Computer Organization &

Assembly Languages

Introduction

Pu-Jen Cheng
2008/09/15
 Course Administration
„ Instructor: Pu-Jen Cheng (CSIE R323)
[email protected]
http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~pjcheng
„ Class Hours: 2:00pm-5:00pm, Monday
„ Classroom: CSIE R102
„ TA(s): 戴瑋彥 [email protected]
„ Course Information:
Announce: http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~pjcheng/course/asm2008/
Q&A: bbs://ptt.cc → CSIE_ASM
 Textbook

„ Assembly Language for Intel-Based Computers, 5th Edition,

by Kip Irvine, Prentice-Hall, 2006
„ http://www.asmirvine.com
 References
Computer Systems: A Programmer's Perspective
„
By Randal E. Bryant and David R. O'Hallaron,
Prentice Hall
http://csapp.cs.cmu.edu/

The Art of Assembly Language

By Randy Hyde,
http://webster.cs.ucr.edu/AoA/Windows/PDFs/0_P
DFIndexWin.html
System Software: An Introduction to Systems
Programming
By Leland L. Beck
Addison-Wesley
 Pre-requisite
„ Experiences in writing programs in a high-level
language such as C, C++, and Java
 Course Grading (tentative)
„ Assignments (55%)
„ Class participation (5%)
„ Midterm exam (20%)
„ Final exam (20%)
 Materials
„ Some materials used in this course are adapted from
¾ The slides prepared by Kip Irvine for the book, Assembly Language
for Intel-Based Computers, 5th Ed.
¾ The slides prepared by S. Dandamudi for the book, Introduction to
Assembly Language Programming, 2nd Ed.
¾ Introduction to Computer Systems,
Systems CMU
(http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/academic/class/
15213-f05/www/)
¾ Assembly Language & Computer Organization, NTU
(http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cyy/courses/assembly/06fall/news//)
(http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~acpang/course/asm_2004)
 What is Assembly Language
„ First Glance at Assembly Language
 Translating Languages
English: Display the sum of A times B plus C.

C++: cout << (A * B + C);

Assembly Language: Intel Machine Language:

mov eax,A A1 00000000
mul B F7 25 00000004
add eax,C
03 05 00000008
call WriteInt
E8 00500000
A Simple Example in VC++
View/Debug Windows/Disassembly
gcc -s prog.c
The Compilation System
 First Glance at Assembly Language
„ Low-level language
¾ Each instruction performs a much lower-level task
compared to a high-level language instruction
¾ Most high-level language instructions need more than
one assembly instruction
„ One-to-one correspondence between assembly
language and machine language instructions
¾ For most assembly language instructions, there is a
machine language equivalent
„ Directly influenced by the instruction set and
architecture of the processor (CPU)
 Comparisons with High-level Languages

„ Advantages of Assembly Languages

¾ Space-efficiency
(e.g. hand-held device softwares, etc)
¾ Time-efficiency
(e g Real-time applications,
(e.g. applications etc )
¾ Accessibility to system hardwares
(e.g., Network interfaces, device drivers, video games, etc)
„ Advantages of High-level Languages
¾ Development
¾ Maintenance (Readability)
¾ Portability (compiler, virtual machine)
Comparisons with High-level Languages (cont.)
Why Taking the Course?

Basic Concepts of
Computer Computer Design
Organization
Computer Organization
This Course Computer Architecture

Assembly System
Language Software

Assembler, Linker, Loader

Compiler, Operating System, …
“I really don’t think that you can write a book for
serious computer programmers unless you are
able to discuss low-level details.”
Donald Knuth (高德納)
The Art of Computer Programming

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Knuth
 Course Coverage
„ Basic Concepts
„ IA-32 Processor Architecture
„ Assembly Language Fundamentals
„ Data Transfers, Addressing, and Arithmetic
„ Procedures
„ Conditional Processing
„ Integer Arithmetic
„ Advanced Procedures
„ Strings and Arrays
„ Structures and Macros
„ High-Level Language Interface
„ Assembler, Linker, and Loader
„ Other Advanced Topics (optional)
 What You Will Learn
„ Basic principles of computer architecture
„ IA-32 processors and memory management
„ Basic assembly programming skills
„ How high-level language is translated to assembly
„ How assembly is translated to machine code
„ How application program communicates with OS
„ Interface between assembly to high-level language
 Performance: Multiword Arithmetic
„ Longhand multiplication 0101
1101
¾ Final 128-bit result in P:A 0101
0101
„ P := 0; count := 64 0101
„ A := multiplier; B := multiplicand
„ while (count > 0)
„ if (LSB of A = 1)
„ then P := P+B
„ CF := carry generated by P+B
„ else CF := 0
„ end if
„ shift right CF:P:A by one bit position
„ count := count-1
„ end while
 Example
„ A = 11012 (13)
„ B = 01012 (5)
After P+B After the shift
CF P A CF P A
Initial state ? 0000 1101 -- ---- ----
Iteration 1 0 0101 1101 ? 0010 1110
Iteration 2 0 0010 1110 ? 0001 0111
Iteration 3 0 0110 0111 ? 0011 0011
Iteration 4 0 1000 0011 ? 0100 0001
 Time Comparison
5

