THE EFFECTS OF ULTRASOUND ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF

COMMENSAL RODENTS WITH A DISCUSSION OF ITS

POTENTIAL I N MANAGEMENT' AND CONTROL PROGRAMS

KENNET11 1IONALD M A C m N

H. Sc. , Simon F r a s c r U n i v e r s i t y , 1970

A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE IIEQUIIIEMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER 01' SCIENCE

i n t h e Department
of

Biological Sciences

@ KENNETH DONALD MACLEAN 1974

SIMON FRASEH UNIVERSITY
August, 1974

A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d , T h i s t h e s i s m y not be r e p r o d u c e d i n whole
o r i n p a r t , by photocopy o r o t h e r means, w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n o f
 APPROVAL

Name: Kenneth Donald MacLean

Degree: Master of Science

Title of Thesis: The effects of ultrasound on the behaviour of

commensal rodents: with a discussion of its
potential in management and control programs.

Examining Committee:

Chairman: Dr. R. C. Brooke

P. Belton
Senior Supervisor

T. Finlayaon

R.M.F.S. Sadleir

I. R. Glen
External Examiner
 Responses of commensal r o d e n t s t o n a t u r a l and man-made
u l t r a s o u n d were c o n s i d c r c d i n t h i s s t u d y . Both l i v e and r e c o r d e d
u l t r a s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s of an i - s o l a t e d mouse pup e l i c i t e d
r e t r i e v a l b c h a v i o u r from l a c t a t i n g f e m a l e s . Rapid waning of
r e s p o n s e s towards sound a1 onc i n d i c a t e s t h a t o t h e r s t i m u l i may
al.so be i n v o l v e d , ,Tuvenilc 1:nttus n o r v e g i c u s e m i t t e d l o n g
(400 - 800 m s ) u l t r a s o n i c c r i e s ( 2 6 k ~ z )when exposed t o
t h r e a t e n i n g s t i m u l i b u t not when exposed t o p a i n f u l s t i m u l i .
I J l t r a s o n i c s i g n a l s were n o t d e t e c t e d from s i m i l a r l y t r e a t e d a d u l t
H. r a t t u s or --
H. n o r v e g i c u s , -
- >"us musculus.
I n l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s , r a t s and mice were i n i t i a l l y
r e p e l l e d by i n t e n s e u l t r a s o u n d ( 2 0 kHz, 130 db a t 1 m). Rats

became h a b i t u a t e d t o t h e sound o v e r a p e r i o d of days. The

r e p e l l i n g e f f e c t waned more r a p i d l y w i t h mice, b u t d e a f e n i n g a s
w e l l a s h a b i t u a t i o n was i n v o l v e d .
Rats f e e d i n g i n a s m a l l warehouse were c o m p l e t e l y r e p e l l e d
f o r a p e r i o d of days by h i g h i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d , b u t were n o t
d r i v e n away. Rats burrowing and f e e d i n g in a c h i c k e n b a r n

showed reduced a c t i v i t y b u t were n o t d r i v e n o f f when exposed t o

s h i l a r l e v c l ~o f u l t r a s o u n d . Domestic rooster c h i c k s m a i n t a i n e d

growth r a t e s i n i n t e n s e u l t r a s o n i c f i e l d s , b u t a d o m e s t i c p i g
showed i l l - e f f r c t s . m e r o l e of u l t r a s o u n d i n n a t u r a l b e h a v i o u r

and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n i n r o d e n t management i s d i s c u s s e d .

iii
 I would l i k e t o thank my s u p e r v i s o r , D r . P e t e r Belton, f o r
h i s advice and encouragement i n t h e r e s e a r c h and p r e p a r a t i o n of
t h e manuscript. Mrs. Thelma Finlayson and D r . Richard S a d l e i r
provided invaluable advice and a s s i s t a n c e . I appreciate

D r . Albert T u r n b u l l t s suggestions f o r handling data. I thank

Beth 1,cary and Donna Vakenti f o r t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e
c o l l e c t i n g and analyzing of d a t a ; Wally H a l l and Les Croberman
of t h e E l e c t r o n i c s Shop f o r t h e i r i n t e r e s t and e x p e r t i s e i n
f a b r i c a t i n g s p e c i a l equipment; and S h i r l e y Heap f o r typing t h e
manuscript. I o f f e r thanks t o f r i e n d s and f a m i l i e s f o r
unflagging p a t i e n c e and support. I thank my wife, L i l l i a n ,
f o r h e r g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e and encouragement.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Examining Committee A p p r o v a l . ....... . . ... .. ii

Abstract ........ ................. iii

..
T a b l e of C o n t e n t s . ... ............... v
L i s t of Tables . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viii
L i s t of Figures. . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
General Introduction . ... ............... 1
G m e r a l Methods and M a t e r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
C h a p t e r 1. The E f f e c t s o f N a t u r a l and Man-made U l t r a s o u n d
on Commensal Rodent Behaviour. . . . . . . . . 9
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1. U l t r a s o n i c Communication Between Mouse Pups and
L a c t a t i n g Females . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4
Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Methods and M a t e r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
R e s u l t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
S t r e s s Induced U l t r a s o n i c V o c a l i z a t i o n s from Com-
mensal Rodents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.

Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Methods and M a t e r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1
Results.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Immediate E f f e c t s of High I n t e n s i t y U l t r a s o u n d o n
3.
Rats.. ..................... 32
 Page
4. E f f e c t s o f IIigh I n t z n s i t y U l t r a s o u n d on t h e
Behaviour o f R a t s : P a r t 1 ........... 35
Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Methods and M a t e r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5 . E f f e c t s o f High I n t e n s i t y U l t r a s o u n d on t h e
Rehaviour o f Rats: Part 2 . .......... 39
Objective . . . . . . . . . .......... 39
Methods and M a t e r i a l s . . . .......... 39
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 40
6 . E f f e c t s o f Nigh I n t e n s i t y U l t r a s o u n d on t h e
Behaviour o f Rats: P a r t 3 ........... 47
Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Methods and M a t e r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7 . R e p e l l e n t E f f e c t s. of
. .High
. . I.n .t e n. s .i t y. U. l .t r a.s o.u n.d .
on - Mus musculus 55
Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Methods and M a t e r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Chapter 11. F i e l d T e s t s o f a n U l t r a s o n i c W h i s t l e . . . . 74
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1. R e p e l l e n t E f f e c t s o f High I n t e n s i t y U l t r a s o u n d
on Rats i n n Warehouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Objective
................... 76
T e s t S i t e and Methods
............. 76
 Page
2 . R e p e l l e n t E f f e c t s o f High I n t e n s i t y U l t r a s o u n d
on R a t s i n a Chicken Barn ............ 78
Objective .................... 78
Test Site and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3 . E f f e c t s o f High I n t e n s i t y U l t r a s o u n d on Chick
Growth and Behaviour ............... 81
Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Methods and M a t e r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4 . E f f e c t s o f High I n t e n s i t y U l t r a s o u n d on t h e
Growth of a P i g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Methods and M a t e r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

General Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Literature C i t e d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

vii
 LIST OF TABIES

Page

Table 1. S o r t i e s by l a c t a t i n g mice i n response t o l i v e

pups and recorded u l t r a s o n i c d i s t r e s s c a l l s . .. 19

Table 2. A t e s t of t h e hypothesis t h a t t h e r e i s no
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e responses
of l a c t a t i n g female mice t o i s o l a t e d pups
and recorded d i s t r e s s c r i e s of i s o l a t e d pups .. 20

Table 3, <luvenile male r a t u l t r a s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s ... 27

Table 4, Hat a c t i v i t y i n t h e experimental cage i n

Experiments 4 and 5. .............. 42

Table 5. ]<at a c t i v i t y i n t h e experimental cage i n

Experiment 6 .................. 50

Table 6. Iqepellent e f f e c t s of high i n t e n s i t y ultrasound

on mouse a c t i v i t y . ............... 63

Table 7 . E f f e c t s of ultrasound on t h e number of a c t i v e

burrows i n t h e chicken barn. .......... 86

viii
-
 L I S T OF' FIGURES

Page

Figure O s c i l l o g r a m of tAc sound produced by t h e

u l t r a s o n i c whist1 c , a s p e c t r a l a n a l y s i s of
t h e same sound, and a photograph o f t h e
u l t r a s o n i c w h i s t l e and compressor. ...... 8
Figure Sonagrams o f u l t r a s o n i c d i s t r e s s
v o c a l i z a t i o n s from a &-day-old a l b i n o
mouse pup. .................. 16
Figure Apparatus f o r d e t e c t i n g , r e c o r d i n g and
a n a l y z i n g u l t r a s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s from
r a t s and mice. ................ 23
Figure Sonograms of u l t r a s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s
produced by j u v e n i l e R. n o r v e g i c u s w h i l e
e x p e r i m e n t a l l y stressed. ........... 25
Figure Experimental a p p a r a t l l s f o r measuring
r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s of h i g h i n t e n s i t y u l t r a -
s o u n d o n r a t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Figure The amount of t i m e measured I n seconds p e r
h o u r and seconds p e r v i s i t t h a t r a t s s p e n t
i n the ultrasonic field. ........... 41
Figure T o t a l amount of t i m e t h a t r a t s s p e n t i n t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l cage and t h e d u r a t i o n o f v i s i t s
made by r a t s t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l cage. .... 44
Figure Frequency of v i s i t s made by r a t s t o t h e
experimental cage i n ~ x p e r i m e n t s4 and 5 . . . 45
Figure The t o t a l amount of time t h a t r a t s s p e n t i n
t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l cage, t h e amount of t i m e
measured i n seconds p e r h o u r and t h e amount
of t i m e i n seconds p e r v i s i t t h a t r a t s s p e n t
intheultrasoundfield............ 49
Figure Diagram o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a p p a r a t u s u s e d t o
i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d on mice .........
measure t h e r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s of h i g h
56
Figure Movements i n t o and o u t of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l

e x p e r i m e n t a l cage. ..............
a r e a by f e d mice f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e
62
 t
Page

F i g u r e 12. Movements i n t o and o u t of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l

a r e a by mice f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
a r e a b u t d e p r i v e d o f food and w a t e r f o r 24
h o u r s p r i o r t o t h e experiement ........
F i g u r e 13. Movements i n t o and o u t of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
a r e a by mice u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
a r e a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 14. Macrophotographs o f tympani of M. musculus
..................
damaged through exposure t o h i @ i n t e n s i t y
ultrasound
F i g u r e 15.
Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F l o o r p l a n of t h e basement o f t h e Highway

F i g u r e 16.
s e c t i o n of t h e p e t . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F l o o r p l a n o f t h e hen house and a c r o s s

F i g u r e 17. E f f e c t s o f u l t r a s o u n d on a c t i v i t y of t h e r a t s
i n a warehouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F i g u r e 18. Growth rate o f r o o s t e r c h i c k s in t h e u l t r a s o u n d
field.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i
1
f

i F i g u r e 19. Growth of a domestic p i g l e t i n a n u l t r a s o u n d

field.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The common brown r a t , R a t t u s n o r v e g i c u s Berkenhout h a s a

l o n g h i s t o r y o f a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h man which p r o b a b l y goes back
t o t h e beginning of a g r i c u l t u r e ( ~ a r r e t t - ~ a m i l t oand
n Hinton
1920). -
The house mouse, Mus musculus L.,has become commensal
w i t h man more r e c e n t l y ( c r o w c r o f t 1966). Competition w i t h man

h a s p o s s i b l y l e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n R a t t u s , t o g e n e t i c changes
t h a t have i n f l u e n c e d behaviour ( B a r n e t t 1963). The a v o i d a n c e
-
of u n f a m i l a r o b j e c t s shown by R. n o r v e g i c u s i s one example.
The r e s u l t of t h i s h i g h l y a d a p t i v e behaviour i s t h a t t r a p p i n g
and p o i s o n i n g campaigns a r e c o n s i d e r e d s u c c e s s e s w i t h 50 - 75%
r e d u c t i o n s i n i n f e s t a t i o n ( ~ a v i s1953; Lindsay -
2t -
al. 1971).
Recently, genetic r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e highly e f f e c t i v e a n t i -
c o a g u l e n t p o i s o n s h a s been n o t e d i n v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s o f North
America and Europe ( S u t t i e 1973) ; T h i s , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h
e v e r r e d u c i n g t o l e r a n c e s f o r l o s s e s of food and f i b r e t o r o d e n t s ,
h a s p l a c e d new p r e s s u r e s on t h e development of more e f f e c t i v e
c o n t r o l measures.
Many o p p o r t u n i s t i c a n i m a l s , i n c l u d i n g r o d e n t s , have h i g h l y
developed d i f f u s e motor zones i n t h e c e n t r a l nervous system
which g i v e a g r e a t f l e x i b i l i t y i n r e s p o n s e t o s t i m u l i . The
a l l o r none r e s p o n s e s t o s t i m u l i , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f lower
v e r t e b r a t e s and i n v e r t e b r a t e s a r e n o t t h e o n l y c h o i c e s ( ~ u s n e l

1963). The young of r o d e n t s respond t o a wide v a r i e t y o f un-

s p e c i f i c s t i m u l i by e s c a p i n g , b u t o v e r t i m e many o f t h e s e s t i m u l i
c e a s e t o be e f f e c t i v e , evoking o n l y a n a l e r t i n g r e a c t i o n o r
even no r e s p o n s e a t a l l ( ~ h o r p e1 9 6 3 ) . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
o t h e r s t i m u l i p e r s i s t , w i t h r e s p o n s e s sharpening, p a r t i c u l a r l y
t o s t i m u l i t h a t have been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h more a l a r m i n g conse-
quences such a s p a i n , p u r s u i t by a p r e d a t o r o r o t h e r noxious
stimuli. I n r a t s , t h e c a p a c i t y of some s t i m u l i t o e l i c i t
r e s p o n s e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o f e a r i s reduced w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
f a m i l i a r i t y over a p e r i o d o f time. They do n o t , however,
become h a b i t u a t e d t o o t h e r s t i m u l i , f o r example b e i n g p l a c e d on
a small h i g h p l a t f o r m w i t h no walls. I n some c a s e s , a stimu-
l u s l o s e s t h i s c a p a c i t y t o e l i c i t f e a r very slowly a s w i t h f e a r
of snakes i n monkeys. Fear i s u n d e r s t o o d t o be a s t a t e ,
u s u a l l y a r o u s e d by noxious s t i m u l a t i o n , i n which t h e r e i s
autonomic, e s p e c i a l l y sympathetic, a c t i v a t i o n . External signs
i n t h e r a t i n c l u d e more-than-usual defaecation, urination,
grooming and o t h e r a c t i v i t y . Fear, a s opposed t o a n x i e t y , ' l a s t s
o n l y a s h o r t time ( ~ a r n e t t1955, 1 9 6 j p. 2 4 9 ) .
S e v e r a l v a r i e t i e s o f a l b i n o r a t s and mice a r e h i g h l y
s u s c e p t i b l e t o e p i l e p t i f o r m s e i z u r e s r e s u l t i n g from moderately
II
intense acoustic stimuli. These audiogenic seizures" o f t e n
r e s u l t i n d e a t h ( ~ i n g e r1947; F r i n g s and F r i n g s 1952; Maier 1949;
Bevan 1955; Busnel 1963). The i n h e r i t a n c e of s u s c e p t i b i l i t y i s
complex, p r o b a b l y b e i n g m u l t i g e n i c and q u a n t i t a t i v e rings e t -
-
al. 1956; Henry 1973). w i l d v a r i e t i e s of r a t s and mice do n o t
show such r e s p o n s e s t o t h e same l e v e l of a c o u s t i c s t i m u l u s
( ~ p r o c k-
et -
al. 1 9 6 7 ) .
 F r i n g s ( 1 9 4 8 ) , on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e s e i z u r e s , was t h e
f i r s t t o s u g g e s t t h e p o t e n t i a l of u l t r a s o u n d , o r sound above 20
k i l o h e r t z (kHz) a s a r e p e l l e n t t o w i l d r o d e n t s . Allen -
et -
al.,
(1948) showed t h a t w h i t e mice d i e d a f t e r 1 minute exposure t o a
sound f i e l d of 20 kHz a t 160 - 165 d e c i b e l s ( d b ) ( r e l a t i v e t o
1 0 " ~watts cm2). Death r e s u l t s from h e a t i n g o r a b s o r b i n g t h e
sound. Aside from t h e c o s t involved o f producing u l t r a s o u n d
of such enormous energy, and t h e danger t o n o n - t a r g e t organisms,
u l t r a s o u n d p r o p a g a t e s p o o r l y through a i r and i s a b s o r b e d r a t h e r
t h a n r e f l e c t e d from any but t h e smoothest s u r f a c e s . Pest control
by s o n i c d e s t r u c t i o n would n o t a p p e a r t o have many p o s s i b l e
applications.
U n t i l r e c e n t l y , a d e q u a t e audiograms showing t h e a b i l i t y o f
r a t s and mice t o h e a r u l t r a s o u n d s were l a c k i n g . Gourevitch and
Hack (1966) s u g g e s t e d t h a t Wistar ( a n a l b i n o v a r i e t y ) rats had
most a c u t e h e a r i n g n e a r 40 kHz, and R a l l s (1967) reported f e r a l

-
Mus musculus t o have most a c u t e hear'ing around 20 kHz. However,
Brown (1973 a, b), s t u d y i n g r e s p o n s e s a t t h e i n f e r i o r c o l l i c u l a r
l e v e l , showed each s p e c i e s t o have two peaks, one a t 20 kHz and
a g r e a t e r one a t 50 kHz f o r -
Mus; one a t 8 kHz and a s l i g h t l y
g r e a t e r one a t 40 - 42 kHz f o r R a t t u s . The i n f e r i o r c o l l i c u l u s
i s a rudimentary c o r r e l a t i n g c e n t r e composed of 3 r d and h i g h e r
o r d e r f i b r e s , j u s t a n t e r i o r t o t h e cerebellum. Rats a r e c a p a b l e
of e c b l o c a t i n g u s i n g i n c i d e n t a l n o i s e s from movement a s c u e s
e ~ Rosenzweig 1957).
( ~ l l and V o c a l i z a t i o n s a r e n o t thought t o
be i n v o l v e d i n t h i s phenomenon.
 Anderson (1954) was t h e f i r s t t o r e p o r t t h e production of
pure u l t r a s o u n d by small mammals o t h e r t h a n b a t s . He recorded

i
v o c a l i z a t i o n s of 25 - 28 kHz produced by caged a l b i n o r a t s .

