IRRIGATION

IRRIGATION
Objective ➔ (2-5) marks
Conventional ➔ 20-30 marks

Content
1. Irrigation & its method ➔ objective
2. Soil moisture–plant relationship ➔ O +C
3. Water requirement of crops ➔ O
4. water logging ➔ O
5. canal design ➔ C
6. Theory of seepage ➔ O + C
7. Miscellaneous + hydrogen ➔ O + C
CH – 1 IRRIGATIOM & ITS METHOD

Irrigation may be defined as an artificial application of water to the land, in accordance

with the crop requirement throughout the crop period for perfect growth of crop.

Advantage of irrigation
1. To increase production of crop
2. to generate electricity
3. Revenue generation
4. Navigation
5. Protection against drought
6. employment generation etc

Disadvantages

1. Water logging
2. Pollution in drinking water table etc.

Note :- The area where irrigation is necessary for the agriculture is known as arid
region & the area where inferior crops can be grown without much irrigation is known
as semi – arid region

Crop Yield & Productivity

The crop yield of irrigation is expressed as quintal per hectare & productivity of crop is
expressed a crop yield per mm depth of water apply.

Crop Water applied (in CM) Crop yield (in Quintal/hut

Rice 120 45
Jowar 50 45
Bajra 50 40
Maize 62.5 50
Wheat 40 50
Irrigation Project
Project Area (I hectare) Cost ( in Crores)
Major >10000 >5
Medium 2000-10000 0.5 – 5
Minor <2000 0.25 -0.5

Types of Irrigation
Irrigation

Surface Irrigation Sub – Surface Irrigation

Flow irrigation Left irrigation Natural Artificial

(gravity)
(perennial Inundation
irrigation Irrigation
Controlled & (Uncontrolled
systematic) as Flood)

Direct Storage
irrigation Irrigation

Note :-
1). In India, surface irrigation is mostly used on 75% land & the surface should be flat
2). In artificial sub – surface irrigation, perforated pipe with open joint are used &
irrigation is done by capillary action. It is used for small area & not economical.

Methods for Irrigation

1). Free Flooding
I. In this, water is apply by small ditches into the field
II. this method is also known as ordinary flooding
 III. In this water application efficiency is very low.
IV. This method is suitable on rolling land (irregular topography)
V. This method is used for close growing crop.

2). Check flooding

I. This method is similar as free flooding except in this, the (water is controlled by
surrounding the check area with low & flat leaves)
II. This method is used for close growing crop
III. Clayey soil or loam is more suitable for this method
IV. This method can be use for both more permeable or less permeable soil.
3). Border flooding
I. In this the field is divided into a no of strip, separated by low leaves which is
called borders
II. The land area is confine in each strip having 100- 400m length & 10- 20m
width
III. This method is the most popular method in India.
IV. This time to cover a given are by water

t = 2.303 ( ) log10 ( )
𝑦 𝑄
𝐹 𝑄−𝐹𝐴

Area = ( )
𝑄
𝐹

Where, Q = Discharge
F = Rate of infiltration
y = Depth of water flowing over the strip
A = Area of land strip to be irrigated
4). Basin flooding
I. In this one or more trees are generally placed in basin & the surface is
flooded.
II. The shape of basin can be square, rectangular, Circular or irregular.
III. this method is more suitable for archards
IV. Coarse sand is not suitable for this method.

5). Furrow irrigation

I. In this crops are grown on the ridge & the water is apply in the series of
furrow.
II. Furrow are small parallel channel which carry water.
III. In this, only ½ to 1/5 area of land is cutted.
IV. This method is more suitable for raw crops & should be used on flat surface or
gentle slope (slope < 0.5)
6). Sprinkler Irrigation
I. In this the water is applied in the form of spray it is also known as overhead
irrigation
II. This method should be used for very light soil & not suitable for rice & jute.
III. This method is used for cultivation of flowers, vegetables, tea, coffee etc.

