptive prevalence rate 78 43
% of households which consult qualified doctors 100 39
% of women participating in household decision 63 39
process
% of women who attend public meetings 63 35
Source: FREPD, 2001

Table 10: Empowerment of CLC Members through CLCs

Number of male/female respondents by the degree of

achievement
Area of achievement
Very High Moderate Low Total
M F M F M F M F
Increased social awareness 40 88 35 43 7 7 82 138
Enhanced status of the family 23 56 47 63 12 19 82 138
Increased self-confidence 48 99 32 35 2 4 82 138
Learning more about health care 56 96 23 39 3 3 82 138
Increased ability to participate in
22 55 52 56 8 27 82 138
community development activities
Increased ability to provide assistance to
26 55 44 56 12 27 82 138
wife and children
Source: Field survey

Factors that Affect CLC Performance

Although the CLC design is theoretically impressive, its management and operation in Bangladesh need
improvement in many aspects, including the mobilization of human, material and financial resources, the
development of skills and efficiency of the CLC personnel and effective networking with other local and
regional agents of development. CLCs have many limitations and constraints:

• Women members leave CLCs due to change of address after marriage; also, elderly people prohibit women
from attending CLCs for religious reasons; and women members face problems in working together with
their male counterparts.
• Finding time to attend CLCs becomes difficult for many members because of their workloads at home, in
the fields or at other workplaces.
• Most CLCs provide training in limited types of skills; in many cases, skills training cannot be put to use
because of the shortage of money for starting income-generating activities or a lack of access to markets
for the products or services.
• CLCs are poor in their stock of materials for reading and equipment for learning, games and sports.

23
• CLC community workers are burdened with many tasks and they often lack efficiency.
• In many places, CLCs are not very successful in becoming institutions for which the general members
have a feeling of ownership. Community members often have a feeling that paying for a CLC is not worth
the services it offers.
• The flow of information materials at CLCs is irregular. Also, in many places, the CLC management
committees are only titular bodies, rather than properly functioning authorities for planning, resource
generation, supervision, networking, monitoring, and evaluation.

Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats

A major strength of the CLCs is the homogeneity and unity of their members. CLCs are common meeting
places with equal access for all members of the community, who gain from discussions in a collective forum
and addressing the problems of the community for a collective solution. The greatest weakness of CLCs
is their poor resource base, i.e., poor infrastructure and lack of funds and technical and managerial staff
with professional efficiency. The opportunities lie in the general recognition of CLCs as useful institutions
of ANFE, functional literacy and continuing education, which has indeed resulted in a willingness among
many national governments and both regional and international agencies to support the CLC movement.
CLCs operate in an environment of gradually improving relationships among the members of a community
and an expanding network with local government agencies and service providers of different kinds. The
chance of CLCs becoming sustainable institutions is threatened by the fact that there are many NFE, adult
education and continuing education programmes competing for resources from almost the same set of
agencies and organizations. In addition, CLC staff have a slow learning curve, CLCs depend too much on
outside funding support, conservative communities are resistant to change (particularly if the change
empowers the helpless poor), and there is the possibility of funds leaking or draining away in transit.

CLCs perform multi-dimensional activities addressed to the needs and for the benefits of their members
and the communities of which they are a part. They are most successful when recognized as a special type
of institution for non-formal education and life skills training. CLCs are also generally recognized by neo-
literate CLC members, as well as by interested members of the local public, as useful meeting places where
they can read newspapers; discuss matters related to various issues of family and community life; develop
their awareness about human rights, family planning, health care and the environment; get some training
in skills required for income-generating activities; and receive inoculations and agricultural extension
services.

The impact of CLC programmes on gender equity, poverty alleviation and environmental conservation are
marginal; those on basic literacy, awareness development and sensitization are moderate; and those on
awareness about primary health care and motivation of local people to send their children to school are
fairly good. CLCs have contributed to enhancing participants’ status within families and communities. In
general, CLCs have a good impact on the lives of their members as well as on their communities, but the
impact is often not as extensive as might be portrayed by the agencies that implement them.

Given regular participation in CLC literacy and NFE programmes, members attain literacy skills of different
levels in a much shorter time than they would at a regular primary or high school. With the literacy level
they attain, the members develop the ability to read, write and count, as well as to manage household
accounts and even the accounts of the small businesses they start. Furthermore, with literacy and increased
awareness about society and the environment, CLC programme participants take better care of their families
and children, enjoy a better status in the family and in the community, and take a more meaningful role in
the decision-making process at both levels.

That a large majority of CLC members do not regularly take part in CLC activities only demonstrates that
the CLCs are not very successful in becoming institutions for which the general members have a feeling
of ownership. Neither do residents of the local communities feel like owners, because both CLC members
and the non-member local people are reluctant to contribute to funding CLC activities. In many places,
CLC members, as well as local members of the public, have a feeling that CLCs do not provide adequate
credit support for income-generating activities and entrepreneurship, and believe that the absence of an
early childhood care and education programme is a problem. The flow of information materials at CLCs is
irregular. In addition, in many places, members of CLC management committees do not regularly attend
monthly meetings.

24
CLCs have little effect in terms of developing the management capacity of local people. In fact, CLC activities
do not have this aspect in focus. So far, CLC members have not come up as an organized force that could
take the initiative in social movements (for example, against drug addiction, child and women trafficking,
terrorism or for the establishment of human rights), collectively facing natural calamities or organizing
rehabilitation programmes. At the personal level, however, CLC members could develop some capacity in
managing household affairs, making decisions and changing attitudes towards life.

CLCs have some linkages with local/district-level government agencies, local branches of some regional/
national NGOs and a few local NGOs. However, the linkages are not institutionalized and none of the
partners have any policy or plan of action to further cooperate. In view of some recent developments in
the attitude of the government towards GOs and NGOs or public-private partnerships, and thanks to the
personal initiatives of some CLC community workers or supervisors, CLCs can now arrange some training
programmes with the help of extension service agencies and governmental departments and operate as
venues for the delivery of agricultural extension, inoculation or family planning services.

CLCs in Bangladesh can claim some success in terms of their contribution to an increase in the social
awareness of the poor and disadvantaged sections of the population, their empowerment through literacy,
and their training in life skills and income generation. Yet CLCs also have failures, largely due to CLC members’
lack of conscious participation in their programmes/activities, inadequate resource support and inefficient
management. Although CLC programmes are low-cost, there is also the feeling that in their present form
they are possibly not replicable nor sustainable.

Two major limitations of Bangladeshi CLCs are their poor physical set-up along with the shortage of reading/
learning materials and equipment for games, sports and entertainment. Not all CLCs provide training in all
types of life skills training that are locally useful, and in many cases CLCs suffer from poor management,
supervision and monitoring. CLC community workers are burdened with many responsibilities, and they
often find it difficult to allocate time and energy to effectively discharge all of them. CLCs do not have
adequate funds for providing the micro-credit support to members who require it for income-generating
activities. These constraints and limitations in CLC operations keep CLCs from having a broader and deeper
impact in terms of their performance.

Recommendations
The CLC programme in Bangladesh needs improvement in many aspects to create a substantial impact in
terms of spreading literacy, widening the scope of self-employment and income-generating opportunities,
and reducing poverty. The full-scale implementation of the programme would require new inputs in the
form of reading materials, wider training facilities, and demonstration-based orientation of CLC members
in life skills training. The following are a few suggestions based on the findings of the present study, as well
as on the views of CLC evaluation teams and experts:

1. Equip CLCs with necessary facilities and materials.

2. Link literacy and community development activities with CLC interventions to address the socio-
economic needs of the target population.
3. Arrange wider social mobilization through innovative forms and methods (e.g., flexible modes to suit
the members’ schedules, interventions to match their occupational needs, integration of learning
materials and learning with recreational programmes).
4. Develop a systematic framework for monitoring CLC programmes/activities.
5. Link IGP activities with the market.
6. Formalize linkages with government agencies and other NGOs operating in the locality.
7. Design programmes in terms of core and non-core activities to concentrate more on the former.
8. Help the community to learn how to find the solutions to problems instead of giving community
members the solutions.
9. Improve the management skills of CLC personnel.
10. Create a multipurpose professional/technical backstopping/support system for CLCs at the community
level.

25
Conclusion
Despite the fact that CLCs in Bangladesh have many limitations, they have evolved as models for NGO-
sponsored continuing non-formal education institutions, and do not appear to have been too costly.
The uniqueness of the CLC concept lies in its philosophy of raising much of its resources from voluntary
community contributions at the grassroots level. Thus, the costs incurred are shared by the sponsoring NGO,
by participants/members/learners and by the people of the community where the CLC operates as a centre
of continuing education. The benefits, though not as promising as were theoretically set, are significant.
CLCs’ most noteable contribution seems to be their operation as centres of learning and training for the
poor and disadvantaged in basic literacy, post-literacy and continuing education. One of the preconditions
for benefiting from CLC programmes and activities is regular participation, and those who regularly take
part in them benefit from CLCs in many ways.

CLCs can contribute to the comprehensive development of the nation within the overall framework
of Education for All (EFA) if they are included in a national action plan. CLC experiences can be used in
developing community-based infrastructure for EFA and mobilizing locally available resources. The
government may arrange the necessary inputs for and provide systematic support to CLCs. Inclusion of
CLCs in EFA national plans would call for close linkage with the formal system, equivalency programmes for
school-age children, and a mechanism of resource sharing between formal schools and CLCs. 

Case Study: Yasmeen, Amtola CLC Member, Netrokona District, Bangladesh

Yasmeen is now known as the “mother of distressed women,” not only in her native village Amtola,
but also far beyond the borders of her own district. She is 29 and has a boy who is four years old.
Her husband is a rickshaw puller. She started living in her husband’s house in a different village after
her marriage, but she had a difficult life. The family lived hand-to-mouth and sometimes had only
one meal a day. Yasmeen started working as a part-time housemaid with a local well-to-do family.
She cleaned floors and the yard, washed clothes and utensils, and prepared food for the labourers
working on her master’s farm. In return, she only got food and a very small amount of money that was
not even enough to purchase food and clothes for her son.
Yasmeen did not have time to visit her father’s house, but one day she did. Knowing about her
worries, her father advised her to become a member of a local association for self-help named
“The Swabalambi Unnayan Samiti” (SUS, Association for Development through Self-Help), which
established a lokakendra (people’s centre, a CLC) in Amtola village. Despite the fact that her husband
and also many conservative senior people in the neighborhood did not like the idea of a 29-year-old
woman joining the CLC, Yasmeen became a member of the centre. She quickly gained basic literacy
skills from the training at the centre. In addition, she got ideas about poultry farming and rearing
livestock. The centre helped her to get a loan from the SUS for the purchase of a cow and ten hens.
In about one year’s time Yasmeen could feel that her life was changing. She started earning money
from the sale of milk and eggs. The money was enough to repay her loan in weekly installments and
to have some surplus for meeting her family expenses. She was happy to see that with a little skill in
accounting, she could even save.
Towards the end of her second year with the centre, Yasmeen had become the owner of three cows,
33 hens and 27 ducks. She started earning more from the sale of milk, eggs and the chicks. She bought
a new rickshaw for her husband, who used to pull one for rent that had been taking away a large part
of his income. At present, the monthly income of the family is about Tk 5,000, which is sufficient for
it to manage household expenditures and save. Yasmeen uses the savings for lending to the poor
women on easy terms. She also purchased a piece of land for a new house. She takes special pride in
providing some money to the centre that changed her life.
Yasmeen was helpless, but learnt how to survive. Only two years ago, she experienced negligence by
her husband, who used to rebuke her on every silly ground and even beat her. But today, he is friendly,
polite and, in a sense loyal to her. Yasmeen says that in her difficult days, she had wanted to commit
suicide. Now she is a source of inspiration and also help for many other poor men and women. She
is doing well and is serious about seeing that her centre continues to operate in the interest of her
fellow community people.

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28
© UNESCO / APPEAL
China*
Introduction
This study begins by examining the development of community learning centres and community
education (CE) in China. The functions of CE and CLCs in rural areas are mainly in literacy education, health
care, poverty alleviation, increase of income, retraining of the labour force, and improvements in the lives
of rural people. In urban areas, the emphasis focuses on the meaning of learning, more systematic learning
content, lifelong learning behaviour and a scientific learning approach.

China is a developing country with a large population and diversified economic development levels,
from the least developed remote areas in the western part of China to the economically advanced areas
in the eastern part. Even within a single province such as Zhejiang Province, economic development is
diversified in different areas. For the purpose of showing the entire picture of CLCs in China, this study
chooses three types of CLCs. The first is a CLC in rural Gansu Province, whose main functions are related to
poverty alleviation through literacy education, which represents a large proportion of CLC programmes and
activities in poor rural areas. The second type of a CLC is locaged in Zhejiang Province, which is relatively
developed economically. Thus, the emphasis is on the increase of income through CLC programmes and
activities. CLCs offer different training menus, mainly for local people and for people coming from other
provinces who will get jobs in factories after training. The third type of CLC is in an urban area, a type that is
now very popular in China. CE in Zhabei District, Shanghai, is described as the example.

The study concludes with some positive findings from the CLCs that have already been implemented, and
puts forth some recommendations for further development of CLCs in China.

Positive findings are: 1) policy support from governments; 2) institution and guarantee for the
implementation of CLC movements and community education; 3) training programmes and activities
suited to the needs of learners and economic markets; and 4) the formation of a learning environment for
the whole society.

Recommendations for the further development of CLCs are: 1) reliable funding; 2) more support from sectors
other than education; 3) combination/integration of different programmes or concepts; 4) application of
ICT; and 5) establishment of a national network for CLCs and CE.

Overview of CLCs in China

The functions of CE or CLCs in rural areas, in general, and remote or poor rural areas, in particular, are
mainly in the areas of literacy education, health care, poverty alleviation, increase of income, retraining of
the labour force, and improving the lives of rural people. In urban areas, CE or CLCs focus on popularizing
consciousness of learning, more systematic learning content, lifelong learning behavior, and a scientific
learning approach. The concept of the “learning city” has also been put forth, which is a concrete reflection
of the development of a learning society.

Based on the UNESCO guiding ideas of education for poverty alleviation, the “Rural Community Learning
Centres for Poverty Alleviation” project was first carried out in three provinces of western China (namely
Gansu and Yunnan provinces and the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region) in 1997. With support from
local governments, education institutions and schools, CLCs were established at township or village
levels according to the reality of serving local socio-economic development. As an effective measure to
achieve the goal of education for all and the idea of learning to live together, CLCs in the three project
provinces provide a foundation for the establishment of lifelong learning systems in rural communities.
The development of CLCs in China should be understood within the framework of the following two broad
movements: one is the movement of “the two basics” and the other is the CE movement.

* Written by Mr. Zhao Zhongjian, Institute of Curriculum and Instruction, East China Normal University

29
The Two Basics
The“two basics”are the basic universalization of nine years of compulsory education and the basic eradication
of youth and adult illiteracy. In 1993, the Outline for Reform and Development of Education in China issued by
the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the State Council formally established
the “two basics” as education goals to be met during the 1990s: universalization of 9 years compulsory
education in areas with about 85 percent of the total population, and attainment of a 95 percent literacy
rate for youth and adults. The Chinese Ministry of Education also issued its National Action Framework on
Education for All in 1993, which re-emphasized the need to realize the “two basics” goal by the end of 2000.
This framework was buttressed a year later when the Second National Conference on Education further
determined the goal, task, strategy, policy and implementation steps of educational development in the
1990s and treated “the two basics” as “the priority of priorities” for educational development.

The CE Movement
In the late 1980s, community education was appearing in China, particularly in urban areas. This was
closely related to the development of CLCs. In 1986, for example, Zhenru High School in Putuo district in
Shanghai established the Community Education Commission for Zhenru High School, and in March 1988,
Xinjiang Sub-district and Pengpu Sub-district in Zhabei district in Shanghai set up Community Education
Commissions. Then the organizations named “Community Education” were popular in all of Zhabei
district. The development of community education in Zhabei has led to the development of CE in all of
Shanghai, which has later influenced all of China and finally promoted its nationwide popularization and
development.

In April 2000, the Department of Vocational and Adult Education of the Ministry of Education in China
issued the Notice on the Experiment of Community Education in Some Areas, thus starting the launch of CE
nationwide. In May 2000, eight experimental areas were selected by the Ministry of Education, formally
starting the CE experiment, and in November 2001, another twenty experimental areas were added. Those
28 experimental areas were considered the first group of CE experimental areas in China. By the end of
2003, such experimental areas expanded to 61 all over China. They were located at district or county levels.
Since then, the CE/CLC movement has developed strongly and quickly in China, from the early rural CLCs
mainly for literacy education and poverty alleviation to CLCs in urban areas that realize the ultimate aim
of improving social development to achieve the success of sustainable development and make every
community a better place for people to live together.

Profile of the Research Study

China is a developing country with a large population and diversified economic development levels, from
the least developed remote areas in the western part of China to the economically advanced areas in
the eastern part. Even within one province, such as Zhejiang Province, one can observe different levels
of economic development. For the universalization of compulsory education, provinces are classified into
three groups according to their level of economic development. The first group consists of nine provinces
with economically advanced development, the second group is composed of 12 provinces with economic
development at a medium level, and the third group is composed of nine economically less developed
provinces and autonomous regions (in the west of China).

The initial CLC project named “Rural Community Learning Centres for Poverty Alleviation” was first launched
in the three provinces of Gansu, Yunnan and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, located in the third
group described above. The activities of CLCs in these provinces may be typical of CLCs and programmes
in the least developed rural areas. In addition, researchers studied the Yushan Community Learning Centre
in Pan’an County, Zhejiang Province (which is located in the mountains and focuses on becoming rich
through poverty alleviation), and the Keqiao Adult Education Centre in Shaoxing County, Zhejiang Province
(which emphasizes training farmers to work in factories and thereby increase their incomes). Community
education in Zhabei district, Shanghai, and the community school of Pengpu Xincun Township of Zhabei
district completed the study sites. They concentrate on leisure time education for improving people’s
quality of life as well as offer vocational and technical skills training for the residents of urban areas and
migrants from other places.

30
Thus, the main objective of this research was to show a complete picture of CLCs in China, not only the early
rural CLCs in the western part, but also CLCs in urban areas. In particular, the study describes three kinds of
CLCs or CE. It evaluates their effectiveness and describes the impact of the programmes.

The research team was composed of several professors and graduates mainly from East China Normal
University, with Professor Zhao Zhongjian acting as the principal investigator.

Analysis of CLC Experiences

Programmes/Activities
There have not been any national programmes for CLCs. However, in order to realize the goal of compulsory
education for all children in China, the Chinese Government has launched several important national
projects or programmes, which may be summarized in the following table:

Table 11: National Educational Projects or Programmes

Title of the Programme Responsible Agencies Source of Finance Targets and Contents
Compulsory Education Ministry of Education and 5 billion RMB Support 522 depressed area counties
Programmes in National Ministry of Finance from the Central (among 462 located in west China)in
Depressed Areas (second Government order to rebuild school buildings, teacher
time) and another 2.5 training, purchase of books, scientific
billion RMB from equipment, distance education and IT
local government equipment
Schools Programme in The governments of various Funds offered by Send teachers, provide funds and
Depressed Area supported provinces, autonomous regions the supporting materials
by corresponding schools and directly administered cities areas and schools
from big and middle cities
in the same province
(autonomous regions and
directly administered cities)
Schools Programme in Concerned provinces, Funds offered by Send teachers, provide funds and
West China Depressed Area autonomous regions and the supporting materials
supported by corresponding directly administered cities areas and schools
schools from east China organized by Ministry of
Education and six other
departments
Programme for Rebuilding Ministry of Education, 3 Billions RMB Rebuild and build about 17 million sq.m.
School Buildings Committee of National from the central school building in 26 provinces, about 20
Development and Reformation, government , thousand schools
and Ministry of Finance 3 Billions RMB
from the local
govt.
ICT Network in All Schools Ministry of Education Offer assistance Schools at county-level in east China and
from the nation middle-level in middle China connect
to Internet in 5 years; more than 90%
schools connect to Internet in 10 years
Hope Project Programme China Youth Development Mobilize social Help children complete their studies in
Foundation donations depressed areas, build a Hope Project
primary school; organize “one help
another” activities
Spring Buds Plan National Association of Women Mobilize social Help dropout schoolgirls to reenter
and China Children and donations school in depressed areas
Teenagers’ Fund
Candle Programme China Charity Fund Social donations Assist teacher training in depressed
areas, and honour excellent teachers
with the “Candle Award”

31
Structure and Management
In rural areas, primary schools are often the centres of basic education as well as the learning centres of
cultural and technical education for villagers. Besides conducting formal basic education, these primary
schools have the responsibility and the capacity to act as centres for literacy education, technical training
and cultural exchange. At the township level, CLCs are generally located in the township’s vocational middle
schools or technical schools for farmers. These centres are run and managed through the coordination
of township government and local mass organizations. There is an inter-related preferential relationship
between the learning centre and local people. The learning centre should make full use of the local education
facilities and intelligent resources to make contributions to local socio-economic development through
conducting literacy education and technical training. Here we look at examples of some management
structures for the implementation of CLC programmes.

In early 2005, the Educational Bureau of Shaoxing County was named the lead CLC for the whole county
by the National Commission for UNESCO and the China Adult Education Association. The Adult Education
Centre of Shaoxing County is in charge of community learning and the various centres under its leadership.
Figure 3 shows the network of adult education centres in Shaoxing:

Figure 3. Adult Education Centres Network in Shaoxing County, Zhejiang Province

Shaoxing County Adult Education Centre

Keqiao Adult Qianqing Adult Pingshui Adult Binghai Adult Qixian Adult Fuquan Adult
Education Education Education Education Education Education
Centre (CLC) Centre (CLC) Centre (CLC) Centre (CLC) Centre (CLC) Centre (CLC)
Qianqing Training Station

Wangtan Training Station

Anchang Training Station

Sunduan Training Station

Yangxun Training Station

Pingshui Training Station

Fusheng Training Station

Lanting Training Station

Binghai Training Station
Huashe Training Station

Fuquan Training Station

Hutang Training Station

Taoyan Training Station

Keqiao Training Station

Jidong Training Station

Qixian Training Station

Keyan Training Station

Ma’an Training Station

LIzhu Training Station

Xialv Training Station

Each Village (community) Training Spot

Yushan CLC in Pan’an County, Zhejiang Province, is also named the Yushan Community Centre for Education
and Science and Technology, located in the No. 3 High School of Pan’an County. It is responsible for
community education in six townships, including 892 village residential groups with 24,972 families. The
management structure of Yushan CLC is illustrated in Figure 4.

Although the CLC names are not the same, the management models or structures are quite similar. Thus,
we can describe the typical management structure in terms of the overall governmental leadership, with
education authorities taking on main responsibility in cooperation with other government authorities,
active support from society, autonomous activity by the community itself and broad participation by
residents.

Policy Linkages
In China, the development of CLCs and CE is closely related to government policies and activities. Since
participation in the World Conference on Education for All in 1990, the Central Committee of the CPC
and the State Council has issued such important policies as the Outline for Reform and Development of
Education in 1993 and the Decision on the Further Reform of the Education System and Overall Promotion of
Quality Education in 1999. One common feature of these policies is the emphasis on the development of

32
Figure 4. Management Structure for Yushan Community Learning Centres in Pan’an County

Education & Culture Bureau of Pan’an County

Office of Yushan Community Education located in No.3 High School of Pan’an County

Edition of Window Experimental Bases of

Popular Science Training on Life-skill
of Scientific Education Science-Technology

Propagandists of All Adult Education Staffs in Cadres in townships &

popular science Township Adult agricultural technology
Culture-Technology stations township
Schools

Yushan Community Area, including 6 townships with 128 villages, 892 villagers groups and 72413 peasants

community education. Particularly since the year 2000, when the World Education Forum took place in
Dakar, Senegal, the Chinese Government has been active in terms of issuing policies and documents and
organizing relevant conferences. The main activities may be listed as follows:

• Publicizing the Chinese Government’s commitment and participation in various important international
or UN conferences
• Setting up the National Forum on Education for All, based on the former National Negotiation Group of
Literacy Work among Ministries
• Successfully organizing the Ministers Conference of the Nine High Population Countries in August 2001,
which passed the Beijing Declaration
• Organizing several national government working meetings, such as the National Working Meeting on
Basic Education in 2001, National Working Meeting on Vocational Education in 2002 and National Working
Meeting on Education for Minority People in 2002
• Issuing separate documents or policies, such as the Decision on the Reform and Development of Basic
Education by the State Council, Decision on Greatly Promoting the Reform and Development of Vocational
Education by the State Council, Announcement on the Perfection of the Administrative System in Compulsory
Education in Rural Areas by the Office of the State Council, and other documents such as Guidelines for
the Reform and Development of Pre-school Education, Guidelines for the Literacy Education during the Tenth
Five-Year Plan (2000-2005), etc.
In terms of attaining its commitment to EFA goals, the country’s Ministry of Education issued the National
Action Framework on Education for All in 1993 after the National Conference on Education for All (March,
1993) and the National Action Plan on Education for All (2001-2015) (2003). These action plans pay attention
to compulsory education, child care, early education, literacy education and skills training, all of which are
closely related to CLC activities and programmes.

