J Food Sci Technol

DOI 10.1007/s13197-014-1293-y

REVIEW

Flaxseed—a potential functional food source

Priyanka Kajla & Alka Sharma & Dev Raj Sood

Revised: 6 February 2014 / Accepted: 10 February 2014

# Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (India) 2014

Abstract There is currently much interest in phytochemicals ancient times. It has been cultivated for fiber as well as for
as bioactive molecules of food. Functional foods are an medicinal purposes and as nutritional product (Tolkachev and
emerging field in food science due to their increasing popu- Zhuchenko 2000). Currently, it is cultivated in more than 50
larity among health conscious consumers. Flaxseed is culti- countries, predominantly in the Northern hemisphere. Canada
vated in many parts of world for fiber, oil as well as for is the world’s largest producer and exporter of flaxseeds
medicinal purposes and also as nutritional product. In this (Oomah 2001). The important flaxseed growing countries
review, nutrients, anti-nutrients, functional properties, pro- include India, China, United States, and Ethiopia (Oomah
cessing, metabolism and health benefits of bioactive mole- and Mazza 1998; Singh et al. 2011a, b). India ranks first
cules viz., essential fatty acids, lignans and dietary fiber of among the leading flaxseed producing countries in terms of
flaxseed are discussed. acreage accounting 23.8 % of the total and third in production
contributing to 10.2 % of the world’s production (Singh et al.
Keywords Flaxseed . Functional properties . Nutritional 2011a, b). In India flaxseed is mainly cultivated in Madhya
quality . Processing . Alpha-linolenic acid . Dietary fiber . Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chattisgarh and Bihar. It is interesting
Lignans . Health benefits to know that flaxseed was native of India and was a staple
food crop. In India, flaxseed is still being consumed as food
and as well as for medicinal purposes (Shakir and
Madhusudan 2007). It enjoys a good status among oilseeds
Introduction because of its versatile uses. It has emerged as an attractive
nutritional food because of its exceptionally high content of
Flax (Linum usitassimum) belonging to family Lineaceae, is a alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), dietary fiber, high quality protein
blue flowering annual herb that produces small flat seeds and phytoestrogens. Flaxseeds contain about 55 % ALA, 28–
varying from golden yellow to reddish brown color. 30 % protein and 35 % fiber (Carter 1993; Rubilar et al. 2010;
Flaxseed possesses crispy texture and nutty taste (Morris Rabetafika et al. 2011). Flaxseed has been the focus of grow-
2007; Rubilar et al. 2010). Flaxseed is also known as linseed ing interest for the nutritionists and medical researchers due to
and these terms are used interchangeably. Flaxseed is often its potential health benefits associated with its biologically
used to describe flax when consumed by humans while lin- active components—ALA, lignan-Secoisolariciresinol
seed denotes when it is used specifically for industrial appli- diglycoside (SDG) and dietary fiber (Toure and Xueming
cations (Morris 2007). Almost all parts of linseed plant are 2010).
utilized for various purposes. Seed contains oil which after Flaxseed is establishing importance in the world’s food
refining is used for edible purpose (Singh et al. 2011a, b). The chain as a functional food. Functional food can be defined as
stem yields fiber of good quality possessing high strength and the food or food ingredients that may provide physiological
durability. Humans have been consuming flaxseed since benefits and helps in preventing and/or curing of diseases (Al-
Okbi 2005). Presently, flaxseed has new prospects as func-
P. Kajla : A. Sharma (*) : D. R. Sood
tional food because of consumer’s growing interest for food
Department of Food Technology, Guru Jambheshwar University of
Science & Technology, Hisar 125001, Haryana, India with superb health benefits. Owing to its excellent nutritional
e-mail: [email protected] profile and potential health benefits, it has become an
 J Food Sci Technol