1
!
Z i p p e l i u s and S c h l e i d t (1956) r e p o r t e d u l t r a s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s

1 from t h e young of s e v e r a l s p e c i e s of rnyomorph rodents. Noirotf s

/ s t u d i e s (1956, 1966, 1968, 1969) on maternal behaviour i n mice

1 and r a t s extended Z i p p e l i u s and S c h l e i d t t s o b s e r v a t i o n s . Rat
pups were a l s o found t o v o c a l i z e u l t r a s o n i c a l l y ( s e w e l l 1967)
and o t h e r v o c a l i z a t i o n s from a d u l t r a t s were r e p o r t e d ( s a l e s
1972 a , b ) . However, l i t t l e information i s a v a i l a b l e on how o r
even whether rodents u s e u l t r a s o u n d i n communication o r on t h e
e f f e c t s of i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h hearing.
This work r e p o r t s on s t u d i e s conducted on t h e f u n c t i o n a l
r o l e of mouse pup v o c a l i z a t i o n s . The communicative v a l u e of
these vocalizations i s established. Also, t h e v o c a l i z a t i o n s
produced by i s o l a t e d a d u l t and j u v e n i l e r a t s and mice i n
s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n s were examined f o r u l t r a s o n i c components.
The p o s s i b l e communicative value of u l t r a s o u n d produced i n such
s i t u a t i o n s i s suggested. The p o t e n t i a l of t h e s e and mouse pup
v o c a l i z a t i o n s i n rodent management a r e discussed. The r e p e l l e n t
q u a l i t i e s of high i n t e n s i t y pneumatically produced u l t r a s o u n d t o
r a t s and mice i n s e v e r a l l a b o r a t o r y s i t u a t i o n s were evaluated.
I n Chapter 2, t h e r e s u l t s and conclusions from two f i e l d
t e s t s of t h e r e p e l l e n t q u a l i t i e s of high i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d
from a commercial rodent r e p e l l e n t were evaluated. Also, t h e
e f f e c t s of i n t e n s e u l t r a s o u n d on t h e growth and g e n e r a l behaviour
 GENERAL METHODS AND MATERIALS

Except where o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , a l l r a t s used i n t h e s e

s t u d i e s were from a colony o r i g i n a t i n g from t h r e e w i l d a d u l t
R a t t u s norvegicus Berkenhout t r a p p e d a t a r a i l w a y f r e i g h t - c a r
c l e a n i n g y a r d i n P o r t Coquitlam, B r i t i s h Columbia. The colony
was maintained i n a s e m i - n a t u r a l , e a r t h f l o o r e d e n c l o s u r e 2.73
m x 2.73 m x 0.91 m. I n t h e second y e a r o f t h e c o l o n y ' s l i f e ,
s i x a d u l t r a t s were t r a n s f e r r e d t o a n o t h e r e n c l o s u r e 2 . 5 m x 1 . 0
m x 0.91 m. A s t a n d a r d d i e t o f P u r i n a R a t Chow p e l l e t s and

w a t e r was always f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e t o b o t h c o l o n i e s . To mini-

mize h a n d l i n g , Havahart Live T r a p s were used t o t r a n s f e r animals.
Animals were never used i n more t h a n one experiment, a l t h o u g h
t h e y were o f t e n r e t u r n e d t o t h e b r e e d i n g p o p u l a t i o n .
-
Outbred a l b i n o l a b o r a t o r y mice Mus musculus L. and w i l d
-
housemice Mus musculus L. t r a p p e d i n a f e e d s t o r a g e b u i l d i n g
n e a r Langley, B r i t i s h Columbia, were maintained and bred i n 46
cm x 46 cm x 15 cm s h e e t m e t a l c a g e s w i t h 15 cm x 15 cm x 1 0 cm
m e t a l n e s t boxes. Bedding was a p o l y e s t e r f i b r e and f l o o r
l i t t e r was v e r m i c u l i t e . A s t a n d a r d d i e t o f P u r i n a Mouse Chow

p e l l e t s and w a t e r was always f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e .

Audible and u l t r a s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s o f b o t h rats and mice
were d e t e c t e d w i t h a BrZiel and Kjaer condenser microphone, t y p e
2360. his microphone had f l a t r e s p o n s e from 8 Hz t o 7 0 k ~ z
A 2 d e c i b e l s ( db) . The s i g n a l from t h e microphone was a m p l i f i e d
by a Hewlett Packard p r e a m p l i f i e r , t y p e 4 0 0 ~ ,a t a g a i n t h a t
produced a n o u t p u t of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 V o l t RMS. T h i s s i g n a l was
/ recorded on a P r e c i s i o n Instrument t a p e r e c o r d e r , type ~ 1 6 2 0 0 ,
a t 37.5 inches p e r second ( i . p . s . ) . A l l recordings were made

on 1/4" T r u b u i l t magnetic recording t a p e , type T 1 8 ~ . U l t r a s o n i c

v o c a l i z a t i o n s were v i s u a l l y d e t e c t e d a t t h e time o f r e c o r d i n g
with t h e VU meter of t h e t a p e r e c o r d e r . Sound spectrograms of
s e l e c t e d recorded v o c a l i z a t i o n s were made with a Kay E l e c t r i c Co.
Sound Spectrograph, type Sona-Graph 6061-B. In producing

sonagrams, t h e t a p e playback speed was reduced from 37.5 i . p . s .

t o 3.75 i . p . s . , e f f e c t i v e l y reducing f r e q u e n c i e s of recordings by
t h e same f a c t o r . This was necessary t o p u t t h e u l t r a s o n i c s i g n a l s
w i t h i n t h e range of t h e Sona-Graph. Sound l e v e l s i n a l l s t u d i e s
were measured with a ~ r f l e land Kjaer P r e c i s i o n Sound Level Meter,
t y p e 220) on t h e l i n e a r (unweighted) network. Recorded o r
e l e c t r o n i c a l l y produced u l t r a s o n i c s i g n a l s f o r playback t o
animals were amplified by a Krohn-Hite I O R I O W a m p l i f i e r and
transduced by a L i s t e n i n g Corporation 10 cm condenser type
loudspeaker. In one s e r i e s of expe'riments , a v a r i a b l e c a p a c i t a n c e
d i s c h a r g e device s u p p l i e d e l e c t r i c shocks a t 100 V a t s e v e r a l mA
t o t h e f e e t of t h e s u b j e c t s .
A compressor d r i v e n u l t r a s o n i c w h i s t l e from U l t r a s o n

I n t e r n a t i o n a l , New York, was employed t o produce u l t r a s o u n d

varying continuously between 18.5 kHz and 20.5 kHz a t 130 db
Sound P r e s s u r e L,evel (SPL) a t 1 m (F@. 1 ) .
Figure 1
ABOVE: Oscillogram of t h e sound produced by one o f t h e Ultrason
w h i s t l e s used i n Chaptsr I, S z c t i o n s 3 - 6, r e c o r d e d w i t h t h e
Briiel and Kjaer 1/4" (0.635 cm) microphone a t 1 m.
MIDDLE : S p e c t r a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e same sound made w i t h a T e k t r o n i
3L5 spectrum a n a l y z e r . The fundamental frequency i s a t 19.0 -
20.0 k i l o h e r t z (k~z). Two s m a l l e r harmonics a p p e a r a t 40 kHz
and 60 kHz.
BELOW: Compressor and u l t r a s o n i c w h i s t l e .
Dimensions : Length - 30 cm
width - 16 cm
 CHAPTER I
-I

The E f f e c t s of Natural and Man-made Ultrasound

on Commensal Rodent Behaviour

INTRODUCTION

Acoustic communication has previously been thought t o play

only a s m l l r o l e i n t h e s o c i a l behaviour of commensal rodents,
p a r t i c u l a r l y r a t s ( ~ a r n e t t1963; Busnel 1963). With t h e increas-
i n g s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of sound d e t e c t i n g and producing equipment I n
recent y e a r s however, evidence i s being gathered which suggests
t h a t ultrasound may be an important f a c t o r i n t h e s o c i a l behaviour
of many rodents.
C o l l i a s (1960) divides a c o u s t i c s i g n a l s i n t o ecological
and f u n c t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s r e l a t e d t o : 1, predators; 2, sexual .
behaviour and r e l a t e d f i g h t i n g ; 3 , parent-young r e l a t i o n s h i p s ;
4, food; and 5, aggregations and group movements ( t h e f i r s t
t h r e e of t h e s e impinging on t h e present s t u d i e s ) . The com-
municative value of any s i g n a l i s determined through a change
i n o r influence upon t h e behaviour of a second i n d i v i d u a l
( ~ e m b r o c k1963). Both r a t pups and mouse pups produce u l t r a -
sonic v o c a l i z a t i o n i n response to: 1, i s o l a t i o n ; 2, exposure
t o cold; 3, t a c t i l e s t i m u l i ; and 4, possibly hunger ( ~ o i r o t
1966, 1968; Noirot and Pye 1969; Sewell 1967, 1969, 1970;
A l l i n and Banks 1971). Okon (1970 a , b; 1972) found t h a t t h e s e
so-called " d i s t r e s s c a l l s " change with t h e pups' ages and t h e
degree of stlrmletlon. A l l i n and Banks (1972) determ3md a
comrnunic a t i ve v a l u e of r a t pup d i s t r e s s c a l l s t h r o u g h p l a y b a c k
of r e c o r d e d c r i e s t o a d u l t r a t s . L a c t a t i n g females were i n -
duced t o l e a v e t h e n e s t and engage i n s e a r c h i n g behaviour.
Sewell (1970) showed t h a t u l t r a s o n i c d i s t r e s s c a l l s o f Apodemus
s y l v a t i c u s serve a similar function. V o c a l i z a t i o n s o f both r a t
and mouse pups i n response t o t a c t i l e s t i m u l i t e n d t o be more
i n t e n s e and of l o n g e r d u r a t i o n t h a n t h o s e e m i t t e d i n r e s p o n s e t o
i s o l a t i o n o r cold. Noirot (1966) s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e s e l o u d c a l l s
may i n h i b i t a g g r e s s i o n o f t h e mother towards t h e pup w h i l e b e i n g
touched o r c a r r i e d .
Adult male r a t s d u r i n g a g g r e s s i v e - s u b m i s s i v e e n c o u n t e r s
produce two t y p e s o f u l t r a s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n ( S a l e s 1972 b).
Short ultrasounds of 3 - 64 m s d u r a t i o n and a t f r e q u e n c i e s of
a b o u t 50 HZwere produced by males i n a g g r e s s i v e s i t u a t i o n s ,
w h i l e l o n g p u l s e s of 800 - 1600 m s d u r a t i o n a t a b o u t 25 k . ~ z
were produced by males i n submissive s i t u a t i o n s . Long p u l s e s
may s e r v e t o i n h i b i t a g g r e s s i o n o r d o n t a c t by t h e more dominant

animal and s h o r t p u l s e s may c a u s e a l e s s a g r e s s i v e r a t t o

submit t o a more a g g r e s s i v e animal w i t h l i t t l e o r no c o n f l i c t ,

althou& t h i s effect i s l e s s clear. B a r f i e l d & Geyer (1972)

l o n g (1800 rns) v o c a l i z a t i o n s a t 22 kHz from male a l b i n o rats

d u r i n g t h e p o s t - e j a c u l a t o r y r e f r a c t o r y p e r i o d ( d u r i n g which
i n t e r c o u r s e i s n o t a t t e m p t e d ) . It was s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e s e
v o c a l i z a t i o n s minimize c o n t a c t of t h e female w i t h t h e male,
A v a r i e t y of l o n g and s h o r t u l t r a s o u n d s are produced by
rats and mice
communicative f u n c t i o n s a r e unknown.
Campbell (1957) found t h a t a l b i n o r a t s showed a n a v e r s i o n
t o sounds of lower i n t e n s i t i e s and f r e q u e n c i e s t h a n t h o s e needed
t o produce audiogenic s e i z u r e s . Moreover, a s t h e frequency
i n c r e a s e d , t h e t h r e s h o l d i n t e n s i t y f o r t h e a v e r s i v e response
was reduced. At 5 kHz, t h e t h r e s h o l d f o r t h i s response was 80
db. Again w i t h a l b i n o r a t s , non-damaging l e v e l s of white n o i s e
(composed of a broad spectrum of f r e q u e n c i e s ) a r e f a r l e s s
a v e r s i v e t h a n e l e c t r i c shock i n t e n s i t i e s t y p i c a l l y used i n
psychological r e s e a r c h , with 30 V e q u i v a l e n t t o 85 db of w h i t e
n o i s e and 50 V e q u i v a l e n t t o 120 db of white n o i s e (campbell and
Bloom 1965). However, both s t u d i e s employed sound l a r g e l y i n
t h e s o n i c range and, a s t h e a u d i t o r y t h r e s h o l d f o r u l t r a s o u n d
i s lower, u l t r a s o u n d should be a more e f f e c t i v e r e p e l l e n t .

Burger (1967) found t h a t 17 kHz sound a t 100 db a t 30 cm had

moderate r e p e l l e n t q u a l i t i e s f o r s e v e r a l days. Sprock e t a l . --
(1967) described a v a r i e t y of experiments with e l e c t r o n i c
equipment producing sound ranging from 4 - 19 kHz a t 120 db with
equivocal r e s u l t s . However, very few animals were used, some
were reused, and t h e s e were not examined f o r h e a r i n g l o s s ( o r
deafness) a s experiments progressed. Greaves and Rowe (1969)
r e p o r t e d s u c c e s s i n p r e v e n t i n g i n v a s i o n of a new environment i n
a l a b o r a t o r y s e t t i n g u s i n g w i l d rats. Ultrasound o f 26 kHz a t
120 db a t 30 c m i n h i b i t e d a c t i v i t y f o r 19 days. Mice were

r e p e l l e d f o r 23 days. I n a l l t h e s e s t u d i e s , it was suggested

t h a t h a b i t u a t i o n t o t h e sound occurred*
 12.

H a b i t u a t i o n t o a stimulus which normally l e a d s t o a par-

t i c u l a r consummatory response without o t h e r s t i m u l i being in-
volved o c c u r s l e s s r a p i d l y t h a n t o e i t h e r a non-specific stimu-
l u s o r t o one t h a t r e q u i r e s a d d i t i o n a l s t i m u l i from o t h e r sen-
s o r y m o d a l i t i e s f o r consummation. Thus, h a b i t u a t i o n t o a

n a t u r a l o r s t i m u l a t e d b i o a c o u s t i c s i g n a l with communicative
Value should be slower t h a n t o a s i g n a l r e q u i r i n g v i s u a l ,
t a c t i l e o r o l f a c t o r y cues t o evoke a response. Also, if
h a b i t u a t i o n t o a b i o a c o u s t i c s i g n a l d i d u l t i m a t e l y occur, t h e
communicative value of t h e s i g n a l would be l o s t t o t h e popula-
tion. E i t h e r s i t u a t i o n might be e x p l o i t e d a s management tech-
niques. The n a t u r a l u l t r a s o u n d s of r a t s and mice a r e r e l a t i v e l y

pure t o n e s w i t h l i t t l e frequency modulation and e f f e c t i v e l y

e l i c i t responses a t i n t e n s i t i e s lower t h a n s y n t h e t i c u l t r a s o u n d s
employed a s r e p e l l e n t s . They a r e a l s o cheaper t o produce and

e a s i e r t o propagate, and t h e o r e t i c a l l y more s p e c i f i c i n e f f e c t

than the synthetic repellents. However, l i t t l e i s known of t h e

a b i l i t y of b i o a c o u s t i c s i g n a l s t o e l i c i t responses from r o d e n t s
independent of o t h e r cues.
Noirot ( 1968) suggested t h a t t h e u l t r a s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s
of mouse pups have c o ~ u n i c a t i v ev a l u e t o l a c t a t i n g females and
l e a d s t o s e a r c h i n g behaviour. I n i t i a l support f o r t h i s hypo-

t h e s i s comes from Brown's (1973 b) f i n d i n g s t h a t t h e second

high frequency peaks ( 4 0 and 50 i n a u d i t o r y t h r e s h o l d s of
r a t s and mice r e s p e c t i v e l y corresponds w i t h t h e average f r e -
quency of t h e pupst v o c a l i z a t i o n s as w e l l as some of t h e a d u l t
 13

Vocalizations. The f i r s t p a r t of t h i s s t u d y compares t h e r e l a -

t i v e e f f i c a c y of recorded and l i v e pup v o c a l i z a t i o n s i n e l i c i t -
i n g r e t r i e v a l behaviour i n l a c t a t i n g female mice. It was my

p u r p o s e i n t h e second p a r t o f t h i s s t u d y t o examine t h 2 a c o u s t i c
-
s i g n a l s of R a t t u s norvegicus, R a t t u s r a t t u s and Mus musculus
i n r e s p o n s e t o e l e c t r i c shock and f e a r f o r p u r e l y u l t r a s o n i c
cries. The p o s s i b l e i n t r a s p e c i f i c communicative v a l u e o f u l t r a -
s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s produced by s t r e s s e d a n i m a l s was c o n s i d e r e d .
The t h i r d and f o u r t h p a r t s of t h e s t u d y t e s t t h e h y p o t h e s i s
t h a t h i g h i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d h a s r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s on r a t and
mouse behaviour, and i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s of d i f f e r e n t i n -
t e r n a l s t a t e s and t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of food and w a t e r on t h e
animals responses t o ultrasound.
 Experiment 1
U l t r a s o n i c Communication Between Mouse Pups and
L a c t a t i n g Females

Objective
The purpose of t h i s experiment Was t o compare t h e e f f e c t s
of l i v e and recorded mouse pup v o c a l i z a t i o n s on t h e pup r e t r i e v a l
behaviour of l a c t a t i n g -
Mus niusculus females.

METHODS AND YATERIALS

I n d i v i d u a l l y caged a d u l t female m ~ l t i p a r o u sw h i t e o u t b r e d
mica were used i n t h i s s t u d y . A t t h e time of t e s t i n g , a l l t h e

s u b j e c t s were n u r s i n g l i t t e r s of e i g h t pups 3 - 5 days o l d .

I s o l a t e d l i v e 4-day-old mouse pups, r e c o r d i n g s of d i s t r e s s c r i e s
of 4-day-old i s o l a t e d mouse pups, and r e c o r d i n g s o f background
n o i s e r e l a t e d t o t h e v o c a l i z a t i o n r e c o r d i n g were p r e s e n t e d as
s t i m u l i t o l a c t a t i n g females.
To r e c o r d u l t r a s o u n d s , t h r e e 4-day-old pups from a l i t t e r
o f t e n born t o a m u l t i p a r o u s female Were p l a c e d s e p a r a t e l y
on t h e f l o o r of a p n e u m a t i c a l l y suspended chamber 91 cm x 91 cm
x 9 1 cm l i n e d w i t h 1 0 crn o f muslin-covered foam r u b b e r . In
t h e box sound l e v e l s were down 12 db o v e r t h e ambient l e v e l i n
t h e room and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e was 22" C. With t h e microphone
h e l d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 cm from t h e p u p ' s mouth, f i v e minute
r e c o r d i n g s of each p u p ' s spontaneous v o c a ~ i z a t i o n swere made.
Pups were n o t handled t o e l i c i t v 0 C a l i z a t i o n s . Sound s p e c t r o -
grams of s e l e c t e d recorded ~ o c a l i z a t i o n sWere made and two of
t h e s e a r e p r e s e n t e d i n Fig. 2. Most of t h e p u l s e s o r squeaks

Produced by t h e pups c o n s i s t e d of a fundamental a t 55 - 65

w i t h o c c a s i o n a l t r a c e s of a second harmonic a t 110 - 130 WZ.