CLC Case Studies

Gansu Province is one of the first three provinces that implemented the UNESCO Regional CLC project in
China. The main aim of CLC project implementation in Gansu was to assist the local social forces in facilitating

33
different kinds of learning opportunities so as to boost people’s intelligence in poor rural areas and improve
their quality of life. Because the CLC project in Gansu has been analyzed often and was featured in reports
presented at various UNESCO conferences, this study pays more attention to CLCs in Zhejiang Province and
community education in Shanghai.

Zhejiang Province is located in eastern China and, generally speaking, is an economically advanced province.
In fact, there are still some counties in this province that are economically less developed or developing.
Pan’an County may be representative of these less-developed counties.

Yushan CLC in Pan’an County

Pan’an County is a mountain county in northern Zhejiang, with 20 townships, 369 administrative villages and
a population of 200,000. Economic development in Pan’an is at a lower level than average, and the county
is economically less developed. The Yushan Community Education Centre was first established in March
1999, but was named the Yushan Community Learning Centre in April 2005 by the National Commission
for UNESCO and the China Adult Education Association. Because Yushan is a poor, remote rural district,
poverty alleviation and improving the quality of life for the local population are the urgent and main tasks
of the Yushan CLC.

Yushan CLC is located in the No.3 High School of Pan’an County, with the principal Zhang Meiyao as the
director of the CLC. The CLC has two full-time professionals who are responsible for the routine affairs of
the centre, with teachers in the township adult education schools as the main administrators and trainers
of programmes and activities of the CLC. The structure and management of Yushan CLC may be seen in
Figure 4 on page 33.

Yushan CLC has carried out its work in several areas, but it has formed its own guidelines for rural
community education through its practice: “peasants put forth topics, experts offer advice, the centre makes
coordination, and townships and villages take application.” For the purpose of serving rural people better,
Yushan CLC offers diversified education and training, which may be classified as the following types:

Training in practical agricultural techniques: First, the CLC insists on its well-chosen projects, and selects
agricultural products that would bring profits to the trainees. Based on the nature and situation of the rural
mountain areas, the CLC attaches importance to ecology, and has chosen ten projects for various products,
including non-environmentally polluted vegetables and high-quality mushrooms on high mountains, high-
quality organic tea, Jiaobai (a kind of Chinese vegetable grown in water), and fish. Second, the CLC tries to
find those villagers who have done well and become richer after training, and invites them to become
“pioneer” role models. Until the first quarter of 2005, the CLC had carried out 66 training sessions of various
kinds for 13,053 trainees, among whom 1,391 came from specialized planting households.

Training for vocational skills and certificate exams: Yushan CLC makes full use of educational resources
from the Department of Human Resources and the Department of Agriculture. It adopts the recommended
training mode of integrating short classes with longer ones, and carries out vocational technical training
for surplus labourers in the countryside and workers in enterprises. Learners receive training in mechanics
(locksmith), electrical engineering, nursery teaching, accounting and computers. In the last two years, 802
learners received such training at the Pan’an No.3 High School CLC. Eighty-five percent of participants
passed the training, thanks to the students’ active learning and teachers’ effective instruction. In the six
training schools belonging to the community educational centre, there were 1,662 people taking training
to pass exams, including 145 in home management, 85 in welding, and 1,432 in agriculture.

Continuing and lifelong education: Community education attaches importance to the main work of our
Communist Party of China (CPC) committee and government, and various educational needs. We have
held education for (the) legal system and for CPC members; we have also had family education, health, and
moral education, as well as some social education for strengthening our county with ecology and tourism.
We have extended our educational contents to higher education, like training for self-studying exams,
distant education of electrical colleges, etc. We are gradually forming a community education system, in
which we integrate the short-term training and the formal schooling, vocational technique and the social
training, in which we promote the construction of material civilization, intellectual and political civilization
at the same time, in which we form a lifelong education atmosphere.

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Publication of a newspaper: Yushan CLC edits and publishes The Windows of Science and Education. This
monthly newspaper prints 3,600 copies of each issue for a total of 43,000 copies every year. By now, it has
published 67 issues, totaling more than 240,000 copies. It is freely distributed to villagers, and includes news
of the Yushan CLC, reports on scientific and technological services, experiences exchanged in planting and
cultivating, and the latest developments in science and technology related to agriculture. The villagers in
Yushan consider this newspaper as “timely rain” for increasing productivity in agriculture and their profits.

CLCs in Shaoxing County

Shaoxing County was formerly a very rural area. Particularly since 2003, with the development of urbanization
and industrialization, farmers do not have enough land for planting. Among 338,100 farmers, 172,200 have
become city residents and are now without any land. This has created a surplus labour force who need to
improve their working skills and increase their incomes. Providing them with these skills is a new task for
CLCs in Shaoxing. As of 2004, the county has offered 263 training classes to 21,500 trainees, and 60 percent
of them are now working in factories. There have also been 248 classes for 18,218 trainees who no longer
have land, and 80 percent of them are now working in factories.
Shaoxing County has carried out a policy of integrating government promotion and market orientation
since 2004, starting with the implementation of three training projects:
Transferring Training for Surplus Labour Force: This project targets those farmers whose lands were bought
by the government for other uses. One hundred thousand people are to be provided with introductory
training and vocational skill training from 2004 to 2006. The project also focuses on providing agricultural
skill training to 30,000 people within three years. In addition, five hundred young villagers are to be trained
at higher education institutions within three years, allowing 50 percent of rural young people to receive an
education at the senior secondary level or above.
Pre-Vocational Training for Migrant Labour: Through this project, people coming to Shaoxing from other
places could master several non-agricultural skills so as to improve their qualifications for employment. It is
planned to offer introductory training and vocational skill training for 35,000 persons in all: 5,000 in 2004,
10,000 in 2005 and 20,000 in 2006, respectively.
Worker Training for Advanced Textile and Manufacturing Bases: The goal of this project is to train 23,000
skilled textile workers and administrators: 5,000 in 2004, 8,000 in 2005 and 10,000 in 2006, respectively.
The training model for villagers in Shaoxing may be called the "three menus system". The first “menu” is
designed by the training institutions, mostly adult education centres, and trainees can choose whatever
they want on the menu. The second “menu” is the ordering menu by factories or companies. These ordering
menus include the number of workers the factories or companies want, job requirements, basic treatment
and salaries for these workers. At the same time, the factories will sign an Agreement on Employment of
Oriented Training with the adult education centres, so as to guarantee the employment of the trainees.
The third “menu” is the fee menu for training paid by the government. After the training classes, the adult
education centres will take the list of trainee names to the relevant government authority to request
payment of the training fees. In addition to the menus, the County Bureau of Education has compiled
and printed Series of Reading Materials for Peasant Education and Training in Shaoxing County to address
the economic reality of the county. The series consists of twelve booklets covering the fields of textiles,
printing and dyeing, home economics, cooking and restaurants, hotel management, health care, building
construction and others. These materials contribute to the improvement of training quality.
Under the leadership of the Adult Education Centre of Shanxing County, six adult education centres (which
may also be called CLCs) have their respective training functions and programmes (see Keqiao Adult
Education Centre box on page 37).

CLCs in Urban Areas of Shanghai

CLC implementation in urban areas is closely connected with the implementation of community education
(CE), and the development of CE is connected with the ideas of encouraging lifelong learning, building
learning organizations and developing a learning society.4 CE work in Zhabei district has been in the
forefont of this development.

4 See “Development of Community Education in China” box on page 38 for more details

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Zhabei includes nine townships with 730,000 permanent residents and 140 migrants. The district is also
one of eight experimental areas of community education that were identified by the Ministry of Education
in April 2000. In November of the same year, the People’s Government of Zhabei District issued its first
document on community education, called the Working Programme on the Experiment of Community
Education in Zhabei District, Shanghai. The document sets up the overall goal of community education as
follows:

Raising the understanding and participative consciousness of building lifelong education system and
formation of a learning district through the implementation of experiments in community education;
building a community lifelong education system which includes formal education, non-formal education
and informal education and which is multi-level, multi-dimensional and open to everyone; perfecting the
administrative system and operative mechanism for the learning district and lifelong education; and finally
forming a learning district with Zhabei features where everyone learns at any time and any place.

This document also determines the whole structure of community education in the district, which may also
be called the management structure of CE in Zhabei, as illustrated in Figure 5 on below.

Figure 5. Network of Community Education in Zhabei District, Shanghai

Leading Group of Experiment of Community

Education in Zhabei District Zhabei District
Community Education Commission

Zhabei District Community College

Learning Guidance Research Centre of

Center for Residents Community Education

Township Community Schools

Learning Community

Learning Enterprises

Learning Schools

Organizations
Other Learning

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Keqiao Adult Education Centre: Serving Society with Training
Keqiao Adult Education Centre, established in 1992, is a public multi-functional adult education centre,
carrying out adult diploma education and vocational skill training for employment. Its service area
covers four townships, with each training station in one township. Keqiao Centre is mainly financed
by the county government, and partly paid by enterprises that require trained skilled workers. The
centre has 20 full-time professional teachers who get their regular salaries from the government, thus
ensuring the quality of training.
As to the training programme for the increase of income, Keqiao Centre has different kinds of such
training programmes. Generally speaking, it designs programmes that are targeted at local villagers
and migrants.
Vocational skill training for local farmers whose land was taken over: Keqiao Centre offers various
kinds of skill training classes according to the model of the “three menus system,” making use of
patterns of cooperation between centres, between centres and factories, and between centres and
villages. Before the development of training programmes, in order to know the basic phenomenon
and understand the requirements of learners, staff at the Centre visit farm families to make a field
investigation. They also go deep into factories and the labour market to learn about the needs of the
market. Information about the training programmes is sent directly to farm families who no longer
have any land.
Up to June 2005, Keqiao Centre trained 2,241 local people whose lands were taken over, among
whom 1,200 received training in computers, 160 persons in printing and dyeing of textiles, 730 in
sewing, and 151 in business and trade English. In addition, 44 received training in gardening, 38 in
pastry-making, 55 in auto repair, 62 in the printing and dyeing of textiles, and 160 in computers.
Vocational skill training for migrants from other places: Shaoxing County is now a county with
a textile industry. With the founding of new enterprises and the expansion of existing enterprises,
every year for the next five years the whole county will need an average of 20,000 migrants to work
in factories. Keqiao Centre insists on its mission of “serving society with training,” carrying out the
introduction of migrant labour through the implementation of the pattern of “going out, taking
cooperation and coming in.”
“Going out” means the establishment of a training centre in another place. In October 2003, Keqiao
Centre established its training centre in Jianli County, Hubei Province, together with Lang Sha Er
Clothing Limited Corporation. Keqiao Centre is responsible for the design of training programmes
and for sending trainers to Jianli. The Jianli centre, in turn, is responsible for the enrollment of local
villagers and training at the centre. Finally, the Jianli centre sends the trainees to factories in Shaoxing
County, not only solving the problem of worker shortages in Shaoxing, but also solving the problem
of a surplus labour force in Hubei. As of June 2005, the Jianli centre had sent 562 trained individuals
to work in Shaoxing.
“Taking cooperation” means jointly building human resource recruitment centres in other places. In
early 2004, Keqiao Centre jointly built a human resource recruitment centre in Dangshan County,
Anhui Province, with the Labor Bureau of Dangshan County. This Dangshan centre is responsible for
recruiting local villagers, and Keqiao Centre is responsible for training these people. Then it sends them
to factories in Shaoxing. Just after March 2004, the centre in Dangshan recruited 81 local villagers for
Keqiao. As of June 2005, 691 persons had been recruited and trained for work in Shaoxing.
“Coming in” means the introduction of vocational school graduates in other places to Keqiao
Centre through the local educational authority. In May 2004, Keqiao Centre assumed cooperation
with the educational bureaus in Suzhou City, Anhui Province, and Laifeng County, Hubei Province.
The educational authorities in these places introduced their vocational school graduates to Keqiao
Centre. Keqiao Centre then provided short-term training relevant to the realities of Shaoxing (not only
in regard to industrial equipment and work procedures, but also training related to local Shaoxing
culture) before sending the graduates to work in Shaoxing’s factories. Up to June 2005, Keqiao Centre
has expanded this cooperation to other counties in provinces such as Henan, Sichuan, Hunan, Hebei
and Gansu.
It is necessary to mention that the training in Keqiao Centre is free to the trainees, who receive a 300
Chinese yuan stipend every month. The training cost is paid by the enterprises that will employ the
trainees.

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 Development of Community Education in China
The development history of CE in China could be generally described in terms of the following three
periods:

The first period extended from 1985-1991. The Decision on the Reform of the Educational System, issued
by the Central Committee of CPC and the State Council in 1985, stipulates that “the ultimate aim of
the reform of the education system is to upgrade the population qualities of the nation and foster
more talented and gifted personnel.” It also points out that school education should develop itself
together with education out of school and after school, and various kinds of education at different
levels should actively meet the diversified needs of economic and social development. Thus, towards
this aim, community education commissions were set up and CE began its development.

The years 1992-1998 were a period of growth. The Third Session of the 14th Conference of the CPC
emphasized the development of a socialist market-oriented system. With the development of a
market-oriented economy, the change of industrial structure, the movement of people (particularly
the move of people from rural areas to urban areas, namely inner migration) and the change of
occupations, the vocational training of these people became CE’s new mission.

The third period could be called the perfecting period (1999 until present). In 1999, the Central
Committee of the CPC and the State Council issued the Decision on the Further Reform of the Education
System and Overall Promotion of the Quality of Education. This document points out the country’s
education policy should prioritize implementation of quality education that stresses the development
of good citizenship, innovative spirit and practical skills. The implementation of quality education
should be combined with formal education, family education and social education. CE has been
changed from meeting the occupational needs of people to meeting the leisure needs of people, and
from a “supplemental” function to becoming a necessary component of the education system.

The Central Committee of the CPC calls for building China into a learning society, and the ideas of
building a learning society, a learning city, a learning community, a learning organization and even
a learning family became the consensus of the whole society. Many research projects in community
education have been undertaken, many theoretical research reports on community education have
been printed and/or published, and community colleges and schools have been established in nearly
every rural township and urban district of China.

The district government plays an important role in promoting community education and the CLC project.
First, it has issued many government documents on the implementation of CE, and included CE in the
Outline of the Tenth Five-Year Plan on Economic and Social Development of Zhabei District, which is its most
important document in the last five years. This shows the policy linkage to CLC projects or community
education. Some of the main policy documents related to implementation of community education since
2000 include:

1. Working Programme on Experiment of Community Education in Zhabei District, Shanghai, issued by the
People’s Government of Zhabei District, Nov. 2000
2. Notice on the Founding of the Leading Group of Experiment of Community Education in Zhabei District
and Its Members, issued by the People’s Government of Zhabei District, Nov. 2000
3. Notice on the Administration of Counselors of Learning Communities, issued by the Educational Bureau
of Zhabei District, February 2001
4. Announcement of Working Plan of Community Education in Zhabei District in 2002, issued by the the
Leading Group of Experiment of Community Education in Zhabei District and the District Community
Education Commission, March 2002
5. Announcement of the Founding of the Research Centre of Community Education and the Learning
Guidance Centre for Residents, issued by the the Leading Group of Experiment of Community
Education in Zhabei District and the District Community Education Commission, April 2002
6. Announcement of Working Plan of Community Education in Zhabei District in 2003, issued by the Zhabei
District Community Education Commission, March 2003

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 7. Some Comments on the Further Strengthening of the Administration of Counselors of Learning
Communities, issued by the Zhabei District Community Education Commission, March 2003
8. Suggestion on the Implementation of Evaluation of the Experiment on Community Education in All
Townships, issued by the Zhabei District Community Education Commission, July 2003
9. Announcement of Working Plan of Community Education in Zhabei District in 2004, issued by the Zhabei
District Community Education Commission, February 2004
10. Announcement of the Competition of Model Schools Which Open Their Educational Resources, issued by
the Zhabei District Community Education Commission, March 2004
11. Announcement of Selection of the Second Group of Counselors of Learning Communities, issued by the
Zhabei District Community Education Commission, July 2004
12. Announcement of Working Plan of Community Education in Zhabei District in 2005, issued by the Zhabei
District Community Education Commission, March 2005
13. Announcement of the Further Implementation Outline of Community Education in Zhabei District
(2005-2007) Developed by the District Community Education Commission, issued by the People’s
Government of Zhabei District, May 2005
Second, a lead group for the Experiment in Community Education was set up. Leaders of the district
government and its various branches serve as group leaders and members. The Working Office for the
Experiment in Community Education is located in the District Bureau of Education, and is responsible for
the routine work of community education. Salaries for full-time staff in the working office as well as in
the Research Centre of Community Education are covered by the district government and the Bureau of
Education.

Third, the district government signed agreements with its different branches and bureaus to formalize
responsibilities for promoting community education. In collaboration with the Bureau of Education, it has
allocated special grants to the Experiment in Community Education for this purpose.

In order to meet its community education objectives, the Bureau of Education chose the first group of
45 teachers from 150 existing formal schools and trained them to be full-time counselors in community
education. Several thousand volunteers work with them to provide community education for the whole
district. The following table presents information about the personnel working in community education
for the district.

Table 12. Statistics of Personnel Working in CE, Zhabei District

Personnel Working Staff Volunteers Researchers

relevant to CE Full-time Part-time Expert/Advisers Part-time
Counselors Working Staff researchers
Numbers 45 1,303 4,876 15 5
A strong network of community education institutions exists in the district. Members of this network include:
the Zhabei District Community College (which houses the Research Centre of Community Education and
the Learning Guidance Centre for Residents), nine community schools or CLCs (one school or CLC in each
township), 71 sub-campuses of community schools and 248 teaching stations. Some community schools
have independent sites and buildings, and others are located in primary and/or secondary schools or in
vocational and/or adult education schools.

Major Findings
Governmental Policy Support
The movement of community education, in general, and of CLCs, in particular, has developed positively
in China. This has mainly been due to governmental policy and financial support at various levels. The
Central Committee of the CPC and the State Council have adopted several policy decisions, restating the
importance of community education and its role in improving the quality of life and social harmony. The
Ministry of Education as the main government authority responsible for CE, CLCs and EFA, plays a great role

39
in the development of CE and CLCs. Not only in economically developed urban areas such as Zhabei district
in Shanghai or Shaoxing County in Zhejiang Province, but also in economically less developed rural areas
such as Gansu and Yunnan provinces, governments have supplied much policy and financial support. In
this way, a strong administrative framework has been developed.

Institutional and Personnel Guarantee for CLC Implementation

Institutional and personnel guarantees are necessary to effectively implement CLCs, In China, existing
formal schools and vocational education institutions have been used as CLCs, thus ensuring that CLC
programmes and activities could be implemented effectively and successfully via the active participation of
teachers at those existing educational institutions. Additionally, in urban areas, special community schools
and colleges have been built for community education. We saw in Table 3 above, for example, that there
were 45 full-time counselors and 1,303 part-time staff working in community education in Zhabei district
with the support of 4,876 volunteers. .

Training Programmes Suitable to Learner Needs and Market

Demands
Whether or not CLC programmes and activities are welcomed by learners and/or trainees often depends
on the relevance of such programmes. Generally speaking, the CLC programmes in rural areas should be
closely related to the improvement of working skills and the alleviation of poverty. In urban areas, the
CLC or CE activities should not only increase the working skills and incomes of trainees, but also consider
the interests of learners who have retired from their jobs and desire leisure time activities. We see such
relevance in the CLCs of Zhejiang Province and community education in Zhabei district.

Formation of a Learning Environment for the Whole Society

Although the formal CLC project in China started in 1998, it is only known in places where CLC programmes
are practiced and only by people involved in the project. Yet, effective implementation of the CLC movement
calls for a useful learning environment for the whole society. The central Chinese government has called
for the country’s gradual development into a learning society. Concepts of lifelong education and lifelong
learning are now very popular, and the movement of building a learning city, learning organization and
learning family has been undertaken widely at different levels in China. These are promising steps towards
forming a receptive environment to broaden implementation of CLCs and community education.

Recommendations
For further development and improvement of CLCs and community education in China, it is necessary to
consider the following points:

Continuous Supply of Expenditure

Financial support is very important for the implementation of CLC programmes and activities. It is not
difficult to find money for the start of one CLC or one training session, but lack of on-going financial support
will prevent the continuous development and improvement of CLCs or training for learners. In the above
cases of the Keqiao Adult Education Centre of Shaoxing County and the Yushan CLC, we see the successful
training of villagers. However, when the trainees finished their first time training and then started work
in factories, it was not easy for them to obtain further learning opportunities because there was a lack
of financial support from the companies or factories which offered the money for the initial training. In
addition, the Yushan CLC was short of money for any substantial improvement to the CLC project; it could
only maintain the routine work of the project.

More Support from Sectors Outside of Education

Although we see support from governments at different levels as a positive feature of the community
education in China, NGOs have not played an important role or taken an active part in the implementation
of CLCs and community education. Theoretically speaking, community education should be supported

40
by the different sectors of government and conducted in various fields, but in practice only the Education
sector assumes responsibility. Identifying ways to receive strong support and active participation from
NGOs and sectors other than education is important for further development and improvement of CLCs
and community education.

Integration of Different Programmes or Concepts

Perhaps in every country there are many kinds of CLC programmes or concepts. In China, we have our
own examples, such as the Hope Project for assistance to poor children attending school; the Spring Bud
Programme concerning the schooling of girls from poor families; and the integration of agriculture, science
and education (as well as the combination of general education, vocational education and adult education)
in programmes for rural areas. It is better to integrate CLCs and their activities with these already existing
different programmes. Otherwise, how can we extend the number of CLCs from 20 to 2,000, or even to
200?

Best Use of ICT

ICT has become an important tool in every field of our society, and UNESCO has paid great attention to ICT
and launched several projects for its application. The use of ICT in the implementation of CLCs may be a hot
topic in the future, and the use of ICT in CLC programmes will greatly improve the effectiveness, efficiency
and quality of CLCs and promote the realization of their overall objectives. Yushan CLC in Zhejiang Province
is now participating in the UNESCO project, “Improving Productive Capacity through ICT,” but the effective
implementation of this project needs to be further studied.

Establishment of a National Network for CLCs and CE

Who is responsible for the effective implementation and improvement of CLCs? Where can people find
information about CLCs and their programmes in China? How can researchers and people who participate
in CLC projects exchange information about their experiences and lessons learnt? It is urgently necessary
to establish a national network for CLCs and community education in China. Such a network would be
responsible for collecting, analyzing and distributing information concerning CLCs and community
education in China and throughout the world, and for setting up a website. This is a dream now, but may
become a reality in the future.

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42
© BP-PLSP- Region II
Indonesia*
Introduction
The Indonesian Government’s strong commitment to providing local communities with educational
services has been reflected in the growth of community learning centres since 1999. At that time, 484
centres existed; today, Indonesia has 3,064 centres distributed quite evenly throughout the country.
However, the increase in numbers may not necessarily indicate improvements in people’s knowledge and
skills. Statistical data show that out of the 20 percent of the population who has not completed primary
education, 40 percent have become casual workers and 60 percent permanent workers.

The main programmes organized through CLCs have been Functional Literacy, Early Childhood Care and
Education, Education Equivalency Programmes, Vocational Skills Training, Entrepreneurship Training,
Sports and Recreation, and Women’s Education. Being the dominating partner, however, the Government
has caused the operations of CLC programmes to be less publicly transparent. In turn, gaining community
participation and support has become difficult. For instance, to be consistent with its policy, the Government
tends to standardize the CLC programmes, which causes them to be less adaptable to the unique needs
and resources of individual communities, as well as to the demands of local labour markets. The overall
effect has been the creation of dependency on government funding under which increasing supervision
then became the government’s prerogative.

However, since illiteracy is strongly related to poverty, without government support the CLCs would hardly
be capable of implementing their programmes. The midway solution has been to somehow comply with
government policy and share CLC programme management with the Government. Understanding this
situation, we see that the substance of the evaluation is very much placed on the CLC’s structure and
management. The research questions for evaluating CLC operations, therefore, address:

(1) The effectiveness of CLCs,

(2) The factors responsible for the effectiveness of CLC programmes, and
(3) The impact of CLCs on local communities.
Taking into account the findings regarding these indicators, policies regarding sustainability and expansion
can be formulated for securing the future development of CLCs.

The evaluation study was undertaken from July until August 2005 with a limited number of district samples
taken from Sumatra, Java, Bali, and Nusa Tenggara islands. The limited number of samples was due to the
excessively wide geographic spread of the CLC’s districts, which caused time and funds to become critical
constraints. Data collected were organized according to CLC institutions, CLC programmes, CLC learning
experiences, and their impact. The extent of the data as such may provide a more comprehensive analysis
of CLC performance regarding their successes and failures.

The significant growth in the number of CLCs in all provinces has had a positive impact in lowering student
dropout rates. Through the CLC programmes, community members were provided with trained skills and
knowledge so that everyone could develop an ability to work and to generate income. However, to what
extent a CLC may fulfill its promise requires an evaluation of management, programmes and impacts. In
a wider context, the existence of CLCs as institutions also needs to be discussed to see how they meet
people’s needs and improve their lives.