attractive ingredient in the diets specially designed for specific growing environment, genetics and processing conditions
health benefits (Oomah 2001). ALA is one of the essential (Morris 2007). The lipid content of flaxseed varies from 37
polyunsaturated fatty acid and reported to exhibit anti- to 45 g/100 g of the seed as reported by various scientists
inflammatory, anti-thrombotic and anti-arrhythmic properties (Carter 1993; Payne 2000; Morris 2007). Cotyledons are the
(Simopoulos 1999). Nutritionists all over the world suggest major oil storage tissues, containing 75 % of the seed oil
incorporation of omega 3 fatty acid sources in the diet. (Rubilar et al. 2010; Singh et al. 2011a, b). Flaxseed oil
Flaxseed serves as the best omega 3 fatty acid source to the constitutes 98 % triacylglycerol, phospholipids and 0.1 % free
non-fish eaters. Edible flaxseed products include the whole fatty acids (Mueller et al. 2010). On an average it contains
flaxseed, ground meal and extracted oil or mucilage. These 21 % protein. Majority of the protein is concentrated in the
products have been proposed as nutritional additives in the cotyledons (Rabetafika et al. 2011). Major protein fractions
preparation of a number of dietary items such as baked cereal are globulin (26–58 %) and albumin (20–42 %). Nutritional
products, ready to eat cereals, fiber bars, salad toppings, meat value and amino acid profile of flaxseeds are comparable to
extenders, bread, muffins and spaghetti (Singh et al. 2011a, b). that of soya proteins (Madhusudan and Singh 1985; Oomah
Inspite of the multiple clinical evidences of flaxseeds, people and Mazza 1993). Flaxseed protein is rich in arginine, aspartic
are still unaware about its nutritional as well as therapeutic acid and glutamic acid, while lysine is limiting (Singh et al.
benefits. 2011a, b; Chung et al. 2005). High cysteine and methionine
contents improve the antioxidant levels, thus helps in reducing
risk of cancer (Oomah 2001). The processing conditions,
Nutritional composition dehusking and defatting affect the protein content. The
defatted and dehusked meals have high protein content
Among the functional foods, flaxseed has emerged as a po- (Oomah and Mazza 1997, 1998) Flaxseed proteins exhibit
tential functional food being good source of alpha-linolenic antifungal properties against Alternaria solani, Candida
acid, lignans, high quality protein, soluble fiber and phenolic albicans and Aspergillus flavus (Xu et al. 2008a, b).
compounds (Oomah 2001). The composition of flaxseed is Flaxseed is the richest source of phytoestrogens (lignans).
presented in Table 1 (Morris 2007; Gopalan et al. 2004; Payne The amount of secoisolariciresinol diglycoside (SDG) varies
2000). Chemical composition of flaxseed depends upon from 77 to 209 mg SDG/tbsp. of whole flaxseed (Morris
2007; Toure and Xueming 2010). Flaxseed contains very
Table 1 Nutritional composition of flaxseed low level of carbohydrates (1 g/100 g) and thus contributing
Nutrients Amount per 100 g of edible flaxseed very little to total carbohydrates intake (Morris 2007).
Flaxseeds contain a good amount of phenolic compounds.
Moisture (g) 6.5 These phenolic compounds are well known for anticancer and
Protein (N×6.25) (g) 20.3 anti-oxidative properties. Basically, flaxseeds have three dif-
Fat (g) 37.1 ferent types of phenolic compounds–phenolic acids, flavo-
Minerals (g) 2.4 noids and lignans. Major phenolic acids present in defatted
Crude fiber (g) 4.8 flaxseed are ferulic acid (10.9 mg/g), chlorogenic acid
Total dietary fiber (g) 24.5 (7.5 mg/g), gallic acid (2.8 mg/g). Other phenolic acids in-
Carbohydrates (g) 28.9 clude p-coumaric acid glucosides, hydroxycinnamic acid glu-
Energy (kcal) 530.0 cosides and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid that are present in low
Potassium 750.0 quantities (Beejmohun et al. 2007; Mazza 2008). Flavone C-
Calcium (mg) 170.0 and Flavone O-glycosides are the major flavonoids found in
Phosphorous (mg) 370.0 flaxseeds (Mazza 2008).
Iron (mg) 2.7 It serves as a good source of minerals especially, phospho-
Vitamin A (μg) 30.0 rous (650 mg/100 g), magnesium (350–431 mg/100 g), calci-
Vitamin E (mg) 0.6 um (236–250 mg/100 g) and has very low amount of sodium
Thiamine (B1) (mg) 0.23 (27 mg/100 g) (Morris 2007). It contains highest amount of
Riboflavin (B2) (mg) 0.07 potassium 5600–9200 mg/kg among various foods and high
Niacin (mg) 1.0 potassium intake is inversely related to blood platelet aggre-
Pyridoxine (mg) 0.61 gation, free radicals in blood and stroke incidence (Carter
Pantothenic acid 0.57 1993). Flaxseed contains small amounts of water-soluble
Biotin (μg) 0.6
and fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamin E is present as γ-
Folic acid (μg) 112
tocopherol, amounting to 39.5 mg/100 g. γ-tocopherol is an
antioxidant providing protection to cell proteins and fat from
Morris 2007; Gopalan et al. 2004; Payne 2000 oxidation; promotes sodium excretion in urine, which may
J Food Sci Technol

help in lowering of blood pressure and heart disease risks and Alpha-linolenic acid
Alzheimer disease (Morris et al. 2005; Morris 2007).
Alpha-linolenic acid is the main functional component of
flaxseed. It serves as an exclusive source of omega-3 fatty acid
in the vegetarian diets (Riediger et al. 2009). Flaxseed oil is
Anti-nutrients rich in polyunsaturated fatty acid (73 % of total fatty acid),
moderate in monounsaturated fat (18 %) and low amount of
Flaxseeds contain anti-nutrients that may have adverse influ- saturated fat (9 %) (Cunnane et al. 1993; Dubois et al. 2007). It
ence on the health and well-being of human population. is rich in both the essential fatty acids—alpha-linolenic acid
Cyanogenic glycosides are the major anti-nutrients and are (ALA), and linolenic acid (LA). Fatty acids are termed as
fractionated into linustatin (213–352 mg/100 g), neolinustatin essential because both they are required by the body but body
(91–203 mg/100 g), linmarin (32 mg/100 g). The content of cannot synthesize them, therefore need to be supplied in the
these three glycosides depend upon cultivar, location etc. diet. Human body lacks the enzymes which are required for the
(Oomah et al. 1992). Fiber type linseed has a higher percent- synthesis of these essential fatty acids (de Lorgeril et al. 2001).
age of glycosides than the seed type, and ripe seed contains
less glycoside than the immature seed. Whole flaxseed con-
Metabolism
tains 250–550 mg/100 g cyanogenic glycoside (Singh et al.
2011a, b). In the intestine, cyanogenic glycosides release
Omega-3 fatty acid is known as essential fatty acid because
hydrogen cyanide, a potent respiratory inhibitor, by intestinal
humans cannot introduce a double bond beyond the ninth
β-glycosidase that produces thiocyanates. Thiocyanates inter-
carbon from carboxyl end of fatty acid. The metabolism of
fere with iodine uptake by thyroid gland and long term expo-
essential fatty acids is depicted in Fig. 1. ALA serves as the
sure aggravates iodine-deficiency disorders, goiter and cretin-
precursor for the synthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids—
ism. Cyanogenic glycosides are heat labile and easily
EPA (Eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (Docosahexanoic
destroyed by processing methods namely autoclaving, micro-
wave roasting, pelleting and by certain detoxifying enzymes
such as β-glycosidases, releasing hydrogen cyanide which
can be evaporated by using steam (Cunnane et al. 1993;
Feng et al. 2003; Yamashita et al. 2007).
Phytic acid, another anti-nutrient present in flaxseed,
ranges from 23 to 33 g/kg of the flaxseed meal (Oomah
et al. 1996a, b). Phytic acid interferes with the absorption of
calcium, zinc, magnesium, copper and iron. It is a strong
chelator, forming protein and mineral-phytic acid complexes
and thus reducing their bioavailability (Erdman 1979; Akande
et al. 2010). Clinical studies reveal that flaxseed fed rats had
no effect on their Zn status (Ratnayake et al. 1992). Ganorkar
and Jain (2013) have also reviewed that flaxseed antinutrients
have lesser impact on human health as compared to that of
soyabean and canola. Linatine (antipyrodoxidine factor) has
been identified as a vitamin B6 antagonist in case of chicks.
While in humans, flaxseeds are not found to be associated
with vitamin B6 deficiency (Dieken 1992; Ratnayake et al.
1992). Trypsin inhibitors are also reported in flaxseed, though
activity is insignificant as compared to soybean and canola
seeds (Bhatty 1993).