7). Drip irrigation

I. In this, water & fertilizer is slowly & directly applied to the root zone of the
plant . It is also known as trickle irrigation. In this, percolation & evaporation
losses are negligible.
II. This is suitable for orchards & raw crop.
 CH-2
Soil MOISTURE – Plant Relationship

Soil water
• The water held in the pores of soil is called as soil water.
• It depend on
1). porosity
2). size of pores
• A/c to size of Pores the soil can be classified as

Small Pores Large Pores

1. More water retaining capacity. 1. Less water retaining capacity

2. More capillary action 2. Less capillary action
3. Less Drainage 3. More drainage
4. Less permeable 4. More permeable
5. E.g. clayey soil. 5. e.g. sandy soil

• An ideal soil for irrigation will be mix of both type of pores as loam (40% clay
+ 40% silt + 20% sand)

Classification of soil water

Gravitational Super flowing water

water
Available
Capillary
Water
Water
Hygroscopic Non – Available water
Water
1). Gravitational waters
• it is that water which is not held by soil but drains out freely under the gravity.
• This water prevent air circulation

2). Capillary water

• It is the water which is retained in the soil after the gravitational water has
drained off from the soil.
• Capillary water is held in the soil by surface tension
• this water is also known as available water
• capillary water is responsible for plant growth

3). Hygroscopic water

• It is that water which is absorbed by particle of dry soil from the atmosphere &
is half as a very thin film on the surface of soil particle due to adhesion

Soil moisture tension (SMT)

• It is defined as the tensile force per unit area that must be exerted in order to
extract water from the soil.
• SMT is expressed in terms of atm
• SMT can be measured by tensiometer
SMT is inversely proportional to moisture content ( SMT x )
1
•
𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
Soil moisture constant

1) Saturation capacity
• it is defined as max water retaining capacity in the soil.
• At Saturation capacity , SMT is always Zero.

2). Field capacity (FC)

• Field capacity is defined as the moisture which is easily available to the plant
or the max amount of moisture which can be held by soil against gravity.
• Field capacity is the upper limit of capillary water & lower limit of gravitational
water.
• Field capacity of clay is more than sand.
• At field capacity SMT very from 1/3 atm to 1/10 atm

Permanent wilting point or wilting coefficient (∅)

 • It is defined as the moisture content at which the film of water around the soil
particle are held so tightly that the plant root cannot extract sufficient moisture
as to satisfy its growth become wilt permanently
• PWP Is the upper limit of hygroscopic water & lower limit of capillary water.
• At PWD, SMT varies from 7 atm to 32 atm
• PWP Will be diff for diff soil but have approximately same value for the plant
grown on same soil.

Available moisture (AM)

It is the difference of moisture b/w field capacity & permanent wilting point

AM = FC – PWP

OMC optimum moisture content

It is the optimum fall of moisture in the soil & it does not reach up to PWP & the
plant root can extract this moisture

Readily available moisture(RAM)

It is defined as that portion of available moisture which is most easily extracted by the
plant root

RAM ≈ 75% to 80% of AM

Depth of water held by soil

d = rd x d1 x FC
rw

Where,
rd = Dry unit weight of soil
rw = unit weight of water
d = depth of water in soil
1
d = depth of root zone (the zone up to which a plant spreads its root is known is
root zone depth.)
 • it rd is in KN/m3 ➔ rw = 9.81 kN/m3
• If rd as dd in kg/m3 ➔ rw as dw = 1000 kg/m3
• if rd as dd in g/cc ➔ rw as dw = 1g/cm3

frequency of irrigation or watering interval =

𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Irrigation water Quality

The irrigation water has following qualities.

1). Total concentration of salts

• The salt of calcium, sodium, magnesium & potassium may present in irrigation
water & causes harmful to the plants
• The salinity concentration of the soil solution can be given by:
CS = CQ
Q –[Cu –Re]
Where,
Q = Quantity of water apply
Re = Effective rainfall
C = Concentration of salt in irrigation water
CS = Concentration of salt in soil solution

• The salt concentration is generally expressed by PPM or mg/l (milligram per

liter)
• The salt concentration is to be measured by electrical conductivity of water
• electrical conductivity is expressed as m (mho/cm)
• If salt concentration is greater than 700 ppm then harmful to some crop.
• If salt concentration > 2000 PPm, then harmful to all crop.
• A/c to electrical conductivity, irrigation water has been classified as;