Profile of the Research Study

The evaluation study deals with three aspects of a CLC: its institutional basis, its programme implementation,
and its impact. The first aspect deals with drawing the CLC’s profile with respect to its environment and
setting. The programme aspect is depicted through the analysis of performance in terms of CLC structure,
management and role in instruction. The third aspect deals with the CLC’s contribution in terms of the
community’s educational aspirations, social and economic welfare, and gender equity.

* Written by Dr. Surya Dharma, Director for Policy Research Centre, Ministry of Indonesia National Education

43
This study focuses on seven districts/cities from various provinces in East Java, West Java, Yogyakarta,
Central Java, West Nusa Tenggara, North Sumatra, and Bali. The CLCs in the cities are considered urban
CLCs, whereas those in districts are considered rural CLCs. Sixteen district samples were finally selected out
of a CLC population of 3,064.

Data were collected using questionnaires seeking to describe the situations faced by CLCs and to disclose
the quality and the feasibilities of CLC programmes. They were documented and tabulated as data for the
analyses. The data are mostly quantitative, with some qualitative data in the form of several case studies.
Qualitative analysis is used for richer descriptions of the quantitative findings. Through this analysis,
the effectiveness of CLCs as institutions, the effectiveness of the programmes, and their impact on the
communities were then estimated.

Analysis of CLC Experiences

Long before CLCs were introduced, the Indonesian Government had started a national programme for out-
of-school education, the purpose of which was to provide equal schooling opportunities. The programme
is similar to non-formal education, the term used widely in CLC literature. The main component of the
programme is educational equivalency with the elementary school (Package A), the junior high school
(Package B), and the senior high school (Package C).

Most CLCs in Indonesia were, therefore, government-initiated because the main part of their programmes
consisted of the educational equivalency packages. These packages aimed at providing more educational
opportunities for less-fortunate communities. Although not formally stated, the district NFE office was
responsible for the CLC programmes by exercising supervision and providing advice. This mechanism
worked well with the CLC structure and management for appointing staff, teachers and field workers. At
higher levels, the mechanism worked with an advisory committee through which the NFE officials exercised
their authority as resource persons.

Fot this reason, before dealing with the research questions stated earlier, it is worthwhile to present a profile
of Indonesian CLCs in the context of their target areas.

Indonesian CLCs are located in both urban and rural environments. Programmes provided are closely
related to UNESCO Asia-Pacific Programme of Education for All recommendations. Literacy programmes
are delivered through educational equivalency packages that continually attract more learners. Table 13
presents the CLC’s profile according to programme unit and the provinces/cities of a CLC’s location.

From the “Total” column, conclusions regarding programme inclusion can state that:

(1). Some programmes are common to all CLCs. These include Functional Literacy, Educational Equivalency
Package B, entrepreneurship training, and Early Childhood Care and Education. These programmes
represent literacy and skills for improving the lives of community members.
(2). Programmes found at some, but not all, CLCs include Educational Equivalency Package A, Educational
Equivalency Package C, and Internship and Tuition Support.
(3). Of marginal importance are programmes or activities related to Sports and Recreation, Maternity
Clinics, and Family Education.
(4). Out of 12 programmes suggested for NFE, most CLCs normally provide five to eight of them.
Similarly, conclusions regarding programme performance can be stated as follows:

(1) 6% of the CLCs are of high performance.

(2) 75% of the CLCs are of moderate performance.
(3) 19% of the CLCs are of low performance.

44
Table 13: CLC Programme by Location

Area Programme Unit

I. Internships and Tuition Supp’

Profile

e. Early Childhood Care and E

k.Entrepreneurship Training
a. Equivalency Package A
b. Equivalency Package B
c. Equivalency Package C

h. Sports and Recreation

f. Functional Literacy

L. Family Education
d. Reading Shelters

g. Maternity Clinics
No

j. Vocational Skill
Environment

Province/
Cities/CLC
settings

Total
Urban Industrial 1 CLC Anak Bangsa x x x x x x 6
Areas N.Sumatera: Medan
2 CLC Alpa x x x x x x 6
West Java: Bandung
3 CLC Warga Waluyo x x x x x 5
C. Java: Semarang
4 CLC Assalafi x x x x x x 6
C. Java: Semarang
5 CLC Sumber Mulia x x x x x x x x 8
C. Java: Semarang
6 CLC Putra Mandiri x x x x x x 6
C. Java: Semarang
Rural Industrial 7 CLC Mandiri x x x x x x 6
Areas (tourism) Jogjakarta: Sleman
8 CLC Amrih Raharja x x x x x x x 7
Jogjakarta: Kulonprogo
9 CLC Tunas Harapan x x x x x x x x x 9
Jogjakarta: Bantul
Industrial 10 CLC Budi Luhur x x x x x x x x 8
(Manu- East Java: Pasuruan
facture) 11 CLC Harapan x x x x x 5
East Java: Mojokerto
12 CLC Salafiah x x x x x x x x 8
East Java: Pasuruan
13 CLC Bina Ilmu x x x x x 5
E. Java: Pasuruan
Industrial 14 CLC Melati x x x x x x x 7
(arts) Bali: Gianyar
Industrial 15 CLC Bina Mandiri x x x x x x x 7
and NTB: West Lombok
farming 16 CLC Assakinah x x x x x x 6
NTB: West Lombok
Total 7 15 10 11 12 13 2 1 9 8 16 1 105

Effectiveness of CLCs
As one of the services for lower income communities, CLCs provided programmes that were relevant to the
community’s needs. Owing to unemployment caused by the recent monetary crisis faced by the Indonesian
Government, it is quite normal that at their initial stage most programmes were oriented toward income-
generating skills and literacy. Programmes less directly related to economic matters remained marginal, such
as maternity clinics, family education, sports and recreation. Several factors influenced the effectiveness of
CLC programmes:

45
 Learner attendance - The distribution of learners across programmes provides a measure of the extent to
which CLCs were effective. Each CLC contribution was evaluated according to the average attendance of
learners. Findings were as follows:

(1). Equivalency Package B programmes were the most highly attended.

(2). Moderately attended programmes included Equivalency Package C and Functional Literacy.
(3). Least attended at CLCs were Equivalency Package A, Early Childhood Care and Education, Maternity
Clinics, Internship and Tuition Support, Vocational Skills, Entrepreneurial Skills, and Family Education.
Social status of learners - The analysis indicates that most learners in functional literacy programmes were
migrant labourers (34%), followed by farmers (29%), unemployed parents (19%) and peddlers (18%). From
the gender perspective, other data show that most of the learners were women (66%). This reflects a better
awareness about the value of education. Also, most of the learners had never attended school before (50%),
or were dropouts from primary school (50%). The age of the learners ranged from 30 to 35 (75%), and the
rest (25%) ranged from under 15 to 25 years old.

Instructors’ educational backgrounds - Instructors’ educational qualifications ranged from high school
certificates to master’s degrees, with bachelor’s degree the most common and master’s degree the least
common. The instructors for the equivalency packages A, B and C were 57 percent male and 42 percent
female. The instructors were also involved in recruiting learners, planning and implementing the learning
process. This indicates that instruction at most CLCs was conducted in a more formal fashion according to
the academic view.

Types of CLC buildings - The types of building used for CLCs included residences (31.25%), public or religious
schools (31.25%), community meeting rooms (6.25%), community home economics buildings (6.25%),
former primary school buildings (6.25%), rented buildings (6.25%), and CLC-owned buildings (12.5%).

These data show community participation in selecting the place for teaching and learning activities. Some
people were pleased to let their houses be used for the CLC programmes and activities.

Structure and Management

The effectiveness of CLC programmes relies to a great extent on the administration of these programmes,
which means that organizational structure is a crucial factor.

Figure 6 presents the organizational structure of most CLCs, showing a top-down structure. The
management consists of the programme coordinator, secretary, treasurer, and programme heads. The
presence of an advisory committee, the members of which include community leaders along with NFE
officers, might redress the imbalance of a top-down structure. Such an imbalance was inevitable due to the
CLCs dependence on the government’s role in providing funds and maintaining the programmes.

Although quite limited in number, some CLCs were capable of supporting themselves in running their
programmes. The case of CLC Alpa, Bandung, shows us an exemplary programme in which the tools or
spare parts produced became commodities for transactions whose proceeds were recycled back into the
centre to support training.

To maintain the effectiveness of programmes, instructors or district NFE officials routinely undertook
monitoring/evaluation and provided advice to the CLCs as feedback. In addition, instructors were asked to
motivate their learners, especially in the case of decreasing attendance.

However, government involvement may not always be seen as negatively affecting CLC programmes. In
fact, it was important for maintaining the educational standards of these programmes. For example, such
an involvement was necessary for legitimizing the certificates issued by CLCs. In addition, it also served to
prevent any abuses of CLC functions, especially in the use of government funds.

Instructors
Most instructors are teachers hired from public schools. They work on a part-time basis to support the CLC
programmes, although they are paid only US $10 per month. Some instructors have to teach in several CLC
programmes due to the limited number of instructors available. Inevitably, instructors in some particular

46
Figure 6: The CLC Organizational Structure

Advisory
Programme Coordinator
Committee

Secretary Treasurer

Programme Programme Programme Programme Programme

Leader Leader Leader Leader Leader

programmes are not well trained to transfer their knowledge and skills to the learner. Although these
problems may limit the effectiveness of the programmes, the quality of the teaching and learning process
undoubtedly also has an effect on the abilities of the graduate.

Area Coverage
Areas served by a CLC sometimes extend beyond the village boundaries to reach neighbouring villages.
For example, a CLC in Lombok had to serve four villages regardless of their distance from the centre. Even
though learners had to walk across mountains and along beaches, the CLC managed to maintain a high
level of attendance.

Most CLCs served neighbouring villages in addition to their own, making the total number range from 4 to
20 villages. The area covered might range from 32 to 500 square kilometers. The case of a CLC in East Java,
for example, is interesting in that it served two religious boarding schools in different districts.

Sustainability of the CLC

Sustainability is a critical issue not handled properly by most CLCs because either programmes or funding is
very much under government control. In the long run, this situation may lead to the CLCs coming to an end.
On the other hand, although very limited in number, some CLCs that were initiated by local communities
possessed the capability to survive and to adapt with the changing environment.

The findings show that transparency in the structure and management is related to its sustainability. A
CLC with open management, such as in the appointment of staff and instructors, may increase community
participation. Similarly, the capacity for self-help, such as the ability to finance the operational activities
through learners’ contributions or through programme units capable of generating income, is an important
determining factor for helping the sustainability of CLCs.

Impact/Outcomes
The presence of the CLC and its programmes has some positive impact on learners in the communities
in that they become capable of improving their own social and economic status. Some work as groups
of mechanics in shops filling business orders for spare parts. Others generate income by setting up small
home industries. Literacy programmes have the most successful effect. By being able to read and write,
graduates can join the work force.

Specifically, the impact of the CLC programmes on the communities can be summarized as follows:

1. Educational Equivalency Packages A, B and C, Functional Literacy, Reading Shelters, and Early Childhood
Care and Education programmes have an impact on young people’s opportunities to receive an
education or to attend school.

47
2. Entrepreneurship Training, Vocational Skills, and Internship/Fee Support programmes have an impact
on income-generating skills.
3. Early Childhood Care and Education programmes have an impact on parents’ motivation to send their
children to school.
4. Family Education and Sports and Recreation programmes have an impact on people’s lives by
encouraging healthy lifestyles.
From the national perspective, the presence of CLCs and their programmes to a great extent has brought
positive educational impacts to Indonesian communities. The programmes are capable of improving
incomes, increasing educational aspirations, and contributing to the raising of children.

Recommendations
The existence of CLCs as institutions that are capable of providing services in support of the country’s
commitment to Education for All indicates an awareness about the value of literacy skills. Such awareness,
in turn, is expected to ease efforts to empower local communities, especially to gain new insights into how
to improve their economic welfare.

However, there are also problems related to the government’s historical establishment of CLCs. As an
institution, a CLC is supposed to be a part of its local community; however, limited community awareness
may place a CLC at risk of discontinuing its activities. The following policy recommendations are intended
to minimize such a risk:

1. Motivate and encourage independence and self-sufficiency of CLCs.

2. Provide more authentic evaluation and more motivating reward systems.
3. Emphasize grassroots CLC functions and activities.
4. Continue to appeal for community participation of all kinds.
5. Increase equity in gender participation.
6. Combine monitoring and supervision.
7. Continue developmental support from the government and other agencies.
After about eight years of existence, CLCs in Indonesia have shown some successful experiences in
managing their institutions and programmes. The functions of CLCs to sustain their existence are closely
related to staff abilities to continuously assess the needs of the community. In developing programmes or
activities, therefore, CLCs should be capable of meeting changing demands in the socio-economic life of
their communities.

Managers and staff of CLCs should promote sustainability by considering it as a critical component essential
for the continuity of CLCs. Therefore, CLC management should possess the capacity to create innovative
programmes and use them to generate income for the CLCs and the communities they serve.

48
50
© A. Sheshmuhanova
Kazakhstan*
Introduction
Community learning centres are local places of learning outside the formal education system. Located in
both villages and urban areas, they are usually set up and managed by local people in order to provide
various learning opportunities for community development and increased quality of life. A CLC doesn’t
necessarily require new infrastructure, but can operate from an already existing health centre, temple,
mosque, primary school or other suitable venue.

The main objective of this research study was to evaluate CLC outcomes and impacts in Kazakhstan, and
then disseminate these findings to EFA stakeholders for strengthening the country’s existing literacy and
continuing education programmes. The research was led by a group of independent experts that included
educators, sociologists and experts from a business consulting centre.

A three-member advisory panel was additionally selected on the basis of: a) professional credentials, b)
understanding of organizational issues, and c) expertise in key areas. The objectives of the panel were to
serve as a sounding board for the design and findings of the evaluation, and to review and comment on
the final synthesis of the report.5

Profile of the Research Study

The CLC research was intended to provide an objective assessment of activities in participating countries,
with a focus on the diversity of CLC programmes and their specific needs. CLCs in Kazakhstan were analyzed
in terms of their location, types of programmes, ownership and financial resources.

The study was undertaken both in urban and rural areas, encompassing: the towns of Karaganda and
Jambul, the district centres in Almaty and Jambul (Karabulak and Kordaj), and the villages Amanbokter,
Sortobe and Nogajbaj. It should be noted that the August period during which the research took place
is vacation time in the region. This presented a degree of difficulty in obtaining interviews because most
village inhabitants at this period are busy with seasonal work. Finally, the research was limited by the low
number of CLCs functioning in Kazakhstan -- only seven of them.

In order to identify CLC effectiveness at the micro-level, the researchers undertook field surveys and analysis
of quantitative and qualitative data. There were focused interviews with CLC committee members, CLC
facilitators, local authorities, trainers and trainees. These were supplemented by the traditional analysis of
documents, SWOT6 analysis, and the examination of statistical data.

Experts visited all seven CLCs. Material presented in this report was collected through conversations with
CLC representatives and personal surveys.

Analysis of CLC Experiences

To assess CLC progress, it should first be stated that Kazakhstan’s literacy rate is 98 percent. In
comparison with other countries of the region, Kazakhstan has the most successful situation in the formal
educational sector. The involvement of Kazakhstan in achieving the global goals of Education for All has
led to improvements in the development of preschools and a decrease in the percentage of out-of-school,
primary vocational and university training.

Nevertheless, adult education is outside the serious attention of the government, and left to international
organizations and some NGOs. The idea of adult education in the country is considered only from the
aspect of training registered unemployed people. The concept of training at a place of residence is not
represented in legal documentation.

* Written by Ms. Anar Sheshmukhanova, Unit for International Education Programmes Development, Department for
Education Strategy and International Cooperation, Ministry of Education and Science

5 See Kazakhstan CLC Research Report (in attached CD) for a full list of members on the research and advisory panels
6 12 SWOT stands for “Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats.”

51
From this aspect, the CLC as a socially focused project provides learning opportunities throughout life
to the following target groups: members of needy and large families; women and youth, including the
unemployed; children with special needs for development and their mothers; widows; repatriates; and
orphans. CLCs in Kazakhstan are found mainly in remote areas or micro-districts with a prevalence of
socially unprotected members of the population.

According to normative legislative documents, within the nation’s education system, non-formal education
consists of additional education oriented mostly towards children and teenagers who engage in out-of
school art, technical, sports and other activities.

Currently, adult access to learning at their place of residence is only supported by international organizations.
The creation of necessary conditions towards equal access to educational programmes and towards the
development of life skills is at an early stage of institutional development and requires a strategic approach
on the part of the government.

During research, the following basic groups of CLC trainees were identified:

• unemployed (including young people 18-25 years old)

Figure 7: CLC Participants by Age

22%
46%

30-older, 46%

20-30, 32%

up to 20, 22%

32%

• women with many children

• repatriates
• schoolchildren and students, including the physically disabled
• retired persons
Most of the trainees were middle-aged people (46%). Added to the next largest group (youth), they
constitute the majority (75%) of learners. The smallest age group of trainees is made up of children and
teenagers.

As figure 8 indicates most, of the CLC learners are women. Respondents believe that this is because women
are more socially vulnerable and, thus, more open to training.

Figure 8: CLC Participants by Gender

31%

Women

Men

69%

52
Figure 9: CLC Participant by Education Level

3%
22%
46% Secondary general

Secondary vocational

Higher

Other

29%

It became known that the problem of unemployment among CLC target groups is quite extensive. In fact,
50 percent of the interviewed CLC trainees have no steady occupation. This group of trainees is divided
into:
a) those not satisfied with their current occupation and seeking better positions to suit their professional
skills;
b) those seeking new opportunities to change the sphere of their professional activities; and
c) those who are unemployed.

It should be stated that among the unemployed who participated in CLC training programmes, there were
also younger people under 30 years of age.

Figure 10: CLC Participants by Employment Status

Employed
46%
54%
Unemployed

The employed respondents are workers in various fields. The fact that one of the biggest groups (20.4%)
consists of workers in so-called “unqualified” occupations (technicians, merchants, etc.) demonstrates
participants’ will to increase or change their own qualifications.

Programmes/Activities
Each CLC in Kazakhstan has different activities depending on the community’s needs and its socio-
economic and cultural environment. The core activities of CLCs in Kazakhstan are educational. Programmes
and activities generated by CLCs are identified in the following major areas.

The programmes offer training courses, organizational resources for parents, pre-professional training or
so-called educational programmes ”from school to job” or ”from school to career,” alternative education
institutions for those who are not satisfied with the formal education framework, preventive early pregnancy
programmes, prevention of violence and drug abuse, care of school-age children, enrichment programmes
for all members of the community; literacy programmes, foreign language study and adult education.

The main types of vocational education programmes are: computer courses, sewing, hairdressing, modeling,
English language learning, electronics, and welding. Life skills programmes include: healthy lifestyle,

53
family planning, massage, furniture renovation, shoe repair, national crafts, carpentry, handicrafts, pickle
making, patchwork, gardening, cheese making, HIV/AIDS and drug abuse prevention, cooking, agricultural
processing, and other income-generating activities. Cultural activities include ecology, sports, and cultural
heritage.

The programmes offered at CLCs are initiated based on the wishes of local community representatives, and
are generated through community meetings and personal interviews. CLC facilitators and trainers hold
community interviews on a periodic basis to find out needs and demands in regard to CLC future plans and
training programmes. They take steps to activate and involve the local community in the decision-making
processes.

Structure and Management

All CLCs in Kazakhstan have a similar structure and organizational set-up. The efficiency of CLC activities
is built on a high degree of self-organization in the local community. Significant support from the local
authorities to ensure effective CLC management is available.

Local authorities play a special role in the organizational structure of the centres. They function at different
levels of organizational supervision and provide a certain competence in regard to the objectives of CLC
activities and their regulation, solving a variety of issues to meet the needs of the local community. Almost
every CLC committee in Kazakhstan is headed by a representative of the local governmental authority - the
akim, or his deputy.

The CLC committee also includes representatives of district education authorities, health authorities,
social protection authorities, the business community, NGOs, retired people, unions and members of local
communities.

The CLC facilitator is one of the community leaders – a skilled, educated individual, willing to introduce
new, useful ideas for social development.

CLC trainers consist of schoolteachers, retired people with abundant life experience, individuals from
applied professions with practical experience, and other volunteers.

CLCs are established with the support of local authorities, and closely cooperate with them. This cooperation
becomes the basic indicator of overall CLC performance. The teamwork is expressed in the following ways:

• Political
--Dissemination of information on CLC activities
--Involvement of businesses and other donor organizations in CLC activities
• Material
--Providing premises for a CLC
--Allocation of money in the amount of the established rate of the minimal wage
--7,200 Tenge from the local budget to pay the CLC’s key trainers and facilitators
--Provision of logistics for running the office: heating, electricity, security
• Social
--Inspiring a social orientation among the membership
--Exchanging best practices in regard to CLC management and operation
Comparing the organizational structures of CLCs in Kazakhstan and CLCs of other countries, their basic
difference is the presence in Kazakhstan of local authorities.

The key person in day-to-day management and general planning for CLC development is the CLC facilitator,
whose basic responsibilities are as follows:
• Development and organization of training programmes and CLC activities
• Coordination of training processes
• Information campaigns on new activities within the local community
• Involving volunteers from the local community in CLC activities
• Administrative management of the office

54
It should be noted that members of the local community through their representatives on the CLC committee
are highly motivated to initiate new activities. As a general rule, they design their CLC framework according
to the needs and demands of the local community.

One of the significant issues raised during research was the lack of clarity in regard to CLC juridical status.
CLCs in Taras and Karabulak, for example, have been registered as non-governmental organizations. These
CLCs have experience with fundraising to expand the spectrum of their activities. Other CLCs remain as
public entities whose infrastructure is supported by local akimat or educational institutions and who are
dependent on the political will of certain authorities.

The facilitator of the CLC in Taras stated that there are advantages and disadvantages to the NGO juridical
status. First, in respect to fundraising, a CLC with NGO status is eligible to take part in state tenders on
rendering direct services to the state on account of the republican budget. Later on, it might be possible to
join all CLCs in an association to embody the whole democratic sector.

Otherwise, an NGO has to submit financial reports to local tax departments and pay taxes. Therefore, this
status leads to a contrary version of the CLC mission and working for profit as a registered NGO.

Some facilitators suggest elaborating regulations about CLCs and its status as a public entity, which enables
it to provide paid educational services on a non-commercial basis, work without profit and, hence, not be
subjected to taxes.

Policy Linkages
The CLC as an education institution functions first of all within the framework of the state development
programmes of the Ministry of Education and Science; the nature of CLC activities reflects the goals of
Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of Population programmeming. In neither ministry, however, do CLCs
obtain any real supervision, and neither ministry provides any essential support. Given that CLCs participate
in social partnership programmes to implement state social decrees, cooperation with ministerial bodies
needs to be strengthened.

Decision-making at the majority of CLCs starts with facilitators and trainers tabulating the needs and demands
of the community, which can be identified from interviews and questionnaires. They then submit their
recommendation for CLC committee consideration. After appropriate consultation, the programmeming
schedules proceeds to the regional/district level for approval. Thus, the human factor, namely the opinions
and capability of members of the CLC committee and the local authorities, plays an important role during
the decision-making process.

One of the main obstacles for enlarging the scope of education programmes and increasing the number of
CLC trainees is the absence of state accreditation and certification. At present, only one CLC in Karaganda
(due to its juridical status as an NGO) has state accreditation and is qualified to issue certificates. Such
certificates are important in that they strengthen trainees’ chances of hiring and, thus, people’s interest in
the training programmes. Hence, the increasing interest in awarding certificates to CLC graduates deserves
mention, and further attention should be given to making such certificates equal to those which are
issued by state education institutions. Certification of CLC education programmes would lead to further
independent employment or moving on to other formal education programmes. In order to achieve
this, however, CLC programmes would likely need to maintain a well qualified teaching staff in order to
guarantee their educational quality.

At the local level, partnerships are established with local education, cultural, social, labour and health care
institutions.

CLC facilitators have managed to establish cooperation and partnership with local and regional organizations,
in particular, with teachers of high schools and colleges, libraries and also regional departments of labour.
This linkage assists CLCs in mobilizing teachers as volunteers for computer courses and activities in cooking,
sewing and national crafts. Women under the management of volunteers learn carpet-weaving skills
through a similar linkage.

55
Table 14. CLC Relations with Partnering Organizations

Name of CLCs Partnership, networking

CLC- Karaganda akimat of Karaganda area, akimat of October area in Karaganda, School # 46,
vocational school # 6, NGO, universities
CLC- Taraz akimat of Zhambylskii area, town and district akimats of Taraz, NGO “Taras Initiative
Centre”, “School of Women’s Leadership”
CLC- Kordaj akimat of Kordajskii area, akimat of Kordajskii area, Kordaj Department of Labor and
Social Protection, school, hospital
CLC- Sortobe akimat of village in Sortobe, school, branch of vocational school, local museum,
hospital, Association of Business Women
CLC- Nogajbaj akimat of village Nogajbaj, college, school, polyclinics, Kordaj Department of Labor
and Social Protection
CLC- Amanbokter akimat of village Amanbokter, University of the Central Asia (UCA), Association of
Initiative Schools, school, Association of Mountainous Villages
CLC- Karabulak akimat of Karabulakskii area, akimat of village Karabulak, Department of Labor and
Social Protection, college, vocational school, agricultural organizations

One of the essential problems of regional cooperation is communication. CLCs suffer from weak telephone
communication, absence of electronic mailing and no availability of access to the Internet.