Frequency m o d u l a t i o n was l i m i t e d t o a slow d r i f t down of 1 - 5

kHz from t h e s t a r t of t h e p u l s e . The a v e r a g e p u l s e l e n g t h was
70 m s .
A 90-s r e c o r d i n g w i t h 102 of One P U P ' S v o c a l i z a t i o n s was
a r b i t r a r i l y s e l e c t e d t o be t h e experimental t a p e . Five l i v e ,

spontaneously v o c a l i z i n g 4 - 5 day o l d PUPS were used i n d i v i d u a l -

l y a s t h e l i v e experimental s t i m u l u s .
A 90,s r e c o r d i n g of background n o i s e from t h e r e c o r d i n g
chamber was d e s i g n a t e d as a c o n t r o l s t i m u l u s . Deafness i n one

of t h e groups of a d u l t females was produced t h r e e days p r i o r t o

t h e experiments through exposure t o u l t r a s o u n d s of 1 9 - 20 H z a t
140 db SPL a t 30 cm f o r a p e r i o d of 90 min. Deafness r e s u l t i n g

from r u p t u r e d tympani was confirmed. i n t h e s e s u b j e c t s from ob-

s e r v a t i o n s w i t h a n . otoscope a f t e r l i g h t l y a n a e s t h e t i z i n g t h e mice
with e t h e r .
The females, i n d i v i d u a l l y housed w i t h t h e i r l i t t e r s , were
brought i n t o t h e l a b o r a t o r y w i t h i n hours of g i v i n g b i r t h and
t h e i r n e s t boxes p o s i t i o n e d i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e back w a l l of
t h e cage w i t h a space of 10 cm between t h e back o f t h e n e s t box
and c a g e , The t r a n s d u c e r was p l a c e d i n a c o r n e r i n f r o n t of t h e
n e s t box, approximately 20 cm from t h e e n t r a n c e t o t h e n e s t box.
T e s t s were c a r r i e d o u t between 1100 and 1400 hours. One group
Figure 2
Sonagrams of u l t r a s o n i c d i s t r e s s v o c a l i z a t i o n s from a 4-day-old
a l b i n o mouse pup.
A. V o c a l i z a t i o n w i t h a r a p i d frequency sweep a t t h e beginning,
slow downward d r i f t , and r a p i d downwards sweep a t t h e end.
B. A slow frequency d r i f t i s followed by a r a p i d frequency sweep*

The sccond v o c a l i z a t i o n i s n o t a s t e p , but a s h o r t , sweeping c r y .

On a l l sonagrams t h e v e r t i c a l s c a l e i s frequency i n kHz and t h e
h o r i z o n t a l s c a l e i s time i n msec. Darkness o f t h e t r a c z r e p r e -
s e n t s amplitude.
of females w i t h i n t a c t h e a r i n g was g i v e n a s t i m u l u s of l i v e
Pups, t h e second group was p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e 90-s r z c o r d i n g of
v o c a l i z a t i o n s and t h e t h i r d was p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e 90-s record-
i n g o f background n o i s e . The deafened females were p r e s e n t e d

w i t h l i v e pups. Each s u b j e c t i n each of t h e groups was given

f i v e t r i a l s w i t h t h e same 90,s s t i m u l u s p r e s e n t e d each time.

I n t e r - t r i a l i n t e r v a l s were 5 minutes. P o s i t i v e responses o r
S o r t i e s were considered t o be when a female made a complete
" x i t from t h e n e s t box w i t h i n t h e 90-s p e r i o d t h e s t i m u l u s was
P r e s e n t e d , and o r i e n t e d a t l e a s t h e r head toward t h e s t i m u l u s .
Live pups were t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e experimental cages i n watch
g l a s s e s t o minimize p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f e l i c i t i n g c r i e s of a d i f -

f e r e n t n a t u r e from t h o s e on t h e r e c o r d i n g *
 RESULTS

The r e s p o n s e s of females w i t h i n t a c t h e a r i n g t o l i v e pups

g e n e r a l l y o c c u r r e d w i t h i n 15-s and i n no c a s e d i d t h e y f a i l t o
f i n d t h e pup w i t h i n 15-s of l e a v i n g t h e n e s t box. After car-
r y i n g pups i n t o t h e n e s t , t h e females o f t e n made subsequent
exits, o r a t l e a s t poked t h e i r heads o u t one o r more times.
The famales p r e s e n t e d w i t h r e c o r d i n g of pup d i s t r e s s v o c a l i z a -
t i o n s i n i t i a l l y behaved i n a similar manner, but never reappeared
from t h e n e s t upon e n t e r i n g . These a n i m l s , i n t h e f i r s t t r i a l s ,
Often approached t h e t r a n s d u c e r , s n i f f i n g a t and around it.
T h i s behaviour q u i c k l y waned over subsequent t r i a l s . The
deafened females made no s o r t i e s from t h e n e s t box d u r i n g t h e
t e s t periods. These animals f e d normally and appeared t o n u r s e
t h e i r young although t h e s u r v i v a l of t h e l i t t e r s t o t h e a g e of
Weaning was l e s s t h a n h a l f t h a t of l i t t e r s born and r e a r e d by
normal females. The c o n t r o l animals made few r e s p o n s e s and d i d

not i n v e s t i g a t e t h e transducer. The r e s u l t s a r e summarized i n

Table 1. A c h i 2 t e s t a able 2) applied t o responses o f l a c t a t i n g

females w i t h normal h e a r i n g towards l i v e PUPS and t o r e c o r d e d

d i s t r e s s cries
l e d t o a r e j e c t i o n of t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t
t h e r e w a s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e e f f i c a c y of t h e
two s t i m u l ii n e l i c i t i n g r e t r i e v a l responses, i. e. females
respond to l i v e pups more t h a n t o r e c o r d i n g s .
 TABLE 2

A T e s t of t h e Hypothesis t h a t There i s no S i g n i f i c a n t D i f f e r e n c e Between t h e Responses

o f L a c t a t i n g Female Mice t o I s o l a t e d Pups and Recorded D i s t r e s s C r i e s o f I s o l a t e d Pups.

LIVE PUPS RECORDINGS

TOTAL
Observed Expected Observed Expected

P o s i t i v e Responses

No r e s p o n s e

TOTAL NUMBER OF TRIALS

X: c a l c u l a t e d = 11.4284

x2 (0.001) = 10.43
.'. t h e null h y p o t h e s i s is rejected
 Experiment 2
S t r e s s Induced U l t r a s o n i c V o c a l i z a t i o n s from Commensal
Rodents

Objective
The purpose of t h i s experiment was t o determine whether o r
 22.

administered t o each animal. Tape r e c o r d i n g s f o r each s u b j e c t

from both methods were examined a t l / l O t h r e c o r d i n g speed t o
d e t e c t u l t r a s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s w i t h t h e equipment shown i n Fig.

3. Sonagrams of s e l e c t e d u l t r a s o n i c and a u d i b l e v o c a l i z a t i o n s

were made.
Figure 3
A p p a r a t u s f o r d e t e c t i n g , r e c o r d i n g and a n a l y z i n g u l t r a s o n i c

v o c a l i z a t i o n s from r a t s a n d mice.

A: Brtiel a n d K j a z r c o n d e n s e r microphone.

B: Hewlett Packard p r e a m p l i f i e r .

C: Precision Instruments tape rzcordzr.

S i g n a l s were r e c o r d e d a t 37.5 i . p . s . and p l a y e d b a c k i n t o t h e Kay

E l e c t r i c Co. Sona-Graph ( D . ) a t 3.75 i . p . s. The equipment gave

f l a t r e s p o n s e s from 1 0 - 80 MIZ.
 RESULTS

A l l a n i m a l s were brought i n t o a s t a t e of a n x i e t y o r f e a r

a s i n d i c a t e d by i n c r e a s e d autonomic a c t i v a t i o n ( u r i n a t i o n ,
d e f a e c a t i o n , i n c r e a s e d h e a r t r a t e , and b r e a t h i n g ) , w i t h both
forms of s t i m u l a t i o n . J u v e n i l e male R a t t u s norvegicus produced
U l t r a s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s i n response t o g e s t u r e s and mechanical
s t i m u l a t i o n , but d i d not i n response t o e l e c t r i c a l s t i m u l a t i o n .
Adult - R. . r a t t u s , and -
R . norvegicus, - Mus musculus d i d not pro-
duce any u l t r a s o u n d s . Audible v o c a l i z a t i o n s were produced
by a l l a n i m a l s ( a d u l t and j u v e n i l e ) a s a r e s u l t of both forms
of stimulation. The u l t r a s o n i c squeaks of a l l f o u r j u v e n i l e s
always followed t h e s t i m u l u s by one t o s e v e r a l seconds, and were
always a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s t i l l , crouching p o s t u r e . The u l t r a -
s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s were s i m i l a r i n frequency and l e n g t h . How-

ever, s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n o t h e r a s p e c t s of t h e c r i e s
a p p e a r e d and were p o s s i b l y r e l a t e d t o t h e a g e of t h e animals.
The v o c a l i z a t i o n s were e m i t t e d i n t r a i n s c o n s i s t i n g o f 1 - 29
squeaks w i t h r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s of approximately 100 m s between
squeaks w i t h i n a t r a i n . Sonagrams of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e squeaks

from a n animal appear i n Fig. 4. Most of t h e a c o u s t i c energy

is located a t 27 - 30 kHz, t h e fundamental frequency. A small

second harmonic a p p e a r s a t 54 - 60 kHz. Modulation c o n s i s t s

of a s l i g h t downward d r i f t i n frequency. I n comparison t o t h e

o t h e r t h r e e , t h e youngest animal e m i t t e d more and l o n g e r t r a i n s ,
c o n s i s t i n g of more squeaks, from t h e l e a s t amount o f s t i m u l a t i o n .
With each of t h e o l d e r a n i m a l s i n t u r n , p r o g r e s s i v e l y fewer
Figure 4
R.
SonQgrams of u l t r a s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s produced by j u v e n i l e -
norvegicus w h i l e experimentally s t r e s s e d .
F i r s t p o r t i o n of squeak from 50 day o l d male. Note har-
monic a t 60 H z .
End of squeak from 50 day o l d male.
A s h o r t squeak from a 74 day o l d male. The v o c a l i z a t i o n was
o f lower i n t e n s i t y t h a n A o r B.

a l l sonograms t h e v e r t i c a l s c a l e i s frequency i n kHz and t h e

h o r i z o n t a l s c a l e i s time i n msec.
t r a i n s composed of fewer squeaks were e m i t t e d , even under i n -
tense stimulation. The r e s u l t s a r e summarized i n Table 3.
These d i f f e r e n c e s i n v o c a l i z a t i o n q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y appeared
n o t t o be t h e r e s u l t of d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f s t i m u l a t i o n , as
i n d i c a t e d by p o s t u r e , grooming, d e f a e c a t i o n and u r i n a t i o n
( ~ a r n e t t1963). The i n t e n s i t y o f t h e v o c a l i z a t i o n s were n o t
measured w i t h t h e sound l e v e l meter. From t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e
s i g n a l e n t e r i n g t h e p r e a m p l i f i e r , t h e v o c a l i z a t i o n s were
e s t i m a t e d t o be 85 - 95 db a t 10 cm.
The f o u r j u v e n i l e r a t s were r e t e s t e d 40 days l a t e r and
u l t r a s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s could be e l i c i t e d from only t h e two
younger animals. A s w i t h t h e f i r s t s e r i e s of t e s t s , squeaks

from t h e 90 day o l d animal were few and most d i f f i c u l t t o e l i c i t .

 TABLE 3
J u v e n i l e Male R a t U l t r a s o n i c V o c a l i z a t i o n s

Rat 1 Rat 2 Rat 3 Rat 4 1 & 2 & F values cal-

32 days 50 days 74 days 87 days 3 &4 c u l a t e d and
old expected+

Range o f Fre-
q u e n c i e s of
Vocalizations
(Hz)
-X Frequencies
, o f Squeaks
(Hz)
-
x Length o f
Squeaks ( m s )
X Intervals
Between
Squeaks
-
X Squeaks
Per Train
-
X Length of
T r a i n s of
Squeaks ( s )
* from a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e . F = d i s t r i b u t i o n i n Dixon and Massqy, 1969, p. 470.
 DISCUSSION

Recorded and l i v e mouse pup d i s t r e s s v o c a l i z a t i o n s were

e f f e c t i v e i n e l i c i t i n g r e t r i e v a l behaviour from l a c t a t i n g f e -
males w i t h i n t a c t h e a r i n g . As such, t h e d i s t r e s s c r i e s have a
d e f i n i t e communicative v a l u e between mother and pup. However,
from t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s s t u d y , t h e hypotheses t h a t v o c a l i z a t i o n s
themselves could m a i n t a i n r e t r i e v i n g a c t i v i t y had t o be r e j e c t e d .
H a b i t u a t i o n , a r e l a t i v e l y permanent waning of r e s p o n s e s r e s u l t -
i n g from u n r e i n f o r c e d s t i m u l i ( ~ h o r p e1963), o c c u r r e d a f t e r
s e v e r a l p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s towards t h e recorded v o c a l i z a t i o n s .
Noirot (1965) e l i c i t e d r e t r i e v a l responses from l a c t a t i n g
females towards l i v e young 148 t i m e s i n s u c c e s s i o n w i t h no
h a b i t u a t i o n observed. Casual o b s e r v a t i o n i n t h i s study i n d i -
c a t e d t h a t r e c o r d i n g s d i d n o t l o s e t h e i r e f f e c t if t h e female
11
was rewarded" w i t h a pup f o r approaching t h e t r a n s d u c e r . Rather
t h a n t h e r e c o r d i n g s being of poor f i d e l i t y , p o s s i b l y more t h a n
a u d i t o r y s t i m u l a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y t o m a i n t a i n r e t r i e v a l behaviour.
I n d i r e c t evidence t h a t o l f a c t o r y c u e s a r e involved comes from a
s t u d y by Beach and Jaynes (1956) where a d i f f e r e n c e i n r e t r i e v a l
of t h e i r own and o t h e r young disappeared i n l a c t a t i n g r a t s
w i t h c a u t e r i z a t i o n of o l f a c t o r y bulbs. V i s u a l and t a c t i l e cues
may a l s o be n e c e s s a r y t o complete t h e r e t r i e v a l response and t o
prime subsequent s e a r c h i n g behaviour o f t e n s e e n a f t e r a female
h a s made a s u c c e s s f u l r e t r i e v a l but n o t seen i n females pre-
s e n t e d w i t h only r e c o r d i n g s . The p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s of l a c t a t i n g
females towards d i s t r e s s v o c a l i z a t i o n s a r e g e n e r a l i z e d and non-
selective. The speed of t h e f e m a l e ' s r e s p o n s e . a n d t h e r e l a t i v e
r i c h n e s s of odours i n t h e n e s t l e a d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i n
t h i s s t u d y odours from t h e i s o l a t e d pup d i d n o t i n i t i a t e r e t r i e -
' v a l responses.
The s u r v i v a l v a l u e of both t h e a b i l i t y t o p e r c e i v e and
emit u l t r a s o u n d i s a p p a r e n t . Pups, b l i n d and h e l p l e s s f o r a t
l e a s t 1 0 days, a r e o f t e n dragged from t h e n e s t on t h e m o t h e r ' s
nipples. Young o f deafened mothers must r e l y on chance t h a t
o t h e r of h e r s e n s o r y m o d a l i t i e s w i l l l e a d t o r e t r i e v a l . Brown
(1973 b ) r e p o r t s t h a t f o r both r a t s and mice, t h e peak i n a u d i -
t o r y s e n s i t i v i t y a t high f r e q u e n c i e s ( u l t r a s o n i c ) . i s enhanced a t
t h e l e v e l of the i n f e r i o r colliculus. These enhanced peaks i n
both R a t t u s and -
Mus occur a t f r e q u e n c i e s of pup and some a d u l t
vocalizations. Noirot ( 1966) s u g g e s t s some pup v o c a l i z a t i o n s
i n h i b i t a g g r e s s i o n from t h e mother. The e f f e c t of d e a f e n i n g
on t h e s u r v i v a l r a t e s of l i t t e r s owing t o both t h e l o s s of
r e t r i e v a l behaviour and p o s s i b l e maternal a g g r e s s i o n needs
f u r t h e r exploration;
J u v e n i l e male r a t s r e a d i l y emit t r a i n s of l o n g u l t r a s o n i c
p u l s e s when s t r e s s e d . These v o c a l i z a t i o n s may be analogous t o
t h o s e r e p o r t e d by Sewell (1969) and S a l e s (1972a) from sub-
m i s s i v e male r a t s i n responses t o advances and t h r e a t s by
dominant males. S a l e s (1972 a ) suggested t h a t t h e c r i e s s e r v e
t o minimize c o n t a c t . However, t h e c r i e s she r e p o r t e d were more
t h a n t w i c e a s l o n g (800 - 1600 m s ) t h a n t h e ones r e p o r t e d h e r e
and were n o t e m i t t e d i n long t r a i n s , r a t h e r i n o n e ' t o t h r e e c r i e s
i n a t r a i n o r sequence. B a r f i e l d (1972) r e p o r t e d l o n g (800 m s )
22 kHz p o s t e j a c u l a t o r y v o c a l i z a t i o n e m i t t e d by males i n l o n g
t r a i n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s study. Intervals
between p u l s e s o r c r i e s were a l s o l o n g e r (250 m s ) . It was sug-

g e s t e d t h a t t h e s e v o c a l i z a t i o n s i n h i b i t c o n t a c t from t h e female.
The d i s t r e s s c r i e s of r a t pups commonly have a frequency o f
30 - 40 kHz ( ~ l l i nand Banks 1972).
The r e s u l t s of t h i s study suggest a p r o g r e s s i o n w i t h a g e
of t h e a n i m a l s f o r t h e l e n g t h of t r a i n s of c r i e s , but not f o r
t h e frequency, l e n g t h of c r i e s , o r i n t e r v a l between c r i e s .
However, more i n d i v i d u a l s i n each a g e group should be t e s t e d t o
f i n d i f these progressions a r e real. I n a l l c a s e s , c r i e s were

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s t i l l crouching p o s t u r e , and a s l i g h t l i f t i n g
o f t h e head. S a l e s (1972 a ) r e p o r t s similar o b s e r v a t i o n s . It
i s unknown whether t h e c r i e s a r e w h i s t l e s , a r e produced i n t h e
l a r y n x , o r a r e t h e r e s u l t o f m o d i f i c a t i o n s of t h e s u p e r i o r
t h y r o - a r y t e n o i d f o l d s l o c a t e d i n t h e - t r a c h e a above t h e l a r y n x
and below t h e e p i g l o t t i s ( ~ o b e r t s1972).
I n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e of w i l d r a t s , young males a r e
g e n e r a l l y o f lower " s t a t u s " t h a n mature males ( ~ a r n e t t1963),
and t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of more a c o u s t i c energy ( i n t e n s i t y x d u r a t i o n )
w i t h younger animals may r e f l e c t t h e v a l u e of t h e c r i e s i n
i n h i b i t i n g a g g r e s s i o n towards immature males i n p a r t i c u l a r o r
submissive ones i n g e n e r a l . It i s unknown whether j u v e n i l e
females produce similar v o c a l i z a t i o n s when s t r e s s e d .
The r o l e of u l t r a s o n i c c r i e s of j u v e n i l e males in t h e s o c i a l
 31.
behaviour o f r a t s needs t o be determined more p r e c i s e l y . The
p o t e n t i a l of t h e s e o r similar v o c a l i z a t i o n s f o r c o n t r o l pur-
poses should be explored.. There a p p e a r s t o be a p o t e n t i a l
v a l u e i n t h e d i s t r e s s v o c a l i z a t i o n s of mouse pups a s a s h o r t
term a t t r a c t a n t . R a t pup d i s t r e s s v o c a l i z a t i o n s , l i k e w i s e
could s e r v e a s a t t r a c t a n t s i n p o p u l a t i o n surveys o r i n i n t e g r a t e d
c o n t r o l programmes.
 Experiment 3
Immediate E f f e c t s of High I n t e n s i t y Ultrasound on R a t s

Objective
The purpose of t h i s experiment was t o t e s t t h e immediate
r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s of high i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d on a d u l t -
R.
norvegicus and -
R. r a t t u s .