4
C version
Timee (seconds)

2
ASM version
1

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Number of calls (in millions)

Multiplication time comparison on a 2.4-GHz Pentium 4 system

 Chapter 1: Basic Concept
„ Virtual Machine Concept
„ Data Representation
„ Boolean Operations
 Translating Languages

English: Display the sum of A times B plus C.

C++: cout << (A * B + C);

Assembly Language: Intel Machine Language:

mov eax,A A1 00000000
mul B F7 25 00000004
add eax,C
03 05 00000008
call WriteInt
E8 00500000
 Virtual Machines
Abstractions for computers
Machine-independent
High-Level Language Level 5

Assembly Language Level 4

Machine-specific

Operating System
Level 3

Instruction Set
Architecture Level 2

Microarchitecture Level 1

Digital Logic Level 0

 High-Level Language
„ Level 5
„ Application-oriented languages
¾ C++, Java, Pascal, Visual Basic . . .
„ Programs compile into assembly language
(Level 4)
 Assembly Language

„ Level 4
„ Instruction mnemonics that have a one-
to-one correspondence to machine
language
„ Calls functions written at the operating
system level (Level 3)
„ Programs are translated into machine
language (Level 2)
 Operating System
„ Level 3
„ Provides services to Level 4 programs
„ Translated and run at the instruction set
architecture level (Level 2)
 Instruction Set Architecture
„ Level 2
„ Also known as conventional machine
language
„ Executed by Level 1 (microarchitecture)
program
 Microarchitecture
„ Level 1
„ Interprets conventional machine
instructions (Level 2)
„ Executed by digital hardware (Level 0)
 Digital Logic
„ Level 0
„ CPU, constructed from digital logic gates
„ System bus
„ Memory

next: Data Representation

 Data Representation
„ Binary Numbers
¾ Translating between binary and decimal
„ Binary Addition
„ Integer Storage Sizes
„ Hexadecimal Integers
g
¾ Translating between decimal and hexadecimal
¾ Hexadecimal subtraction
„ Signed Integers
¾ Binary subtraction
„ Fractional Binary Numbers
„ Character Storage
„ Machine Words
 Binary Representation
„ Electronic Implementation
¾ Easy to store with bistable elements
¾ Reliably transmitted on noisy and inaccurate wires
 Binary Numbers
„ Digits are 1 and 0
¾ 1 = true
¾ 0 = false
„ MSB – most significant bit
„ LSB – least significant bit
MSB LSB
„ Bit numbering: 1011001010011100
15 0
 Binary Numbers

„ Each digit (bit) is either 1 or 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

„ Each bit represents a power of 2: 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Every binary
number is a
sum of powers
of 2
 Translating Binary to Decimal
Weighted positional notation shows how to
calculate the decimal value of each binary bit:
dec = (Dn-1 × 2n-1) + (Dn-2 × 2n-2) + ... + (D1 × 21)
+ (D0 × 20)
D = binary digit

binary 00001001 = decimal 9:

(1 × 23) + (1 × 20) = 9
 Translating Unsigned Decimal to Binary

„ Repeatedly divide the decimal integer by 2.

„ Each remainder is a binary digit in the translated value:

37 = 100101
 Binary Addition
„ Starting with the LSB, add each pair of digits, include the
carry if present.

carry: 1

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 (4)

+ 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 (7)

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 (11)
bit position: 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
 Integer Storage Sizes
byte 8
Standard sizes:
word 16
doubleword 32

quadword 64

What is the largest unsigned integer that may be stored in 20 bits?