Impact/Outcomes
There are three reasons for local community members to participate in CLC programmes: (1) to receive
concrete knowledge in concrete applied disciplines (computer literacy, modeling, sewing, welding, cheese-
making, mining, etc.), (2) to develop personal life skills (learning English, gardening, health care, family
planning, etc.), and (3) to be involved in social and cultural programmes (environmental protection, cultural
heritage, sports, etc.).

Figure 11: CLC Participant Motivation

33% 35%
With aim to develop vocational skills

With aim to develop personal skills

With aim to be involved into social activities

32%

A high rate of return among CLC trainees to CLC programmes and activities was apparent. This often
means that learners are continuing in other types of training courses or are involved with CLC social and
cultural events. Obviously, student achievements show that skills learned at the CLC are important in being
employed and making part-time earnings.

Among programmes which the local population would like to continue, there are three main groups:
professionally-oriented courses (courses for hairdressers, auto crane operators, auto mechanics, electricians,
designers, etc.); programmes training vital skills (producing milk products, health care and sports,
psychological training, language courses, etc.); and skills-upgrading programmes.

Improvement in the quality of life at the present stage of CLC operations is defined by the following key
indicators:

56
Figure 12: CLC Participant Continuity

80

65
60
# of participants

40 Gave up training
35
Continued their training

20

Figure 13: CLC Participation by Programme

30 28
25
# of Participants

20
17
15 13
10

5
0
Life skills Professionally- Skills-upgrading
programme oriented programme
programme

1. Ninety-nine percent of the CLC trainees were satisfied with the quality and the contents of the education
process. In personal meetings, respondents noted that attendance at CLC programmes gave them new
theoretical and practical knowledge through modern information technologies. Second, most CLC
trainers were experts in their relevant spheres. Moreover, they had significant teaching experience
and combined their activities at the CLC with their main jobs in high schools, professional schools and
institutes.
There was an increase of knowledge and learning among youth and women about health and hygiene
issues, family planning, preventive measures against HIV/AIDS, smoking, drug abuse and infectious
diseases.
2. Ninety-six percent of the CLC trainees were satisfied with the schedule of CLC activities and training.
They appreciated the flexibility of the schedule, the individual approach of the teacher to trainees, the
convenience of the times chosen for training, and the selection of occupations according to wishes of
the trainees.

57
3. At least 79 percent of the respondents were satisfied with the qualitative parameters of the CLC
material base. Most CLC trainees and trainers emphasized the importance of training by means of new
information technologies, the high quality of computers, sewing machines produced by leading foreign
companies, and other modern office equipment.
It must be noted that notwithstanding considerable governmental efforts to modernize Kazakhstani
schools (in comparison with other Newly Independent State (NIS) countries, Kazakhstan has the highest
student-to-computer ratio at 57 pupils for every personal computer), schools (especially in rural areas)
lack computers and other new information technology. Since most CLC trainees are inhabitants of rural
places and adults train by means of modern information technologies at the place of their residence,
ICT is of utmost value for their further self-education and self-employment.
However, among seven CLCs in Kazakhstan, only one (Karaganda) has 10 computers, compared to 5
computers at other CLCs. In personal meetings with experts, respondents noted that the demand for
CLC training is very high. However, the amount of training equipment doesn’t allow for increasing the
number of trainees. For some training programmes, CLC facilitators keep waiting lists. For example,
some respondents informed us that they have been waiting for their turn for at least four months.
4. At least 20 percent of those completing CLC training courses have found employment or started their
own businesses.
5. The majority of CLC learners have noted skills development through social, educational and multi-
cultural activities.
Figure 14: CLC Participant Satisfication Levels

1% 4% 2% 21%
100%
90%
80% No
70%
Percentage of Participants

Yes
60% 99% 96% 98% 79%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Satisfied by the
training schedule
of education

Satisfied by the quantity of

material and technical
Satisfied by the quality

Satisfied by the quality of material

and technical base

Satisfied by the quantity of

material and technical base

Basically, the CLC overall impact is expressed in three areas:

Upgrading the business skills of the local population. For example, the inhabitants of Amanbokter village
were introduced to marketing in business courses and, after completing them, were able to solve common
problems with the sale of self-made milk production. Due to low awareness of the principles of supply and

58
demand, the village inhabitants had suffered from heavy spoilage of milk products because the remote and
mountainous place where they lived required that they wait for potential buyers to arrive. Nowadays, the
villagers have learned to make cheese and sell it in the nearby regional markets at high prices.

Reduction in the number of unemployed people. CLCs have experience in partnership schemes with the
local Labor Department to train enlisted unemployed people in CLC training programmes. They also offer
seminars on skills to compose a resume, prepare for interviews, and self-employment.

Rise of social and educational activity among unemployed youth and housewives. Authorities note the
increase in community participation in local activities. As research shows, better educational outcomes – as
represented by trainees’ achievements – are closely related to higher incomes in life.

The purchase of personal computers by inhabitants of Sortobe increased after completing CLC computer
courses. The training process at СLCs focuses not only on the transfer of certain knowledge and skills,
but also on diverse development of the individual, encouraging his creativity, abilities and such personal
qualities as initiative, self-management, imagination and originality.

CLC beneficiaries have noted the moral aspects of CLC programmes that help people to enrich their lives
with the following abilities:

1. Self-confidence and willingness to adapt to the demands of society. Experts have revealed certain
psychological barriers (especially among adults), the fear of a grown-up to be trained or a reluctance to
admit they do not know certain things. After attending programmes at the CLC, practically 50 percent
of the trainees have overcome this barrier. Some respondents answered that they have become more
willing to take initiative.
2. Coexistence, tolerance of other nationalities, cultures and traditions. Through the joint efforts of
local representative and executive bodies, one CLC sponsor seminars on cultural heritage to encourage
national pride. However, this concept hasn’t become a key principle of CLC activities.
3. Positive behavioural change of the learners in communication, critical thinking, decision-making
and creativity. Trainees defined the following CLC programmes as most effective: computer courses,
health care, processing of agricultural products, massage services to disabled children, lessons for
farmers, sewing, cooking, hairdressing, shoe or furniture repair, national crafts.

Major Findings
The research revealed that for CLCs better management priority must be given first and foremost to these
aspects:
--strategic and operative planning, definition of mission
--maintenance of a database
--identifying the priority needs of the community
--self-evaluation
Strengths
External factors

• The CLC fills the gap of the national education system in guaranteeing wide access to lifelong learning
for all, particularly unprotected categories of the population, including adults, the unemployed, women,
youth, repatriates, the disabled and children of preschool age.
• In terms of the poorly developed non-formal education sector, the CLC is believed to be one of the
effective models of non-formal education to satisfy the needs of youth and adults to acquire life skills and
habits and to improve the quality of their lives.
• Through its concept of an individual approach, the CLC is suited to realize the tasks specified in state
programmes on educational development, the struggle against poverty, social protection, the effective
employment of a significant part of the able-bodied population, contributing to stable income and its
increase

59
• CLC plays a growing role in the promotion of democratic procedures in society in decision-making at the
local level as well as in the establishment of civil awareness, healthy lifestyles, social activity and gender
equality.
• Open and flexible in the organization of its activities, the CLC through the mobilization of local resources,
including schools and other social organizations, is able to provide vocational training by means of
modern information and communication technologies.
• CLCs have already developed as multipurpose centres most needed by local communities.
Internal factors

• The mechanism of social partnership is developed and being implemented through volunteer
involvement, trainers, and business contacts with interested organizations.
• Regular communication with members of the local community takes place for the purpose of needs
analysis, monitoring, accountability and transparency.
• The management structure makes available at least two basic teachers with appropriate teaching
qualifications and essential job experience, along with a high level of interest and activity among CLC
managers and teachers.
• Vocational accelerated short-term training courses have been introduced in the specialties most required
by the market economy.
• There is the positive experience of material and financial support for CLCs by local authorities.
Weaknesses
External factors

• Insufficient trust and support from the state, caused by the lack of disseminated information; poor
acknowledgement by local authorities about the advantages of CLCs and possible benefits for the state.
• Institutional and financial instability, uncertainty of CLCs’ legal status
• Poor material and financial support from local budgets, basically consisting of wages to facilitators and
teachers, the need for a real state mechanism for financial and material stability
• Weak regional CLC networking, caused by communications problems, need for access to the Internet to
overcome the remoteness of CLCs scattered across Kazakhstan
• Need for regular consultation and methodical maintenance for CLC managers, weak human resources
development or none at all
• Need for state accreditation of CLC training courses to bridge higher levels of formal education and
certification for further employment
Internal factors
• Lack of CLC managers for strategic planning, fund raising, self-evaluation and self-analysis skills
• Poor material and technical support. Lack of means for replacement or repair of equipment
• Inertness in CLC activity towards expansion of the spectrum of training courses
Opportunities
• International exchange of best practices and their adaptation to the national situation.
• CLC lobbying at state level, introduction into national programmes of human resources development,
involving different types of national authorities
• International experts consulting and support
• Wide information campaign by means of positive publication and other mass media at a national level
• Enlargement and improvement of the quality of CLC services provided to a wide range of target groups
• Promotion of regional and international partnership

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Threats
• Lack of political support, absence of interest in CLC activities from the state; poor financing may result in
CLC self-liquidation
• Absence of an effective system of planning regular training for CLC managers
• Lack of opportunities for international cooperation
Another threat is the reduction of financial support from local authorities towards a total cut-down.
According to the budgetary code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, financing from budgetary funds to
promote NGOs, NCOs and other public (not state) organizations is outlawed, except financing through
performance of the social order in terms of participation of the given organization in state competitions to
carry out state orders.

Recommendations
The research has identified the need for the following:

• Political
will for introducing non-formal education into national legislation and state programme
development to integrate into the world educational space
• Lobbying at a national level to include CLC development in national and sub-national programmes
• Regional workshop/seminar/meeting for joint training, review, evaluation, exchange of experience
• Networking with local expert agencies, such as universities, teacher skills upgrading institutes, for
technical support and supervision
• Continuing support from state and sponsors to cope with changing needs
• Whenever possible, editions of teaching materials for the support of CLC trainers and facilitators
• Capacity-building of CLC personnel with regard to planning, management, teacher training, and technical
expertise

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62
© N. Rammal
Lebanon*
Introduction
The community learning centres covered in this
research are distributed in underdeveloped rural The absolute poverty line, which is defined in
poor areas in Lebanon. They have had little attention Lebanon as the income level at which an average
over the years from either the state or international family of five can meet its food requirements and
organizations. other basic needs such as health, education,
housing and clothing, was estimated at US$
The main income in the targeted villages, not to say 618 per month at the end of 1993. In the same
sole, is from agriculture and public service, (mainly period, the extreme poverty line, defined as the
military and governmental education bodies). In income level at which a family of five can meet
the Palestinian refugees camps, the problem areas only its food requirements, was estimated at
are of a different nature. US$ 306 per month. Given these figures, 28% of
Lebanese families are estimated to live below
Under the Lebanese law, Palestinian refugees are
the absolute poverty line, while, of these, 7.25%
denied more than 80 different types of work; they
live below the extreme poverty line. This implies
are not allowed to build new houses or to own
that around one million Lebanese live in poverty,
ones, especially outside the refugee camps.
while 250,000 of them are in extreme poverty.
Most of the Palestinian refugees work in the Lebanese Center for Political Studies
agriculture and building sectors. Lately, and with
United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA)
reducing their services and cutting their budget,
the educational and health services have been severely hit and can no longer offer quality service.

Under these circumstances, it should be noted that the technical support provided by UNESCO’s Regional
Office in Beirut within the CLC project framework contributes only slightly to answering the many needs
of these areas.

Most of the active NGOs in the research areas implement non-formal education activities as a main tool
to raise awareness and to provide knowledge mainly for youth and children. In this sense, providing those
NGOs with information technology (IT) equipment answered a need and allowed them to enlarge their
scope of work.

Whether in Lebanese villages or Palestinian refugee camps, the management of community learning
centres needs extensive assistance, based on feedback from managerial bodies, beneficiaries, and remarks
made by the experts who used analytical and monitoring methods during their field visits to the centres.

Research Methology
Regional research on community learning centres is crucial to help in assessing countries’ educational reach,
and to measure present and future impacts. CLC experience in the Arab world is rather new, and lessons
learned will contribute to re-shaping projects so that they can best meet local communities’ needs.

Following several discussions with APPEAL and other participants during the Regional Experts’ Meeting on
Community Learning Centres in June 2005, it was initially decided that the research would target the three
Arab countries of Lebanon, Jordan and Egypt. After in-depth discussions with the CLC focal point at UNESCO
Beirut, however, it was decided that the Egypt component be omitted because the CLC experience there
has not yet been initiated and more time would be needed before research on Egypt could be started.

As for the Jordan component, the research team coordinator held several meetings both with the UNESCO
Beirut focal point and with the Jordan CLC focal point in Beirut. It was agreed at these preparatory meetings
to carry on the research in Jordan after receiving a suggested list of target CLCs from UNESCO Amman. A
research team member made two visits to Jordan specifically to meet with relevant actors and to initiate
the research process. However, the research team waited several months for feedback and a permit to

* Written by Mr. Nizar I. Rammal, Social Animator for Community Development, Training and Consultancy

63
conduct the research. As an outcome, these issues limited the CLC research to Lebanon, and delayed its
initiation. It also led to amending the contract to include only the remaining research team members, thus
resulting in re-budgeting the whole assignment.

The research was based on focus group meetings and in-depth interviews with CLC personnel, beneficiaries
when available, and local partners involved in the activities of CLCs ranging from municipalities to other
NGOs. The interviews followed the same methods and were based on a comprehensive questionnaire that
covered all research objectives.7 Selection of centres was done to cover all regions by studying atleast one
CLC from each region. Samples also needed to represent the three CLC types that operate in Lebanon:
NGO, municipal and governmental. As a result, the study examined ten CLCs broken down into four NGO-
sponsored, two municipal and one governmental CLC.

Analysis of Clc Experiences

Before analyzing the experiences of CLCs, it is important to note that the timing of the project was not
ideal. It was almost the end of the summer, and therefore it was not always possible to appraise activities
and meet with beneficiaries. To overcome that drawback, more effort was put into the interviews and in
observing physical indications related to the management of the activities: photos, reports, press releases,
forms and questionnaires, publications, video recordings, and so on.

Programmes/Activities
CLC activities varied from one place to another. “Computer training,” “summer camps and non-formal
education activities” were the most common among all the centres. On the other hand, only the CLCs
related to the Palestinian camps were part of an NGO’s comprehensive plan; all other NGOs conducted their
different activities based on availability of funds and appropriate circumstances. It is a general weakness
shared by CLCs in Hibarieyh, Houla, Baalbek, the Bekaa, Brital, and Blida that there is a complete absence
of strategic planning.

Some of the management of these centres saw the need to develop their skills to reach a better planning
capacity and a more concrete mission, while others were defensive and blind to their own flaws. The final
recommendations of this report will discuss these issues in reference to each CLC studied.

Computer training conducted in the CLCs was divided into two parts: TOT (training of trainers, conducted
by UNESCO for CLC volunteers) and Basic Learning Courses (conducted by TOT trainees, targeting the
community). Such training has taken place in all of the CLCs that are equipped with computers (PCs), with
the exception of the Blida Centre, which lacks all basic financial and physical resources (furniture, photocopy
machine, telephone-fax, desks and chairs).

Summer camps and non-formal education activities, other common activities among the CLCs, were partially
launched because of the UNESCO training initiative (except for the “SAWA” NGO in the Baalbak area), and
there was capacity-building of volunteers to carry on the planning, organization, and implementation of
activities during the summer camps.

Although many of the interviewed CLC personnel did not bring up this point, it appeared that the summer
camps were the best tool for promoting the existence of the CLCs and for creating a link with communities
through their children. Failing to see this point, the CLCs would miss out on further promoting their activities
and building on success stories.

Despite the obvious success of the summer camps, and the increased capacity development of CLC
volunteers from one year to another, the CLCs are not following up on the target groups after the end of
the activity, nor attempting to engage them in future innovative activities. This reflects the need for self-
empowerment among CLCs in order for them to sustain their relations with beneficiaries and create solid
interaction to assess their needs and promote interest in future developmental projects.

Vocational training and workshops on productive projects were also mentioned by most CLCs, with the

7 See Lebanon CLC Research Report, Annex 2 (in attached CD) for questionnaire form and the interview discussion
points.

64
exception of Hibarieyh. The funding for these activities was from different sources, mainly UNDP projects.
The strength of such initiatives is the creation of an opportunity for diversified financial resources besides
agriculture in the villages, and to engage the young Palestinian refugees in constructive and fruitful
activities. The problem facing the management of CLCs regarding vocational training is the limited interest
on the part of the beneficiaries in traditional vocations such as make-up and hair dressing, sewing, car
mechanics, etc. This is restraining the communities from profiting, since there is self-sufficiency in these
domains. The beneficiaries are being inflexible about their needs, probably out of resistance to new ideas.
Nonetheless, it is the responsibility of CLCs to be innovative and persuasive to encourage new vocations.

Another prominent area of CLC involvement was cultural activity, which has been adopted in all CLCs to
some extent – often quite creatively. Profiting from pride in local cultural heritage, the CLCs have engaged
local talent to use culture as a tool to spread awareness about certain issues or raise funds. Such activities
may include theatre, summer festivals, awareness seminars, and literature evenings. It seems that it is
easier to mobilize communities to participate in such activities than those mentioned earlier. Yet, only the
Rachidiyeh CLC and the Houla Cultural Centre are profiting from these events to promote their activities
and advocate their other programmes.

The diversity and creativity of the mentioned activities, and the experience in managing them, seem to be
more advanced at the CLCs that serve the Palestinian camps than those run by Lebanese NGOs. This could
be due to the age of the bodies running the CLCs, the centralization of the beneficiaries, and the greater
exposure of the Palestinian camps to development experiences compared to certain rural poor Lebanese
villages, which were under Syrian occupation and/or neglected by central governmental plans that have
concentrated its effort in the last decade or so on the Beirut area (the capital) and part of Mount Lebanon.
Such villages are still ignored by national and international organizations.

Common strengths and weaknesses of CLCs in conducting their activities are listed in Table 15. Detailed
information for the individual CLCs researched can be found in the Lebanon CLC Research Report on the
attached CD.

Table 15: Common Strengths and Weaknesses of CLC Activities

Strengths Weaknesses
- Commitment of management to the success of - Lack of strategic planning to guide the planning of the
CLCs activities
- Engagement of volunteers on levels that differ - Focus of CLCs to carry on the activities without seeking
from one CLC to another self development
- Evolution of work with time at the levels of - Planning irrespective of evaluation results whenever
management and human capacities carried on
- Measure of success qualitative and not quantitative
- Displacement of most people during winter (to big
cities) which restricts activities to the summer seasons
with few exceptions

Management
All CLCs are under the direct management of each relative NGO, cultural centre or municipality, i.e. there
is neither separate focal management nor tailored methods for the supervision of CLCs’ activities in light
of (1) the initial goal of launching those centres and (2) their special prerequisites. That being said, CLC
management varies widely from one place to another, and there does not seem to be any adherence to the
general common managerial framework suggested by UNESCO (planning, supervision, conflict resolution,
follow up, evaluation, and monitoring).8

8 UNESCO’s Beirut office is planning to train CLC staff on management skills. The research took place before this
training was conducted. Still, it is important to go back at a later period of time and to measure the impact of this
training. In this sense, this research can serve as a baseline for measurement.

65
 In Their Own Words: Lebanese Youth
Lebanon, being part of the developing world, is a demographically young country. The population
(adjusted for under-enumeration) numbered 3.1 million persons in 1996. The youth population
numbered 585,000 and thus accounted for just under 19 percent of the total population. The number
of young persons is expected to continue to increase during the next twenty years and is projected
to reach 628,000 in year 2006 and 714,200 in the year 2016. The relative importance of youth is
projected to gradually decrease to just below 17 percent by the year 2011 and to 17.3 percent in the
year 2016.†

“After a year of job hunting, I finally took a job as a sales representative for a pharmaceutical company.
I went through four years of college, and have a business management degree, it seems a waste!”
Amal , 24 year old

“I have a Master’s of Chemistry degree, but when I graduated there were no available posts, so I started
to work with my father in the family business, and it looks like I shall continue to do so.”
Iyad is one example of a Lebanese youth finding employment outside of his field of study, a trend that
seems to be growing among the youth.

“We really don’t get any career guidance before choosing a major in school, and there is no way of
telling what is in demand in the job market. We end up with a useless degree, and have to take any
job that is offered,”
Marianna, a hotel management graduate now working for a supermarket chain.

†
Source: Lebanon: Ministry of Planning and the Ministry of Social Affairs (unpublished data), 1997.

One notable strength at the managerial level relates to youth involvement in the centres. Youth participation
is particularly encouraged at the administrative level and within the implementation of projects. The
decision-making process, however, is most usually centralized and teamwork is often lacking. A few striking
examples, categorized into Group 1 and 2 below, illustrate the differences.

Group 1
CLC Ein el Helwi and Rachidiyeh: Youth are actively involved all the time and are exposed and aware of all
the planning and the projects. They participate in regular meetings and their role develops as their positive
contribution and commitment.

CLC Houla: The management is quite traditional, and the youth are imposing themselves and their
innovative ideas through their enthusiasm and productivity. Also, there seems to be openness in attempts
to assess own needs, acceptance of weaknesses, and demand for internal capacity-building.

Group 2
CLC Blida: This is a one-woman show, where board members are not involved or aware of anything, except
being involved in the activity once the funding is there.

CLC Rachidiyeh: The management gives an impression of over self-confidence in managing the CLC and
supervision of activities.

CLC Hibarieyh: It is a one-man show on the level of general planning. There is an absence of strategic
thinking, needs assessment, programme evaluation and sharing of information related to CLC activities
and recurrent problems. After two years of starting in Hibarieyh, there remains no organization chart that
defines responsibilities and job description for the members. It is important to note that there are not
even regular meetings to plan or evaluate activities. This said, an encouraging point is the commitment of
Hibarieyh CLC’s volunteers to develop the CLC even though most of them reside in the capital.

66
Policy Linkages
Many points were found to be common among the centres, especially the high level of enthusiasm and
commitment of the management and volunteers who appreciate the opportunity offered by the CLC in the
development of their communities. Unfortunately, not all the community groups share that vision, especially
on the level of municipalities and dominant political parties. A remarkable example is the municipality of
Hibarieyh, which signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with UNESCO and the Jouzour NGO that
defines the responsibility of the current council in hosting, running and supporting the CLC.

The Hibarieyh CLC is located in a municipality office, and is equipped with PCs donated by UNESCO. The
main problems as described by members of Jouzour were confirmed upon a visit to the centre, and were
enhanced by the lack of co-operation received. For instance, there is a restriction on entry to the room
which is dedicated to the centre, since it has access to the offices of the municipality. Although this room
has an independent exit/entrance, the municipality did not do the necessary blocking of the common
access to give independent entry/exit to the CLC. This is greatly affecting the CLC’s activities, since they
have to be planned according to the municipal council agenda. Also, the credibility of the centre is affected,
since sometimes the activities would be interrupted by members of the council for one reason or another.
Finally, the municipality has not demonstrated a developmental vision, which has resulted in the CLC not
getting enough support to play a more active role in educating the people, create cultural activities, or
improve the quality of life of Habariyeh’s citizens. What balances this hindrance might be the municipaliy’s
co-operation with local NGOs which are operating in Hibarieyh village.

The main policy linkages shared by CLCs is their co-operation with the Ministry of Education, which
provides support once contacted. This support has thusfar been restricted to providing space and facilities
for activities (mainly summer camps). Similar support may come from the Ministry of Tourism, which has
been the case in Hibarieyh and Houla.

Co-operation with dominant political parties, whether in the Lebanese villages or the Palestinian camps, is
also a necessity for all the centres in order to mobilize support for their smooth operation. What differs is
the way this issue is addressed. In Houla for instance, there is a lack of horizon for new and continuous co-
operation. Their outreach, for instance, has always depended on personal contacts.

The outreach, though promoted in a very primitive way (announcing activities through public microphones),
is increasing as time goes by and is granting the CLCs more experience in running their activities. Despite
these efforts, however, the provision of participation allowances that some CLCs offer may have more
influence on participation levels than do outreach activities.

Finally, although the CLCs could have a direct influence on the schooling systems by introducing new
methods of education to the curriculum and promoting active participation and non-conventional
teaching, none of the CLCs seems to be empowered at this stage to even think of it. It is important to note
that the whole project has been running for only two years, and there is still a major lack in planning and
identifying objectives. While some CLCs are very underdeveloped (like Blida), others are very ambitious (like
Houla and Baalbak).

Impact/Outcomes
It is hard to measure the impact of activities that have been planned and conducted with a complete absence
of defined objectives and institutional vision. Even if there were outcomes, their impact and profitability
would be limited, short-term, and ineffective in achieving community development through educational
capacity-building in the real sense of the word. Therefore, what is meant by the impact that would be
discussed in this section is hardly a sustainable effect that could be accumulated to lead to actual progress.
The following recommendations focus on this point, since it is a basic need for the better functioning and
influence of the CLCs.