METHODS AND MATERIALS

F i f t e e n w i l d a d u l t male and female R a t t u s norvegicus and
t h r e e w i l d a d u l t male R a t t u s r a t t u s were used i n t h i s experiment.
The experimental a p p a r a t u s c o n s i s t e d of a U-shaped run
4 m long, 0.7 m high, 0.7 m wide. The o u t s i d e and ends o f t h e
U were of g a l v a n i s e d s h e e t metal, t h e i n s i d e f a c e o f t h e U was
o f c l e a r p l e x i g l a s s and t h e t o p and bottom were o f 1.27 cm w i r e
mesh.
With a n a i r d r i v e n u l t r a s o n i c w h i s t l e ( d e s c r i b e d i n General
Methods) suspended 1 m above t h e f l o o r a t t h e end of t h e U, t h e
sound l e v e l a t t h e o p p o s i t e end of t h e U was r a i s e d 14 db above
t h e ambient l e v e l of 70 db SPL t o 84 db. The e l e c t r i c a l l y
d r i v e n a i r compressor, i s o l a t e d on foam rubber pads and p o s i -
t i o n e d 8 m from t h e run, r a i s e d t h e ambient sound l e v e l 3 db.
A l l sound p r e s s u r e s were measured w i t h t h e B and K Sound Level
Meter. L i g h t i n g was s u p p l i e d by f o u r 100-W incandescent bulbs
suspended above t h e run.
The r a t s were i n t r o d u c e d s i n g l y i n t o t h e r u n and allowed
t o e x p l o r e f o r 30 min. A t t h e end of t h i s p e r i o d , t h e r a t was

i n v a r i a b l y i n one of t h e ends o f t h e U, probably because it

a f f o r d e d cover on two s i d e s . The w h i s t l e was suspended always
over t h e end w i t h t h e r a t and switched on f o r a 30-s p e r i o d .
The a n i m a l s ' responses were observed and recorded.
F i v e a d u l t R a t t u s norvegicus were exposed t o n o i s e from
t h e compressor suspended over one o f t h e two end boxes i n a
manner s i m i l a r t o t h a t p r e v i o u s l y o u t l i n e d . T h i s sound c o n s i s t e d
of low frequency n o i s e a t a l e v e l o f 88 db SPL a t 1 m.
 RESULTS

Within 20-s every r a t had run t o t h e o p p o s i t e end box i n

t h e r u n and h a d assumed a crouching p o s t u r e w i t h e a r s f l a t t e n e d .
A l l r a t s o f both s p e c i e s e x h i b i t e d i n c r e a s e d u r i n a t i o n , defaeca-
t i o n , followed by i n t e n s e grooming a c t i v i t y and a b r u p t movements
w i t h bodies f l a t t e n e d a g a i n s t t h e cage f l o o r . Four animals,
w i t h t h e o n s e t of t h e ultrasound, l e a p t a t t h e roof of t h e cage
and t h r a s h e d w i l d l y about t h e sound box b e f o r e running t o t h e
o t h e r end of t h e run. I n c o n t r a s t , t h e compressor n o i s e e l i c i t e d
a small jump from t h r e e i n d i v i d u a l s and e a r t w i t c h e s i n two.
One animal t r o t t e d i n t o t h e o t h e r end box, but r e t u r n e d irnmediate-

ly
 Experiment 4
E f f e c t s of High I n t e n s i t y Ultrasound on t h e Behaviour
o f Rats: P a r t 1

Objective
Changes i n t h e r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s of high i n t e n s i t y u l t r a -
sound over a three-day p e r i o d on -
R. norvegicus g i v e n a s i n g l e

source of food and w a t e r i n t h e sound f i e l d were measured i n t h i s

experiment.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Nine w i l d a d u l t male and female R a t t u s norvegicus were
used i n t h i s s t u d y .
A V-shaped r u n w i t h two end boxes 0.7 m x 0.7 m was

c o n s t r u c t e d f o r t h i s experiment. Three s i d e s of t h e end boxes

were o f g a l v a n i z e d s h e e t metal, t h e i n s i d e f a c e was o f c l e a r
P l e x i g l a s s and t h e t o p and bottom were of 1 . 2 7 cm metal mesh.
The a p e x of t h e V was a s h e e t metal 90" elbow 20 cm i n diameter.
Two 1 m c y l i n d e r s of 1.27 cm mesh and 20 cm i n diameter con-
n e c t e d t h e elbow t o each end box. A photoelectric c e l l illumin-
a t e d by a r e d l i g h t was p l a c e d a c r o s s t h e e n t r a n c e t o one end
box d e s i g n a t e d t h e experimental box. A super 8 rnm movie camera

i n f r o n t of t h e experimental cage was switched by t h e photo-

e l e c t r i c c e l l through a t i m e r t o r u n 7 - s each t i m e t h e beam
was t r i p p e d . One 15.2 m Tri-X movie f i l m was p l a c e d i n t h e
camera each day of t h e experiment. A c l o c k was p l a c e d near t h e
experimental cage w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f t h e camera. The u l t r a -
s o n i c w h i s t l e , producing 130 d b SPL a t 1 m was suspended over
t h e experimental box. W i t h t h e w h i s t l e o p e r a t i n g , t h e sound

l e v e l i n t h e elbow was 80 d b , 10 db above ambient, and t h e

l e v e l i n t h e c o n t r o l box was 78 db, 8 db above ambient.
Compressor n o i s e r a i s e d t h e ambient l e v e l 3 db. Continuous
l i g h t i n g was s u p p l i e d by 4 100-W incandescent bulbs. See
Fig. 5.
R a t s were i n t r o d u c e d s i n g l y , and a f t e r a t h r e e day
a c c l i m a t i o n p e r i o d , a c t i v i t y was monitored by t h e camera f o r
a three-day p e r i o d . The w h i s t l e was t h e n switched t o o p e r a t e
i n synchrony w i t h t h e camera, i . e . f o r a minimum seven second
p e r i o d each time t h e photo-beam was t r i p p e d by a r a t e n t e r i n g
o r l e a v i n g t h e experimental box. The w h i s t l e and camera
o p e r a t e d f o r a s long a s t h e animal remained i n t h e e n t r a n c e
t o t h e experimental box. A f t e r a three-day experimental p e r i o d ,
t h e w h i s t l e was disconnected and a c t i v i t y was filmed f o r a
f u r t h e r three-day p e r i o d . Food and water were r e p l e n i s h e d d a i l y

between 0830 and 1030 hours i n t h e experimental box only.

Filmed o b s e r v a t i o n s from each day of t h e experiments were
p r o j e c t e d a t 5 frames p e r second, e f f e c t i v e l y slowing a c t i o n t o
0.21 normal. The time of each a n i m a l ' s v i s i t t o t h e experimental
box, a s w e l l as i t s l e n g t h and r e s u l t i n g exposure of th.e r a t t o
t h e f i l m o r f i l m p l u s u l t r a s o u n d were recorded. Comments on t h e
a n i m a l s 1 g e n e r a l behaviour, r e s p o n s e s t o t h e u l t r a s o u n d and
f e e d i n g behaviour were noted. Data from f i l m s c o v e r i n g l e s s
Figure 5
Experimental a p p a r a t u s f o r measuring r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s of h i g h
i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d on r a t s . Looking down from above:
Experimental end box
Control end box
Sheet mktal elbow
Wire mesh t u n n e l s
Photoelectric c e l l
Clock
U l t r a s o n i c w h i s t l e suspended from above
A i r compressor supplying w h i s t l e
Movie camera on a t r i p o d
Timer
Ultrasound proof b a r r i e r
Food d i s h
M: Water d i s h
t h a n one hour was n o t used. There were no p a r t i a l l y exposed
films, i . e . a l l f i l m s monitored l e s s t h a n a r a t ' s f u l l d a y ' s
activity.
 Experiment 5
E f f e c t s of High I n t e n s i t y Ultrasound on t h e Behaviour
of Rats: P a r t 2

Objective

Changes i n t h e r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s of high i n t e n s i t y
u l t r a s o u n d over a t h r e e day p e r i o d on -
R. norvegicus given a n
a l t e r n a t i v e source of food a n d water o u t s i d e t h e s o u n d - f i e l d
were measured i n t h e experiment.

METHODS AND MATl3RIALS

Eight w i l d a d u l t male and female R a t t u s norvegicus were

used i n t h i s study. These i n d i v i d u a l s were d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e
used i n p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s .
Equipment and procedure were a s i n 4 except t h a t food and
w a t e r were p l a c e d i n t h e end boxes a t each end of t h e run.
 40.

RESULTS

I n a l l c a s e s , t h e animals made n e s t s from Dacron f i b r e

p l a c e d i n t h e elbow of t h e t u n n e l connecting t h e two end boxes.
Presumably a s a r e s u l t of t h e continuous i l l u m i n a t i o n , a c t i v i t y
was n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o evening hours. There was a g r e a t v a r i a b i l -
i t y among animals a s t o how food was taken. S e v e r a l hoarded t h e
p e l l e t s , making s u c c e s s i v e t r i p s t o t h e food d i s h u n t i l it was
emptied. T h i s food was o f t e n hoarded i n t h e n e s t . Other
animals removed one p e l l e t p e r i o d i c a l l y and never emptied t h e
d i s h , w h i l e only two of t h e seventeen animals i n t h e s e two
experiments a t e i n t h e experimental a r e a . One animal, a n
a d o l e s c e n t male ( g o - 100 d a y s ) , began hoarding on t h e t h i r d
day of exposure t o u l t r a s o u n d and continued f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f
t h e experiment.
A s i n experimept 3, t h e f i r s t response of t h e r a t s t o t h e
u l t r a s o u n d was a pronounced jump followed by escape from t h e
soundf i e l d .
I n both experiments 4 and 5 ( ~ i g .6 a), t h e u l t r a s o u n d
s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced t h e a v e r a g e amount of time, measured i n
seconds p e r hour over three-day p e r i o d s s p e n t i n t h e sound

field. These and o t h e r v a l u e s from both experiments a r e sum-

marized i n Table 4 .
I n experiment 4 , animals s p e n t l e s s time s i t t i n g i n t h e
e n t r a n c e of t h e experimental cage t r i p p i n g t h e p h o t o c e l l when
t h e w h i s t l e was o p e r a t i n g t h a n i n e i t h e r t h e sound f r e e p e r i o d s
p r e c e d i n g o r f o l l o w i n g ( ~ i g .6 b ) . With t h e w h i s t l e o p e r a t i n g ,
Figure 6
a. The amount o f t i m e measured i n seconds p e r hour t h a t r a t s s p e n t
i n t h e u l t r a s o u n d f i e l d (19 - 20 kHz a t 130 d b ) .
b. The amount o f t i m e measured i n seconds p e r v i s i t t h a t r a t s
spent i n t h e ultrasound f i e l d .

I n both a and b:

= r a t s w i t h a s i n g l e s o u r c e of food and w a t e r i n t h e

e x p e r i m e n t a l c a g e ( ~ x p e r i m e n t4 )

$ = r a t s w i t h food and w a t e r i n b o t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
and i n t h e c o n t r o l c a g e (Experiment 5)

m111a = t h e t h r e e day p e r i o d when t h e u l t r a s o n i c w h i s t l e

was o p e r a t i n g .

R a t s s i t t i n g i n t h e e n t r a n c e were counted as b e i n g
i n the ultrasound f i e l d .

I n b , d a t a from Experiment 5 was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .

DAY OF OBSERVATION

DAY OF OBSERVATION
 TABLE 4

Rat A c t i v i t y i n t h e Experimental Cage i n Experiments 4 and 5. Ultrasound was Presented i n P e r i o d s B and 8'

Experiment 4 Sxperiment 5
(means 2 S.E.) (means s.E.)
* Comparisons o f Means *

PAFULhETERS Period Period

I."EASURED A B C A' B1 C' Within Between
1 - 3 4 - 6 7 - 9 1 - 3 4 - 6 7 -.9 Experiment Experiments

Mean Amount
o f Time Per 20.3 2 2.6
Hour i n N = 129
Sound F i e l d
(s)
Mean Einount
of Tine Per 5.6 h . 6
Visit i n N = 129
So-fnd F i e l d
(si
T o t a l Arcount
o f Time i n
Experimental 4.9 2 1 . 0
Area(5of N=129
Observation
Period)
Frequency o f 0.6 f 0.1
V i s i t s Per N = 129
Hour t o
Take Food
Frequency o f 0.6 2 0.1
V i s i t s Per N = 129
Hour t o
Take Water
Length of 77.8 f 28.4 83.9 f 18.8
Visits to = 129 N = 235
Exoerimental
~ r e a( s )

Comparisons based on a one way a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e w i t h v a l u e s o f F converted t o p r o b a b i l i t i e s , P = 0.05 and P = 0.01,

Dixon and Massey, pp. 470, 471. -c=
IU
 43.
i n comparison w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g t h r e e - d a y p e r i o d ,
t h e t o t a l amount o f t i m e i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l box was s i g n i f i c a n t l y
l e s s i n experiment 5, where a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s of food and water
were a v a i l a b l e , but n o t i n experiment 4 w i t h no such c h o i c e ( F i g .
7 a). There were fewer v i s i t s t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a r e a f o r food
w i t h t h e w h i s t l e o p e r a t i n g i n comparison w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g
period. T h i s was t r u e f o r a n i m a l s w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e a n d s i n g l e
s o u r c e s o f food ( F i g s . 8 a , h ) . However, i n compensation, more
v i s i t s f o r food were made i n 4 a f t e r t h e w h i s t l e was s w i t c h e d
off. T h i s was n o t s o i n 5.
Also, when t h e r e s u l t s from t h e two e x p e r i m e n t s a r e
compared, s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s a p p e a r . While t h e r e were no
d i f f e r e n c e s i n f e e d i n g behaviour, measured by v i s i t s f o r food
and f o r w a t e r , i n P e r i o d A o f 4 and 5, fewer v i s i t s p e r hour
f o r b o t h food and w a t e r were made i n P e r i o d B ' i n 5 t h a n i n
P e r i o d B i n 4.
Unlike animals i n 4, animals with a l t e r n a t i v e sources o f
food and w a t e r d i d n o t resume f e e d i n g and t a k i n g w a t e r from t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l a r e a a f t e r t h e w h i s t l e had been s w i t c h e d o f f ,
i n d i c a t i n g t h a t a f e e d i n g p a t t e r n had been a t l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y
altered.
Another d i f f e r e n c e i n r e s p o n s e t o u l t r a s o u n d a p p e a r s when
l e n g t h s of each v i s i t t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a r e a a r e compared
between 4 and 5 ( ~ i g .7 b ) . Whereas t h e r e were no d i f f e r e n c e s
f o r P e r i o d s A and A ' , t h e r e was a d i f f e r e n c e w h i l e t h e w h i s t l e
was o p e r a t e d ( p e r i o d s B and B 1 ) and f o r t h e p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g .
V i s i t s were s h o r t e r i n 5 f o r b o t h B1 and C'. Data from e x p e r i -
Figure 7
a. T o t a l amount o f t i m e t h a t r a t s s p e n t i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c a g e
($ of o b s e r v a t i o n p e r i o d )
b. D u r a t i o n o f v i s i t s made by r a t s t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c a g e
(measured i n seconds p e r v i s i t )

I n both a and b:

= r a t s w i t h a s i n g l e s o u r c e of food and w a t e r i n t h e

e x p e r i m e n t a l cage (Experiment 4 )

= r a t s w i t h food and w a t e r b o t h i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
and i n t h e c o n t r o l c a g e (Experiment 5)

11111 = t h e t h r e e day p e r i o d when t h e u l t r a s o n i c w h i s t l e

was o p e r a t i n g ( 1 9 - 20 kHz a t 130 d b ) .
DAY OF OBSERVATION

DAY OF OBSERVATION
Figure 8
Frequency o f v i s i t s made by r a t s t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l Cage.
a. Rats w i t h a s i n g l e s o u r c e of food and w a t e r i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l

cage (Experiment 4 ) .
b. Rats w i t h food and w a t e r i n both t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d
c o n t r o l c a g e s (Experiment 5 ) .

I n both a and b:

= v i s i t s p e r hour f o r f o o d

= v i s i t s p e r hour where n e i t h e r food n o r w a t e r were

taken

I = v i s i t s p e r hour f o r w a t e r

11111 = t h e t h r e e day p e r i o d when t h e u l t r a s o n i c w h i s t l e

was o p e r a t i n g .
DAY OF OBSERVATION
ments 4 , 5, 6 a p p e a r s i n Appendix I.
When i n t h e u l t r a s o n i c f i e l d , a l l animals moved about more
q u i c k l y w i t h e a r s f l a t t e n e d a g a i n s t t h e i r heads. There was a
g r e a t e r tendency t o climb t h e cage and jump a t t h e roof. For
t h e f i r s t few v i s i t s i n t h e f i n a l t h r e e day p e r i o d w i t h t h e
w h i s t l e s i l e n t , many animals appeared h e s i t a n t , o f t e n remaining
i n t h e entrance. By t h e t h i r d day i n P e r i o d s C and C 1 , animals

appeared l e s s s t r e s s e d and moved more slowly.