 Large Measurements
„ Kilobyte (KB), 210 bytes
„ Megabyte (MB), 220 bytes
„ Gigabyte (GB), 230 bytes
„ Terabyte (TB), 240 bytes
„ Petabyte, 250 bytes
„ Exabyte, 260 bytes
„ Zettabyte, 270 bytes
„ Yottabyte, 280 bytes
„ Googol, 10100
 Hexadecimal Integers
Binary values are represented in hexadecimal.
 Translating Binary to Hexadecimal
„ Each hexadecimal digit corresponds to 4 binary
bits.
„ Example: Translate the binary integer
000101101010011110010100 to hexadecimal:
 Converting Hexadecimal to Decimal

„ Multiply each digit by its corresponding power of

16:
dec = (D3 × 163) + (D2 × 162) + (D1 × 161) + (D0 × 160)

„ Hex 1234 equals (1 × 163) + (2 × 162) + (3 × 161) + (4

× 160), or decimal 4,660.

„ Hex 3BA4 equals (3 × 163) + (11 * 162) + (10 × 161) +

(4 × 160), or decimal 15,268.
 Powers of 16
„ Used when calculating hexadecimal values up to 8
digits long:
Converting Decimal to Hexadecimal

decimal 422 = 1A6 hexadecimal

 Hexadecimal Addition
„ Divide the sum of two digits by the number base (16).
„ The quotient becomes the carry value, and the remainder
is the sum digit.
1 1
36 28 28 6A
42 45 58 4B
78 6D 80 B5

21 / 16 = 1, rem 5

Important skill: Programmers frequently add and

subtract the addresses of variables and instructions.
 Hexadecimal Subtraction
„ When a borrow is required from the digit to the left,
add 16 (decimal) to the current digit's value:

16 + 5 = 21

−1
C6 75
A2 47
24 2E

Practice: The address of var1 is 00400020. The

address of the next variable after var1 is 0040006A.
How many bytes are used by var1?
 Signed Integers
„ The highest bit indicates the sign.
„ 1 = negative, 0 = positive

sign bit

1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
Negative

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 Positive

If the highest digit of a hexadecimal integer is > 7, the

value is negative. Examples: 8A, C5, A2, 9D
 Forming the Two's Complement
„ Bitwise NOT of the number and add 1

Note that 00000001 + 11111111 = 00000000

8-bit Two's Complement Integers
 Binary Subtraction
„ When subtracting A – B, convert B to its two's
complement
„ Add A to (–B)

00001100 00001100
– 00000011 11111101
00001001
Advantages for 2’s complement:
„ No two 0’s

„ Sign bit
„ Remove the need for separate circuits for add
and sub
 Ranges of Signed Integers
„ The highest bit is reserved for the sign. This limits
the range:
 Fractional Binary Numbers
2i
2i–1

4
••• 2
1
bi bi–11 • • • b2 b1 b0 .b–11 b–22 b–33 • • • b–j
1/2
1/4
•••
1/8

„ Representation 2–j

¾ Bits to right of “binary point” represent fractional

powers of 2 i
k
¾ Represents rational number: ∑ kb ⋅2
k =− j
 Examples of Fractional Binary Numbers
„ Value Representation
5-3/4 101.112
2-7/8 10.1112
63/64 0.1111112

„ Observations
¾ Divide by 2 by shifting right
¾ Multiply by 2 by shifting left

¾ Numbers of form 0.111111…2 just below 1.0

„ 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + … + 1/2 + … → 1.0

i

„ Use notation 1.0 – ε

 Representable Numbers
„ Limitation
¾ Can only exactly represent numbers of the form
¾ Other numbers have repeating bit representations

„ Value Representation
1/3
/ 0.0101010101[01]…2
1/5 0.001100110011[0011]…2
1/10 0.0001100110011[0011]…2
 Converting Real Numbers
„ Binary real to decimal real

„ Decimal real to binary real

4.5625 = 100.10012
 True or False
„ If x > 0 then x + 1 > 0
„ If x < 0 then x * 2 < 0
„ If x > y then -x < -y
„ If x >= 0 then -x <= 0
„ If x < 0 then -x > 0
„ If x >= 0 then (( !x – 1 ) & x ) == x
„ If x < 0 && y > 0 then x * y < 0
„ If x < 0 then ((x ^ x >> 31) + 1) > 0
 Character Storage
„ Character sets
¾ Standard ASCII (0 – 127)
¾ Extended ASCII (0 – 255)
¾ ANSI (0 – 255)
¾ Unicode (0 – 65,535)
65 535)
„ Null-terminated String
¾ Array of characters followed by a null byte
„ Using the ASCII table
¾ back inside cover of book
 Machine Words
„ Machine Has “Word Size”
¾ Nominal size of integer-valued data
„ Including addresses