In general, and since all the CLCs conducted the computer training courses, one important outcome of CLC
activity has been the development of a basic computer-literate generation in these target underdeveloped
areas that have largely been disregarded by policy makers. Nonetheless, the impact is limited for many
reasons:

67
1. The computers were not always functional in some centres, a problem that created delay in delivery of
substantive education and distracted the students.
2. The continuous disruption of electricity affected the participants getting sufficient practical training.
3. Most of the computer activities were conducted during the summer, when the participants tend to
travel frequently, thereby interrupting their class attendance.
4. After the courses, the students do not have access to computers for their own practice and development.
The CLCs are not prepared yet to provide such an opportunity.
In regard to the summer camp activities, outcomes and impacts are noticeable. The centre volunteers attend
informative courses and skill-building workshops. They then put their new skills immediately into practice
through the CLC activities. Likewise, during the summer, CLC activities cater to children’s participatory
involvement. They learn concepts to enhance the quality and perception of their lives, and their relation
to the environment. These children, who live in places that lack resources for guided educational fun,
have a chance to enjoy recreation as well as education - a fact that will be essential to their growth and
commitment to their own development and to that of their community. The impact of outcome will be
more obvious with time. For now, it is noted that the CLCs have built a connection with the children who, as
a result of these positive experiences, will be more likely to join future CLC activities.

The vocational training courses were more successful in some places than others, in terms of impact. The
outcome was common: all participants learned the basis for a new vocation. Yet, since there was neither
access to funding opportunities (small credits) nor a market that could absorb the trainees, the vocational
training did not lead to its initial objective. In many CLCs, there was a more significant reason for the
shortcoming, mainly because there was lack of creativity in promoting new vocations and a lack of effort/
absence of know-how to place trainees by CLC management.

Handicraft activities created self-fulfillment for the women who attended these courses in Blida. It was a
good way to engage them in the centre and increase their interest.

Internet access (19 subscribers per 1,000 population in 2000 and only just over 5,000 individual hosts)
runs along lines dividing the educated from the illiterate, men from women, rich from poor, young from
old, and urban from rural. ICT has created a new divide, accentuating the socio-economic one, separating
the connected from the disconnected, and generating two parallel and uneven communication systems.
Lebanese data concerning its internal digital divide are very limited, and the issue itself has not yet been
fully addressed by the authorities.

Also, there were many cultural or informative seminars. These created a positive dynamic in the societies,
especially among volunteers. They also had a good impact on increasing community members’ knowledge
of CLCs. In the case of Houla CLC, it was an opportunity for the people there to get involved in the centre.

The most significant direct impact recorded during the research was Ain El Helwi CLC’s success in returning
delinquents to their school (59 out of 105 participants). This has been done despite the attempts of some
political powers to hinder these centres, such as in the cases of Blida and Ain el Helwi, where direct money
is given to attend another activity and ignore the CLC.

Major Findings
Following the end of the field research and writing of the first draft, all of the CLCs visited were invited to a
workshop on 20 October 2005 in Beirut, where results of the research were discussed. In brief, the following
is a list of the major findings:

1. Active and enthusiastic youth participation and involvement accounts for the popularity of many CLC
programmes.
2. There is an absence or shortfall in strategic planning.
3. Funding is often dependent on international NGOs and personal donations. Very few have been
organizing events and lobbying to get support.
4. CLCs suffer from lack of resources (financial, expertise, office equipment).

68
5. Lack of fund-raising creativity and know-how is common
6. There is inadequate gender representation on the management level (except for Blida, where only
women are part of the exclusive committee; nonetheless, they target men as much as women to
participate in their activities. This had a good response from the people.).
7. Some activities harbor non-realistic goals (Houla).
8. CLCs increase awareness, acceptance and adoption of participatory approaches (Ain el Helwi and
Baalbak).
9. Participants become volunteers in Houla and Baalkak.
10. CLCs created a group dynamic that is new and appreciated by most people once elaborated.
11. Transportation problems influence people’s ability and/or willingness to come from neighbouring
places, as well as their regular commitment to meetings and work during implementation of activities.
12. Engaging people on the levels of education and development.
A summary of the findings was distributed to participants and they were invited to provide their comments,
which produced the following advice:

• Pay attention to the cultural differences between South-East Asia and Lebanon (and other Arab countries)
when structuring CLC programmeming;
• Organize capacity-building training based on needs assessment and a good market study;
• Give attention to diversifying the quality and quantity of support between rural areas and cities;
• Provide support for CLCs to establish and maintain internet connectivity;
• Address availability of funding; fund-raising projects led by NGOs only cover a small part of what is
needed; and
• Give assistance to establish networking among various development agencies.
Workshop participants also identified the following training needs:
• Decision-making skills and tools
• Programmeming/planning skills and tools
• Non-formal education skills and tools
• Vocational training
• Strategic planning and analysis
• Communication skills
At the end, participants expressed their satisfaction with the research findings and the participatory process
that followed.

Recommendations
Lebanon has the lowest illiteracy rate in the region. Nevertheless, the remaining illiterates constitute a heavy
burden: out of a total population of 3.2 million, 345,000 people are illiterate, of which 32,000 ranged in age
from 10-24 years old in 1996. A national illiteracy eradication campaign that involves both governmental
and non-governmental bodies, and which is reinforced through CLCs, would be helpful - especially in
remote and disadvantaged areas.

Further recommendations focus on building CLC management capacity. This could be achieved through
prioritizing the needs for each centre or for a group of centres located around an area. Once the priorities
are clear and agreed upon with the centres, the following capacity-building courses are recommended for
CLC managers, staff and volunteers:
• Strategic planning (needs assessment, planning, budgeting)
• Fund-raising
• Team-building skills
• Leadership and participation
• Evaluation and monitoring

69
• Conflict management
• Community mobilization
• Internal governance
In addition to these courses, CLCs should be provided with newly developed machines and basic tools to
promote active training such as LCDs, TVs, videos and photocopy machines.

Unreliable electricity service affects the country as a whole. Yet the places where there is much poverty
and underdevelopment cannot afford to waste time waiting for electricity. Either through fund-raising or
sponsorship, CLCs are advised to seek the necessary funds or in-kind contribution to acquire generators or
identify alternative energy resources.

An interesting method adopted by all the centres to promote their activities is the use of a public microphone,
which is often employed to make announcements as CLC staff drive through the community service area.
While this method offers the capacity for good local outreach, it is important to develop new ways of
informing the public about CLC activities and of building a systematic way of inviting public participation.

Each centre has its own strengths and weaknesses. It is important to note that the CLCs are to be
encouraged to re-consider seriously and vigorously their decision-making and decision-taking processes.
Local community members and volunteers should play a major role in this process, especially during the
planning phases.

As a general assessment, it is unfortunate that the centres have not been playing an effective role yet, but
the young age of the centres is to their advantage. Indeed, with serious effort and access to funds for CLCs
(which are already rich in human resources and commitment to developing their local communities), CLCs
could play a much larger role in Lebanon’s development.

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72
© CERID
Nepal*
Introduction
Generally, a community learning centre is perceived as a local educational institution or a learning centre
outside the formal education system, which is usually established and managed by the local people in
villages or in urban areas, with the aim to help deprived people bring about qualitative changes in their
lives. The innovations of the CLC have, in a way, opened up a new avenue for deprived, disadvantaged and
marginalized people to learn to be creative, analytical and productive, and also to follow their own choices
and make their own decisions. The frontier of the CLC is progressively advancing because it is essentially
oriented towards empowering individuals and fostering community development. When we speak of
empowerment, we are particularly concerned with the task of redeeming downtrodden and destitute
people from appalling conditions that are caused by oppression and exploitation in various spheres of life
-- political, social, economic and cultural. In this context, CLCs can perform a very wide range of tasks. A CLC
can serve as a crucial forum to energize discourse on human rights and democracy, as a useful platform
to probe into social evils, cultural domination and health hazards such as HIV/AIDS, and as a centre for
conducting both formal and non-formal education activities. It can also serve as a venue for parents to
discuss the ways and means of their children’s education, as a workplace for productive skills training and as
a community meeting place to focus on community development issues. It can also be used as a centre for
mothers’ groups to reflect on gender issues and women's problems and for carrying out economic activities
like opening savings accounts and obtaining micro-credit. At present, we can visualize a strong drive for the
qualitative and quantitative promotion of CLCs in the international arena.

In Nepal, CLCs are gradually coming into existence at the initiative of the government, NGOs and UNESCO
Kathmandu. There are 91 CLCs now in operation throughout the country. They are located mostly in rural
areas. Although the popularity of CLCs seems to be growing, a clear understanding of the CLC concept
among the people still has not taken a firm hold.

Despite the problem of inconsistency among stakeholders in the understanding of the concept of the CLC,
it is gaining wider currency in Nepal. The Tenth Plan of Nepal (2002-2007) has accepted CLCs as effective
and locally sustainable institutions for continuing education. The Plan envisages using the physical facilities
of local primary schools to meet the need for opening a large number of CLCs. The target is to establish
205 CLCs by 2007. The Plan also states that local bodies will be entrusted with the job of running CLCs.
Similarly, the Education for All (2004-2009) Core Document has underlined the importance of CLCs as an
alternative strategy for the expanded operation of learning activities for empowerment. The document also
reiterates the Tenth Plan’s emphasis on expanding the number of CLCs, with more impetus on promoting
coordination between CLCs and various other development organizations working at the local level.

Mentioning CLCs in the Tenth Plan and in the Core Document is an indication that the Government of Nepal
has recognized CLCs as an effective means of localized learning. However, government authorities have not
addressed the critical need to frame a comprehensive national CLC policy. This lacuna has deprived CLCs of
having a national legal framework, and stands as a major impediment to the institutionalization of CLCs.

Nevertheless, we can say that the value of CLCs is being increasingly recognized by the people. Important
concerns have been pinpointed in relation to creating CLC structure and management frameworks,
formulating needs-based empowering programmes and introducing learner-centred methods. Similarly,
voices have been raised in favour of identifying avenues for establishing linkages and expanding networks
with various development partners, stressing the crucial role of the people in the entire CLC operation
and placing emphasis on mainstreaming CLCs into the development initiatives of governmental and non-
governmental organizations. However, considerable efforts are needed to have these concerns and voices
become a reality. Additional efforts also need to be made in order to narrow down the “impact gap” between
what CLCs could have contributed and what they are contributing now.

* Written by Prof. Hridaya Ratna Bajracharya, Tribhuvan University, Research Centre for Educational Innovation and
Development

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Profile of the Research Study
The main objective of this study was to assess the existing status of CLCs and also to examine their
outcomes and impact. The results of the study are expected to contribute to further improving CLCs’
operational strategies and to identifying ways for promoting institutionalization for sustaining CLCs within
the framework of the EFA action plan. The specific objectives of the study were:

• To assess CLCs’ standing with specific focus on their strengths, weaknesses and prospects.
• To examine the management aspects of CLCs specifically with respect to expansion, sustainability,
networking and linkages with other development agencies.
• To share the initial results of the study at a regional forum in order to identify key issues and visualize
effective strategies for future actions at the regional, national and even grassroots level.
In keeping with the objectives, the study was meant to assess the CLCs’ place in the existing context.
Basically, the intent was to highlight how effectively CLCs have been able to improve literacy and other
human development skills. In addition, the entire operational system of CLCs was analyzed, specifically
with a focus on programme location, types of programmes, financial resources, nature and composition of
beneficiaries, sponsors, and management system.

The study covered five CLCs, four from rural areas and one in an urban area. These CLCs were selected
from the four development regions of the country. (The field research team could not travel to the Far
Western Development Region because of the political turbulence there.) The research tools included in-
depth interviews and focus group discussions. Documents were reviewed to come up with ideas relevant
for streamlining the future course of CLCs in Nepal.

Researchers from the Centre for Educational Research and Development (CERID) who had exposure to
CLCs in Nepal were involved in the study. A research advisory committee consisting of five members was
formed. CERID’s executive director presided over the committee. Of the other four members, three were
from outside, one each from the Non-formal Education Centre (NEC/HMG), UNESCO Kathmandu and the
National Resource Centre for Non-formal Education (NRC-NFE), respectively, and the remaining member
was CERID’s senior researcher, who acted as the study’s coordinator.

Basically, the study was carried out using qualitative methods. Since these methods require researchers to
be insightful, perceptive, interactive and inquisitive, the senior CERID researchers conducted an intensive
orientation programme for field researchers with a specific focus on making them aware of the techniques
that are useful for collecting qualitative data.

For the study, two CLCs from Surkhet district in the Mid-Western Region, one from Rupandehi district in
the Western Region, one from Kathmandu district in the Central Region and one from Jhapa district in the
Eastern Region were selected. They used in-depth interviews and focus group discussions for collecting field
data. Focus group discussions were conducted by involving CLC stakeholders, particularly participants and
facilitators. For this activity, researchers framed discussion triggers in tune with the objectives of the study.
They also designed a questionnaire form in order to collect policy-related ideas from top-level educational
administrators and from a national-level NGO’s chairperson.

Since needs-based programmes are regarded as having a higher utility value, the programmes implemented
in the CLC study were generally based on identified needs. Nonetheless, other programmes prescribed
by the District Education Office and donors managed to find their place in CLC activities. In this way, an
integration of supply-driven and demand-driven programmes was found during the study.

Basically, the programmes implemented by the study CLCs were diverse. They included activities related
to adult and women’s literacy, out-of-school learning, childcare programmes, environment and sanitation,
traditional music, first-aid, HIV/AIDS awareness-raising, and more commonly income-generating activities
such as tailoring, bee-keeping, making pickles and bags, growing vegetables, raising goats, savings and
credit.

Selection of participants was based on reaching out to the neediest groups of people, such as minority
ethnic groups, the economically and educationally disadvantaged, dalits (“untouchables”) and women. The
main purpose of selecting this segment of society was to help them transform themselves from a wretched
reality to a more humane one.

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Analysis of CLC Experiences
For the purpose of the study, data were collected from various sources. Table 16 below provides details
about the collection process.

Table 16: Data Collection Strategy by Source

Types of Sources Number Data Collection Strategies
Director of Department of Education 1 Interview
Chief of Non-Formal Fducation Centre, HMG 1 Interview
Chief and Deputy of National Resource Centre 2 Interview and discussion
for Non-Formal Education Centre, HMG
Rupandehi and Kapilbastu Project Coordinator 1 Interview and discussion
DEO officials of different districts 3 Interview and discussion
Facilitators 5 Interview and discussion
CLC mobilizers 7 Interview and discussion
Mgt. committee chairperson 4 Interview and discussion
Community members 56 Focus group discussion (FGD)
CLC participants 78 FGD and interview
CLC sub-committee coordinators 2 Interview and discussion
Ex VDC/ward committee members 17 Interview and discussion
Key informants 17 Interview and discussion

Basically, the management approach for the operation of CLCs was of a traditional bureaucratic nature. A
hierarchical structure, rather than a horizontal one, was the most common. Consequently, personalities at
the top level appeared to be prominently in charge of operations at the study CLCs. The principle that CLCs
should be steered by the people and for the people was not addressed in an impressive way.

The provision of capacity-building as an important aspect of the better management of CLCs was embedded
in the management framework. The CLC stakeholders were given training and were also involved in skill-
based learning activities in accordance with the nature of their roles and responsibilities. For instance, those
with the responsibility of playing the leadership role were given training in building leadership skills and
those with the responsibility of running CLC programmes were equipped with programme operation skills
and strategies. Specific capacity-building experts were involved in each programme area.

The CLCs under study seem to have taken initiative in establishing relationships with various organizations,
mainly with schools. They also endeavoured to get closer to the district education office, local administrative
unit, NGOs and UNESCO. CLCs’good relationships with these organizations have benefited them in mobilizing
resources, advancing academic programmes and conducting development activities such as planting tree
saplings. However, eff orts at creating functionally effective networks for further strengthening themselves
seem to be rather lukewarm.

Within the given systemic provision, the CLCs under study have attempted to institutionalize themselves by
making efforts to meet the minimum infrastructural needs, to build relationships with other development
partners, and to inculcate feelings of ownership among primary stakeholders. Many other requirements
that make for CLC sustainability, such as ensuring a permanent source of income, firm and dependable
networking and a strong feeling of ownership among all the stakeholders, need to be duly addressed.

The Tenth Plan and the EFA Core Document include references to the need for increasing the number of
CLCs in the country. What is lacking is a well-defined CLC policy with clear-cut accounts of CLCs’ legal status.
In fact, there is the assumption that mentioning the establishment of CLCs in a government document is
sufficient for addressing CLC policy concerns. In practical terms, this is not at all adequate. In fact, policy
statements need to reflect the overall concerns of CLCs, including the financial aspect.

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 CLC Turns Youth into Reputed Artist
Subarna Man Maharjan, age 23, completed his certificate level study. He is the only son of the family.
He has three sisters. His father works as a gardener and two sisters are tailors. One sister works in
Khasto. These are the only sources of their family's income.

Maharjan remembered that he was very much interested in playing the flute from his early childhood.
He used to listen to flute playing even when he was young and wondered when he would be able to
play this instrument. When he saw a stage show, he imagined when he would be able to perform in
such a show. To learn flute playing, he bought a flute and tried to play it, but he could not. One day
he heard from his friend that Tamsipakha CLC was going to start a training programme in traditional
musical instruments. He immediately contacted the CLC and got admitted there as a trainee. The
training was started from 2000 (Jan/Feb). Along with the flute, he received training in several other
traditional instruments such as Madal, Dhime Baja and so forth, but the emphasis was on flute
playing.

After one year's training, Maharjan found himself able to play the flute. He organized a musical group
and started to appear in stage shows. In 2001, he and his group took part in charity shows at the
Royal Academic Hall and National Theater for Victims of AIDS/HIV, the reconstruction of a Buddhist
monastery and other causes. He has also performed on the TV programme "Our Kathmandu." The
group traveled to a few other districts such as Kaski, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur to put on stage shows. He
appeared in many such shows. Since then, his group has been playing the traditional Newari music
for Newari marriage ceremonies on the occasion of bringing the bride from her home to the groom's
home.

Maharjan stated that the flute-playing job enabled him to supplement his family income. He made
a fairly good living from it. He thought that the CLC had enabled him to live such a prestigious life.
Now he is established and recognized as a reputed artist in the community. As he and his group were
invited to other parts of the country, Maharjan considered himself a national artist. At first, the family
members did not like his activities. But now they all support him. He acknowledged that all these
events occurred with the help of the CLC. However, he has doubts that the current insurgency will
enable the CLC to flourish along with all its activities.

Impact/Outcomes
In regard to the outcomes and impacts of CLCs, participants had positive opinions. They felt that they
gained what they had expected from the CLC programmes.

During the focus group discussion, participants who had taken part in income-generating activities and
learner-generated materials development stated that not only were they able to read simple messages and
some items from the newspapers, but they could also earn something as a result of the women’s income-
generating programme. Consequently, they had become members of the savings and credit programme.

In addition, the CLC helped raise local community awareness of public health and environmental
concerns.

Some young people who wanted to learn to play musical instruments joined a CLC in Kathmandu for
about a year and a half. After completing the training course, they formed the Paleswan Cultural Group and
performed in Kathmandu and Kaski. They were also invited to perform at some marriage ceremonies. These
youth were very pleased to receive twin benefits: First, they were able to become musicians according
to their expectations, and second, they found themselves engaged in the preservation of their (Newari)
cultural heritage. These achievements, they said, changed the very stereotypical perceptions of their
neighbours and friends. Now they are shown respect. They are looked upon as artists par excellence in their
community. They earned some money and supplemented the incomes of their families, which obviated
the need for being dependents of their parents. Further, they supported the local CLC, their alma mater, by
apportioning to it 10 percent of their income.

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The ladies who joined a CLC to learn tailoring were also very happy from the CLC's contribution. They believed
that they gained much more than what they had expected before joining the CLC programme. They not
only acquired the necessary skills, but also enjoyed the environment that always supported them in doing
something useful. These ladies learned how to make school uniforms. The CLC entered into a contract with
the nearby schools for making school uniforms, in which the trained ladies were duly employed. Now the
ladies give 10 percent of their income to the CLC.

The ladies felt that their family members were happy when they wore the uniforms they made. Thus, they
were able to save what would have been spent on tailoring charges. The ladies were also able to supplement
the incomes of their families and, thus, felt that they were becoming self-reliant. They stated that they
shared with their friends and neighbours the benefits they obtained, and encouraged them to join the CLC.
Participants of the programme now visit their children's schools to pay fees and receive progress reports,
find their way around unfamiliar buildings, and guide the children in their studies. These participants were
also able to pick up some simple English. Some of them set up small shops, others joined the public service.
Some of them continued their association with the CLC by taking part in skills training such as tailoring.

CLC Helps a Natuwa Child to Attend School

Pappu Natuwa, aged 11, was born in a poor family. There were 13 members in his family. No one in
his family was even enrolled at school. In fact, the Natuwas (one of the indigenous peoples of Nepal)
are illiterate. Not only his family, but other Natuwa families also do not send their children to school.
Natuwa people own no land even if they live in the countryside. They live by begging, street dancing,
and catching snakes and tortoises. They catch snakes and hold snake shows in the market. Pappu
Natuwa was the first child to go to school after joining an out-of-school programme (OSP) at a CLC.

When he completed OSP II, the OSP teacher, Project Director of the R and K project, and supervisor of
Madhubani CLC helped him join the school. Now he is currently studying in Grade III. He reported that
he likes to study; otherwise, he would be just as other Natuwas. He does not like what other Natuwas
do. He wants to be a teacher.

As the project staff encouraged him by providing a scholarship, he joined the OSP class. He stated that
he liked the class because of the facilitator. His family members also realized the value of education.
The family members told him "Padhena bhane hamile jastai magera khanu parcha, teshaile timilai
padhaounchhaun". If you do not go to school, you will have to live by begging as we do. This explains
why we are determined to let you get on with your studies. He continued his study even though the
children of other caste groups teased and bad-mouthed him. He often felt rather shy. He also added
that there were many children of the lower caste group in the community who did not attend school.
They should get the opportunity to study either in OSP classes or in the primary school with all the
necessary support and encouragement. The community people for the first time saw that a Natuwa
was attending school. As the Natuwa children started to go to school, the community people sensed
that this would certainly bring about a welcome change in their community. Now they send their
children to OSP classes and subsequently on to public schools.

In one of the study CLCs outside Kathmandu, local people used to work in a brick factory as wage labourers.
The CLC helped the community people to acquire skills in vegetable farming and in other income-
generating activities. These people now have started their own vegetable gardens. They also learned how
to use pesticides and insecticides.

Researchers also observed that the CLC helped empower Muslim women. Muslim women usually do not
participate in gatherings and do not speak with outsiders. The CLC motivated them to take part in the
community meetings.

Basically, women participants got some ideas about cleanliness and environmental awareness, and also tried
to ban the use of alcohol in the community. They also got involved in planting, the cleanliness campaign,
the construction of toilets and the regulation of stray cattle, among other activities. CLC participants
encouraged dropouts to return to school. They also explored ways to obtain scholarships for the poor,
developed the concept of compulsory education, and discussed the concept with the village education
committee (VEC) for implementation.

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Some of the groups, especially women, collected up to Rs. 75,000. A schoolteacher interviewed said that
this money increased the status of the groups, and that it would eventually help them make decisions
and develop a sense of self-reliance. CLCs further provided the basis of a livelihood for women and the
disadvantaged. Group members received loans and took up activities such as petty trade, vegetable
gardening, or goat raising. They were also able to increase their incomes. In this way, too, CLCs promoted a
culture of teamwork.

Table 17: CLC Programme Achievments in Nepal

Types of Programmes No. of Participants Achievement(s)
Women’s literacy class 240 Achieved literacy skills and some basic
knowledge
Post literacy 300 Acquired reading, writing and simple numerical
knowledge
Adult education 631 Achieved literacy skills and some basic
knowledge
Functional literacy 15 Achieved literacy skills and knowledge of
agriculture and animal husbandry
Out of school programme 1 and 2 627 Became eligible to attend formal schools
Environmental sanitation and Community people Became knowledgeable and used uncultivated
planting land for cultivation
Quiz contest 22 Helped to boost cognitive development
Coordination meeting Local government, Initiatives taken to work out coordination and
NGOs, INGOs and networking mechanisms
community
Savings and credit 42 (groups) Helped to generate resources and mobilize funds
Fabric painting training 15 Acquired fabric painting skills
Community library 4 Provided opportunity for continuous learning
Early childhood development 20 Focused on all-round development of children
Coaching class for 8th and 10th 60 Helped to improve their learning
grade girls
Newari learning materials Community people Helped to conserve language and art
Publication of CLC magazine 3 Contributed to dissemination of information
Educational tour CLC personnel and Gained experiences
community
Awareness of HIV/AIDS 120 Raised awareness
Women’s empowerment, 165 Raised awareness
women’s legal rights/advocacy
Other short-term training on 985 Contributed to fostering knowledge and skills for
group formation, instructional having a better quality of life
materials preparation, planning,
savings/credit, bee keeping, veg.
farming, non-formal education,
women’s empowerment, solid
waste mgt., mushroom farming,
ECD programme, Newari script,
music, TV/computer maintenance,
etc.