Flaxseed as functional food

Flaxseed is considered as functional food owing to the pres-

ence of three main bioactive components—alpha-linolenic
acid, lignans and dietary fiber. Fig. 1 Flowchart for metabolism of essential fatty acids
 J Food Sci Technol

acid). During the transformation of ALA into EPA and DHA, Ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acid
a series of fatty acids belonging to n-3 PUFA family are also
synthesized via desaturation and elongation reactions in the Fatty acid profiles of various oilseeds are reported in Table 2.
presence of specific desaturases and elongases. Similarly, It is evident from the data that flaxseed contains highest
linolenic acid is also synthesized using similar enzymatic amount of linolenic acid followed by soybeans and mustard
reactions. It has been reported that the conversion of ALA to oil, while sunflower and safflower oils contain large amount
EPA and DHA is not very efficient in humans and animals and of linoleic acid which may leads to various diseases. Over the
there exist competition between both the fatty acids for the past 100 to 150 years, the consumption of vegetable oils from
same enzymes. Lower order animals are known to have such corn, sunflower seeds, safflower seeds, cottonseeds and soy-
enzymatic activities which are capable of converting n-6 fatty beans has greatly increased, which resulted in drastic imbal-
acid to n-3 fatty acids, while mammals lack such activities. ance of the essential fatty acids. Today, the ratio of omega-6 to
But recent research findings indicated that mice are the only omega-3 fatty acid is shifted to 20–30:1 in western diets and
mammals possessing the enzymes capable of converting n-6 the situation is even worse in case of Indian diets where this
fatty acid to n-3 fatty acid (Spychalla et al. 1997; Lunn and ratio attains a high value of 38–50:1 which reveals that more
Theobald 2006; Kang 2007). of omega-6 fatty acids are incorporated into the cell membrane
Long chain PUFAs, EPA and DHA are further metabolized (Simpolous 2004; Pella et al. 2003). Therefore, the cellular
by the enzymes cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase to eicosa- functions support more of the pro-inflammatory processes
noids, prostaglandins, leukotrienes. Among these eicosanoids, than anti-inflammatory processes. Simple dietary choices,
E2 series prostaglandins, leukotrienes B4 derived from linoleic which favour foods containing omega-3 fatty acids, can
acid are the key metabolites which are responsible for many ameliorate this imbalance. The recommended ratio of
inflammatory diseases like cardiovascular diseases and arthri- omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids may be in the range of 4:1
tis, while eicosanoids and E3 series prostaglandins derived to 10:1, and omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid intakes should
from linolenic acid have anti-inflammatory responses (James account for at least 3 and 0.5 % of total energy intake,
et al. 2000; Funk 2001; Barcelo-Coblijn and Murphy 2009; respectively (de Lorgeril et al. 2001; Tolkachev and
Kaur et al. 2012). Therefore, it is advised that human beings Zhuchenko 2000; WHO 2003). These variations in the ratio
should consume a diet that contains a balanced ratio of omega- of fatty acids may be considered as a deciding factor for the
3 and omega-6 essential fatty acids. The two groups of essen- development of therapeutic doses for prevention of colorectal
tial fatty acids compete with each other for placement within cancer, asthma and rheumatoid arthritis (Arend and Dayer
cell membranes. If the intercellular environment has a higher 1995).
proportion of one type of fatty acid as compared to the other, it
is likely that the predominant fatty acid will be incorporated Health benefits
into cell membrane, resulting in adverse effects in the fluidity
of the cell membrane affecting cellular functions and overall A large number of clinical studies have recognized the tre-
health of the cell. If there is an equal proportion of both the mendous potential of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids against
essential fatty acid in the intercellular environment, there is inflammatory mediators like prostaglandins E2, leukotriene
selective preference for omega-3 fatty acid. Both these fatty B4, TNF-α, interleukin, and cytokines. These clinical studies
acids have opposing, yet necessary, influences over physio- revealed that n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are helpful in
logical functions (Lunn and Theobald 2006; Kaur et al. 2012). prevention of coronary heart diseases, atherosclerosis, rheu-
EPA and DHA can be converted endogenously into matoid arthritis and asthma (Arend and Dayer 1995; Kremer
different metabolites known as resolvins, neuroprotectins 2000). Daily intake of 3 g EPA and DHA for more than
and protectins. The resolvins act as potent anti- 12 weeks was found to be effective in reducing the inflamma-
inflammatory mediator. In particular, they function to tion of rheumatoid arthritis (Kremer 2000). It has also been
limit the extent of inflammation by blocking the actions reported that the consumption of omega-3 dietary supple-
of prostanoids, and also by helping to clear site of ments lead to significant reduction of nonsteroidal anti-
inflammation from breakdown products of inflammatory inflammatory drugs (Arend and Dayer 1995). Flaxseed oil
process. Resolvins and protectins promote resolution in supplementation for about 4 weeks resulted in protecting the
oral, lung, kidney, skin, gastrointestinal and various other mice against Streptococcus pneumonia infection (Saini et al.
inflammations to maintain homeostasis by activating spe- 2010). Flaxseed and its oil reduces the growth of tumors at the
cific mechanisms. DHA is converted into neuroprotectins later stage of carcinogenesis; whereas, mammalian lignan
which exhibit neuroprotective effects (Simpolous 2011; precursor exert the greatest inhibitory effect on the growth of
Macmohan and Godson 2004). In order to maintain good new tumors (Thompson et al. 1996). The role of flaxseed oil in
health, it is therefore important that both fatty acids tumors prevention is attributed to its high alpha-linolenic acid.
should be present in a balanced ratio. The fatty acid composition of the tumors revealed higher
J Food Sci Technol