Hearing of t h e r a t s was q u a l i t a t i v e l y t e s t e d u s i n g a small
p i e c e o f s p r i n g s t e e l which produced a loud snap (100 db SPL)
when deformed. Decisions on h e a r i n g a c t i v i t y were made observ-
i n g P r e y e r l s r e f l e x ( f l a t t e n i n g of p i n n a e ) , movements of v i b r i s -
s a e and t h e g e n e r a l i z e d s t a r t l e , o r leap-crouch, response ( ~ c h e i d t
1952). Seven of n i n e r a t s i n experiment 5 gave reduced responses.
Two r a t s from 4 and two from 5 w i t h h e a r i n g l o s s e s were examined
w i t h an otoscope w h i l e l i g h t l y a n a e s t h e t i z e d w i t h e t h e r . All

had inflammation o r haematomas of t h e tympani i n comparison w i t h

controls. I n a l l c a s e s , h e a r i n g recovered w i t h i n f o u r weeks.
 Experiment 6
E f f e c t s of High I n t e n s i t y Ultrasound on t h e Behaviour
of Rats: P a r t 3

Objective
Changes i n t h e r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s of i n t e r m i t t e n t i n t e r v a l s
of u l t r a s o u n d over a 3 day p e r i o d on groups of r a t s given a
s i n g l e s o u r c e of food i n t h e sound-field were measured i n t h i s
experiment.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Nine w i l d a d u l t male and female R a t t u s norvegicus were

used i n t h i s study. These r a t s were d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e used
i n previous studies.
Equipment and procedures were similar t o t h o s e i n 4
except f o r t h e s e changes: 1. R a t s were i n t r o d u c e d i n groups
of t h r e e i n t o t h e a p p a r a t u s ; 2. t h e w h i s t l e , r a t h e r t h a n being

switched by t h e p h o t o c e l l , was switched by a s p e c i a l l y f a b r i c a t e d

t i m e r a t random i n t e r v a l s . I n t e r v a l s of s i l e n c e were from 15-s

t o 180-s d u r a t i o n and i n t e r v a l s of sound were o f 3 - s t o 90-s

duration. The camera was, a s i n both 4 and 5, switched by t h e
photocell. On some occasions, two f i l m s were exposed on one day.
White p a i n t on t h e head was used t o i d e n t i f y each r a t . Data
from each r a t ' s v i s i t i n g t h e experimental a r e a was c o n s i d e r e d
s e p a r a t e l y and averaged l a t e r on a n h o u r l y b a s i s . Overlapping
v i s i t s by two o r more animals were measured s e p a r a t e l y .
 RESULTS

The r e s u l t s f o r t h i s experiment have been considered

s e p a r a t e l y because of t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n procedure. In a d d i t i o n
t o t h e u l t r a s o u n d being p r e s e n t e d i n randomly a s s i g n e d i n t e r v a l s ,
i n d i v i d u a l behaviour may have been i n f l u e n c e d through o b s e r v a t i o n
of o t h e r s . When Period A i s compared w i t h Period B, h i g h i n t e n s i t y
u l t r a s o u n d d i d n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduce t h e t o t a l amount of time
s p e n t i n t h e experimental a r e a , t h e a v e r a g l e amount of time p e r
hour o r t h e average amount of time p e r v i s i t ( ~ i g s .9 a , b, c ) .
However, t h e behaviour of t h e r a t s a s measured by t h e s e
parameters i n t h e t h r e e day p e r i o d following u l t r a s o u n d was
s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t compared with t h e i r behaviour w i t h t h e
w h i s t l e on. These d i f f e r e n c e s a r e summarized i n Table 5.
Although t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , it was observed
t h a t l e s s food and water were t a k e n i n p e r i o d B t h a n i n A o r C.
Four of t h e n i n e r a t s when examined l a t e r appeared t o have
S u f f e r e d h e a r i n g l o s s w i t h a s s o c i a t e d inflammation of t h e tympani.
Figure 9
a. The t o t a l amount of time t h a t r a t s s p e n t i n t h e experimental
cage ($ of o b s e r v a t i o n p e r i o d )
b. The amount of time measured i n seconds p e r hour t h a t r a t s
spent i n t h e ultrasound f i e l d
c. The amount of time measured i n seconds p e r v i s i t t h a t r a t s
spent i n t h e ultrasound f i e l d .

I n a , b and c:

= r a t s w i t h a s i n g l e s o u r c e o f food and water i n t h e

experimental a r e a . R a t s were i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e
experimental a p p a r a t u s i n groups of t h r e e .

11111 = t h e t h r e e day p e r i o d when u l t r a s o u n d was p r e s e n t e d

i n i n t e r v a l s of random d u r a t i o n .
DAY OF OBSERVATION

DAY OF OBSERVATION

DAY OF OBSERVATION
 TABLE 5
R a t A c t i v i t y i n t h e Experimental Cage i n Experiment 6. Animals were r u n i n Groups o f Three,
Food and Water were P r e s e n t e d i n Experimental Area, and Ultrasound was P r e s e n t e d f o r
Randomly Determined I n t e r v a l s i n P e r i o d B.

Experiment 6 ( ~ e a n s S.E.)
+-
PARAMETERS COMPARISON OF
MEASURED PERIOD A PERIOD B PERIOD C MEANS
(DAYS 1-3) (DAYS 4-6) (DAYS 7-91

Average amount o f - 3.2

22.5 +
t i m e p e r hour i n N = 94
sound f i e l d ( s )
Average amount of
time p e r v i s i t i n
sound f i e l d ( s )
T o t a l amount of 6.4 f 2 . 0
time i n experimental N = 94
a r e a ($ of observa-
t i o n period)
 DISCUSSION

The r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s of high i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d on both

s p e c i e s of R a t t u s were c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d from t h e f i r s t e x p e r i -
ment i n t h i s s e r i e s . Although t h e animals were t e s t e d 30 minutes
a f t e r being i n t r o d u c e d , t h e minimal responses t o compressor n o i s e
would s u g g e s t t h e r a t s were r e l a t i v e l y u n s t r e s s e d .
The reduced a c t i v i t y i n t h e experimental a r e a w h i l e t h e
w h i s t l e was o p e r a t e d i n experiment 4 p r o v i d e s evidence f o r t h e
r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t of t h e u l t r a s o n i c f i e l d . T h i s conclusion i s

f u r t h e r supported by t h e observed i n c r e a s e i n a c t i v i t y a f t e r t h e
w h i s t l e was switched o f f . Ultrasound was even more e f f e c t i v e
i n r e d u c i n g a c t i v i t y when a n a l t e r n a t i v e source of food and
w a t e r i n a sound-free a r e a was s u p p l i e d EX^. 5 ) . The r e p e l l e n t
e f f e c t s of t h e w h i s t l e appeared t o be i n s t r u m e n t a l i n changing
t h e f e e d i n g behaviour of r a t s o f f e r e d a choice. L i t t l e food was

t a k e n from t h e c o n t r o l a r e a p r i o r t o , t h e w h i s t l e 1 s o p e r a t i o n s ,
but f o r t h e remaining s i x days, l i t t l e was t a k e n from t h e e x p e r i -
mental a r e a . It i s unknown how l o n g t h i s e f f e c t might l a s t
a f t e r c e s s a t i o n of t h e w h i s t l e ' s o p e r a t i o n . When no a l t e r n a t i v e
food and w a t e r source was o f f e r e d , t h e r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t on feed-
i n g behaviour was l e s s , w i t h compensatory f e e d i n g i n t h e p e r i o d

following t h e w h i s t l e ' s operation.

Neophobia, o r t h e avoidance of a new o b j e c t i s a behaviour
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of wild R a t t u s norvegicus ( ~ a r n e t t1963) and o c c u r s
when t h e r e i s a change i n a n o t h e r w i s e f a m i l i a r s i t u a t i o n . It

may be evoked by a n u n f a m i l i a r object, a f a m i l i a r o b j e c t i n a new

 p o s i t i o n , o r by u n f a m i l i a r n o i s e s . Although temporary, t h e dura-
t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i s h i g h l y v a r i a b l e , r a n g i n g from h o u r s t o
weeks (commonly h o u r s t o d a y s ) . Upon removal of t h e new o b j e c t ,
b e h a v i o u r immediately r e t u r n s t o normal.' I n i t i a l l y i n both
e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s of t h e u l t r a s o u n d were most
l i k e l y s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h i s neophobic e f f e c t . However, t h e
overcompensatory a c t i v i t y i n both experiments f o l l o w i n g t h e
u l t r a s o u n d and t h e reduced f e e d i n g a c t i v i t y i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
a r e a i n experiment 5, where a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s o f food and
w a t e r were a v a i l a b l e , a r e u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e neophobic
effect.
More t h a n one p r o c e s s may be i n v o l v e d i n t h e waning of
r e s p o n s i v e n e s s towards u l t r a s o u n d . D i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s of t h e
o v e r a l l r e s p o n s e wane a t d i f f e r e n t r a t e s . Even though a n i m a l s
withdrew from t h e s o u n d f i e l d l e s s and l e s s r a p i d l y w i t h r e p e a t e d
exposure, r e s p o n s e s towards t h e sound i t s e l f p e r s i s t e d . These
i n c l u d e r a p i d movement, f l a t t e n i n g of t h e e a r s , c l i m b i n g t h e
c a g e and d i s p l a c e m e n t 'grooming. Melzack (1961) found t h a t duck-
l i n g s s t i l l o r i e n t e d towards hawk shaped f i g u r e s even a f t e r
e s c a p e responses h a b i t u a t e d , w h i l e Horridge ( 1959) n o t e d t h a t
N e r e i s r e t a i n e d some elements of withdrawal r e s p o n s e s a f t e r
h a b i t u a t i o n of o t h e r elements.
U l t r a s o u n d p r e s e n t e d i n randomly a s s i g n e d i n t e r v a l s had
l i t t l e repellent effect. Some e f f e c t i s e v i d e n t from t h e changes
i n a c t i v i t y f o l l o w i n g t h e employment of u l t r a s o u n d , b u t t h e hypo-
t h e s i s t h a t i r r e g u l a r l y o c c u r r i n g i n t e r v a l s of u l t r a s o u n d i n h i -
 b i t h a b i t u a t i o n must be r e j e c t e d . Possibly t h e o v e r a l l p a t t e r n
o r envelope of sounds and s i l e n c e was recognized and h a b i t u a t i o n
occurred. Conversely, because of t h e i r r e g u l a r occurrence of
u l t r a s o u n d , a s s o c i a t i o n between u l t r a s o u n d and experimental a r e a
may n o t have been made. The l a t t e r i s more l i k e l y , f o r when

t h e w h i s t l e switched on w i t h a n animal i n t h e experimental a r e a ,

t h e r a t i n v a r i a b l y l e f t w i t h i n a f r a c t i o n of a second. However,

r a t s did enter t h e area with t h e whistle operating.

T e s t i n g t h r e e r a t s a t one time may have p o s s i b l y l e d t o
d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s of behaviour from t h o s e seen i n i n d i v i d u a l l y
tested rats. Changes i n behaviour r e s u l t i n g from t h e p r e s e n c e
o f a n o t h e r member of t h e same s p e c i e s , o r s o c i a l f a c i l i t a t i o n ,
(crawford 1939) h a s been found t o be of minimal importance i n
l e a r n i n g and g e n e r a l behaviour of r a t s o older 1958). However,'
t h i s work was done w i t h a l b i n o o r o t h e r l a b o r a t o r y ' v a r i e t i e s
whose s o c i a l behaviour i s much l e s s r i c h t h a n t h a t o f w i l d
v a r i e t i e s ( % r n e t t 1957, 1960, 1963). Leadership of a dominant

r a t may i n f l u e n c e behaviour through i m i t a t i o n as w e l l as t h e

t e n d e n c y t o remain t o g e t h e r . Observational l e a r n i n g , a p a r t i c u -

l a r form of s o c i a l f a c i l i t a t i o n , has been r e p o r t e d i n r a t s

a v o i d i n g c a n d l e flames a f t e r observing o t h e r s burned ore -
et

-
al. 1971). R a t s and mice can d i s c r i m i n a t e between t h e odours
of s t r e s s e d and n o n s t r e s s e d i n d i v i d u a l s ( ~ a l e n t a-
e t a l . 1968;
-
,

Both t h e mechanism f o r t h e s e responses and

--
C a r r e t a l . 1970).
t h e i r f u n c t i o n a l importance t o o v e r a l l behaviour a r e unknown.
T h i s r e l a t i v e l y unexplored a r e a of behaviour impinges d i r e c t l y
on s u c c e s s e s and f a i l u r e of c o n t r o l campaigns a g a i n s t commensal
r o d e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t r a p p i n g and poisoning campaigns.
 Experiment 7

-
R e p e l l e n t E f f e c t s of High I n t e n s i t y Ultrasound on Mus musculus

Objective
The purpose o f t h i s s e r i e s of experiments was t o compare
t h e r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s o f u l t r a s o u n d on mice i n e x p e r i m e n t a l

s i t u a t i o n s where: ( 1 ) p o s i t i o n i n g of food s o u r c e s was a l t e r e d ,

( 2 ) t h e s u b j e c t s were d e p r i v e d of food and w a t e r p r i o r t o t h e
experiment, (3) t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a r e a (sound f i e l d ) was new t o
t h e s u b j e c t s , ( 4 ) combinations of t h e above t h r e e . It was
h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t changes i n t h e i n t e r n a l s t a t e s of t h e a n i m a l s
would a f f e c t r e s p o n s e s t o t h e u l t r a s o u n d .

METHODS AND MATERIALS

A d u l t male and female w i l d -

Mus musculus were used i n t h i s
s e r i e s o f t e n experiments.
The t e s t i n g a p p a r a t u s c o n s i s t e d of two s q u a r e p l a t e glass
c a g e s 2Ocm on a s i d e w i t h a 0.95 cm g a l v a n i z e d s q u a r e mesh t o p .
A c y l i n d e r of t h e same mesh, 50 cm l o n g and 4 cm i n d i a m e t e r con-

n e c t e d t h e two c a g e s t h r o u g h 2 . 5 c m h o l e s i n a s i d e o f each cage.

A baffle, 0 . 7 m x 0.7 m, c o n s t r u c t e d of a c o u s t i c t i l e , w i t h a
h o l e c u t t o accommodate t h e t u n n e l was p o s i t i o n e d halfway between
t h e two c a g e s . An u l t r a s o n i c w h i s t l e ( d e s c r i b e d i n ~ e n e r a l

M e t h o d s ) , d e t u n e d t o produce o n l y 120 db SPL a t 40 cm, was

suspended 40 cm above t h e f l o o r of one of t h e two c a g e s d e s i g n a t e d
t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l cage. The compressor, i s o l a t e d on foam r u b b e r

p a d s , was p o s i t i o n e d 2.4 m from t h e c a g e s ( ~ i g .1 0 ) . With t h e

F i g u r e 10
Diagram o f e x p e r i m e n t a l a p p a r a t u s uced t o measure t h e r e p e l l e n t
e f f e c t s o f h i g h i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d on mice.
A: Control a r e a
B: Experimental a r e a
C: Connecting t u n n e l (mesh)
D: Ultrasound proof b a f f l e
E: U l t r a s o n i c w h i s t l e suspended
F: A i r compressor f o r w h i s t l e
G: Movie camera
 w h i s t l e o p e r a t i n g continuously, sound l e v e l s i n t h e s e c t i o n of
t h e t u n n e l a d j a c e n t t o t h e experimental cage were107 db, 88 db
i n t h e s e c t i o n a d j a c e n t t o t h e c o n t r o l cage, and 86 db i n t h e
c o n t r o l cage. W i t h only t h e compressor o p e r a t i n g , sound l e v e l s
i n t h e t u n n e l and i n both cages were Up 2 db over t h e ambient
l e v e l of 82 db sPL. Continuous l i g h t i n g was s u p p l i e d by f o u r 100
Watt incandescent bulbs. A N i z o Super 8 mm movie camera exposing
one frame every 5 seconds monitored a c t i v i t y i n t h e experimental
area.
Groups of s i x mice, a l l of t h e same s e x and cage-mates f o r
a minimum of f o u r weeks were introduced i n t o t h e experimental
a p p a r a t u s 24 hours p r i o r t o being t e s t e d . Experiments, each of
5 hours d u r a t i o n and s t a r t e d between 0900 - 1200 hours, were
c a r r i e d out over a 14 month p e r i o d . Allowances were not made
f o r p o s s i b l e s h i f t s i n a c t i v i t y r e l a t e d t o c i r c a d i a n rhythms.
A minimum of f o u r r e p l i c a t e s were run f o r each experiment, each

u s i n g s i x mice w i t h no previous experience of t h e experimental

apparatus.
I n t h e f i r s t s e r i e s of experiments i n t h e study, mice were
allowed f r e e a c c e s s t o both s i d e s of t h e a p p a r a t u s f o r both t h e
a c c l i m a t i o n and experimental p e r i o d . Food and w a t e r were sup-

--
p l i e d ad l i b . Mice i n t h e second s e r i e s were allowed f r e e a c c e s s
t o both s i d e s of t h e a p p a r a t u s , but were deprived o f food and
w a t e r d u r i n g t h e 24 h r . a c c l i m a t i o n p e r i o d . In the third
s e r i e s , mice were r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e l e f t ( c o n t r o l ) s i d e of t h e

a p p a r a t u s and t h e t u n n e l d u r i n g t h e a c c l i m a t i o n p e r i o d , but
were given food and water ad l i b . 7-
I n t h e f o u r t h s e r i e s , mice
were deprived of both food and water and r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e
c o n t r o l cage and t u n n e l d u r i n g t h e a c c l i m a t i o n p e r i o d . The
i n d i v i d u a l experiments a r e l i s t e d below:

i. Food and water:

a. Present i n control area.
1. No u l t r a s o u n d (4 r e p l i c a t e s )
2. W i t h u l t r a s o u n d (4 r e p l i c a t e s )

b. P r e s e n t i n both c o n t r o l and experimental a r e a s .