Major Findings
The major findings of the study are as follows:

• The Government of Nepal, in recognition of the importance of CLCs, has laid down as a policy matter in
its Tenth Plan the establishment of 205 CLCs, one each in the country's 205 constituencies. In addition,

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 Mrs. Rajak's Dream Turns into Reality
Mrs. Tara Rajak, who belongs to a disadvantaged community in Kathmandu valley, has been
working as a security guard at the Hanuman Dhoka Museum. She has a husband and four children.
The husband works as a driver. Her two daughters go to school.

She remembers now that she could not attend school as a child because her parents did not allow
her to go to school even though she had a very strong will to study. When she grew up she got
married. She also got a messenger’s job. One day, one of the non-Nepali officers ordered her to
bring a taxi, but she could not understand what the officer said. She just nodded her head as if she
understood it. She failed to bring a taxi. Then the officer started to furiously throw things at her.
Further, the officer dismissed her from the job. She was shocked and felt that all this was due to her
poor understanding. She said that this event compelled her to study, and she joined a literacy class.
But during the political events in 1990, the class was suspended and she could not continue her
study. After 12 years she joined the Tamsipakha CLC to attend a literacy class.

After completing the literacy programme, she was able to identify the folio where her name
was written and put her signature there. She could fill out the forms asking for leave, and she
helped her friends in filling these forms. She was able to record the temperature by looking at the
thermometer, she went by herself to pay the water, telephone and electricity bills, she checked the
home assignments of her husband and of her office, and went to the post office for mail.

Rajak now feels fulfilled in her life. She confidently talks with others. She thinks that her capability
has increased. She remembered one memorable day when the CLC arranged a study tour to the
Chhauni Museum. She was declared first in the group and got a prize because she correctly read
and wrote the names of the materials they saw there. She continued to attend literacy programmes
and learnt some simple English. She said she was so happy that she could read the hoarding boards,
bus route numbers, and other messages written in simple English. The CLC programme changed
her life, she said.

the national EFA document has reiterated the plan to advance CLC activities in the country. However, a
comprehensive national policy that clarifies the Government’s financial commitment, the consolidated
form of a CLC structure, and its legal framework has not been worked out and made public.
• CLCs have operated under a certain management structure which, in spite of the claim to be stakeholder-
centred, appears to be hierarchical in nature, characterized by a maze of bureaucratic norms, and
predominantly controlled by a few influential people. The principle that the management of CLCs has
to evolve from the grassroots level has been followed more as an exception than as a rule. In fact, CLCs
are operated mostly in terms of the cascade model and, as such, the implementation of a decentralized
management system has not gained a firm hold.
• The CLC concept is not very clear among stakeholders. No strong initiatives seem to have been taken
by government authorities or even by sponsors to disseminate the CLC approach extensively and with
clarity. As a consequence, the stakeholders have their own way of understanding CLCs. For example, if a
CLC is sponsored by UNESCO, stakeholders think it is another UNESCO office.
• Needs assessment is the major step taken to determine the type of programmes to be carried out by CLCs.
However, it is not clear how needs assessments are conducted. The relevance of programmes developed
on the basis of needs identified at one point in time is often questioned because it is presumed that
change in time will require making corresponding changes in the programmes.
• Generally, literacy and income-generating activities have been put into operation in a traditional system.
Even if these programmes have brought some economic and educational gains to the participants,
they do not seem to be quite effective in bringing about social transformation in an impressive manner.
Programmes that contribute to unleashing human potential to the maximum extent have yet to evolve.
Interestingly, in one of the CLCs under study, the revival of the traditional orchestra has brought about
promising results. For example, the trained musicians are preserving cultural heritage as well as earning
more income because of people’s enthusiasm for this orchestra regardless of its cost. Other CLCs have not
yet come up with such a contextually relevant programme.

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• For the operation of CLC activities, CLCs have involved facilitators and, in some cases, motivators and/or
people skilled in social mobilization. Most of the facilitators hold secondary education-level qualifications,
which seems rather inadequate considering the nature and importance of the programmes run by the
CLCs.
• There is a provision made for capacity-building not only of the participants, but also of the facilitators and
other personnel. However, the scope of capacity-building is limited to short-term training and orientation
programmes only. Follow-up training programmes are hardly in place. The involvement of local and
district-level experts and technical personnel on a regular basis to upgrade the knowledge and skills of
CLC personnel does not yet appear to be accepted as a priority.
• CLCs are dependent financially on sponsors. Once funds stop coming, CLCs will cease to function. CLCs do
not seem to have any plans to meet financial needs when outside support is stopped. Similarly, activities
that have the potential for generating funds do not seem to have been unleashed, except in the case of
Tamsipakha, where the trained orchestra players of this CLC now donate 10 percent of their earnings to
the CLC.
• Envisioning CLCs as a potential development arm of village development centres (VDCs) is lacking. VDC
development funds are used either through local community-based organizations (CBOs) and NGOs or
through the VDC employees. The prospect of making financial support available to CLCs from VDCs has
not been explored on a large scale.
• There are various NGOs, CBOs and other development actors at the CLC locations. The CLCs under study
have established relationships with them for their support to conduct training and obtain material
resources or expert services, to some extent. However, they have lagged behind in consolidating their
relationships into strong bonds and expanding these linkages eventually towards building sound
networks.
• The CLCs’ concern for their sustainability seems to be growing by degrees. Those without necessary
infrastructure have started to buy the land. Others with infrastructural facilities have moved ahead to
build more functional structures and to explore essential resources. However, the key to sustainability lies
in the stakeholders’ feeling of ownership, which is tenuous because they have agreed to get involved in
CLCs at the urging of sponsors and not because of their own feelings of affinity.

Recommendations
While the three main CLC actors – UNESCO Kathmandu, NFEC/HMG and NRC-NFE – work towards the same
goal of promoting CLCs as an effective mechanism for the empowerment of deprived and destitute people,
surprisingly their approaches differ distinctly. Resource-starved NFEC/HMG cannot afford to make available
even a modest venue for CLC activities, whereas the resource-privileged NRC-NFE is able to construct
concrete buildings to accommodate CLCs. On the other hand, UNESCO provides a handsome amount of
funding to run CLCs under its jurisdiction.

This discrepancy has confused the local people regarding the concept, management and operation of
CLCs. As a result, the very spirit of CLCs as community-energized institutions cannot flourish significantly.
The main cause for this situation is the lack of a comprehensive national CLC policy. In the absence of such
a policy, it is not possible to develop either a regulatory structure or a legal structure, and without these
two critical elements it becomes difficult to streamline CLCs to get desired results. As a matter of fact, there
is even confusion about the legal status of CLCs. Some CLCs are registered as NGOs, while others only
function under ad hoc committees. The current disarray in the CLC system in Nepal can be ascribed to a
lack of concrete CLC policy; giving incidental reference to it in the National Development Plan and in the
EFA document will not suffice.

This deficiency in CLC policy should be dealt with by constituting a national-level policy coordination
body with representation from the civil society, NGOs, INGOs, academic institutions, and the government
development ministries. This larger body can be expected to reflect on the existing reality, envision a future
course in light of emerging international trends and formulate relevant CLC policies.

Once such policies exist, the present confusing condition of CLCs can be corrected in conformity with some
commonly agreed parameters. These would include a community-initiated management system, priority
towards building effective networks, CLCs as VDC development arms, community-based monitoring

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systems, needs-based activities, the involvement of people whose needs are genuine as CLC participants,
and shared resource management. Making these parameters operational will essentially bring about a
harmony in the heterogeneity of CLCs at present and strengthen them to emerge as part of an effective
national programme.

The traditional bureaucratic approach, which seems to have been applied more often than not in the
management of CLCs, has led local stakeholders to adopt a hierarchical system for making decisions about
CLC affairs. This situation has constricted the stakeholders’ role in taking free and uninhibited part in the
management of CLCs. It is equally important to note that a prescriptive management approach acts as
a stumbling block that restricts the free flow of ideas from the grassroots level in evolving a localized
management system. Therefore, in place of an elitist-biased management approach, the local stakeholders
should be given enough leeway so that they can backstop the CLC programmes with a clear conscience in
the task of coming up with the management approach that best suits them.

The importance of CLCs as an instrument to empower community people has been well recognized. To
activate this tool in a positive manner, the involvement of mature and qualified as well as trained persons
as facilitators, change agents or critical role-players is a must. But the reality today is just the contrary. The
employment of mere high school graduates as critical role-players or as facilitators from whom we expect
impressive results is asking too much. This will only amount to paying scant regard to the real value of
CLCs, and will essentially widen the gulf between the spirit and the actual delivery of CLCs. If CLCs are to
be advanced as a national programme for empowerment, it is essential to strike a balance between what
they are purported to be and what they actually do. Synchronization between CLC spirit and actions must
always be ensured.

The financing of CLCs in Nepal seems to have been taken care of largely by the sponsors. However, they
have not guaranteed continued financial support to the CLCs under their jurisdiction. As a result, once they
stop funding, the CLCs will cease to function. There were various such instances in this study. Since financial
indemnity is critical for the sustainability of CLCs, it is essential to liberate them from this dependency
syndrome. It does not mean, however, that they should reject outside financial assistance in a blanket way.
The need is to cultivate ways in the local context itself that can generate resources on an on-going basis.
One example in this respect may be the operation of income-generating activities based on local resources
and skills. In the Humla district, where medicinal herbs are plentifully found, CLC activities focused on herb
processing and purifying to bring about good monetary returns. Such possibilities need to be explored in
all of the varying CLC contexts.

The idea suggested above raises the concern about the types of activities that will be pertinent in a given
CLC context. Usually it is claimed that the CLC activities are determined on the basis of needs assessment.
Needs assessment conducted at one point of time in the past is considered complete for all time regardless
of the structural changes that might be taking place. As a result, CLC activities seem stereotyped and out of
sync with local requirements, and impressive results from them will simply be wishful thinking. Therefore,
a critical assessment of the reality to achieve advancement of CLC programmes will be crucial in order to
ensure harmony between needs and programme activities.

The potential strength of CLCs does not seem to have been realized because the importance of their
association with other development partners has not been given much emphasis. In Nepal's CLC context,
as is evident from the observation of CLC locations that numerous development organizations are involved
in various community development activities. In fact, these organizations bring with them resources, skills
and ideas. On the other hand, CLC initiatives in finding ways to utilize them are not vigorous enough to
enable them to contribute enormously to community empowerment. Actually, their leisurely pace in forging
linkages and eventually building networks with development organizations working in their localities has
cost them their strength. Therefore, in considering the potential growth of CLC delivery capability through
expanding linkages and networking, CLCs need assistance and encouragement in making the right
connections with other institutions, agencies and organizations.

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© UNESCO / APPEAL
Thailand*
Introduction
Since community learning centres were launched in 2000 with support from UNESCO APPEAL and the
United Nations Development Programme, there have been two categories of CLCs in Thailand: centres
organized and operated by local people, and centres organized and run by local people, but with some
government support.

After five years of operation, CLCs have grown strongly and rapidly with different backgrounds, forms
and activities. There are currently about 8,057 CLCs supported by the Office of the Non-formal Education
Commission (ONFEC) in all 76 of the country’s provinces (ONFEC, 2005.) These CLCs are located in six
areas:
• 1,665 CLCs in the northern region
• 3,325 CLCs in the northeastern region
• 1,152 CLCs in the central region
• 1,127 CLCs in the southern region
• 490 CLCs in the western region
• 298 CLCs in metropolitan Bangkok
No data nor empirical studies on CLCs operated by local people, are available. Taked some CLCs supported
by the state were originally established and run by local people, but then the state came and took over the
CLCs mainly because of their limited resources.

CLCs’ main activities vary according to the readiness and context of each locality. Functions are determined
based on local problems and needs. The main activities are related to basic literacy and other development
activities. Some activities focus on developing occupational skills and increasing knowledge of agricultural
practices. Others are part of quality of life programmes, such as health promotion, HIV/AIDS prevention or
preserving the local wisdom of elders and developing the relationship between the new generation and
the elderly.

The main activities implemented at Thailand’s CLCs are as follows:

Education and literacy: functional literacy; basic education; non-formal education focused on adult
learning; and promotion of lifelong learning

Training: income-generating programmes and skills training; quality of life programme training; health and
sanitation, health promotion programmes; camping for democracy training; camping for environmental
conservation training; ICT training

Community and cultural development: local and traditional activities development; enhancing local
wisdom and working with older persons; community development projects; poverty alleviation

Coordination and networking: coordination and building up networks among GOs, NGOs and Pos; linking
human resources and social capital at the local level; learning networks between academic institutions and
the community; coordination of social groups inside and outside of the community

Profiles of the Research Study

The main objective of the research study was to evaluate CLC activities and disseminate them to Education
for All (EFA) stakeholders in order to strengthen existing literacy and continuing education programmes
and promote institutionalization of CLCs within the framework of EFA action plans. The specific objectives
of the research study were:

1) To carry out joint research on existing CLCs to analyze the strengths, weaknesses and potentials as
effective delivery mechanisms for lifelong learning activities, particularly literacy and continuing

* Written by Prof. Apinya Wechayachai, Faculty of Social Administration, Thammasat University

83
 education programmes, including various management aspects of CLCs as well as expansion,
sustainability and linkages with other community development sectors for empowerment.
2) To share the initial research findings at a regional forum in order to identify key issues and explore
effective strategies for future actions at the regional, national and grassroots levels, which will become
inputs for finalizing the research.
3) To disseminate the research findings and forum outcomes to EFA stakeholders at the policy, management
and practitioner levels in participating countries and also to international donor agencies, in particular,
at the EFA High–Level Group (HLG) Meeting of 2005, which focused on literacy.
The research team selected exceptional CLCs as centres of best practices, and evaluated the centres by
means of observation, group discussion, and interviews (both group and individual). Choosing the most
efficient CLCs did not take much time. There were various standards and indicators used as criteria, such
as the ability to sustain itself, full participation and a sense of ownership, and efficiency and capacity in
management at the local level.

The selection process was specifically based on the following criteria:

• Each CLC represents each region of the country.

• Each CLC is widely recognized both at local and national levels as a community learning centre
demonstrating best practices.
• All of the selected centres provide various activities, such as basic literacy, income generation and
vocational training to enhance skills and employment rates. These activities also often help rebuild
human relationships among local people, especially elders.
• Each CLC is self-reliant and tries its best to develop activities continuously.
• Participation in running and managing activities at the centres is at a high level.
• The systems and structure of the centres are more accountable, flexible and adaptable than the centres
supported by the state.
• Each CLC has characteristics specific to the local conditions and demands of people in that area.

The study selected four CLCs which had demonstrated potential from each region in Thailand. Each CLC has
difirent strenths and wicknesses:

1. School of Inherited Wisdom, Chiang Mai Province (the northern region)

2. Chalerm Phrakiart Community Learning Centre, Tambon Mai Rieng, Chavang district, Nakorn Sri
Thammarat Province (the southern region)
3. Isan Community School, Satuk district, Buriram Province (the northeastern region)
4. Community Learning Centre of Phuka Sub-district, Ban Mee district, Lopburi (the central region)

Analysis of CLC Experiences

School of Inherited Wisdom, Chiang Mai Province
The School of Inherited Wisdom (SIW) is a community learning centre established by a network of people
who hope to preserve the rich culture of northern Thailand for the benefit of future generations. The
group was formed in response to concerns that mainstream education does not place a special value
on local culture and the development of young learners, and places excessive emphasis on competition
and examinations. Furthermore, they sought to intervene in order to improve the lot of children with no
opportunities to access the mainstream system owing to economic constraints.

At first, the group’s activities were considered marginal from the point of view of mainstream education.
Their programmes were mistakenly regarded as “inferior,” despite the fact that it is widely understood that
having a variety of types of learning in communities is desirable and appropriate. Learning can take place
through the practice of one’s career, or through resource persons in the community.

The learning process stems from culture transferred from senior members in the communities. This
knowledge is accumulated through practice, and tacit knowledge that is based on mutual assistance. The
sharing of knowledge is based on equality between “teachers” and “learners.”

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The study revealed the following observaton:
• The CLC worked to revive local wisdom and culture.
• People of various groups and ages were connected together through cultural activities.
• Harmony was created among people of different races and cultural groups.
• Activities integrated career development, income generation, way of life, and culture.
• There was a strengthening of networking and linkages among various models/schools of formal and
non-formal education.
• A partial tuition fee strengthened economic self-sufficiency.
Chalerm Phrakiart Community Learning Centre,Tambon Mai Rieng,
Chavang District, Nakhon Sri Thammarat Province
Mai Rieng community dates back over 100 years. It is known as a self-reliant community due to its way of life
and farm production that is closely linked to local resources. It has continuously developed its own human
resources and promoted the concept of self-reliance to nearby communities, resulting in an integrated
farming network. It also played an important role in enabling the self-reliance scheme to be incorporated
as a national policy. Therefore, Mai Rieng community was chosen as a case study of a self-reliant CLC.

Due to natural disasters, the reduction in the price of rubber (the main product of the community), lower
income and higher debts, local people had to cope with a number of problems. The centre was established
as a response. Its learning activities are deeper, stronger and extensive because of the local wisdom of the
leaders and the strong connections established by community networks. The community members set up
“the Mai Rieng Council of the Leaders,” and created a master plan to develop their community. The learning
process developed through various activities such as innovations by farmers in regard to growing their
crops. As a result, rubber produced in Mai Rieng got higher prices in the market.

The study revealed the following observaton:

• Career development and income-generating activities were highly integrated through a people’s
network.
• Varied curricula were designed to fit the needs of individuals, groups, families, and communities.
• The Local Leader Development Curriculum was adopted, developed, and expanded throughout the
country by the Open University.
• Well-planned and good management on the part of leaders was an important element of success.
• The younger generation is now well prepared to take leadership roles in the future.
• Learning experiences were summarized, managed, and prepared for outsiders to visit and learn from.

Isan Community School, Satuk District, Buriram Province

The lives of Isan people have evolved around rivers. The level of rainfall in this area is equal to that of
other regions but the loamy, sandy soil is not ideal for holding water. Many areas are short of water in the
dry season. People try to enrich the arid soil by using chemical fertilizer, which results in damaged soil.
Unfavourable agricultural conditions cause labour migration to Bangkok and other big cities.

Community leaders and knowledgeable people have realized the problems and have joined together to
find solutions. They have tried to come up with ways to integrate farming, production networks and self-
reliance schemes.

The activities are inspired by His Majesty the King's initiative, which emphasizes self-sufficiency and
courtesy. Families meet their own basic requirements while implementing soil and water conservation
at the same time. Under this concept, communities can work together to establish processing activities,
organize marketing systems and eventually build a vast communication network.

Other activities promote northeastern folk wisdom mainly through meetings, training and seminars
facilitated by various agencies. Resource personnel must travel extensively, and their knowledge and
practices require careful implementation and follow-up. These activities receive financial support from the
Social Investment Fund (SIF) for improving facilities and learning materials.

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The creation of learning centres in the community has aroused greater interest in learning. Community
learning centres are being presented as community colleges, which are common in developed countries.
Unlike mainstream educational institutions, training is offered as a natural process and the language of
teaching is easily understood. The focus is on common problems in which a group leader acts as a trainer
and provides moral support to learners helping them to understand how to improve their situation.

The study revealed the following observaton:

• The learning process focused on the self-sufficient community, self-realization of the impact of ecology
on people, and the application of knowledge to everyday life.
• The CLC modified its activities according to knowledge obtained through the leaders’ network.
• Knowledge of sustainable agriculture and diversified forestry was applied to field practice to find the best
recommendations for national development planning.

Community Learning Centre of Phuka Sub-district, Ban Mee District,

Lopburi
The Community Learning Centre of Phuka is in the heart of the village, where it is located in Satawaew
Temple at Moo 2, Satawaew Village, Ban Mee district. It is next to the sub-district administrative office of
Phuka, not far from Satawaew School, where there is a nursery centre and a sports field.

The Community Learning Centre of Phuka has been operating with the cooperation of the sub-district
administration of Phuka (the main agency), the village committee and the head of the sub-district (kamnaan)
as well as the head of the village (phu yai baan). This cooperation aims to mutually foster community
development. Local forums have also taken place at the centre to enable villagers to exchange views.

The Phuka CLC not only offers space for activities such as vocational training, reading books, and obtaining
local wisdom, but also has conference rooms provided for its own management and for other organizations.
The centre has become the source of local information for members of the community.

The study revealed the following observaton:

• CLC activities bonded people together.

• Seniors developed pride in themselves. The activities and their participation brought back their self-
respect and connected them to the younger generation.
• Career development and income generation were integrated through CLC activities.
• Local administrators have become highly involved in and supportive of the CLC.

Major Findings
• Each CLC is diversified because of different social and cultural contexts, especially the thinking process
and the level of people’s participation. These different factors have an impact on the relationship of
management, the quality of participation and also the sustainability of the CLC.
• People’s participation is the main factor for ensuring sustainable development in the long run. The area
of people’s participation at the present time is highly related to vocational activities that increase family
income, but CLCs that are not government-supported can participate and join together in many activities
at a high level.
• The sustainable CLCs often integrate multi-purpose objectives: career development, income-generating
activities, community development of various kinds, which are in response to the needs of various groups
of people at different levels.
• Efficient curricula integrated varied objectives in the same activities: improving community literacy;
providing learning experiences; enhancing sustainability and a self-sufficient community; enriching life
skills; and training new leaders.
• The CLCs operated by local people are always short of financial resources, while the CLCs supported by
the state always lack continuous support and co- operation from local people.

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• Support from the state is always useful. The research found that successful support is support that assists
or fulfills what people lack, not support with a set purpose that compels people to follow its directions.
• The CLCs operated by local people still need the state’s help in developing curricula, strengthening
management and facilities, and giving them a chance to share their experiences with others throughout
the country. However, the state must form a partnership with the people.
• Leaders who can build up and link networks are one of the most important factors of successful CLCs. The
more resources connected, the more successful CLCs are.
• Participation in the management of CLCs is always a major element. Management by a committee seems
to be better than by a single leader.
• CLCs operated by local people seem to be more flexible and adaptable than those supported by the
state.

Impact/Outcomes
• The learning process from group activities helps local people to understand social problems and raises
their consciousness in making community plans. The plans that come from people themselves guarantee
efficient results.
• Networking and strong linkages enable people to pursue continuous education to change themselves
and to develop quality products. The boundary of education extends to enhance local wisdom and
understand the human dignity of older people.
• CLCs’ activities that involve both older people and youth not only revive the culture of local wisdom, but
also reduce the gap between generations and create harmony among different groups of people in local
communities.
• The positive outcomes show that young people have more social space and can extend their roles in CLC
activities and community tasks, while older people build up their self-esteem.

Recommendations
• CLCs should not be solely operated by governmental sectors and should not have the same format for all
regions/communities.
• Because the learning process varies with place and cultural context, the state should facilitate a review of
CLCs and revise policies and actions so that the curricula cover all relevant aspects of life and living.
• Because the state has resources and connections at the national level, the state (especially ONFEC) should
help CLCs to design a learning process to meet the needs of each individual community and effectively
integrate the knowledge obtained from all learning units in such communities.
• Decision-making should be more decentralized to communities and local administrative organizations.
Local people should have roles in and representation on CLC committees.
• For each community, potential individuals should be sought and promoted. In addition, elderly local
intellectuals and scholars should be treated with respect.
• Extend CLCs into new areas such as factories, schools, religious places or the houses of local savants. The
new alternative places could reduce costs and move closer to the people in the community. It should be
the strategy for practitioners to reach as near as possible to the target groups in the community.
• Establish and improve mobile CLCs for accessing the at-risk and vulnerable groups in “reach out
programmes.” A future challenge is to discover new alternative models to access vulnerable groups.
The heart of CLCs is not in their institutional buildings, but in the relationships between human beings,
trusting each other and working together in partnership.
• Recruit young people to ensure that community work will continue in the future, not only for the long life
of CLCs, but for sustainable community development, too.
• Give out awards to any CLC that functions efficiently. In addition, recognize outstanding students,
instructors and CLC administrators.