Table 2 Fatty acid profile of various oilseeds

Fatty acid Flaxseed Mustard Soyabean Rice bran Corn Sesame Safflower Olive Sunflower

Saturated 10 8 15.7 21.3 14.8 15.7 9.1 15.3 12.8

Monounsaturated 18.5 62.4 24.2 42.4 28.1 40.1 13.9 73.8 22.4
Polyunsaturated 71.8 31.5 59.8 35.9 57.1 45.7 77.3 10 66
Linoleic acid (n6) 16.8 21.6 52.1 34.6 56.1 45.3 76.5 9.4 65.6
Linolenic acid (n3) 55 9.9 7.8 1.2 1 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.5
n6/n3 0.3 2.2 6.7 2 56 113 7.4 16 131

Dubois et al. 2007

incorporation of alpha-linolenic acid which in turn resulted in 2003). Secoisolariciresinol (SECO) is produced by acid hydro-
suppression of the growth of the tumor cells (Gonzalez et al. lysis of secoisolariciresinol diglycoside. Secoisolariciresinol
1991; Thompson 1996; Gabor and Abraham 1986). diglycoside existing bound form as a complex of five
Flaxseed possesses antioxidant and hepatoprotective prop- secoisolariciresinol diglycoside residues held together by four
erties. Several studies advocated the cholesterol lowering HMGA (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaric acid) residues in the out-
benefits of flaxseed meal (Cunnane et al. 1993; Ridges et al. er layers of the seed (Kamal-Eldin et al. 2001; Raffaelli et al.
2001; Bhathena et al. 2003). A study on hypercholesterolemic 2002; Muir 2006). Structures of the flaxseed lignans complied
rats fed on flaxseed chutney supplemented diet (15 %) re- from different sources (Toure and Xueming 2010; Meagher
vealed significant reduction in LDL cholesterol and total et al. 1999) are presented in Fig. 2.
serum cholesterol and no change in HDL cholesterol. In
CCl4 intoxicated rats, lipid peroxidation products were neu- Metabolism
tralized by flaxseed lignans (Shakir and Madhusudan 2007).
Several clinical studies showed that EPA and DHA play a SDG is metabolized by bacteria in the colon of humans to
major role in reducing depression symptoms. During depres- synthesize mammalian lignans known as enterodiol (END)
sion or stress proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, and enterolactone (ENL) (Chen et al. 2007). In human body,
interferon gamma etc. are produced. Increased of n-6 fatty the lignans are acted upon by the gastrointestinal microflora to
acid to n-3 fatty acid ratio may lead to the production of release SECO, non-sugar moiety of SDG. Further hydroxyl-
proinflammatory cytokines which causes depression and ation and demethylation by the microflora, lead to the produc-
mood swings in elderly persons (Maes et al. 1996; Tiemeier tion of mammalian lignan-enterodiol (END), which is then
et al. 2003; Locke and Stoll 2001). oxidized to give enterolactone (ENL) (Morris 2007; Hu et al.
2007; Toure and Xueming 2010). The metabolism of flaxseed
lignans is presented in Fig. 3. Bacteroides as well as Clostridia
Lignans have been identified to release the glucosyl moieties from
SDG to yield SECO (Clavel et al. 2006; Struijs et al. 2009).
Lignans are phytoestrogens, which are abundantly available in Peptostreptococcus productus, Eubacterium callanderi,
fiber rich plants, cereals (wheat, barley, and oats), legumes Eubacterium limosum and Bacteroides methylotrophicum are
(bean, lentil, soybean), vegetables (broccoli, garlic, asparagus, found to be responsible for carrying out demethylation reac-
carrots) fruits, berries, tea and alcoholic beverages. Flaxseed tions, while dehydroxylation reaction are carried out by
contains about 75–800 times more lignans than cereal grains, Eubacterium lentum (Wang et al. 2000; Clavel et al. 2007).
legumes, fruits and vegetables (Mazur et al. 2000; Meagher and The dehydrogenation of END into ENL has been carried out
Beecher 2000; Murphy and Hendrich 2002; Hosseinian and by several Clostridia and Ruminococcus sp. (Clavel et al.
Beta 2009). Secoisolariciresinol diglycoside (SDG) is the major 2007; Jin et al. 2007). The END and ENL, so formed can be
lignan of flaxseed, alongwith minor contents of matairesinol, excreted in faeces or are absorbed by the human colon and
pinoresinol, lariciresinol and isolariciresinol (Meagher et al. enter the circulation.
1999; Sicilia et al. 2003; Krajcova et al. 2009). SDG ranges
from 11.7 to 24.1 mg/g in defatted flour and 6.1 to 13.3 mg/g in Health benefits
whole flaxseed flour (Johnsson et al. 2000).
Lignans are the diphenolic compounds synthesised by the Epidemiological studies indicate that phytoestrogens rich di-
coupling of two coniferyl alcohol residues existing in cell wall ets reduce the risk of various hormone dependent cancers,
of higher plants (Toure and Xueming 2010; Westcott and Muir heart diseases and osteoporosis (Krajcova et al. 2009; Toure
 J Food Sci Technol

Fig. 2 Structure of various lignans present in flaxseed

and Xueming 2010). Research studies also demonstrate the that it is a potent antioxidant Human body produces free
ability of SDG to scavenge hydroxyl free radicals and shown radicals during the oxidation of fats, proteins and