1. No u l t r a s o u n d ( 8 r e p l i c a t e s )
2 , With u l t r a s o u n d (9 r e p l i c a t e s )

c. P r e s e n t i n experimental a r e a .
1. No u l t r a s o u n d ( 6 r e p l i c a t e s )
2. With u l t r a s o u n d ( 5 r e p l i c a t e s )

d. Absent i n both a r e a s
1. No u l t r a s o u n d ( 4 r e p l i c a t e s )
2. With ultrasound ( 4 replicates)
ii. D e p r i v a t i o n (24 hours) followed by food and water:
a. Present i n control area.
1. No u l t r a s o u n d (4 r e p l i c a t e s )
2. W i t h u l t r a s o u n d ( 4 r e p l i c a t e s )

b. P r e s e n t i n experimental a r e a .
1. No u l t r a s o u n d (4 r e p l i c a t e s )
2. With u l t r a s o u n d ( 4 r e p l i c a t e s )

c. Absent i n both a r e a s .
1. No u l t r a s o u n d ( 5 r e p l i c a t e s )
2. With u l t r a s o u n d ( 4 r e p l i c a t e s )

iii, Opportunity t o explore experimental a r e a w i t h food and water:

a. Present i n both c o n t r o l and experimental a r e a s
1. No u l t r a s o u n d ( 4 r e p l i c a t e s )
2. With ul.trasound (4 r e p l i c a t e s )

b. P r e s e n t i n experimental a r e a .
1. No u l t r a s o u n d (4 r e p l i c a t e s )
2. W i t h u l t r a s o u n d (4 r e p l i c a t e s )
 iv, Opportunity t o e x p l o r e experimental a r e a a f t e r food and
water d e p r i v a t i o n ( 2 4 hours) :
a. Food and water o f f e r e d i n experimental a r e a .
1. No u l t r a s o u n d (4 r e p l i c a t e s )
2. W i t h u l t r a s o u n d ( 5 r e p l i c a t e s )

Exploded mica ( v e r m i c u l i t e ) t o a depth of 1 cm covered t h e

f l o o r of each cage. Cages were washed w i t h d e t e r g e n t and d r i e d
between experiments t o minimize t h e e f f e c t of odour of con-
specifics. ~ o o dc o n s i s t e d of ground Purina Mouse Chow and was
p r e s e n t e d i n t h e middle of t h e cage i n 4 cm p l a s t i c p e t r i -
dishes. One ounce c y l i n d r i c a l open mouthed water j a r s were
p l a c e d a l s o i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e cage. . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n from t h e
f i l m o f i n d i v i d u a l l y marked mice was not p o s s i b l e .
Films of each experiment were p r o j e c t e d a t a r a t e of 5
frames p e r second, o r when necessary, were viewed frame by
frame. Movements of i n d i v i d u a l mice i n t o and o u t o f t h e e x p e r i -
mental a r e a were recorded. Only if a mouse's head and a t l e a s t
two f e e t were i n t h e experimental Cage Was i t scored. Thus two

could p o s s i b l y e n t e r and l e a v e w i t h i n t h e 5 second i n t e r v a l

between frames being exposed and t h u s would not be scored.
Data, upon which a l l f u r t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n s Were based,were c o l l a t e d
i n t o t e n minute p e r i o d s , f o r a t o t a l of t h i r t y p e r i o d s f o r each
5 hour experiment. A summary of means ( w i t h t h e i r s t a n d a r d

e r r o r s ) of movements i n t o and o u t of t h e experimental a r e a

a p p e a r s i n Appendix 11. Using a t h r e e p o i n t moving average,

means f o r each experiment were p l o t t e d t o show t r e n d s i n changes

o f a c t i v i t y o v e r time. A measure of u l t r a s o u n d 1s e f f e c t s on

a c t i v i t y was a c h i e v e d by comparing a t h o u r l y i n t e r v a l s t h e
numbers of movements i n t o and o u t of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a r e a w i t h
t h e w h i s t l e on and o f f .
 RESULTS

I n t h e f i r s t s e r i e s o f experiments, i a-d ( ~ i ~ 1
s1. a - d ) ,
t h e a n i m a l s were f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a r n q and were
p r o v i d e d w i t h a d l i b food and w a t e r i n t h e c o n t r c
- 7
za ( i a ) ,
i n both a r e a s ( i b ) , i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a r e a ( i c ) , o r t h e food
and w a t e r were removed j u s t b e f o r e t h e s t a r t of t h e experiment

(id). The l e v e l s of a c t i v i t y and a m p l i t u d e of change i n a c t i v i -

t y a s measured by movements i n experiments i a - c were r e l a t i v e l y
low. With food and w a t e r i n t h e c o n t r o l s i d e o n l y , l e v e l s of
a c t i v i t y were t h e l o w e s t o f t h e f o u r experiments. Experiment i d
r e p r e s e n t s a s p e c i a l c a s e and would p e r h a p s be b e t t e r compared
w i t h i i i a and i i i b a s t h e environment i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a r e a
had been changed w i t h t h e removal of t h e food .and w a t e r d i s h e s .
U l t r a s o u n d reduced a c t i v i t y t o t h e l o w e s t a b s o l u t e l e v e l s
i n e x p e r i m e n t s i b and i c , a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s a l s o a s i g n i f i c a n t
reduction i n i d . s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n s i n a c t i v i t y a r e sum-
m a r i z e d on an h o u r l y b a s i s f o r a l l experiments i n T a b l e 6. .

Data from t h e s e comparisons a p p e a r i n appendix 111.

I n t h e second s e r i e s of experiments, i i a - c ( ~ i g s .1 2 a - c ) ,
mice were f a m i l i a r w i t h both s i d e s of t h e a p p a r a t u s , b u t were
d e p r i v e d of food and w a t e r f o r 24 h o u r s p r i o r t o t h e s t a r t of
t h e experiments. Food and w a t e r were t h e n p l a c e d i n t h e c o n t r o l

a r e a ( i i a ) o r i n t h e experimental a r e a ( i i b ) . No food o r w a t e r

was p r o v i d e d i n i i c . With t h e w h i s t l e not operating, l e v e l s of

a c t i v i t y a r e higher than i n t h e f i r s t s e r i e s , except f o r id. This

a c t i v i t y g r a d u a l l y d e c l i n e s over t h e f i v e - h o u r p e r i o d , but l e a s t
 TABLE 6
R e p e l l e n t E f f e c t s of High I n t e n s i t y Ultrasound on Mouse A c t i v i t y as Measured Through a
Comparison o f Movements i n t o t h e Experimental Area w i t h Ultrasound on and w i t h it o f f .

SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES I N ACTIVITY BY HOUR

/ = not s i g n i f i c a n t

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

VARIABLES Hour Hour Hour Hour Hour df

i. Food and Water:

a. i n control area
b. i n both a r e a s
c . i n experimental a r e a
d. i n n e i t h e r a r e a
ii. Food and Water D e p r i v a t i o n
Followed by Food a n d ,Water:
a. i n c o n t r o l a r e a
b. i n e x p e r i m e n t a l a r e a
c. i n n e i t h e r a r e a
iii. F i r s t Opportunity t o
Explore Experimental Area With
Food and Water,:
a . i n both a r e a s
b. i n e x p e r i m e n t a l a r e a
i v . F i r s t Opportunity t o
Explore Experimental Area
A f t e r Food and Water D e p r i v a t i o n
a. i n experimental a r e a *** / / **
P Values c a l c u l a t e d w i t h one-way a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e . F d i s t r i b u t i o n from Dixon and
Massey 1969, p. 470.
i
F i g u r e 12
Movements i n t o and o u t of t h e experimental a r e a by mice familiar
w i t h t h e experimental a r e a but d e p r i v e d o f food and water f o r 24
h r s . p r i o r t o t h e experiment.
a. food and w a t e r were p l a c e d i n t h e c o n t r o l a r e a
b. food and water were p l a c e d i n t h e experimental a r e a
c. food and water were n o t g i v e n ,
MINUTES ( x 0.1)
 of a l l i n i i c where no food was provided.
U l t r a s o u n d had s i g n i f i c a n t r e p e l l i n g e f f e c t s i n t h i s s e r i e s
a l t h o u g h a b s o l u t e l e v e l s o f a c t i v i t y remained h i g h e r t h a n i n t h e
f i r s t s e r i e s with t h e w h i s t l e operating.
I n t h e t h i r d s e r i e s , mice w i t h o u t p r e v i o u s o p p o r t u n i t y t o
e x p l o r e t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a r e a showed h i g h l e v e l s o f a c t i v i t y f o r
t h e f i r s t two h o u r s b o t h w i t h t h e w h i s t l e o p e r a t i n g and o f f
( F i g s . 13 a , b ) . These i n i t i a l l y h i g h l e v e l s f e l l o f f l e s s
r a p i d l y when food and w a t e r were p r e s e n t e d i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
a r e a ( i i i b ) , t h a n i n i i i a where food and w a t e r were i n both
areas. A f t e r t h e t h i r d hour, l e v e l s i n both i i i a and b were
comparable t o t h o s e i n i i i c .
U l t r a s o u n d had l i t t l e r e p e l l i n g e f f e c t i n t h i s s e r i e s , w i t h
s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n s i n a c t i v i t y i n o n l y two of t h e f i v e hours.
I n Experiment 4 , mice were d e p r i v e d of food and w a t e r and
w e r e r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e c o n t r o l a r e a d u r i n g t h e 24 hour acclima-
t i o n period. Food and w a t e r were p r e s e n t e d i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
a r e a a t t h e s t a r t of t h e experiment. With t h e w h i s t l e o f f
i n i t i a l l e v e l s of a c t i v i t y ( F i g . 1 3 c ) were h i g h e s t o f a l l f o u r
experiments. ~ f t e rtwo h o u r s , a c t i v i t y was reduced t o l e v e l s

similar t o t h o s e i n i i c ( ~ i g .1 2 c ) , where mice were w i t h o u t food

and water. u l t r a s o u n d appeared t o have l i t t l e e f f e c t i n r e d u c i n g

activity.
One group of s i x mice were exposed t o 130 db SPL of 19 - 20
kHz u l t r a s o u n d f o r t h r e e hours. While e t h e r - a n a e s t h e t i z e d , their
tympani were examined w i t h t h e O~OSCOP~. I n a l l cases, t h e
I
F i g u r e 13
Movements i n t o and o u t of t h e experimental a r e a by mice unfami-
l i a r w i t h t h e experimental a r e a .
food and water were p l a c e d i n both experimental and c o n t r o l
areas
food and water were p l a c e d i n t h e experimental a r e a
mice were denied food and w a t e r f o r 24 h o u r s p r i o r t o t h e
s t a r t of t h e experiment. Food and w a t e r were p l a c e d i n t h e
experimental a r e a .
MINUTES ( x 0.1 )
 tympani were r u p t u r e d ( F i g . 1 4 a ) . A f t e r f i v e t o s i x weeks
h e a l i n g had o c c u r r e d , but even a f t e r a f u r t h e r f o u r weeks o n l y
p a r t i a l h e a r i n g had been recovered. Hearing was q u a l i t a t i v e l y
t e s t e d u s i n g a c l i c k e r d e s c r i b e d i n Experiment 4. D e c i s i o n s on
h e a r i n g a c u i t y were made from o b s e r v i n g P r e y e r ' s r e f l e x
( f l a t t e n i n g of p i n n a e ) , o r movement o f v i b r i s s a e , o r l e a p i n g
Up f o l l o w e d by crouching.
A f t e r a s l i t t l e a s one hour exposure t o 120 db o f u l t r a -
sound, damage t o tympani o c c u r r e d i n t h e form o f inflammation
a n d l o c a l haematomas o f t e n f o l l o w e d by t h i c k e n i n g and c l o u d i n g
of t h e membrane w i t h i n a week ( F i g . 1 4 b ) . Recovery o f h e a r i n g
seemed complete w i t h i n f o u r t o e i g h t weeks.
Loss o f h e a r i n g o c c u r r e d t o a n i m a l s u s e d i n a l l experiments,
b u t t e n d e d t o be g r e a t e s t t o t h o s e u s e d i n t h e l a s t t h r e e s e r i e s ,
e s p e c i a l l y i i i a , i i i b , and i v . Aggression, measured by observed
f i g h t i n g and b i t e s was much g r e a t e r i n groups of males a f t e r
b e i n g p a r t i a l l y o r c o m p l e t e l y deafened. M o r t a l i t y was h i g h e r i n
t h e s e g r o u p s f o r s e v e r a l weeks a f t e r exposure t o u l t r a s o u n d .
Figure 14
Macrophotographs of tympani o f -
M. musculus damaged through

exposure t o high i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d .
A: L e f t tympanum i s r u p t u r e d . The malleus i s covered w i t h t h e
remaining s h r e d s .
B: The l e f t tympanum of t h i s i n d i v i d u a l i s i n t a c t but t h e mid-
d l e ear i s f i l l e d with f l u i d .
The a c t u a l diameter o f t h e a u d i t o r y c a n a l s i s 2 - 3 mm.
 DISCUSSION

The house mouse, u n l i k e t h e brown r a t , t e n d s to e x p l o r e

 t o r y b e h a v i o u r must be dependent on t h e i n t e r n a l s t a t e of t h e
a n i m a l a s much a s t h e s t i m u l a t i n g f a c t o r s . The e x t e r n a l s i t u a -
t i o n ' s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n evoking e x p l o r a t o r y behaviour depends
on i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e f a m i l i a r as e s t a b l i s h e d by e x p e r i e n c e ,
firtherrnore, t h e i n t e r n a l s t a t e must i n f l u e n c e whether a given
d e g r e e of d i s c r e p a n c y e l i c i t s eva'sion o r e x p l o r a t i o n and t h e
i n t e n s i t y of e i t h e r . Changes t o t h e i n t e r n a l s t a t e from corn-
p e t i n g s t i m u l i ( e . g . p r e s e n c e of a c o n s p e c i f i c ) may c o n f l i c t
w i t h e x p l o r a t o r y behaviour.
Commensal r o d e n t s p r e s e n t e d w i t h a novel s i t u a t i o n o r envi-
ronment, d i s p l a y approach-avoidance behaviour c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
e v e r l o n g e r f o r a y s from t h e f a m i l i a r followed by r e t r e a t s . The
i n i t i a l l y h i g h l e v e l s of a c t i v i t y i n i i i a and i i i b ( f e d , f i r s t
o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p l o r e ) r e p r e s e n t t h i s t y p e of e x p l o r a t o r y
behaviour w i t h t h e h i g h number of movements i n t o and o u t of t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l a r e a i n d i c a t i n g advances and r e t r e a t s . The p r e s e n c e
of food i n t h e experimental a r e a i n i i i b may a c c o u n t f o r t h e main-
t e n a n c e of h i g h l e v e l s f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d . Crowcroft (1963)
found one mouse would e x p l o r e a 400 f t e n c l o s u r e f o r a n hour,
f o l l o w e d by a n e q u a l p e r i o d of r e s t . It would a p p e a r from t h e
r e s u l t s of i i i a and i i i b t h a t t h e temporal components of e x p l o r a -

t o r y behaviour a r e of more consequence t h a n t h e s p a t i a l .

The m i n i m a l r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s of u l t r a s o u n d under t h e s e con-
d i t i o n s in contrastw i t h experiments i and ii i n d i c a t e t h e

s t r e n g t h of t h e u r g e t o e x p l o r e . The r e s u l t i n g damage t o tympani

from t h e ultrasound must have been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Very u n f a v o ~ r -

a b l e [email protected] effects. Mebb ( l 9 5 5 ) , s u g g e s t e d t h a t o r g a n -
isms have a n optimum l e v e l o f a r o u s a l t h a t i s i n f l u e n c e d by
sensory input. Low l e v e l s of i n p u t would f a v o u r r e s p o n s e s t h a t
produce increased s t i m u l a t i o n and hence g r e a t e r a r o u s a l . Very
h i g h o r i n t e n s e sm-mxy bombardment p r o d u c i n g h i g h a r o u s a l s h o u l d
s e r v e t o i n h i b i t t h e b e h a v i o u r t h a t l e a d s t o t h i s i n t e n s e stimu-
lation.
~f t h e mice i n e x p e r i m e n t s iii a n d i v d i s p l a y e d b e h a v i o u r

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e x p l - o r a t i o n , t h e r e s u l t s do n o t s u p p o r t Hebbl s
hypothesis. U l t r a s o u n d s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d l e v e l s of a c t i v i t y
i n t h e second hour i n i i i b ( T a b l e 6 ) , b u t n o t i n i i i a . This
r e d u c e d a c t i v i t y may be a r e s u l t of r e d u c t i o n i n f e e d i n g i n t h e
second hour i n i i i b . L e v e l s of a c t i v i t y i n t h e u l t r a s o u n d were

similar i n both experiments i i i a , b ( ~ i g s .13 a , b ) , but were

h i g h e r i n i v ( ~ i g1. 3 ~ ) . U l t r a s o u n d e v i d e n t l y i n h i b i t s f e e d i n g
more t h a n e x p l o r i n g . When d e p r i v e d of food a n d w a t e r a n d p r e -

sented with a first time opportunity t o explore as i n i v , t h e

l e v e l of a c t i v i t y was h i g h e r t h a n i n a n y o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t ( F i g .