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• Each CLC should be responsible for its own standards.
• The authority for knowledge management should be delegated to the community and local administrative
organizations. The standards for accounting, management and database systems should be properly set
up to upgrade the quality and legitimacy of management.
Table 18: Activities of the Selected CLCs

ISSUES Northern region School Southern region North - Eastern region Central region CLC of
of Inherited Wisdom Mai Rieng CLC Isan Community School Phuka sub-district
Concept - established by a - self-reliant CLC - established by - established by the
network of people - established by community leaders community to enhance
who want to preserve community leaders to in the northeastern basic education,
the local culture study and solve the area to provide non- informal education
and develop the problem of the low formal education with the cooperation
relationship between price of rubber activities in response and support from
older persons and the - improve the quality of to the problems and the District Informal
young students in the rubber to get a better needs of people at Education Office
community position in market all age groups in the - an agent for knowledge
- preserve the local - participate in community demonstration, short
cultural values and community council - encourage the people course vocational
develop the indigenous to create and develop to form groups and training
knowledge for income community learning think together to
curriculum
generation find the solutions to
- enhance the capacity actual problems and
of human resources link networks for self-
by various training sustaining
programmes
Activities - Knowledge - The leaders - Emphasis on activities - Providing basic
management through brainstormed and for farmers and family educational services
diversified activities discussed to make a leaders to target groups both
held by local instructors community master plan inside and outside
- Emphasis on
to create a learning the formal education
- Exchange of knowledge process and activities knowledge of
between instructors subsistence economy system
for the people.
and students and diversified forestry - CLCs covering target
- Mai Rieng CLC’s
- Target group covers curriculum covers - Emphasis on activities groups such as children,
youths, teenagers and basic subjects, related to drought youths, females and
seniors both inside elective subjects in areas and ecological seniors
and outside the formal supporting community conservation - Community training for
education system and occupations and - Encouraging full-time and part-time
both inside and outside management skills such jobs
the exchange of
the community as law and accounting.
knowledge and
- Linkages between - Various activities in experience
response to student’s
people’s notions and - Focusing on the
needs
culture on the basis of concept of a self-
community knowledge - Learning collaboration
to solve occupation sufficient community
- Harmonization of and income problems - Balance in way of life
different cultural Development and and environment
groups and people of centralization of
- Counting on local
many different races people.
learning process to
- Integration of the - Setting up curricula support youth learning
formal and non-formal for local leaders, local activities
education systems administrators and local
politicians to be able to
upgrade the quality of
people’s life.

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ISSUES Northern region School Southern region North - Eastern region Central region CLC of
of Inherited Wisdom Mai Rieng CLC Isan Community School Phuka sub-district
Manage- - Implementation of - Administration and - Operation through - Supported by tambon
ment scholar’s wisdom management planning working group administration
- Working network and - Resource sharing - Participation and organization
decentralization of between public and collaboration of - Local administration
authority private sectors intellectual leaders, organization as a key
- Promoting knowledge - Network of social farmers, students and operator of CLCs
to society through institutions such as instructors inside and - Financial support for
the committee of the schools, organizations outside the area activities through
centre - Knowledge - Activities and venues to non-formal education
- Introducing cultural management and exchange ideas among centre
wisdom to the formal exchange of lessons all levels of society - Survey of community
education system - Plans for developing members’ preferences
- Counting on its own individuals through before setting up CLC
budget by means of seminars and training activities
partial tuition fee - Strengthening I-sarn - The use of resources,
intellectual network knowledge and
- Evaluation of database community wisdom
system and real-time to create job
planning opportunities
Out- - Transition of - Efficient perk systems - Adopting the concept - Transition of
comes knowledge and culture for all classes of citizen of subsistence living knowledge and culture
across generations - Ability to design and balance in nature across generations
- Integration of culture to sustainable production - Revision of - Integration of culture to
strengthen community plans development and strengthen community
- Sustainable management processes - Sustainable
cooperation within given by the state to cooperation within
community through the community community through
social contributions of - Community wisdom social contributions of
seniors and a self-sufficient seniors
- Students’ skills to create community - Students’ skills to create
their own part-time job - Applying the concept their own part-time job
opportunities of diversified forestry opportunities
to environmental
conservation,
expanding alternative
markets, complying
with subsistence
economy strictly
Policy - Improving curriculum - Developing community - Incorporating - Supported by tambon
Linkage content to meet the master plan and knowledge of administration
standard of the formal policies sustainable agriculture organization
education system - Turning master plan and diversified forestry - Local administration
- Incorporating local into national policies into curriculum and organization as a key
knowledge of forests strategic plan for operator of CLCs
and Lanna culture into natural resource
- Financial support for
the curriculum management
activities through
- Participation of non-formal education
local intellectuals in centre
provincial, regional and
- Survey of community
national development
members’ preferences
planning
before setting up CLC
activities
- The use of resources,
knowledge and
community wisdom
to create job
opportunities

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© UNESCO / APPEAL
Uzbekistan*
Introduction
The Republic of Uzbekistan is situated in Central Asia and has the largest population (about 25 million
people) in the sub-region,. About 60 percent of the population lives in rural areas. Young people under
the age of 25 constitute almost 56 percent of Uzbekistan’s total population. Almost 99 percent of the
population is literate9. Although Uzbekistan has already achieved universal primary education, the goal
stipulated in the Millennium Declaration, there is evidence that (as in other countries of the former Soviet
Union) the access, content, processes, and organization of Uzbekistan’s education system should be re-
organized to better serve the needs of changing economic, social and political conditions. The potential
erosion in human capital could undermine Uzbekistan’s successful transition to a market economy, while
emerging disparities in access to quality education will result in unequal opportunities to benefit from
market reforms and exacerbate future income inequality within the country.

There are two ministries of education in Uzbekistan: the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Specialized
Education and the Ministry of Public Education. The Ministry of Public Education is responsible for pre-
school, primary, secondary, special and out-of-school education. The Ministry of Higher Education and
Secondary Specialized Education is responsible for professional and higher education. There are several
higher education institutions within both ministries, where there are facilities for the retraining of
specialists.

There are more than 10,000 general secondary schools, 63 higher education and 539 technical vocational
institutions in the Republic of Uzbekistan. To finance educational reforms in the country, the Government
of Uzbekistan has provided 40 percent of the national budget, or 7.8 percent of the GDP.10 The country’s
educational system specifies the content of education at each level and area. Programmes are divided
into general educational and vocational curricula. General educational programmes encompass pre-
school, primary general education, while vocational programmes include secondary special and vocational
education; higher education includes undergraduate and graduate degrees, and post-graduate and
doctorate education. Academic programmes may be offered in regular, evening, and correspondence
programmes, as well as in the form of non-formal education, family education, self-education, and
externship.

Uzbekistan is actively participating in different international programmes in the field of education,

particularly within the Action Plan of the Dakar Forum on Education for All (EFA). An EFA national working
and assessment group has been created at the Ministry of Public Education. Education reforms in Uzbekistan
started in 1997 with the adoption of a new “Law on Education” and the National Programme for Personnel
Training (NPPT). One of the most important innovations of the reforms is the introduction of continuous
and lifelong education.

Continuing education is the main basic system in personnel training to meet the priorities of the social-
economic development of the Republic of Uzbekistan. It includes the following types of education:

Continuing education satisfies the economic, social, scientific-technical and cultural requirements of
personality, society and state. Continuing education creates the necessary conditions for a creative, socially
active, spiritually rich personality. In Uzbekistan, it occurs through three types of educational delivery
mechanisms: formal, non-formal and informal.

Formal education - provides general literacy up to 100 percent (reading, writing, calculating), and also
enables learners to receive corresponding education and professional qualifications. Formal education is
provided through pre-school and formal schooling up to the highest level, that is, from kindergartens, high
schools, to professional colleges, institutes, academies, and universities.

* Written by Prof. Erkin Imamov, Physics Department, Tashkent State Pedagogical University

9 State Committee on Statistics of Uzbekistan, 2004

10 Ibid.

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Table 19: Structure of the Continuing Education System

VI. Out of school10

I. Pre- II. General Education III. Secon- IV. Higher education V. Post Graduate
school dary special,
Types of education professio-nal
education Baccal- Magistracy

Post graduate
education

Post doctoral
aureate

Secondary

education
Primary

studies
Initial 4 years-old 6-7 years- 10-11 years- 15-16 years- 18-19 22-23 24-25 27-28
age of old old old years-old years-old years-old years-old
education
Normative 3-4 years 4 years 5 years 3 years 4 years 2 years 3 years 3 years
period of 4+5=9 years 4+2=6 years 3+3-6 years
education VII. Adult education (qualifications upgrading and retraining)11

Non-formal education - provides opportunities for mastering professional skills, gives functionally guided
training, and also offers additional vocational training. Non-formal education is realized through educational
establishments of non-scholastic adult education and for retraining and upgrading professional skills. These
organizations include CLCs.

There are many important aspects for the development of the whole society concerning non-formal
education:

1) Political: preparedness for active participation, co-operation in decision- making, development of civil
society, formation of loyalty and tolerance;
2) Social: supporting social coherence, creating equal possibilities to study, supporting social and cultural
identity;
3) Economic: formation of preparedness for reasonable consumption, supporting small business
enterprises, supporting economic subsistence, creating a saving lifestyle;
4) Cultural: preserving the national culture and learning traditions (indigenous knowledge), formation of
values and norms, formation of a creative individual with cultural identity.
Therefore, the education policy of Uzbekistan in the field of non-formal education focuses on providing
a favourable environment for linking literacy with life chances and life skills, creating a dynamic literate
environment and networks, supporting diverse modalities of knowledge acquisition (context, languages),
developing partnership links with potential stakeholders and mobilizing efforts for neglected areas.

Informal education - is indirect education pursued individually by means of independent knowledge

acquisition of: published and other printed teaching materials; materials, programmes, or broadcasts
prepared and distributed by the mass media; results of family education and self-training; and communication
of other people, social groups, and ideologies.

In this epoch of globalization and the advanced information society, informal and non-formal forms of
education are popular and are increasing rapidly. They are intended to satisfy the educational needs of
different age groups and social status. Community learning centres (CLCs) can satisfy these kinds of needs.

Profile of the Research Study

Members of the research team consisted of experts from government organizations (Ministry of Public
Education of Uzbekistan, Ministry of Labour and Social Protection of Uzbekistan, Ministry of Health Care of
the Republic of Uzbekistan), NGOs and universities.13

11 CLCs are functioning in the framework of this type of education for youth.
12 CLCs are functioning in the framework of this type of education for all age categories.
13 See Uzbekistan CLC Research Report, Annex 2 (in attached CD) for a list of research team members.

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Research activities consisted of the following:

• Field visits to all CLCs in Uzbekistan

• Meetings and conversations with representatives of the community, local authorities, heads of partner
organizations, and heads of CLCs, facilitators, women, youth, and elderly members of CLCs
• Collection of quantitative data (total number of CLC members, total reading materials, hours of service,
etc.) and qualitative data (content of training, contents of materials)
• Evaluation of learning and teaching materials (textbooks, manuals, videos, video CDs and cassette tapes,
etc.)
• Examination of plans and implemented programmes, study of relevant documents
• Analysis of questionnaire results (the original questionnaire was developed and administered at all
CLCs)
• Through analysis of data, identifying the strengths and weaknesses of CLCs and coming up with
recommendations for their further improvement
The research group organized exit checks on the activities of ten CLCs in Uzbekistan located both in urban
and rural areas:

Main CLC Activities

The main activities in the CLCs studied were the following:

1. Education and Training

• Preparing children for elementary school
• Courses of foreign languages
• Functional literacy (transition process from Cyrillic alphabet to Latin alphabet)

2. ICT Programmes
• Providing basic computer courses
• Informational technology in the system of education
• Internet and creation of Web page

3. Life Skills Programmes

4. Health Programmes
• Reproductive health
• HIV/AIDS prevention
• Healthy lifestyle
• Drug abuse
• Sanitation and hygiene

5. Early Childhood Care and Education

6. Ecological Programmes
7. Vocational Training
8. Culture Programmes
• Programme on cultural heritage
• Discussions on religion
9. Gender Programmes
10. Community Resource Centres and Libraries
• Information and library services
• Advisory and counseling services
• Distribution of educational materials
• Information from videos and audios

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11. Sports and Recreation
12. Co-ordination and Networking
13. Developing Local Language Teaching-Learning Materials
The activity of the CLC depends on the allocated financial resources in order to carry out sustainable work.
Reflecting the current economic difficulties in Uzbekistan that are related to the transitional period, CLCs
suffer from a shortage of resources. In order to raise funds for implementation of their programmes, CLCs
strive to attract outside sponsors, i.e. governmental organizations, the private sector, and international
agencies. Some of these efforts have proven successful. In one municipality, for example, local authorities
renovated the communication infrastructure (roads, reliable telephone lines, regular electricity) around
CLCs.

Self-generated funds are primarily obtained from the sale of products (computer software, business cards,
etc.), cultural shows, and sale of services (tutoring) Gifts and donations are largely received from patronage
and sponsorship, volunteerism, government subsidies (providing buildings), faund-raising campaigns,
and NGO support. Operational resources may also be supported through partnerships with the local
government; local educational department; pedagogical, cultural and health care institutions; universities;
and vocational schools.

Analysis of CLC Experiences

In 1999, the concept of lifelong education was introduced in Uzbekistan. It started with a pilot project to
establish and develop CLCs. The project was supported by UNESCO within the framework of the Asia-Pacific
Programme of Education for All. At present, there are ten CLCs and one CLC Resource Centre created under
the initiative of the National Commission of Uzbekistan for UNESCO. Moreover, the UNESCO Tashkent office
has initiated the creation of a number of training centres (listed in Annex 1 of the attached CD) to provide
essential skills training and market economy approaches for setting up small business enterprises. They
were also created to preserve an important part of the country’s cultural heritage, which is now in danger
of being lost.

Due to the fact that most of the population lives in a rural social environment with a strong sense of
community, CLCs provide opportunities for individuals to acquire knowledge and skills through structured
activities and non-formal learning. The CLC environment also encourages all age groups living together in
one community to make and follow their own education plans and programmes.

During the last six years, the CLC programmes in Uzbekistan have been developing, and the CLC concept
has changed accordingly to suit the needs of society, particularly giving emphasis to poverty reduction and
preservation of cultural heritage.

Groups that are targeted for CLC training activities include schoolchildren, youth, women, men, unemployed,
pensioners and people with disabilities. CLC objectives largely focus on providing a favourable environment
for linking literacy with life opportunities and life skills, creating a dynamic literate environment and network,
supporting diverse modalities of knowledge acquisition (context, languages), developing partnership links
with potential stakeholders, and mobilizing efforts toward alleviating the poverty situation in neglected
areas.

Main CLC Activities

1. Andijan Region, Izboskan district, Poytug Village, School № 12
2. Khorezm Region, Shovot district, Ataniyazov Farm, School № 39
3. Syrdarya Region, Mirzoabad district, Dekhqonobod Farm, School № 21
4. Bukhara City, Textile district, 7/3 Pablo Neruda Street, School № 8
5. Karakalpakstan, Nukus district, Village Akmangyt, School № 21
6. Namangan City, Regional Branch of Public Education
7. Samarkand City, Syob district, 73 Jomiy Street, School № 5
8. Tashkent Region, Chirchik Town, 1 Sadovaya Street, School № 12
9. Kashkadarya Region, Shakhrisyabz district, Village Chavkan, School 32
10. Fergana Region, Margilan City, 2A Jomiy Street, School № 27

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Table 20: Analysis of CLC Experiences

CLC Internal partners Educational International NGOs

establishments organizations
Bukhara Local education Bukhara State UNESCO, Centre “Orzu”
department under the University,
UNICEF, (children with disabilities),
MOE,
Information Centre
USAID, IREX, Kamolot (Youth foundation),
Local government, under the State
Mahalla (Community) Foundation,
University, Peace Corps
Local department Soglom Avlod Uchun (For Healthy
of labour and social Bukhara State Medical Generation) Foundation, Business
protection Institute Women Association of Uzbekistan
(BWA)

Samarkand Local education Institute of Foreign UNESCO, Kamolot (Youth foundation),

department under the Languages, Samarkand Mahalla (Community) Foundation,
Peace Corps,
MOE, Local government University (ICT project, Soglom Avlod Uchun (For Healthy
capacity building for Japan Embassy Generation) Foundation
facilitators, creation in Uzbekistan,
of teaching/learning
CAFÉ (Central
materials)
Asia Free
Exchange,
USA)
Namangan Local education Namangan State UNESCO, IREX Kamolot (Youth foundation),
department under the Institute of Foreign Mahalla
MOE, Local government Languages (gives every
(Community) Foundation,
year $4,000 for English
courses and 4 teachers Business Women Association of
for training) Uzbekistan
Syrdarya Local education Agricultural college, UNESCO, IREX Kamolot (Youth foundation),
department under the vocational school Mahalla (Community) Foundation,
MOE, Local government Soglom Avlod Uchun (For Healthy
Generation) Foundation
Margilan Local education Pedagogical Institute, UNESCO Kamolot (Youth foundation),
department under the vocational school, Mahalla (Community) Foundation,
MOE, Local government Soglom Avlod Uchun (For Healthy
medical college,
Generation) Foundation
small enterprises
Republican Education
“Margilan-non” and
Centre
“Lazzat”

Shakh- Local education Pedagogical Institute, UNESCO, IREX BWA, Kamolot (Youth foundation),
risyabz department under the Mahalla (Community) Foundation
agriculture college,
MOE, Local government
medical college
Chirchik Local education Vocational school UNESCO Kamolot (Youth foundation),
department under the Mahalla (Community) Foundation
MOE, Local government
Khorezm Local education Pedagogical Institute UNESCO Kamolot (Youth foundation),
department under the Mahalla (Community) Foundation
MOE, local government
small enterprises
“Mukkadas”, tractor
station, sanatorium
Nukus Local education UNESCO, IREX Kamolot (Youth foundation),
department under the Mahalla (Community) Foundation,
MOE, Local government Soglom Avlod Uchun (For Healthy
Generation) Foundation

Andijan Local education Pedagogical Institute, UNESCO, IREX Kamolot (Youth foundation),
Region department under the
medical college Mahalla (Community) Foundation,
MOE, Local government
Izboskan
Business Women Association of
Uzbekistan

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The questionnaire (Annex 3 in the attached CD) included the following sections:
1. Official information about the CLC (10 items)
2. Methodological problems (8 items)
3. Efficiency of CLC activities (24 items)
4. Partners and communications (9 items)
5. Resource maintenance (9 items)
The information gathered in the process of the study visits, the interviews, conversations, discussions and
questionnaire analysis was used in the evaluation of CLC operations.

Structure of Management
The structure of personnel management of CLC centres in Uzbekistan is as follows:
1. Head of CLC
2. Educator-Instructor as a Deputy Director
3. Specialist of Computer System
4. Teachers
5. Volunteers from: enterprises, local communities (mahalla), youth committees, parents, private sectors,
medical centres
Findings showed that the CLCs aimed to provide people with both formal and informal learning through
organizing a variety of activities according to the needs and problems identified by community members,
themselves, in the context of lifelong learning.

Major Findings
Economic reforms (in a condition of increased demand for education, in particular for professional education)
have caused a growth in demand for operatively realized educational services of various kinds and for many
different categories of people: youth and adults who are unemployed or temporarily unemployed, and
those from marginal and other restrained (for different reasons) strata of society.

Educational services are directed toward the development of professional knowledge to master skills that
will fulfill real production and methods of management, skills needed to find optimal solutions to concrete
practical problems, and psychological and social-humanitarian skills for crisis management. In other words,
training of people for active professional work under new conditions created as a result of information/
communication development and the scientific, technical progress of society.

The most effective results from such innovational educational activity are brought about by, in the first
place, the implementation of target educational programmes designed to develop concrete professional
knowledge and skills, and secondly, programmes that have been provided by seed capital (or initial
financial, material and technical support) from either state or non-state entities, public organizations and
departments, or international organizations and funds.

Study results from the 10 CLCs in Uzbekistan show a variety of services:

1. Realization of qualitative programmes, which are innovative, diverse, accessible, and address required
curriculums. There is freedom of a choice of trades, proceeding from development needs of the region,
and from the desires and opportunities of trainees. There is also realization of alternative, innovational,
accessible, educational programmes and a choice quality of initial vocational training (opportunity
of attraction of the modern process equipment, freedom of choice of trades, proceeding from wide
development needs of the region as well as desires and opportunities of trainees).
2. High methodical and didactic maintenance of training courses is possible only for those CLCs that have
special arrangements with small and medium enterprises, which rely on an exchange of educational
services and retraining courses for sponsorship. Such arrangements provide for high quality trainers
(opportunity of attraction of the highly skilled pedagogical staff and experts) and availability of updated
equipment.

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3. Special preparation of trainers and constant improvement of their professional skills is necessary.
4. In order to correspond to required high professional standards, the educational programmes of all
courses realized in the CLCs should be of a standard that will pass special certification and licensing in
professional communities (for example, in specialized departments of high schools or their branches in
educational establishments under the Centre of Secondary Specialized Education under the Ministry of
High Education).
5. CLCs suffer from a critical lack of methodological literature and didactic materials intended both for
trainees and trainers. In this connection it is necessary to support, under the aegis of UNESCO or within
the framework of separate educational programmes, the development and distribution of relevant
educational training material.
6. Uzbekistan is a country whose territory is almost completely covered with a network of radio-telecasting
as well as a broad availability of modern information communication technologies. Nevertheless, there
is a significant need for centres of welfare, scientific-educational dialogue, and professional study.
CLCs execute this mission in close co-operation with mаkhallyas (community), the local social public
administrative formations. Partcularly in the countryside, in accordance with its considerably high
information saturation and innovational activity, CLCs are the centres of culture, enlightenment and
education, as well as the source of scientific and technical information for the population.
7. CLCs have served as places where people can satisfy their needs and try to solve the actual problems
of the region through meetings, conversations, exhibitions, reviews, organization of “roundtables” and
“brain storming.”
8. It is necessary to note the special positive role of CLCs in the rural regions, since more than 60 percent
of the country’s population live in the countryside. CLCs, with their technical and intellectual resources,
allow rural populations to achieve professional skills, gain more knowledge, and be better informed.
9. There are many positive factors that illustrate the successful functioning of CLCs in Uzbekistan. However,
the study of only 10 CLCs does not give a proper basis for a serious conclusion about the efficiency of
all CLCs in the country. From the results of the research, it is possible to say only that they are expedient
and there is an urgent need for expansion of the CLC network throughout Uzbekistan. As there are only
10 CLCs in the republic, the opening of other CLCs or their branches in adjoining regions is an actual
and necessary problem.
10. CLCs in Uzbekistan are open, basically, at secondary schools of general education which have rather
limited (poor) legal opportunities and low public status. The results of the research study and almost
six years’ experience in operating CLCs (particularly in rural regions) show that it is difficult for CLCs
to broaden their delivery areas and target populations. It is, thus, expedient to open new CLCs at
educational establishments of the Centre of Secondary Specialized Education under the Ministry of High
Education (the academic lyceums and professional colleges) and in residential areas, departments of
national education, and branches of non-governmental organizations. The educational establishments
of the Centre of Secondary Specialized Education would offer, for example, a rich material base, uniform
distribution over all the regions of the country (about 900 academic lyceums and professional colleges),
information and communication resources, technological opportunities, and a highly skilled teaching
staff.
11. CLCs can react effectively to the needs of individual regions and market conditions. The wide assortment
of educational services rendered by CLCs can promote fast development of a region, opening of new
manufactures and workplaces, and solutions to many social, ecological, gender and other problems.
12. It is obvious that within the framework of CLC curricula, it is much easier to realize and organize selective
training of youth in order to develop their professional, social, cultural and personal skills. This is seen,
in particular, with training to support national creativity, ethnic traditions, work skills, and information
communication technologies.
13. Control and monitoring of CLC activity via the National Commission for UNESCO in Uzbekistan should
continue to feature:

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 • Organization of regular trainings for CLC chiefs, their branches, tutors of training courses and teaching
staff;
• Organization of experience exchanges between adjoining CLCs and other educational establishments
that carry out vocational training and lifelong learning activities;
• Development, editing and distribution of the methodological teaching literature and didactic materials
on the organization of training, curriculum enrichment that integrates new scientific achievements in
this area;
• Organization of seminars on discussion of realized and planned educational programmes and teaching
materials;
• Promotion of educational programme licensing by proper establishments;
• Publicity campaigns on the concept of lifelong education; and
• Activities to extend training to all members of the population.
14. The issue of organizing lifelong learning programmes through CLCs is an important consideration for
Uzbekistan. The main financial source for establishing such CLC programmes should be the national
education budget. However, for countries with transitional economies such as Uzbekistan, it is difficult
to guarantee that adequate resources are available without the certain financial help and support of
international organizations. In this connection, we consider it as an important noble step to continue
and expand the efforts of UNESCO that are directed toward the prolongation of CLC programme
actvities for the following term. These actions of goodwill can strengthen considerably the authority of
UNESCO and strengthen its influence in the modern world.
15. There is an insufficient development of legislative support for non-formal education establishments
(and CLCs), including equivalency of their certificates.
16. The CLC monitoring group in the Republican Education Centre under the Ministry of Public Education
has few opportunities to effectively co-ordinate educational, organizational and methodological
activities at CLCs.
17. There is insufficient public awareness of the opportunities offered through non-formal education and
CLCs in Uzbekistan.
18. Insufficient partnership.

Recommendations
1. It is crucial to develop strategies for policy and legislative support in order to institutionalize CLCs in
Uzbekistan. For this purpose, it is necessary:
• to include adult education centres by organizing lifelong training programmes;
• that local governments should promulgate legal acts to support CLCs and their activities in the sphere
of non-formal education;
• for authorities to work to define the role and position of CLCs in the framework of existing continuing
education in Uzbekistan.
2. Patronage and more effective (than now) attention from the state party and educational ministries is
required in matters of educational programme certification, legalization of documents on education,
material assistance to training courses, and moral-methodological support of CLCs.
3. It is necessary to create a guardianship council comprised of representatives from local communities,
universities, colleges, schools, learning centres, international organizations, business ventures, funding
agencies, etc. There should be a maintenance group of related branches for preparation, retraining, and
improvement of professional skills for corresponding staff.
Professional guardian boards (or associations) can include representatives of large enterprises,
corresponding manufacturing enterprises, public and international donor organizations, and
educational establishments at all levels.