Fig. 3 Flowchart depicting the

metabolism of flaxseed lignans
J Food Sci Technol

carbohydrates. Free radicals damages tissues, membrane oilseeds due to presence of mucilage located in outer layers
lipids, nucleic acids, proteins which may cause cancer, lung of the seed (Singh et al. 2011a, b). Flaxseed mucilage has
diseases, neurological diseases, premature aging and diabetes gained momentum due to its superb health benefits and po-
(Prasad 1997; Toure and Xueming 2010; Singh et al. 2011a, b). tential functional properties (Susheelamma 1987; Mazza and
Anticancer activity of lignans is attributed to its ability to Biliaderis 1989). It contains 35–45 % of fibre and two-third is
scavenge hydroxyl free radicals (Prasad 1997; Hu et al. 2007; insoluble and one third is soluble fiber. Insoluble fiber consists
Sok et al. 2009). SECO, SDG also play an important role in of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin (Morris 2007; Oomah
reduction of hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, hyperten- and Mazza 1993). Most of the soluble fiber of flaxseed ap-
sion and diabetes (Prasad 2000, 2004). Daily administration of pears to be the mucilage of seed coat. It makes up 7–10 % of
100 mg SDG was found to be effective in reducing blood seed weight (Mazza and Biliaderis 1989). Soluble fiber in the
cholesterol and hepatic diseases risk in moderately hypercho- form of mucilaginous material consists mainly of water solu-
lesterolemic men (Fukumitsu et al. 2010). Flaxseed lignans ble polysaccharides; its recovery and purity vary with the
behaviour depends on biological levels of estrogen hormone. extraction conditions. The water binding capacity of flaxseed
At normal levels of estrogen, it exhibit antagonistic activity, but mucilage is reported to be about 1600–3000 g of water/ 100 g
in postmenopausal phase when estrogen level is low, flaxseed of solids. High water binding capacity of flaxseed is attributed
lignans acts as weak estrogen (Sok et al. 2009; Toure and due to the presence of polysaccharides in the seed coat
Xueming 2010; Saini et al. 2010). The mammalian lignans (Fedenuik and Biliaderis 1994; Wanasundara and Shahidi
stimulate the synthesis of sex hormone binding globulin, which 1997).
binds sex hormones and reduce their circulation in blood Mucilage of flaxseed consists of acidic and neutral poly-
stream, and decrease their biological activity and thus reducing saccharides. The neutral fraction constitutes L-arabinose, D-
the risk of developing cancer (Thompson et al. 1996). These xylose and D-galactose and arabinoxylan and acidic fraction
mammalian lignans are believed to act by binding to estrogen contains L-rhamnose, L-fucose, L-galactose and D-
receptors on cell membranes in the same manner as body’s own galactouronic acid (Wanasundara and Shahidi 1997).
steroids do but not as powerful as endogenous estrogens (Sok Functionally, these polysaccharides possess similar properties
et al. 2009; Morris 2007; Toure and Xueming 2010). Lignans, to guar gum (Wanasundara and Shahidi 1994; Tarpila et al.
enterodiol and enterolactone are believed to be partly respon- 2005). The mucilage can be extracted by water and exhibit
sible for growth inhibition of human prostate cancer (Westcott good foam-stability properties (Susheelamma 1987).
and Muir 2003).
Flaxseed lignans play an important role in preventing var- Metabolism
ious types of cancer specially the hormone sensitive ones.
Flax lignans are reported to have antioxidant property which Dietary fiber of flaxseed reaches the large intestine and is
presumably is the main reason of the anticancer activity fermented by colonic microflora with production of short
(Schweigerer et al. 1992; Prasad 1997). The lower incidences chain fatty acids (SCFA), hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane
of prostate and breast cancers in Asian men and women and biomass and exhibit laxative effects (Kritchevsky 1979).
compared to European men and women has been speculated In the large intestine, both soluble and insoluble fibers have
to be due to the higher consumption of diets rich in fruits and their bulking effect resulting in increasing both dry and wet
vegetables. (Adlercreutz 1990; Morton et al. 1997). Various weight of the colon contents and faeces. Soluble fiber in-
clinical studies imply that lignans prevent breast cancer by creases water binding, initially by the binding capacity of its
balancing the hormonal mechanisms. The lignans inhibit the macromolecules, later by increasing the mass of microbial
aromatase activity in adipose tissue resulting in the circulation cells. The contribution of soluble fiber to faecal weight was
of estrogen (Sturgeon et al. 2008; Adlercreutz et al. 1993). insignificant compared to insoluble fiber. Recent studies,
In postmenopausal women, lignans act as weak estrogens, however, have shown that it is of the same magnitude
while at normal estrogen levels, lignans act as estrogen antag- (Malkki 2004).
onists (Wang et al. 1994; Hutchins and Slavin 2003). Dietary
flaxseed moderately lowers the serum levels of steroid sex Health benefits
hormones which are implicated in development of breast can-
cer in obese postmenopausal women (Sturgeon et al. 2008). Water-binding capacity of flaxseed insoluble fiber increases
the intestinal bulk which is useful in the treatment of consti-
pation, irritable bowel syndrome and diverticular disease.
Dietary fiber Soluble fiber from flaxseed mucilage increases the viscosity
of intestinal contents and delays gastric emptying and nutrient
Flaxseeds serve as a good source of both soluble and insoluble absorption Inclusion of flaxseed mucilage in the diet of broiler
dietary fiber. Flaxseed holds a unique place among the chicks resulted in decreased faecal digestibility of fat and fatty
 J Food Sci Technol