¾ Most current machines use 32 bits (4 bytes) words

„ Limits addresses to 4GB

„ Users can access 3GB

„ Becoming too small for memory-intensive applications
¾ High-end systems use 64 bits (8 bytes) words
„ Potential address space ≈ 1.8 X 10
19 bytes

„ x86-64 machines support 48-bit addresses: 256 Terabytes

¾ Machines support multiple data formats

„ Fractions or multiples of word size

„ Always integral number of bytes

 Word-Oriented Memory Organization
32-bit 64-bit
Bytes Addr.
Words Words
0000
Addr
=
0001
„ Addresses Specify Byte 0000
??
Addr
0002
0003
Locations =
0000
?? 0004
Addr
¾ Address of first byte
y in =
0005
word 0004
?? 0006
0007
¾ Addresses of successive 0008
words differ by 4 (32-bit) Addr
=
0009
or 8 (64-bit) 0008
??
Addr
0010
= 0011
0008
?? 0012
Addr
=
0013
0012
?? 0014
0015
 Data Representations
„ Sizes of C Objects (in Bytes)
¾ C Data Type Typical 32-bit Intel IA32 x86-64
„ unsigned 4 4 4
„ int 4 4 4
„ long int 4 4 4
„ char 1 1 1
„ short 2 2 2
„ float 4 4 4
„ double 8 8 8
„ char * 4 4 8
„ Or any other pointer
 Byte Ordering
„ How should bytes within multi-byte word be
ordered in memory?
„ Conventions
¾ Big Endian: Sun, PPC Mac
„ Least
L t significant
i ifi t byte
b t has
h highest
hi h t address
dd
¾ Little Endian: x86
„ Least significant byte has lowest address
 Byte Ordering Example
„ Big Endian
¾ Least significant byte has highest address
„ Little Endian
¾ Least significant byte has lowest address
„ Example
¾ Variable x has 4-byte representation 0x01234567
¾ Address given by &x is 0x100

Big Endian 0x100 0x101 0x102 0x103

01 23 45 67

Little Endian 0x100 0x101 0x102 0x103

67 45 23 01
 Representing Integers
„ int A = 15213; Decimal: 15213
„ int B = -15213; Binary: 0011 1011 0110 1101
„ long int C = 15213; Hex: 3 B 6 D

IA32, x86-64 A Sun A IA32 C x86-64 C Sun C

6D 00 6D 6D 00
3B 00 3B 3B 00
00 3B 00 00 3B
00 6D 00 00 6D
00
IA32, x86-64 B Sun B 00
00
93 FF
00
C4 FF
FF C4
FF 93 Two’s complement representation
 Representing Strings
char S[6]= “15213”;
„ Strings in C „

¾ Represented by array of characters

¾ Each character encoded in ASCII format
„ Standard 7-bit encoding of character set

„ Character “0” has code 0x30

Linux/Alpha S Sun S
„ Digit i has code 0x30+i
31 31
¾ String should be null-terminated 35 35
„ Final character = 0 32 32

„ Compatibility 31
33
31
33
¾ Byte ordering not an issue 00 00
 Boolean Operations
„ NOT
„ AND
„ OR
„ Operator Precedence
„ Truth Tables
 Boolean Algebra
„ Based on symbolic logic, designed by George Boole
„ Boolean expressions created from:
¾ NOT, AND, OR
 NOT
„ Inverts (reverses) a boolean value
„ Truth table for Boolean NOT operator:
Digital gate diagram for NOT:

NOT
 AND
„ Truth table for Boolean AND operator:

Digital gate diagram for AND:

AND
 OR
„ Truth table for Boolean OR operator:

Digital gate diagram for OR:

OR
 Operator Precedence
„ NOT > AND > OR
„ Examples showing the order of operations:

„ Use parentheses to avoid ambiguity

 Truth Tables (1 of 3)

„ A Boolean function has one or more Boolean

inputs, and returns a single Boolean output.
„ A truth table shows all the inputs and outputs
of a Boolean function

Example: ¬X ∨ Y
 Truth Tables (2 of 3)

„ Example: X ∧ ¬Y
 S

Truth Tables (3 of 3)
X
mux Z
Y

„ Example: (Y ∧ S) ∨ (X ∧ ¬S)
Two-input multiplexer