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 Education programmes at CLCs should be licensed by appropriate higher education establishments
under the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Specialized Education, and should be appropriate, useful,
comprehensive, and needs-oriented.
5. There is a need to train facilitators in the sphere of non-formal education and upgrade their qualifications
regularly (through Republican ‘Iste’dod’ Foundation - foundation to enhance the professional skills of
prospective young pedagogues and scientific personnel).
6. Training courses such as “Features of Informal Education,” “Methodology of Informal Education” and
“Androgogics” should be included at professional colleges as part of the bachelor’s degree curriculum
for engineering-pedagogical education programmes.
7. Organize high-quality training in CLCs by the way of:
• licensing of educational programmes,
• arrangement of regular methodical and information provision,
• training and retraining of pedagogical personnel,
• rendering sponsor's assistance in material and information support, and
• expansion of professional contacts with special and/or vocational educational establishments in the
region.
8. It is essential to expand the number of CLCs in Uzbekistan and their branches. At the same time, it is
necessary to take into account the material/technical and intellectual resources of both higher and
professional education establishments that are already available.
9. Education activities at CLCs should be co-ordinated with the education policies of regional and local
governmental bodies (mahallas). Special attention should be paid to co-operation with the organizations
and ventures situated in the same territory where the CLCs are located.
10. Activities at CLCs should include education and training programmes related to national crafts, traditions
and the historical heritage of Uzbekistan.
11. CLCs should regularly acquire information, teaching-learning materials, and scientific and cultural
literature to turn themselves into popular places of enrichment, knowledge and skills acquisition for
community members.
12. While monitoring activities at CLCs, special attention should be given to informational and
methodological aspects, the elaboration of new learning materials, and the quality of education.
13. It is advisable to organize a CLC mobile training team in co-operation with the Ministry of Public
Education, Ministry of Secondary Specialized Education and the Republican ‘Iste’dod’ Foundation,
equipped with modern technologies, methodologies and teaching-learning materials.

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100
© UNESCO / APPEAL
Viet Nam*
Introduction
The ultimate purpose of CLCs is to enhance the quality of people’s lives and contribute to development of
the country, hence leading to the stability and prosperity of the region as well as of the world. This study was
an objective assessment implemented by a research team that included educators from research institutes,
universities and NGOs. The purpose of the research was to evaluate the actual situation of Vietnamese CLCs
in terms of impact and effectiveness, as well as weaknesses, difficulties and areas that need improvement
in order to make recommendations for the future development of CLCs in Viet Nam. At the same time, the
research was also aimed at disseminating the results to EFA stakeholders for strengthening and promoting
EFA programmes and to promote the institutionalization of CLCs within the framework of EFA action
plans.

The five target areas,14 all of them with different geographical and socio-economic characteristics, do not
represent the whole picture of CLCs in Viet Nam. Nevertheless, the conclusions drawn from the field study,
together with recommendations and suggestions from the research team, local people and CLC managers,
can help policy makers, management personnel, practitioners and international donor agencies obtain
further understanding of the actual situation in Viet Nam. As a result, they will be able to formulate the
proper policies and programmes for achieving EFA goals and the Millenium Development Goals -- targets
that can benefit the people of low-income countries like Viet Nam the most.

Analysis of CLC Experiences

Viet Nam’s CLCs have developed mainly in the rural areas to serve rural communities. In the city, most CLCs
are in suburban areas. Most CLCs are created by local communities, not by the government or NGOs, or
other international organizations. Local CLC committees and managers steer and oversee CLC operations.
Some government funds have been received and various local efforts have occurred to supplement the
income with local funds, although they are often small and modest.

During 1998-1999, a pilot study of CLCs in Viet Nam was undertaken by the Research Centre for Literacy and
Continuing Education under the National Institute of Education Science (now the Research Centre for Non-
Formal Education Strategy and Curriculum Development under the National Institute of Education Strategy
and Curriculum Development [NIESAC]). This project, “Promotion of CLCs in Viet Nam”, was supported
throgh the UNESCO APPEAL framework and with financial assistance from Japan and Norway.

There were four CLCs in the following communes:

• Cao Son (Hoa Binh province)
• Pu Nhung (Lai Chao province)
• Viet Thuan (Thai Binh province)
• An Lap (Bac Biang province)
All were in the north of Viet Nam.

After the pilot period with its positive outcomes, at the beginning of 1999, the Ministry of Education and
Training (MOET) expanded the CLC model to other provinces and cities, such as Ha Noi, Lao Cai, Vinh Phu
and Tien Giang. Assisted by Japan UNESCO (NFUAJ), the MOET has guided the establishment of 40 CLCs in
Tua Chua and Phong Tho Districts of Lai Chau Province.

* Written by Ms. Do Thi Binh, Expert in Education, National Institute for Education Strategies and Curriculum
Development

14 The target areas selected by our team represent the different regions and characteristics: near the city (Tan Trieu
CLC – Ha Noi , Hoa Tien CLC– Da Nang province), rural areas, delta areas (An Dong, Dong Duong CLCs – Thai Binh
province), mountainous, remote, difficult areas with ethnic minority people in target provinces (La Hien, Dinh Ca
CLCs – Thai Nguyen, Thuong Long, Thuong Nhat CLCs – Hue province). Besides, another criteria for selecting are CLC
in a province considered to have best practice in CLC (An Dong CLC- Thai Binh and Tan Cuong CLC – Thai Nguyen)
and a newly established CLC in a difficult area for comparison. All these CLCs are generated by local communities,
not any one and are not supported by NGOs/ other agencies, or local/national governments.

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Records show that the 15 centres existing in 1999 grew to 78 centres in 2001, and only a year later, 680 CLCs
were counted (mostly in the North)! By As of February 2005, the whole country (64 provinces) had 4,783
CLCs serving 10,765 communes, urban precincts and district towns. More recently, this number has risen
to nearly 6,00015.

There are nine provinces having 100 percent CLCs (Thai Binh, Ninh Binh, Phu Tho, Bac Ninh, Nam Dinh, Vinh
Phu, Da Nang, Hai Duong, Dong Thap). Only one province (Binh Duong) has not yet established any CLC.

The MOET has acquired assistance from the National Federation of UNESCO Associations in Japan (NFUAJ)
and UNESCO Hanoi to establish CLCs in some provinces, and to develop training courses to better organize,
manage and operate CLC activities. Hanoi UNESCO has conducted a project for assisting Tay Nguyen and
Binh Phuoc provinces in building CLCs and training CLC management personnel. Japan UNESCO has helped
Lao Cai Province establish 40 CLCs and has established CLCs in eight northern mountainous provinces (Son
La, Bac Can, Lao Cai, Yen Bai, Cao Bang, Ha Gang, Lang Son and Tuyen Quang). In addition, it has printed and
disseminated materials related to building and developing CLCs.

The Party and the State have policies that promote CLC development as part of realizing the country’s EFA
programme goals and strive towards a learning society. In 2003, the Prime Minister issued Decision No.
06/2003/QD/TTG on the Action Plan of the Government: “The MOET, in coordination with the Ministry of
Internal Affairs, the Viet Nam Lezarning Encouragement Association, the Ministry of Labour, War Invalids
and Social Affairs, and People’s Committees of provinces is assigned the task of developing a project for the
expansion of CLCs.”16

At present, according to the Amemded Law of Education, CLCs are officially included in the Vietnamese
national education system as continuing education institutions. Thus, the CLC approach is now officially
institutionalized in Viet Nam.

Apart from the role of the MOET, the active contribution of the Viet Nam Learning Encouragement
Association should be taken into account. Though having limited funds, the Central Learning Encouragement
Association has developed and published five books to help provinces in training, propaganda and steering
the development of CLCs. Two of the most useful are Widespread Development of CLCs – Necessary Tools for
Building a Learning Society from the Grassroots Level (2003) and Questions and Answers on the Widespread and
Sustainable Development of CLCs (2003).

Social organizations at the central level such as the Viet Nam Fatherland Front and its members (Elders
Association, Veterans Association, Peasants Association, Women’s Association, Youth Unions, Trade Unions,
Joint Association of Viet Nam Scientific and Technical Association) also made initial contributions to the
establishment and development of CLCs.

Conclusions of the Five-Year Summary Report affirmed that CLCs are an important tool contributing to the
stabilization of the political situation, the promotion of renovation and socio-economic development.
CLCs have been becoming the school of the working people, an important basis for building a learning
society from the grassroots level. It also affirmed that apart from the results achieved, there are still many
difficulties, weaknesses and constraints in the process of building and developing CLCs.

In Viet Nam, the literacy rate is 94 percent,17 so illiteracy is not a severe problem, but other programmes such
as equivalency, continuing education and income generation do need attention. The ultimate purpose of
the CLC is to enhance the people’s quality of life and to accelerate the pace of development in the country.
Thus, CLC programme activities are generall classed into these types:

Programmes/Activities
Equivalency programmes complementary classes providing lower and upper secondary education for
out-of-school adults and youth

15 Based on a September 2005 count.

16 Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, Office of the Prime Minister. Decision No. 26/2003/QD-TTg of February 17, 2003
Approving the National Target Programme on Education and Training until 2005. Art. 1, Item 4 (a-b) and Art. 2.
17 Continuing Education Department - MOET statistics

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 In Thier Words: Women in Viet Nam
“Community” (the way they refer to the CLC) helps us understand each other better, our production is
better, like our fish breeding, much easier, only have to boil bran… This is the method taught by the
class. Recently, we have caught black carp and grass carp, very big… weighed 3-4 kg, we grilled it…
oh, very delicious … The new technique is very useful.
Khang, age 70

An Dong CLC, Thai Binh Province

“Since I came here to learn embroidery, I find that the teacher is very dedicated, and helps me
understand the methods, explains all my queries. CLC managers are also very good, pay attention to
us and sometimes discuss with us... We have applied new methods in cultivating fruit trees and rice to
have high productivity...We would like authorities of different levels to help us have sustainable jobs
(embroidery) to get permanent income...”
Woman, age, 25, Thuong Nhat CLC, Hue Province.

“At first I did not understand what life skills are. Why ‘skill’? Gradually, when explained, I understood
and found it very interesting. It helps me communicate effectively… I know how to behave more
properly….”
Nguyen Thi Thanh, age 36, member of Commune Women’s Association, Tan Cuong CLC, Thai Nguyen Province

Income-generating programmes for enhancing the quality of life

--Improved agricultural practices: cultivation, husbandry, veterinary training
--Utilization of forestry resources
--Economic development and enterprises
--Development of traditional handicrafts
--Loans, savings, small credit
--Household accounting
--Law and policies of the Party and State
--Women’s empowerment
--Reproductive health and family planning
--Care and protection of mothers and children
--Personal health and hygiene
--Prevention of drug abuse, HIV/AIDS, combating prostitution
--Environmental sanitation and protection
--Preservation of cultural and historical sites
--Entertainment: art, culture and sports, dancing and music
--Social activities: respecting war invalids and martyrs, disabled self-support groups; blood donation
--Safety and prevention of traffic accidents
Programmes responding to individual needs
--Foreign languages, informatics classes, talks on national and international current news and events,
vocational training, etc.
--Programmes for community development (establishing a fund for seniors or veterans, building
improvements in the commune or village, etc.)

Major Findings
• The CLC is a form of lifelong learning and non-formal education that is very suitable to developing countries
such as Viet Nam with low incomes and a high proportion of people living in rural areas, “where the lower
the education level of the people is, the stronger the impact shows” (in the words of a Department of
Education and Training official in Thua Thien Hue Province).

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• Evaluating its impact on the lives of the people, we find that as an education institution reaching
18

disadvantaged people at the grassroots level – those considered the “unreached” in the community -- the
CLC has an essential value in all areas of community life.
• CLC programmes and activities contribute significantly to transmitting useful knowledge and income-
generating skills and to empowering youth, women, the underprivileged and the disadvantaged.
Thus, CLCs do make and will make important contributions to the attainment of EFA and Millenium
Development Goals.
• There is a big gap between CLCs not only in terms of infrastructure, but also in terms of quality of
operation. In places where there is strong support, concern and regular monitoring and supervision at all
levels (provincial, district, local authorities and other sectors and organizations), CLCs tend to have better
quality.
• In general, the infrastructure is still poor and needs improvement.
The contents of activities and programmes are in general adequate and diversified, yet do not respond
adequately to the needs and interests of the people. Some important and necessary content is still lacking,
such as: human rights, peaceful resolution of conflicts and promotion of tolerance and co-existence, a full
range of life skills and other necessary contents. Due to limitations in education level, the people do not
know everything that is necessary and helpful for their lives. The higher level personnel in charge should
study and provide what is missing.

• All CLCs do not have the necessary daily or weekly newspapers for people, especially women. Available
books are often only concerned with politics, techniques or laws; although necessary, they do not attract
people and sometimes are difficult to read. Newspapers provide them with updated knowledge and
strengthen reading skills to prevent regression into illiteracy.
• The participation of the people, in general, varies according to the activities/programmes organized.
However, they do not attend regularly, and are mostly beneficiaries, seldom owners and contributors.
This may be due to propaganda about the roles and functions of CLCs.
• Mostmanagers and facilitators do not receive adequate training (or even any training) in CLC
management.
• Internal as well as external evaluation, monitoring and supervision are not regularly conducted (if at all).
• Policy linkages are established in a limited way. There are no clear-cut policy guidelines and mechanisms
for the operation of CLCs, as well as for managers. This also affects the quality and effectiveness of CLC
operations.

Recommendations
• There should be a nationwide survey to review all CLCs in the country to understand their actual situations
for ensuring growth not only quantitatively, but also qualitatively.
• There should be policies and mechanisms for the recruitment and training of CLC teachers and managers,
especially directors.
• Full-time staff are essential. (Reality shows that those CLCs with full-time management will have better
operations. The manager of Hoa Tien has 14 roles to play and finds them too heavy for him.)
• All CLCs require financial and technical support from the government and other sectors, including
international donors for sustainable development.
• “Poverty alleviation” programmes should receive priority at CLCs, especially where the poverty rate is
high. The Grameen Bank model for the poor of Bangladesh, offering interest free loans, micro credit and
savings, is very necessary and suitable for CLCs in Viet Nam.

18 As in the case of Tan Cuong CLC, per capita income is nearly twice increased, from 4.5 million VND in 2002 to 8.5
million VND in 2005 (according to a survey conducted for the whole commune in May /2005).

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• Facilities such as a bookcase with books and especially daily/weekly newspapers like Viet Nam Women,
Science and Life, or Agricultural Development should be provided for every CLC so that readers have an
opportunity to exercise literacy skills and participate in “reading culture” – a tool for lifelong learning.
• Monitoring, evaluation and supervision should be strengthened.

105
Annex
Annex 1: List of Contributors
Bangladesh Lebanon
Mr. S. M. Mahfuzur Rahman Mr. Nizar Rammal
Professor Social Animator for Community Development -
Department of Finance and Banking Training and Consultancy
University of Dhaka c/o ARC, P.O. Box 13-5916
32/G Isa Khan Road, Dhaka 1000 Beirut, Lebanon
Tel: 880-2-9661920, 50 Tel: 961-3-908307
E-mail: [email protected] and smmrahman@ Fax: 961-1-824854
agni.com E-mail: [email protected]

China Nepal
Mr. Zhao Zhongjian Prof. Hridaya Ratna Bajracharya
Institute of Curriculum and Instruction Research Centre for Educational Innovation for
East China Normal University Development (CERID)
Shanghai 200062 Tribhuvan University
China Kathmandu
Tel: 86-21-62232029 (O); 86-13167261568 (M) Tel: 977-1-4286732
Fax: 86-21-62232023 Fax: 977-1-4274224
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

Indonesia Thailand
Mr. Surya Dharma Prof. Apinya Wechayachai
Director Dean
Centre for Policy Research Faculty of social Administration
Ministry of National Education Thammasat University
Jln Jebdral Sudirman, Senayan, Jakarta Pusat Prajan Rd. Bangkok 10200
Tel: 62-21-5736365 Thailand
Fax: 62-21-5741664 Tel: 66-2-6132507
E-mail: [email protected] and Surya_Puslit@ Fax: 66-2-2249417
yahoo.com E-mail: [email protected]

Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Ms. Anar Sheshmuhanova Mr. Erkin Imamov
Chief Director
Unit for International Education Programmes’ Physics Department
Development Tashkent State Pedagogical University
Department for Education Strategy and Tashkent
International Tel: 998-71-1342462
Cooperation Fax: N/A
Ministry of Education and Science E-mail: [email protected]
24 Respubliki Prospect, Astana
Kazakhstan
Tel: 810-3172-333407
Fax: N/A
E-mail: [email protected]

106
Viet Nam UNESCO Bangkok
Ms. Do Thi Binh Mr. Kichii Oyasu
Expert in Education Specialist
National Institute for Education Strategies and Literacy
Curriculum Development APPEAL
106 Tran Hung Dao Str. Hanoi, Viet Nam E-mail: [email protected]
Tel: 84-04-9423488 Darunee Riewpitul
Fax: 84-04-9422314 Specialist
E-mail: [email protected] Continuing Education
APPEAL
Dr. Prem Kasaju E-mail: [email protected]
Research Coordinator
Everest Postal Care, Jawalakhel, Kathmandu Roshan Bajracharya
Tel: 977-1-5546-150 Programme Assistant
Fax: 977-1-422-161 Literacy and Continuing Education
E-mail: [email protected] APPEAL
E-mail: [email protected]

Annex 2: References
Bangladesh
Ahmed M, 2003. ANFE Management Study: Bangladesh in Easton P et al, Adult and Non-formal Policy Enquiry,
Human Development Network/Education, The World Bank.

Dhaka Ahsania Mission, Assessment of Gender Equity and NFE Project – 2 of the DNFE, undated

Dhaka Ahsania Mission, Capacity Development of LNGOs (brochure), undated

Dhaka Ahsania Mission,2003. Evaluation of Community Based Basic and Continuing Education Project, Draft
Report.

Dhaka Ahsania Mission, Ganokendra, A Centre for Lifelong Learning and Community Development (brochure),
undated

Dhaka Ahsania Mission, 2002. Innovative Approaches to Basic Education and Lifelong Learning for Gender
Equity.

Dhaka Ahsania Mission, 1999. Organization of Community Learning Centres for Lifelong Learning and
Community Development, Project Proposal.

Dhaka Ahsania Mission, Organization of Community Learning Centres for Lifelong Learning and Community
Development, Action Plan for 2001, undated

Dhaka Ahsania Mission, Organization of Community Learning Centres for Lifelong Learning and Community
Development, Action Plan for 2000, undated

Dhaka Ahsania Mission, Organization of Community Learning Centres for Lifelong Learning and Community
Development, Project Objectives and Achievements 1999-2002, undated

Evaluation of DAM Project – 1, ACBC (undated)

FREPD, 2001. Evaluation of Ganokendra, Dhaka,

107
Kabir, M and Salam, MA, Evaluation of Community Based Continuing Education Project, Dhaka, undated

Rahman JA, Vanderbroeck A and Huda MN, 2003. Strategic Evaluation of Community Based Development
Institution of Dhaka Ahsania Mission, Dhaka.

Rahman SMM, 2003. The World Bank. ANFE Cost and Financing Study: Bangladesh in Easton, P et al, Adult and
Non-formal Policy Enquiry, Human Development Network/Education.

Rahman SMM, 2005. UNESCO, Dhaka. Community Learning Centre: The Bangladesh Experience.

Rao, Nitya, 2003. DFID-B. Reflect: Mid Term Review, Dhaka.

UNESCO, Asia Pacific Regional Bureau for Education, Bangkok, Impact Evaluation: Community Learning
Centres, Bangladesh, Revised Report, undated

UNESCO, 2001. Completion Report of Action Research on Community Based Continuing Education.

China
Chen, Yuhua and Jin, Ming (2003) Practice and Policy Recommendations of Community Learning Centres in
Poor Rural Areas in Gansu Province, Study of Educational Science, No.9.

Chinese National Commission for UNESCO (2004) Educational Development in China (2004), Beijing: Chinese
National Commission for UNESCO.

Department of Vocational and Adult Education, Ministry of Education (Ed.) (2005) Materials of Exchanging
Experiences of the Field Meeting on Vocational Education and Training for Peasant Workers in Cities (July 2005,
Shenzheng, )

Huang, Weixiang (2004) The Practice and Thinking of Peasants’ Tranferring and Training Work in Shaoxing
County, Vocational and Technical Education, Vol.25, No.22.

Institute of Community Education of Jiading District (Ed.) (2005) Proceedings of the Third Forum on Community
Education Development of Yangtse River Delta, Shanghai: Press of Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences.

Jing, Min et al. (2001) Exploring the Construction of Rural Community Learning Centres, China Adult
Education, No.11.

Jing, Min et al. (2004) Application of ICT for Rural Development and Community Learning Centres in China,
Hebei: Hebei Education Press

Lu, Yujuan (2005) Study of Learning Participation of Community Schools in Urban Areas: with Zhabei District,
Shanghai as an example, Unpublished Master Dissertation, East China Normal University.

Ministry of Education (Ed.) (2001) Glorious Chapter: Record of Practical Work of “The Two Universalizations” in
China. Educational Publishing Press.

Ministry of Education (2003) Action Plan on Education for All in China, Beijing: Ministry of Education.

Working Office on Experiment of Community Education in Zhabei District (2004) Toward a Learning Society:
Selected Papers on Community Education of Zhabei District, Shanghai, Shanghai: the Research Centre of
Community Education.

Xia, Yiqun (Ed.) (2005) Community Education Experiments in the Process of Urbanization, Shanghai: Press of
Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences.

Ye, Zhonghai (2005) Theory and Practice of Building Learning Cities, Shanghai: Shanghai Sanlian Publishing

Yin, Houqing (2004) (Ed.) Research Selections on Community Education in Pudong New District, Shanghai:
Shanghai Education Press.

Zhao, Zhongjian (1999) Education for All: An Important Task between the Centuries, Sichuan: Sichuan
Education Press.

108
Indonesia
UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 2001. CLC Regional Activity Report (1999-2000).

Madans, Scriven and Stufflebeam, 1983. Evaluation Models: View points on Educational and Human Services
Evaluation. Boston, Kluwer-Nijhoff Publishing.

Worthen, R. Blaine and Sanders R. J., 1987. Educational Evaluation: Alternative Approaches and Practical
Guidelines. New York, Longman, .

Simanjuntak, B. and Bachtari, Eddy, 2004. Republic of Indonesia Country Report on Community Learning
Centres. Paper presented in UNESCO Regional Seminar on CLC, Chiangmai, Thailand 23 -27 March 2004. Chiang
Mai, Thailand.

Directorate General of NFE, 2001. Standar Minimal Manajemen PKBM berbasis Masyarakat, (Minimal Standard:
Manajement of Community Base CLC).

Ministry of National Education, 2003. Pedoman Pengelolaan dan Pembinaan PKBM (Guideline of Managing
CLC).

Nepal
CERID, 2003. Community learning center: An evaluation. Kathmandu

His Majesty’s Government, Ministry of Education and Sports, Nepal National Commission for UNESCO in
Collaboration with UNESCO, Kathmandu, 2003. Education For All National Plan of Action.

Literacy survey issue: World literacy day, Community Bulletin, Vol. 1, Special issue 1 CLC Tamsipakha, Kathmandu,
2003.

Govinda, R. 2001. A synthesis of CLC experiences in (ed. UNESCO) CLC regional activity report, UNESCO
Bangkok.

MOES, 2004. Education for all: National plan of action, Kathmandu.

MOES, 2004. Education for all -2004-2009, Core Document, Kathmandu.

NPC, 2002. Tenth development plan, 2002 – 2007, Kathmandu.

Tuladhar, B.R., 2005. Empowering women of Kathmandu through non-formal education: An experience in
Kathmandu ward # 18. Administrative & Management Review, vol. 17, No. 2. Kathmandu.

UNDP, 2005. Human development report. Kathmandu.

UNESCO, 2001. CLC regional activity report, 1999- 2000. Author: Bangkok.

UNESCO, 2004. Community development centers: Evaluation and future direction. Kathmandu.

109
Thailand
Asia-Pacific Programme of Educational for All, UNESCO. PROAP, 2001. CLC Regional Activities Report (1999-
2000). Bangkok.

Asia-Pacific Programme of Educational for All, UNESCO, 2002. Community Empowerment Through CLCs:
Experiences from Thailand. Bangkok.

Education’s Supervisor Unit, ONFEC, 2004. Report on the Supervision of the Program of Developing CLCs as
Life-Long Learning Centres. Bangkok.

Tippawan Masaeng, ONFEC, 2004. Thailand Country Report. Paper presented to the regional seminar on
CLC. Bangkok.

110
 UNESCO Bangkok

Community Learning Centres

Asia and Pacific Programme
of Education for All (APPEAL) Unit

Community
Learning Centres
Country Reports from Asia

Country Reports from Asia

UNESCO Bangkok

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920 Sukhumvit Road

Prakanong, Bangkok 10110 Thailand
E-mail: [email protected]
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