acids while protein digestion was unaffected. Intestinal vis-

cosity of the broiler chicks increased on addition of flaxseed
mucilage in the diet (Rebole et al. 2002). Traditionally, dietary
fiber is used for the treatment of constipation, irritable bowel
syndrome (Cann et al. 1984; Tarpila et al. 2005). Dietary fiber
delays gastric emptying, regulate post prandial blood glucose
levels and helpful in prevention of constipation (Spiller 1994).
Flaxseed fiber plays an important role in lowering the blood
glucose levels. Studies demonstrated that insoluble fiber slows
down the release of sugar in the blood and thus help in
reducing blood glucose levels to great extent (Thakur et al.
2009; Kapoor et al. 2011). Soluble gum of the flaxseed may be
helpful in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases by
exhibiting hypocholesterolemic effect (Jenkins et al. 1987;
Cunnane et al. 1994). Kristensen et al. 2012 studied the effect
of differently processed flax fibers on the fat excretion and
energy balance. It was observed that flax fiber enriched drink
lowered the cholesterol to a large extent as compared to fiber
enriched bread. However, the consumption of fiber bread
increased the fecal fat excretion and maintained proper energy
balance. Studies have shown that the high intake of dietary
fibers is beneficial for the prevention of obesity in both men
and women (Du et al. 2010).

Processing Fig. 4 Processing of flaxseed

Commercial processing of flaxseeds is carried out to obtain oil significant reduction in cyanogenic glycoside content of the
and various by-products. Compositional changes during pro- meal without lowering nutritional quality of the seed (Feng
cessing are of prime importance to food, feed and et al. 2003).
nutraceuticals industry. Processing of flaxseeds at commercial
level involves multiple steps as shown in Fig. 4 (Oomah and
Mazza 1998). The amount of heat as well as extraction time Extraction of oil
influence the quality of oilseed meal as excessive heating
reduce the nitrogen digestibility and net protein utilization Commercially majority of the flaxseed is processed for ex-
(Young 1982). During the processing of flaxseed to meal, traction of oil which is then used for paints, coatings, lino-
protein, carbohydrates and mineral levels increased signifi- leum, inks, floor coverings, etc. (Tolkachev and Zhuchenko
cantly which contribute to decrease in lipid content. Protein 2000). Industrial oil is not suitable for food or feed, but the
solubility of seeds declined while processing to meal but residual meal can be used as feed for cattle. The very high
substantial increase in solubility of protein were observed in content of alpha-linolenic acid content of flaxseed make it
flaxseed flakes which may be credited to the increased surface susceptible to autoxidation, leading to deterioration of quality,
exposure of protein during conditioning treatment. Heat treat- therefore flaxseed oil extraction has been done by cold press-
ment affects the quality of protein and therefore decreases the ing and solvent extraction methods. Even after cold extraction
protein solubility. (Madhusudan and Singh 1984; Oomah and of flax oils, it is strongly recommended that oil should be
Mazza 1998). However, the total cyanogenic contents of the stored in dark glass bottles, supplemented with antioxidants to
meal remained unaltered by processing. Several attempts are avoid quality deterioration (Lukaszewicz et al. 2004) In India,
being made from time to time to reduce the cyanogenic various techniques are used for the extraction of flaxseed oil,
compounds of the flaxseeds. One of the simple and conve- namely bullock driven ghanis (Kohlu), power driven rotary
nient methods to eliminate the cyanogenic glycosides by use ghanis hydraulic press and screw-press oil expellers (Singh
of exogenous enzymes to produce hydrogen cyanide from the et al. 2011a, b). Flaxseed oil is generally screw pressed with-
flaxseed meal and then subjected to steam for evaporation of out heat treatment as well no refining is done except for
hydrogen cyanide (Yamashita et al. 2007). Similarly, autoclav- sedimentation and filtration (Wiesenborn et al. 2005). Fresh
ing, microwave roasting, pelleting of flaxseeds resulted in unrefined oil has a pleasant nutty flavor and attractive golden
J Food Sci Technol