13 c ) a n d u l t r a s o u n d r e p e l s s i g n i f i c a n t l y f o r o n l y t h e f i r s t
hour. IIowever, l e v e l s of a c t i v i t y d u r i n g t h e f i r s t h o u r w i t h
the whistle a r e n o t r e d u c e d below t h o s e l e v e l s i n i i i a
and i i i b w i t h t h e w h i s t l e s i l e n t . The e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e be-
tween i i i b a n d i v was food d e p r i v a t i o n . The g r e a t e r a c t i v i t y i n
m b ( w i t h t h e w h i s t l e o f f ) which t h e u l t r a s o u n d i n h i b i t s may be

t h e r e s u l t o f feeding.
The r e d u c e d r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t o f h i g h i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d
i s most n o t i c e a b l e under c o n d i t i o n s where exposure t o t h e u l t r a -

sound i s high i n t h e f i r s t hours. I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t when a n

animal p - r e l i v e s t h e sound a s loud, i t i s r e p e l l ~ d , but i f i n t h e
sound f i e l d s u f f i c i e n t l y long, t h e animal h a b i t u a t e s , i s
deafened, o r both. Certainly h e a r i n g impairment was g r e a t e s t
f o r mice used i n experiments iii and i v .
s u b o r d i n a t e mice i n f i g h t i n g b o u t s i n h i b i t f u r t h e r a g r e s s i o n

from dominant a n i m a l s by loud squeaking ( ~ i b l - ~ i b e s f e l d1950,

t
R a l l s 1967). The observed f i g h t i n g among p o s t - e x p e r i m e n t a l
males, r e s u l t i n g i n t h e d e a t h o f somP a n i m a l s , ~be~ due i n p a r t

t o hearing loss. Deafening h a s a l s o been shown t o be i n v o l v e d

i n t h e l o s s o f pup r e t r i e v a l behaviour i n r e s p o n s e t o a u d i t o r y
behaviour ( s e e Experiment 1 ) . Casual o b s e r v a t i o n i n d i c a t e d
lower s u r v i v a l r a t e s of l i t t e r s born t o deafened females. The
importance of a u d i t o r y i n f o r m a t i o n t o a colony of f r e e l i v i n g
w i l d mice i s y e t t o be determined.
Becausz of t h e g r a i n y n a t u r e of t h e f i l m s used t o r e c o r d

observations, i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l mice was n o t p o s s i b l e ,

s t a t u s of a n i m a l s i n t h e sound f i e l d was n o t
and t h e social
known. ~ ~ e r enp o r t s t h a t low s t a t u s a n i m a l s t e n d t o
~ h i ~ (1966)
be mor5 a c t i v e and l i k e l y t o v e n t u r e i n t o new a r e a s . Different
tolcranccs
from high i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d may e x i s t f o r h i g h and
lowstatusa n i m a l s , he e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e w h i s t l e i n p r o t e c t -
inga new environment may be r e l a t e d n o t only t o t h e amount of
 I n management s i t u a t i o n s , where t h e home range o f i n d i v i d u a l
a n i m a l s would be 100 - 200 t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n i n t h i s s t u d y ,

e x p l o r a t o r y behaviour may be modified, and t h e r e p e l l i n g e f f e c t

of u l t r a s o u n d p o s s i b l y g r e a t e r . The behaviour of mice d e p r i v e d
of food and w a t e r may be s i m i l a r t o t h a t observed i n t h e l a b o r a -
tory, C e r t a i n l y t h e smooth g l a s s walls o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
a p p a r a t u s r e s u l t e d i n g r e a t e r r e f l e c t i o n o f u l t r a s o u n d and pos-
s i b l e d i f f i c u l t y f o r a n i m a l s i n l o c a l i z i n g t h e sound s o u r c e .
T h i s c o n f u s i o n c o u l d have l e d t o l o n g e r exposures t o t h e u l t r a -
sound t h a n would o c c u r i n a f i e l d s i t u a t i o n .
The w h i s t l e was most e f f e c t i v e when t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f
d e a f e n i n g o r h a b i t u a t i n g t o t h e u l t r a s o u n d were low, i. e. when
a n i m a l s were exposed t o u l t r a s o u n d f o r b r i e f p e r i o d s . Where
a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s of food a r e a v a i l a b l e , such as b a i t s t a t i o n s
i n sound f r e e a r e a s , mice i n e s t a b l i s h e d c o l o n i e s s h o u l d be
s u s c e p t i b l e t o management.
 CHAPTER I1 -
F i e l d Tests of an 1Jltrasonic Whistle

INTRODUCTION

The environment of f r z e - l i v i n g a n i m a l s , i n comparison t o

t h e i r l a b o r a t o r y c o u n t e r p a r t s , must be c o n s i d e r e d a s b e i n g
r i c h e r i n t e r m s o f amount and v a r i e t y of s t i m u l i i m p i n g i n g on
individuals. Responses from a n i m a l s i n a l a b o r a t o r y s e t t i n g may
be of a d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e o r i n t e n s i t y from t h o s e o f t h e i r w i l d
counterparts. Further, responses t o a uniform stimulus pre-
s e n t e d i n d i f f e r e n t n a t u r a l s e t t i n g ~may v a r y i n ways r e l a t e d
t o t h e i n t r i n s i c d i f f e r e n c e between t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s .
Marsh -
et -
a l . (1962) r e p o r t e d t h e f a i l u r e o f u l t r a s o u n d a t
15 - 16 kHz and 90 db t o d i s p e r s e c o l o n i e s i n f e s t i n g g r a i n
elevators. K e l i h (1963) r e d u c e d a c t i v i t y i n t h e s o n i c f i e l d
o f a n e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e (18 k1Iz a n d 100 db a t 1 f t . ) i n g r a i n
e l e v a t o r s but could not d i s p e r s e t h e colony. Burger ( 1 9 6 7 )
r e p o r t e d only m i l d a v e r s i o n towards a n a i r d r i v e n w h i s t l e ( 1 8
kHz a n d 100 db a t 1 f t . ) , a g a i n i n g r a i n e l e v a t o r s . These
t h r e e s t u d i e s employed r e l a t i v e l y low f r e q u e n c y a n d low i n t e n s i t y
d e v i c e s i n environments w i t h a high ambient n o i s e l e v e l .
1t would be e x p e c t e d t h a t b o t h t h e number a n d i n t e n s i t y
o f rer,ponses t o s t i m u l i t h a t e l i c i t e s c a p e s h o u l d be r e l a t e d t o
p r e d a t i o n p r e s s u r e o r s t a b i l i t y of t h e h a b i t a t . The r e p e l l e n t
e f f e c t o f h i g h i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d s h o u l d be g r e a t e r i n b o t h
f i e l d s i t u a t i o n s a s compared t o l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s .
 The p r e s e n t s t u d y r e p o r t s on t h e r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s o f high
i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d on two f r e e - l i v i n g c o l o n i e s o f R a t t u s
norvegicus. I n one t e s t s i t u a t i o n , changes i n f e e d i n g and
locornotory a c t i v i t y were measured and i n t h e o t h e r s i t u a t i o n ,
changes i n a l l a c t i v i t y o u t s i d e t h e burrows was i n d i r e c t l y
measured.
A number of u l t r a s o n i c d e v i c 5 s have been produced a s

r o d e n t r e p e l l e n t s , but l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n e x i s t s on p o s s i b l e
e f f e c t s on n o n - t a r g e t organisms, E f f e c t s of h i g h i n t e n s i t y
u l t r a s o u n d on t h e growth and g e n e r a l behaviour of domestic
c h i c k e n s and a domestic p i g a r e r e p o r t e d h e r e .
1. R e p e l l e n t E f f e c t s o f High I n t e n s i t y Ultrasound on R a t s
i n a Warehouse

0b.i ec t i v e
The purpose of t h e s t u d y was t o measure changes i n a c t i v i t y
and f e e d i n g i n r e s p o n s e t o u l t r a s o u n d o f a colony o f w i l d R.
-
n o r v e g i c u s f e e d i n g , b u t not n e s t i n g , i n a small warehouse.

T e s t S i t e and Methods:
A small warehouse, a c t u a l l y t h e lower f l o o r o f a c o r n e r

grocery s t o r e , served a s t h e f i r s t t e s t s i t e . A small colony

of -
R . n o r v e g i c u s , n e s t i n g o u t s i d e t h e b u i l d i n g i n nearby second

growth and d e b r i s , had a c c e s s t o t h e b u i l d i n g through a t l e a s t

two openings i n t h e e x t e r i o r w a l l s . R a t s e n t e r e d t h e lower f l o o r
a f t e r d a r k i n t h e evening and f e d on food s t u f f s s t o r e d on i s l a n d s
of s h e l v i n g i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e one l a r g e room 9.5 m x 1 0 . 5 m.
The s i z e and movements of t h e colony were measured by
c o u n t i n g droppings and o b s e r v i n g t r a c k s a c r o s s powder s p r e a d

on t h e f l o o r . A q u a l i t a t i v e measure of a c t i v i t y was a c h i e v e d

by a s s i g n i n g v a l u e s t o t h e d e n s i t y of t r a c k s i n t h e powder l a i d

down d a i l y . These c a t e g o r i e s were:

s i n g l e s e t of t r a c k s a c r o s s powder
+
s e v e r a l s e t s of d i s t i n c t t r a c k s
++
+*+t r a c k s over o t h e r s
**++powder completely swept away.
T h i s method a l l o w e d a d i r e c t comparison between movements o f t h e
o r i g i n a l and r e s i d u a l p o p u l a t i o n , a more i m p o r t a n t measure t h a n
a n e s t i m a t e of a b s o l u t e d e n s i t y ( ~ h i t t yand S h o r t e n 1946).
 A f t e r one week o f m o n i t o r i n g a c t i v i t y , t h r e e u l t r a s o n i c
w h i s t l e s ( d e s c r i b e d i n G e n e r a l ~ e t h o d s )were p l a c e d i n t h e room
( ~ i g .1 5 ) s o a s t o d i r e c t a sound f i e l d a r o u n d t h e c e n t r a l
i s l a n d s o f s h e l v e s and t h e back w a l l , a n a r e a c o v e r e d w i t h d e b r i s .
Sound l e v e l s w i t h i n two met,?rs o f t h e i s l a n d s d i d n o t f a l l below
120 db a n d d i d n o t f a l l below 95 db anywhere i n t h e room. With
t h e w h i s t l e s s i l e n t , ambient l e v e l s v a r i e d between 75 a n d 85 db.
For f o u r weeks, i n c l u d i n g p s r i o d s when t h e w h i s t l e s were b o t h

o p e r a t i n g and s i l e n t , a c t i v i t y o f t h e r a t s was m o n i t o r e d d a i l y
i n t h e five areas indicated i n the floor plan,
Week 1 - Whistle o f f
Week 2 - Whistle on 8 pm t o 8 am
Week 3 - Days 1 - 3: Whistle off
Days 4 - 7: Whistle on 8 pm t o 8 a m
Weeks 4 , 5 - Days 1 - 3: Whistle on 8 pm t o 8 a m
Days 4 - 7: Whistle off. '

2. R e p e l l e n t E f f e c t s of High I n t e n s i t y U l t r a s o u n d on Rats
i n a Chicken Barn

Objective

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o measure c h a n g e s i n a c t i v i t y

i n r e s p o n s e t o u l t r a s o u n d of a c o l o n y of w i l d -
R. norvegicus feed-

i n 6 and n e s t i n g i n a l a r g e c h i c k e n barn.

T e s t S i t e and Methods:
A small c o l o n y o f -
R. n o r v q i c u s burrowing, n e s t i n g a n d
f e e d i n g i n t h e t e s t a r e a s e r v e d a s s u b j e c t s t o measure t h e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of h i g h i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d i n e x t i r p a t i n g r o d e n t s .
F i g u r e 15
F l o o r p l a n of basement of Highway Mark&
Area 1 - Food s t o r a g e s h e l v e s
Area 2 - Floor beneath food s t o r a g e s h e l v e s
Area 3 - Entrance t o crawlspace
Area 4 - Rear e n t r a n c e ( h o l e i n wal-1)
Area 5 - Periphery of room
= entrance f o r r a t s

= whistle
 T h i s colony was l i v i n g i n t h e c o n c r e t e l i n e d p i t beneath t h e

l a t h i n g f l o o r of a c h i c k e n barn 7.47 m x 60.03 m ( ~ i 1~6 )..

The p i t was 1 . 5 m deep, and was f i l l e d w i t h wood s h a v i n g s and
d r o p p i n g s t o a depth of 0 . 5 m, The s t e a d y b u i l d u p o f c h i c k e n

d r o p p i n g s and r i c h supply of s p i l l e d c h i c k e n f e e d , broken eggs

and droppings themselves p r e c l u d e d a n a c c u r a t e measurement of
p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and movement employing c o n v e n t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s
such as t r a c k i n g powder, c e n s u s b a i t i n g and t r a p p i n g . However,
w i t h t h e c o n t i n u a l r a i n of droppings from 5,000 hens, o n l y a c t i v e
burrows remained open f o r morz t h a n a day. A d a i l y count of
open burrow e n t r a n c e s t h u s o f f e r e d a r e l a t i v e measure o f a c t i -
v i t y , and t h i s t e c h n i q u e was m p l o y e d throughout t h e s t u d y .
T r a c k i n g powder was used t o d e t e c t movements of r a t s from t h e
b a r n a t t h e s i n g l e p o i n t a c c e s s i b l e t o them,
A f t e r one week of o b s e r v a t i o n , t h r e e u l t r a s o n i c w h i s t l e s
( described i n General ~ e t h o d s )were p l a c e d beneath t h e l a t h i n g
f l o o r of t h e b a r n so a s t o d i r e c t a d i f f u s e d u n o b s t r u c t e d sound
f i e l d o v e r t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e n t i r e p i t , except a s o t h e r w i s e
indicated. For f o u r weeks, i n c l u d i n g p e r i o d s when some o r a l l
of t h e w h i s t l e s were o p e r a t i n g o r s i l e n t , t h e number of open
burrow e n t r a n c e s i n a l l a r e a s and s i g n s of r a t s l e a v i n g t h e b a r n
were monitored d a i l y . F i v e evening o b s e r v a t i o n s were made i n
Weeks 1, 2 and 3 w i t h a n i n f r a - r e d S n 0 0 p e r ~ ~ 0 pt eo o b s e r v e r a t

a c t i v i t y above t h e l a t h i n g *
F i g u r e 16
A. Floor p l a n of hen house
ed p r e p a r a t i o n a r e a . R a t s d i d n o t have a c c e s s
this a r e a .
Automatic U-shaped chain d r i v e n f e e d e r r a n t h e f u l l

-
l e n g t h of barn and was suspended from t h e c e i l i n g .
S i x automatic w a t e r i n g t r o u g h s
= Exit for r a t s

= Whistle
B. Cross s e c t i o n of p i t
a. Lathing f l o o r
b. Wood shavings and chicken droppings.
= a c t i v e burrow e n t r a n c e s a t t h e s t a r t of t h e experiment
t

= a c t i v e burrow e n t r a n c e s a t t h e end of t h e experiment*

AREA I
 Schedule of W h i s t l e Operation.
Week Area 1 Area 2 Area 3
1 off off off
2 on on on ( 8 am - 8 pm)
3 off on on
4 on off off

I
5 Dayl-
5 Day 5 - 7 4j on
off
on
off
on
off

3, E f f e c t s o f High I n t e n s i t y Ultrasound on Chick Growth and

Behaviour

Ob J e c t i v e
The purpose of t h i s s t u d y was t o measure t h e e f f e c t o f
u l t r a s o u n d on t h e growth and development o f domestic c h i c k s .

Methods and M a t e r i a l s :
s i x , day-old Paymaster r o o s t e r c h i c k s , G a l l u s domesticus,
s e r v e d a s s u b j e c t s i n t h i s experiment. Experimental and c o n t r o l
groups of t h r e e were r a i s e d s e p a r a t e l y i n 3 m x 3 m rooms main-
t a i n e d a t 20•‹ C + 2O and i l l u m i n a t e d from 0800 h o u r s t o 2000
hours. The e x p e r i m e n t a l group of r o o s t e r c h i c k s were exposed
t o 20 HZ of u l t r a s o u n d a t 120 db SPL a t 1 m f o r a p e r i o d o f
f i v e weeks from 2000 h o u r s t o 0800 h o u r s . The c o n t r o l group
was exposed t o n o i s e from t h e compressor of 82 db, 4 db o v e r t h e
ambient l e v e l , f o r a similar p e r i o d . Experimental and c o n t r o l
regimes were t h e n r e v e r s e d f o r a f u r t h e r two week p e r i o d .
4. E f f e c t s of High I n t e n s i t y Ultrasound on t h e Growth o f a P i g

Objective
The e f f e c t s o f h i g h i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d on t h e growth o f
a domestic p i g were measured i n t h i s s t u d y .

Methods and M a t e r i a l s :
The r a t e of growth f o r a newly weaned 2 month o l d Langcaster-
shire piglet, -
Sus s c r u f a , was e s t a b l i s h e d i n a t h r e e week p e r i o d .
The a n i m a l was housed i n a 5 m x 3 m room w i t h n a t u r a l l i g h t i n g .
The p i g l e t was t h e n exposed t o u l t r a s o u n d o f 20 kHz a t 130 db
a t 3 f t from 2000 h o u r s t o 0800 h o u r s u n t i l t h e experiment was
terminated. Ambient sound l e v e l s d u r i n g t h e day were a p p r o x i -
mately 72 db.
 Results

From s u r v e y i n g t h e amount o f food t a k e n , t h e d e n s i t y o f

t r a c k s i n t h e powder, and t h e number of burrows n e a r t h e b u i l d -
i n g , t h e colony was e s t i m a t e d t o c o n s i s t o f between e i g h t and
twelve a d u l t r a t s . A c t i v i t y was g r e a t e s t a f t e r 2300 hours ( t h e
s t o r e c l o s i n g h o u r ) , and w h i l e n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o any one a r e a
of t h e room ( ~ i g .l 7 ) , was g r z a t e s t i n t h e a r e a s n e a r t h e
e n t r a n c e s and t h e food s t o r a g e s h e l v e s . A s i s common w i t h r a t s ,

movement was g r e a t e s t n e a r v e r t i c a l s u r f a c e s and s o u r c e s of

cover. From t h e beginning of t h e t e s t p e r i o d , f e e d i n g , which
g e n e r a l l y accomy;anied a c t i v i t y i n Area 1, was i n h i b i t e d f o r two
weeks, i n c l u d i n g a t h r e e day p z r i o d when t h e w h i s t l e was
switched o f f . Rats were a c t i v e n e a r t h e e n t r a n c e s t o t h e room
a f t e r o n l y a week of t h e w h i s t l e ' s o p e r a t i o n . Activity gradually
i n c r e a s e d t o t h a t l e v e l observed p r i o r t o t h e o n s e t o f t h e
w h i s t l e ' s operation.

The colony was e s t i m a t e d , on t h e b a s i s of t h e number of bur-

row e n t r a n c e s ( ~ a l h o u n1 9 6 2 ) , t o c o n s i s t of t e n t o t w e l v e weaned
rats. A c t i v i t y was most probably r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e evening
h o u r s , and from Snooperscope o b s e r v a t i o n s , was r e s t r i c t e d t o
t h e p i t below t h e f l o o r i n g , a l t h o u g h s e v e r a l broken l a t h e s
c o u l d have allowed a c c e s s t o t h e main f l o o r . Food r e q u i r e m e n t s
c o u l d be met w i t h o u t l e a v i n g t h e p i t . The d r o p p i n g s and b r o k e n
F i g u r e 17
E f f e c t s of u l t r a s o u n d on a c t i v i t y o f t h e r a t s i n a warehouse a s
measured by t h e d e n s i t y o f t r a c k s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s :
1. Food s t o r a g e s h e l v e s
2. F l o o r beneath food s t o r a g e s h e l v e s
3. Entrance t o crawlspace
4. Rear e n t r a n c e ( h o l e i n wall)
5. P e r i p h e r y of room.

mwmmmm = p e r i o d s when t h e u l t r a s o n i c w h i s t l e was o p e r a t i n g

eggs may have s u p p l i e d s u f f i c i e n t w a t e r . R a t s were n o t
observed d r i n k i n g from t h e w a t e r t r o u g h s above t h e f l o o r .
A t t h e beginning o f t h e t e s t p e r i o d , one of t h e two burrow

systems was c e n t e r e d i n a s m a l l a r e a a t t h e t o p of t h e barn i n

Area 1. The second burrow system was more d i f f u s e , and s p r e a d
i n a l i n e under t h e a u t o m a t i c f e e d e r i n Area 2. From Table 7,
it i s c l e a r t h a t o v e r a l l a c t i v i t y , a s measured by t h e number
of open burrows, was g r e a t l y reduced i n t h e f i r s t week of t h e
w h i s t l e ' s o p e r a t i o n , and a c t i v i t y i n Area 2 was reduced t o t h e
same l e v e l f o r a second week, The r a t s i n t h i s burrow system
probably d i s p e r s e d i n t o Area 3 i n t h e t h i r d week of t h e w h i s t l e ' s
operation. From t h e t r a c k i n g powder t h e r e was no e v i d e n c e t h a t
any animal l e f t t h e barn.

There was no d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a t e o f growth o f c h i c k s

i n t h e two groups ( ~ i g .18). S o c i a l behaviour was n o t
o b v i o u s l y d i f f e r e n t between t h e two groups, e i t h e r i n t h e f i r s t
o r i n t h e second phase of t h e experiment. The r e d u c t i o n i n t h e
r a t e of growth i n both groups r e s u l t s from a change i n f e e d .

4.
~ l t h o u g hh i g h i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d a p p e a r e d n o t t o a f f e c t
t h e weight g a i n o f t h e p i g ( ~ i g .1 9 ) , t h e w h i s t l e was switched
o f f a f t e r one week. The a n i m a l showed extreme i r r i t a b i l i t y t o
n o i s e s , approach by e x p e r i m m t e r s , and sudden movements. Also,
 TABLE rf 86.
E f f e c t s of Ultrasound on t h e Number o f A c t i v e Burrows i n
t h e Chicken Barn

A C T I V E BURROWS
TOTAL
Area Area Area
Day #1 #2 #3

J a n . 11 1
1972 2

Note: t h e burrows i n Area 2 from day 23 on were w i t h i n a

a m e t e r of Area 3

i = Ultrasound on a t t h i s time i n t h i s a r e a
F i g u r e 18
Growth r a t e of r o o s t e r c h i c k s i n t h e u l t r a s o u n d f i e l d . Three
c h i c k s were exposed t o 19 - 20 kHz a t 120 db t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e

n o i s e of t h e compressor d r i v i n g t h e w h i s t l e ; t h r e e c h i c k s were
exposed t o low frequency n o i s e (82 db) from t h e compressor a l o n e .
.
0 0 0 chicks i n ultrasound

c h i c k s i n compressor n o i s e

v f e e d was changed f o r both g r o u p s

u' c o n t r o l and e x p e r i m e n t a l regimes were r e v e r s e d , i e -

c h i c k s p r e v i o u s l y i n u l t r a s o u n d were exposed t o
m n p r e s s o r n o i s e and c h i c k s i n compressor n o i s e were
exposed t o u l t r a s o u n d .
F i g u r e 19
Growth of a domestic p i g l e t i n a n u l t r a s o u n d f i e l d . From t h e
23rd t o t h e 3 3 r d day of t h e study' t h n p i g l e t was exposed t o u l t r a -
sound of 19 - 20 a t 130 db between 2000 hours t o 0800 h o u r s .

v p i g l e t was 2 months o l d a t t h e beginning of t h e s t u d y

v
v p i g l e t was dewormed

work was done on t h e pen housing t h e animal

i m I I ~ ~ ~ u l t r a s o u n d was on
i n t h e l a s t t h r e e days o f t h e w h i s t l e ' s o p e r a t i o n and f o r
s e v e r a l days f o l l o w i n g , t h e p i g 1 s food consumption was reduced
by a t h i r d ,
 Discussion

The r a t s were f r e q u e n t i n g t h e warehouse presumably a s a

r e s u l t o f a t t r a c t i o n t o t h e s t o r e d f o o d s t u f f s whereas t h e c h i c k e n
b a r n c o n s t i t u t e d a complete home r a n g e f o r t h e colony l i v i n g i n
it. The g r e a t e r s u c c e s s i n r e s t r i c t i n g a c t i v i t y i n t h e ware-
house probably r e f l e c t s t h e n a t u r a l p r o c l i v i t y of r a t s t o main-
t a i n a r a t h e r small, w e l l - d e f i n e d home r a n g e which t h e y a r e
r e l u c t a n t t o leave. --
Indeed, Davis e t a l . ( 1 9 4 8 ) , Calhoun (1962)
--
a n d Emlen st a l . (1949) r e p o r t extremely low l e v e l s o f m i g r a t i o n
from a r e a s where t h e h a b i t a t s were d e s t r o y e d . --
Nass e t a l . (1971)
r e p o r t similar f i n d i n g s f o r R a t t u s r a t t u s d u r i n g s u g a r c a n e
harvesting operations.
Although l e v e l s of a c t i v i t y i n t h e c h i c k e n b a r n a s a r e s u l t
of t h e w h i s t l e t s o p e r a t i o n were reduced f o r comparable p e r i o d s
o f time, t h i s r e d u c t i o n was n o t t o t h e same d e g r e e a s i n t h e ware-
house, and p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t s a n i n t r i n s i c d i f f e r e n c e between t h e
t w o t e s t s i t u a t i o n s and c o l o n i e s . I n both c a s e s , f e e d i n g i n
t h e u l t r a s o n i c f i e l d was r e s t r i c t e d , but n e s t i n g i n t h e c h i c k e n
barn was a f f e c t e d l i t t l e .
In t h e warehouse, t h e l e v e l s of u l t r a s o u n d were h i g h e r
n e a r t h e food s t o r a g e s h e l v e s t h a n n e a r e i t h e r o f t h e e n t r a n c e s .
These h i g h e r l e v e l s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e open f l o o r s p a c e around
t h e s h e l v e s , account f o r a c t i v i t y b e i n g r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e
e n t r a n c e s i n t h e second week of t h e w h i s t l e t s o p e r a t i o n .
A l t e r n a t i v e food s o u r c e s f o r t h e colony were n o t obvious and
hunger may have been a s t r o n g f a c t o r in t h e h a b i t u a t i o n o f t h e
a n i m a l s t o t h e sound.
A s measured by t h e number of open burrow e n t r a n c e s i n t h e
c h i c k e n barn, t h e w h i s t l e had a s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t i n t h e f i r s t
week o f o p e r a t i o n . T h i s e f f e c t slowly l e s s e n e d over t h e f o l -
lowing two weeks. The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a new burrow system i n
Area 3 a p p e a r e d t o be a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f t h e w h i s t l e ' s o p e r a t i o n .
A burrow system i s never s t a t i c , b u t complete abandonment, a s
o b s e r v e d i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , must be t h e r e s u l t of c o n s i d e r a b l e
pressure,
Ultrasound, independent of o t h e r c o n t r o l measures, o f f e r s
e x c e l l e n t s h o r t t e r m c o n t r o l , b u t i t s e f f e c t s wane a s a f u n c t i o n
o f b o t h t i m e and t y p e of behaviour i n v o l v e d , e. g. f e e d i n g vs.
nesting. The r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o perma-
n e n t l y d i s p e r s e a n e s t a b l i s h e d colony. It i s o f s m a l l v a l u e a s
a l o n g t e r m s i n g l e form of c o n t r o l . The p o t e n t i a l o f u l t r a s o u n d
i n p r o t e c t i n g u n i n h a b i t e d environments from i n f e s t a t i o n remains
t o be e x p l o r e d . Also, u l t r a s o u n d Could be o f c o n s i d e r a b l e v a l u e
i n i n t e g r a t e d c o n t r o l programs, e s p e c i a l l y i n s i t u a t i o n s where
p o i s o n o r t r a p p i n g a l o n e a r e n o t f e a s i b l e , e.g. s t o r e d food
infestations. I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a p r e b a i t i n g program i n a

convenient, sound-free a r e a , u l t r a s o u n d c o u l d be a v a l u a b l e
c o n t r o l measure.
The h e a r i n g o f b i r d s t e n d s t o be a t t u n e d t o a r a t h e r
narrow range of f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e middle o f t h e human a u d i b l e
r a n g e ( ~ c h w a ~ t z k o p f f1,9 5 5 ) . The h e n ' s h e a r i n g i s most s e n s i t i v e
t o sounds i n t h e r a n g e o f 3 kHz, which c o r r e s p o n d s w e l l w i t h t h e
c h i c k f s c r i e s o f anguish ( s i c . ) ( ~ u s n z l1963). The upper l i m i t s
o f t h e c h i c k e n ' s h e a r i n g does n o t exceed 20 kHz and t h e i r i n -
a b i l i t y t o hear t h e w h i s t l e would a p p e a r t o account f o r i t s l a c k
o f e f f e c t on t h e i r growth and development.
Exposure over s e v e r a l weeks t o i n t e r m i t t e n t a i r c r a f t n o i s e
of f r e q u e n c i e s r a n g i n g from 200 t o 4500 Hz a t 104 t o 120 db had

-
no e f f e c t on r a t e of g a i n of domestic p i g s , Sus s c r u f a , a l t h o u g h
t h e a n i m a l s never completely h a b i t u a t e d and showed some i n i t i a l
a l a r m a t t h e o n s e t of t h e n o i s e ( ~ o n d1970). Continuous w h i t a
n o i s e (composed of a broad spectrum o f f r e q u e n c i e s ) a t 93 db
o v e r s e v e r a l days caused a l d o s t e r o n i s m and s e v e r e r e t e n t i o n of

--
w a t e r and sodium i n young p i g s ( ~ u g a r de t a l . 1 9 6 0 ) . The g r u n t -
i n g sounds of t h e domestic p i g a r e i n t h e range o f 250 Hz t o 320
Hz and t h e i r screams of d i s t r e s s and p a i n do n o t exceed 1.5 M z
( ~ u s n e l1 9 6 3 ) , but from t h e r e s u l t s of t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , t h e
p i g ' s h e a r i n g must exceed 20 H z . Sensitivity t o ultrasound
would p r e c l u d e i t s u s e i n c o n t r o l programs n e a r t h e s e a n i m a l s .
 GENEIUT, C O N C L U S I O N S

J u v e n i l e r a t s emit u l t r a s o n i c v o c a l i z a t i o n s i n r e s p o n s e t o
intensz stimulation. T h e s e c r i e s a r e s i m i l a r t o c r i e s t h a t have

p r e v i o u s l y been i n t e r p r e t e d a s i n h i b i t i n g a g g r e s s i o n o r p e r h a p s
contact, The p r e c i s e comrnunicalive v a l u e remains t o be found.
P o s s i b l y t h e s e o r s i m i l a r c a l l s c o u l d b2 e x p l - o i t e d i n c o n t r o l
programs. I have shown t h e conmunicative v a l u e of t h e u l t r a s o n i c

c r i e s of i s o l a t e d mouse pups. Kccordings of t h z s e c r i e s w i l l

a t t r a c t l a c t a t i n g females o v e r s h o r t d i s t a n c e s . Deafened mice
do n o t l e a v e t h e n e s t t o r e t r i e v e pups and a r e probably more
a g g r e s s i v e towards t h e i r young a s w e l l a s c o n s p e c i f i c s . Deaf-
e n i n g should be i n v e s t i g a t e d a s a c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e .
High i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d , such a s t h a t produced by t h e
w h i s t l e used i n t h i s s t u d y , would n o t be p r a c t i c a l a s a d e a f e n i n g
a g e n t f o r r a t s a s r e l a t i v e l y l o n g exposure t i m e s a r e n e c e s s a r y .
The u l t r a s o u n d may i n t e r f e r e w i t h p e r c e p t i o n o f i n t r a - s p e c i f i c
a u d i t o r y s i g n a l s and c e r t a i n t l y must reduce t h e r a t t s echo-
locating a b i l i t i e s .
The r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s of h i g h i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d a r e
moderate under l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s . R e p u l s i o n i s g r e a t e r when
r a t s o r mice a r e g i v e n a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s o f food and w a t e r i n
sound-free a r e a s . Mice a r e more a c t i v e when d e p r i v e d of food and
w a t e r o r when g i v e n a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p l o r e a novel a r e a .
Although t h e r e p e l l e n t e f f e c t s of t h e w h i s t l e were s l i g h t i n
t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s , h e a r i n g l o s s was i n v o l v e d and t h e a n i m a l s may
n o t have p e r c e i v e d t h e u l t r a s o u n d a s being s t r e s s f u l .
 F r e e - l i v i n g animals were r e p e l l e d f o r longer p e r i o d s t h a n
r a t s i n the laboratory. However, a s with l a b o r a t o r y f i n d i n g s ,
degree of r e p u l s i o n was r e l a t e d t o i n t e r n a l s t a t e s of t h e animals.
Feeding behaviour was more s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d t h a n n e s t i n g . The
r a t s e v e n t u a l l y responded l e s s t o t h e u l t r a s o u n d i n both f i e l d
tests. The l o s s of response i n l a b o r a t o r y o r f i e l d s i t u a t i o n s
could be produced by a v a r i e t y of l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s , t h e
s i m p l e s t o f - t h e s e being h a b i t u a t i o n o r l o s s of response t o
s t i m u l i t h a t a r e n o t a s s o c i a t e d with "reward o r punishment1'

( ~ . 2 8 ) . Conditioning may a l s o occur, and c l a s s i c a l l y t h i s would

involve t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of t h e noxious s t i m u l u s with o t h e r
"harmless1' s t i m u l i such a s t h e appearance of t h e experimental
cage o r equipment. ( t y p e I c o n d i t i o n i n g , Thorpe 196) p. 79)
In t h e absence of s p e c i f i c experiments t o d i s c r i m i n a t e between
t h e s e two l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s , I have used t h e term h a b i t u a t i o n .
I

H a b i t u a t i o n occurs l e s s r a p i d l y when a sound s t i m u l u s i s

a s s o c i a t e d with p h y s i o l o g i c a l damage (Galambos 1956). However,
a f t e r c h r o n i c exposure t o h i g h i n t e n s i t y u l t r a s o u n d , both
p e r c e p t i o n of t h e sound and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t f u r t h e r
p h y s i o l o g i c a l damage could occur must be reduced. The r e p e l l e n t
e f f e c t s of t h e sound could be made more p e r s i s t e n t through
simultaneous s t i m u l a t i o n of a n o t h e r sensory modality ( e . g. v i s i o n ) .
E r a d i c a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n r e p u l s i o n , would be p o s s i b l e 'with a
program i n t e g r a t i n g u l t r a s o u n d w i t h p r e - b a i t i n g and poison-
b a i t i n g i n sound-free a r e a s . This technique should be of value
i n s i t u a t i o n s such a s s t o r e d food i n f e s t a t i o n s when poisoning
and t r a p p i n g a r e e i t h e r impossible o r u n d e s i r a b l e ,
APPENDIX I: b

BASIC STATISTICS FROM EXPERIMEST 5: WNS 2 STANDARD ERROR

T o t a l Time i n V i s i t s per ~ e n g t hof Average Amount Average Amount V i s i t s per V i s i t s per V i s i t s per Total
Experimental Hour t o Visits to o f Time p e r of Time p e r Hour f o r Hour f o r Hour f o r Hours
Day Cage Experimental Experimental Hour i n Sound V f s i t i n Sound Food Water Neither Observed
5 o f Observation Area Area ( sec. ) F i e l d (see. ) F i e l d ( sec. )
Period
APPENDIX I: c
BASIC STATISTICS FROM EXPERIMENT 6: MEANS STANDARD ERROR
+-
T o t a l Time i n Average Amount Average Amount Total
Experimental o f Time p e r of Time p e r Hours
Day Cage Hour i n Sound V i s i t i n Sound Observed
$ of Observation Field (sec.) Field (sec. )
Period (N)
 ..............................
I n~\ !c)on \OfN) N
Lnd~r(~n~n~i~o(~ - ?~ n n N o \ c o N ; r L n m c o a o
NCU~\C\1(\irlrlp\l~\r-irlNOriI'\Nd~O(UddOOrlC(OOOOd

-k 1-1- I I- t i - 1-1. I{ I I-t i I t - It-I b 1 4 . I I 1.1- I+ I t 1-1. I - tI-kI .+-I+

14- 1.1- I$ I+ 1.11 4 - I-C1-1- 14- I
.............................
.n* o o \ r c \ q t - o o & ~ r - n t - t - ~ u ~ m n ~ r l ~ usnt -m
do~n~3
-+riri d rid
- I + I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I+ I

..............................
co o n n m m n m ~ ~ n ~ c n ~ n n o ~ ~ ~ m m n m ~ n co o ~ ~ m c
n n C O d ~ c O f ~ m L n ~ OC OU O 0b b \ 9 C O ~ n d C O O b C O C O \ 9 CU
CU ( U d C U d I - I d r l ddrid rid d
APPENDIX 111.
REPELUNT EFFECTS OF SIGH INTENSITY ULTRASOUh?) ON MOUSE ACTIVITY, S1GP:IFICAiiCE
WAS DETERXIXED THROUGH A OEE NAY ANALYSIS 0 7 VAqIAPtCE ( P = 0 . 0 5 )

F VALUES by hour = not s i g n i f i c a n t

1 2 3 4 5
VARIABLES --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- degrees of
~ o v e n e n t s movements movscents novements novements freedom

i. FOOD AND YATEEI:

a. i n control area
b. i n both a r e a s
C. i n exptl. area
d. i n neither area
ii. DEP4IVATION ( 2 4 h r s . )
FOLLOXED BY FOOD AND
IfATE8
a . in c o n t r o l a r e a
b. in e x p t l . a r e a
c. i n n e i t h e r a r e a
iii. OPPCRTE3ITY TO EX-
PLORE EXPTL. AFlEA
WITH FOOD ArjD WATER
a. in both a r e a s
b. in e x p t l . a r e a
iv. OPPORTUNITY TO EX-
PLORE EXPTL. AREA
AFTER FOOD AND
WATER DZPRIVATION
( 24 h r s ) FOOD AND
.
WATER
a. i n exptl. area
I-'
0
I-'
 L i t e r a t u r e Cited

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 CURRICULUM VITAE

Name: Kenneth Donald Maclean

Born: Vancouver, B r i t i s h Columbia, November 22, 1947

Education: 1966 - 1970

B. Sc. 1970
Department o f B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s , Simon F r a s e r
U n i v e r s i t y , Burnaby, B r i t i s h Columbia, Canada
V5A 1S6

1969 - 1974
Graduate S t u d i e s
Department o f B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s , Simon F r a s e r
U n i v e r s i t y , Burnaby, B r i t i s h Columbia, Canada
V5A 1S6
Awards: 1967
F i r s t Class B r i t i s h Columbia Government S c h o l a r s h i p
1968
Upper Second C l a s s B r i t i s h Columbia Government
scholars hi^
1973
P r e s i d e n t ' s R e s e a r c h G r a n t , Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y

Experience: 1969 - 1 9 7 3
Teaching A s s i s t a n t
Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y
1970, 1971
Research A s s i s t a n t
Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y
1973 - 1974
Demonstrator
Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y