color. The oil recovery using double stage compression screw The aqueous extraction method involves soaking of seeds in
press ranges from 86 to 92 %. However, various pretreatments water at temperature preferably between 50 and 80 °C with
viz., the adjustment of moisture content, (Singh and Bargale occasional stirring followed by filtration. The extract is treated
2000) use of enzymes (Shankar et al. 1997) steam treatment, with acetone, washed, dialyzed against water and then lyoph-
cooking (Singh et al. 2011a, b) prior to pressing results in ilized. Hot water extraction result in high yields of mucilage as
significant improvement in oil recovery. Decreasing the mois- compared to cold water extraction (Fedenuik and Biliaderis
ture content of the flaxseeds from 13.8 and 6.5 % resulted in 1994; Cui and Mazza 1996). The mucilage obtained using
significant increase in oil recovery varying from 44.4 and aqueous extraction is known to be free of specially cotyledon
81 % (Singh et al. 2011a, b). fractions, but this extraction is not economical as it involves
Solvent extraction of oilseeds using hexane is usually various steps including filtration, centrifugation, drying etc.
carried out for recovery of high quality oil and retention of Dry dehulling is also practiced using mechanical methods.
polar lipids (Nash and Frankel 1986). Cold pressing results in Simple process of dry dehulling involves fractionation of
only partial recovery of the oil; therefore, pressing of the seeds ground flaxseeds using graded sieves and air separation meth-
is followed by solvent extraction at high temperatures to od (Dev and Quensel 1988; Smith et al. 1946). Method
achieve maximum oil recovery. But the alpha-linolenic acid adopted by Smith et al. 1946 revealed that adjusting the
is degraded by exposure to high temperature; therefore, su- moisture content of the seed before grinding results in signif-
percritical fluid extraction technique can be a boon to such icant improved separation of hull with less contamination of
oils. Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) is the most often cotyledon fractions. The dehulled meal is rich in crude fiber
used supercritical fluid for purpose of oil extraction as the low and crude protein. Dehulling also leads to quality deterioration
critical temperature of CO2 (31 °C) allows extraction of heat of the dehulled meal because abrasive force used for dehulling
sensitive compounds without quality deterioration. Lipid may results in removal of some growth promoting factors as
composition of the flaxseed oils obtained by both SC-CO2 well as some protein fraction (Mandokhot and Singh 1979).
and petroleum ether extraction were studied and it was found Most common method used for dry dehulling of flaxseed is
that the alpha-linolenic acid content was higher in case of the TADD (Tangential Abrasive Dehulling Device). This is a
oil extracted using SC-CO2 as compared to oil extracted using simple method for assessing dehulling quality; it requires
petroleum ether (Bozan and Temelli 2002). Ultrasonic power small sample size and is useful for routine testing in breeding
is also employed for the extraction of flaxseed oil. A study programmes. Dehulling done by TADD method revealed that
revealed that ultrasonic assisted extraction of oil resulted in reduction in moisture content of the seed resulted in exponen-
enhanced recovery of oil with increased ultrasonic power. tial increase in hull recovery. However, the amount of hull
Ultrasonic assisted extraction saves time and lesser solvent recovered was independent of speed of rotating disk and
consumption (Zhang et al. 2008). dehulling time (Oomah and Mazza 1997). Dehulling of flax-
seeds by TADD resulted in significant increase in oil and
Dehulling protein contents and decrease in carbohydrates. Water hydra-
tion capacity and viscosity are reduced upon dehulling as the
Dehulling leads to removal of outer layer of the seed coat and hull contains good percentage of fiber and mucilage which
hence increasing the availability of nutrients. As it is well accounts for these properties. The hull fraction contains
known that flaxseeds passes through the gut as such and highest palmitic acid and low amounts of stearic and oleic
useful nutrients are not absorbed by the body, therefore efforts acid as compared to whole and dehulled flaxseeds. The very
are being made to remove the hard outer layers of the seeds by high content of dehulled meal makes it an attractive unusual
using different methods viz., crushing, dehulling, grinding etc. source of protein, whereas, high amount of carbohydrates in
Dehulling removes the hull which results in the elimination hull fraction makes it a good source of dietary fiber to human
most of the mucilage and crude fiber (Dev and Quensel 1988). nutrition (Oomah and Mazza 1997).
Dehulled seed contain high level of protein and low carbohy-
drate content, which makes the flaxseed as potential ingredi-
ent for food and feed products (Oomah and Mazza 1997). The Flaxseed as food
hull of flaxseed contain an outer layer which is tough and
fibrous containing negligible amounts of oil and protein and As ingredient
inner layer of the hull is soft and has small amount of oil as
well as protein. Both these layers of hull are intact; therefore In functional foods arena, flaxseed has resurged as a new
they are considered as single component (Mandokhot and potential functional ingredient with a vast array of medical
Singh 1979). Several attempts have been made to remove benefits. Flaxseed supplemented food products are gaining
the outer mucilaginous layers of the flaxseed. Traditionally, popularity because of its high content of polyunsaturated fatty
mucilage has been removed by aqueous extraction methods. acids, protein, soluble fiber and phytochemicals. It is utilized
Table 3 Flaxseed as functional ingredient in various food products

Flaxseed as ingredient Processing methods Products Characteristics References

Flaxseed flour + wheat flour Baking Bread Acceptable in terms of sensory and nutritional Lipilina and Ganji 2009
characteristics, specific volume of bread
decreased with increase in flaxseed concentration
Flaxseed flour Baking Cookies 15 % supplementation improved alpha-linolenic Rajiv et al. 2011
acid content, acceptable sensory and rheological
characteristics
20 % supplementation acceptable, however, with Hussain et al. 2006
increase in supplementation level, spread
factor decreased
12 % supplementation acceptable without affecting Khouryieh and Aramouni 2012
sensory and physical characteristics
Flaxseed (raw & roasted) flour Baking Muffins Softer products with better nutritional quality and overall Chetana et al. 2010
(along with wheat flour) acceptability at 20 % level of supplementation
Flaxseed flour (full fat and Baking Chapatti Total, soluble and insoluble dietary fibers, essential amino Hussain 2009
partial defatted) acid contents and alpha-linolenic acid content of
chapattis and breads increased
Ground flaxseed Baking Beef patties Cooking losses improved, good nutritional characteristics Bliek and Turhan 2009
at 3–6 % supplementation
Ground whole flaxseed and Extrusion Macaroni Lipids remained stable during processing, free fatty Lee et al. 2004
ground flaxseed hull levels reduced
ALA and SDG remained stable over 32 week Hall et al. 2005
storage period
Flaxseed flour Extrusion Pasta Retardation of microbial activity Manthey et al. 2008
Flaxseed with corn meal Extrusion Puffs 15 % incorporation produced good puffed product, Wu et al. 2007
however, lignan content decreased by 25–52 %
Flaxseed with corn & soy flour Extrusion Puffs Good puffing characteristics at 10 % supplementation, Alpaslan and Hayta 2006
low color scores and poor textural characteristics
SDG (lignan content) isolated Pasteurization, fermentation, Dairy products SDG remained stable during processing as well as Hyvarinen et al. 2006a
from flaxseed milk renneting storage
Baking Baked products Hyvarinen et al. 2006b
Linseed polysaccharide Steaming Idli Good soft texture and overall acceptability Susheelamma 1989
Defatted crushed flaxseed Fermentation Spoonable/drinkable snack Acceptable oat and buckwheat supplemented flaxseed Salimnen et al. 2010
product with probiotic property
Ground flaxseed Roasting Energy rich bar 15 % flaxseed + 45 % sweeteners along with other Mridula et al. 2011
ingredients had acceptable quality, nutritionally as
well as organoleptically
Flaxseed oil Homogenization Ice cream Oil act as foam stabilizer, improved meltdown time and Goh et al. 2006
soft creamy texture
J Food Sci Technol
J Food Sci Technol

as a versatile ingredient in various types of food products acid, it is highly susceptible to oxidation, rancidity and poor
(Table 3). It is convenient to use flax seeds as whole or milled sensory quality (Hosseinian et al. 2004; Wiesenborn et al.
in batters, dough and various baked products. Flaxseed-water 2005). The oxidation products serve as a causative agent for
mixture serve as egg substitute in the diet of vegetarians chronic diseases.
especially in baked products pancakes, muffins and cookies. Flaxseed oil is not recommended for high temperature
These baked goods are slightly gummier and chewier, and processing. Studies reported that the high temperature treat-
have low loaf volume than normal. One tablespoon of milled ment of the oil result in the alteration of its nutritional com-
flaxseed (approx. 15 g) along with three tablespoon of water position. It has been reported that elevated temperature dete-
(approx. 45 mL) substitute for one egg. Flaxseed gum (0.45 % riorate the alpha-linolenic acid (heat labile) which is not
w/w) can be utilized for stabilization of emulsion in case of desirable in terms of its associated health benefits (Choo
salad dressings (Stewart and Mazza 2000). Functional prop- et al. 2007a, b). In China, stir frying of flaxseed oil at
erties of flaxseed constituents are presented in Table 4. 150 °C is very common for cooking purposes (Pan 1990).
Flaxseed products are quiet stable for a longer period at Some studies state that stir frying of flaxseed oil upto177°C
ambient temperature despite of generous amount of alpha- did not cause any loss to the quality of the oil (Hadley 1996).
linolenic acid. Several studies justify the above statement that Tocopherols, plastochromanol-8, phenolic acids, flavonoids,
storing the milled flaxseed for about 4 months did not result in lignans and chlorophyll pigments act as natural antioxidants in
deterioration of quality (Singh et al. 2011a, b). Similarly, bread various vegetable oils and these are also present in fair
prepared with the flaxseed oil cake at the rate of 10 and 15 % amounts in flaxseed oil (Choo et al. 2007a, b). Storage as well
had peroxide levels well below the threshold limits after the as heat treatment resulted in destruction of these natural anti-
6 months of storage (Ogunronbi et al. 2011). Flaxseed is also oxidants, thus deterioration of the oil quality and shelf-
being incorporated in the feed of animals to improve the stability (Tautorus and McCurdy 1990; Li et al. 1996).
nutritional quality of the meat and fat obtained from them. Attempts are being made in terms of encapsulation of the oil
Omega-3 enriched eggs, pork products are now-a-days avail- with gelatin-arabic gum capsules, which provide protection
able commercially (Kassis et al. 2011). against oxidative products formed during processing or stor-
age (Liu et al. 2010).
Edible oil Due to its high alpha-linolenic acid content, it has multiple
industrial applications. Based on the scientific research on the
As already discussed, flaxseed oil is rich in polyunsaturated stupendous health benefits of linolenic acid it has attracted the
fatty acids specifically the alpha-linolenic acid. Decades back, intellectuals from various fields are doing sincere efforts to
flaxseed was used mainly in the manufacturing of drying oil, widen its food applications. Plant breeders, food technologists
paints, coating, and printing inks etc. But recently there has and nutritionists are using conventional and molecular ap-
been resurgence in the use of flaxseed oil for edible purposes proaches for altering the fatty acid profile of flaxseed and
because of its nutraceuticals values. Fresh flaxseed is golden create its competitive food market. In this respect, initiative
yellow in colour, has neutral taste and is very sensitive to heat, was taken by Green 1995 reduced the alpha-linolenic acid of
light, oxygen; therefore it is usually extracted by cold pressing flaxseed oil, to less than 5 %. Flax council has given the name
when it is meant for edible purposes (Choo et al. 2007a, b). solin for such cultivars containing less than 5 % alpha-
Since, flaxseed oil has very high amount of alpha-linolenic linolenic acid. The high levels of palmitic acid, oleic acid,

Table 4 Functional properties of flaxseed constituents

Functional ingredient Applications References

Mucilage Emulsifier & stabilizer in sauces, sausages, meat emulsions, Stewart and Mazza 2000
salad dressings
Anti-staling agent in baked products Lipilina and Ganji 2009
Improves cooking quality of noodles Kishk et al. 2011
Functional food ingredient (interaction of mucilage and protein Singer et al. 2011
regulate blood glucose level)
Protein Stabilizer & emulsifier in ice cream, sauces and meat emulsions Martinez-Flores et al. 2006
Antifungal property Xu et al. 2008a, b
Viscoelastic texture to extruded pastes for breakfast cereals and snacks Wu et al. 2010
Enhances nutrition in gluten free meal Gambus et al. 2009
Egg and gelatin substitute in baked goods and ice cream Shearer and Davies 2005
Functional food ingredient Moller et al. 2008
 J Food Sci Technol

linoleic acid in the solin cultivars make them suitable for Cann PA, Read NW, Holdsworth CD (1984) What is the benefit of coarse
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manufacturing of margarines and shortenings (Hosseinian
Carter JF (1993) Potential of flaxseeds and flaxseed oil in baked goods
et al. 2004). and other products in human nutrition. Cereal Foods World 38:754–
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Chen J, Liu X, Shi Y, Ma C (2007) Determination of the lignan
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Conclusion by HPLC. J Liq Chromatogr Relat Technol 30:533–544
Chetana, Sudha ML, Begum K, Ramasarma PR (2010) Nutritional char-
Various clinical trials revealed that the flaxseed constituents acteristics of linseed/flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) and its appli-
cation in muffin making. J Texture Stud 41:563–578
provide disease preventive and therapeutic benefits. This en- Choo W, Birch J, Dufour JP (2007a) Physicochemical and stability
courages development of new branded healthy and functional characteristics of flaxseed oils during pan-heating. J Am Oil Chem
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Clavel T, Borrmann D, Braune A, Dore J, Blaut M (2006) Occurrence and
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Clavel T, Lippman R, Gavini F, Dore J, Blaut M (2007) Clostridium
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