EC Value at 25oC Class of water Use of water

 (in m (mho/cm)
<250 Low class water (C1) Can be used for all crop
250-750 Medium class water (C2) Can be used if leaching is
done
750 – 2250 High class water (C3) Can be used for high salt
tolerant characteristic plant
>2250 Very high class Water Not suitable for irrigation
(C4)

2). Proportion of Sodium ION

• the salt of sodium should not be more than 10% of total exchangeable cation
(≥10%)
• If it exceeds this value, then the soil drain break down & permeability
decreases.
• The proportion of sodium ion present in the soil, generally measured by a factor
which is known as sodium absorption ratio.

SAR =
[𝑁𝑎+]
+2 +2
√𝐶𝑎 𝑀𝑔
2

SAR Value Class of water Use of water

0-10 Low class water (S1) Can be used for all crop
10-18 Medium class water (S2) Can be used in coarse
grained soil
18-26 High class water (S3) Can be used for high salt
tolerant plant & require
good drainage
>26 Very high class Water (S4) Not suitable for irrigation

3). Toxic Element

✓ If Boron concentration > 2PPM, Then harmful to some crop
✓ If boron concentration > 4 ppm, then harmful to all crop
 ❖ Soap is a source of boron.

4). Bacterial contamination

If some crop which is irrigated by bacterial water & directly eaten, then it may causes
diseases.

❖ If , salt concentration increases so

❖ Permeability decreases
❖ PH increases
❖ Plasticity increases when soil becomes wet
 CH – 3

Water Requirement of crops

Water requirement of crop mean the total quantity of water require to the crop from
sown to its harvesting
Base Period & crop Period
1st watering Last watering

sown harvest

Base period

Crop period
❖ The total time elapses b/w 1st watering to the last watering is known as base
period.
❖ The total time that elapses b/w sawing of the crop & it harvesting is called as
crop period
❖ During crop period, the crop remain in the field.
❖ Both base period & crop period are also known as growth period & represented
by B and expressed in days.
❖ Note : crop period is slightly greater than base period
 Crop season
1). Rabi Crop
• From October to march.
• Eg. pulse wheat, gram, mustard, barley etc.

2). Kharif crop

• From April to September
• eg. Rice, bajra, cotton, maize, tobacco, soybean groundnut etc.

2). Zaid crop

• From march to June
• e.g. all seasonal fruits & vegetable such as, watermelon, cucumber etc.

3). Perennial crop

• These crop require longer time for their maturity
• eg. sugarcane

Duty of water
• Duty of water is defined as the area of land in hectare which can be irrigated
for growing any crop if 1 cumec of water is supplied to the land for the entire
base period
• The Duty of water is expressed in hectare per cumec
• Duty of water can be classified as :
1. flow duty of water (river, stream)
2. Stored duty of water (dam, reservoir)
3. Duty of a well (well, tubewell)
Delta
It is defined as the total depth of water applied over an irrigated land at different
watering throughout the entire base period of crop. it is denoted by &
expressed in cm or m.
 Watering

Crop Delta Duty Times

Rice 120 775 6 – 8
Wheat 30 1800 5- 6
Sugarcane 120 730 12-19
Vegetable 45 1000 30- 4
Maize 25 5-6

Relation b/W Duty & delta

D = 8.64 ( )
𝐵
𝐷

Where , D → duty of water (in hect/cumec)

B → Base period (in days)
Δ → Total depth of water (in m)

Factors Affecting Duty Of Water

Duty of water α ________________1_________________
amount of irrigation water applied

There are following

1). Types of crop
These crop which require more water will have lesser duty.

2). Climatic condition

• if temp is more ➔ duty will be less (because of evaporation, we’ll supply more
water is advance & ∴ duty will be less)
• if rainfall is more, then duty will be more
• if wind velocity is more, then duty will be less [Reason – same as temp.]

3). system of irrigation

The duty of water will be less in inundation system than perennial system

4). Method of irrigation

The duty of water will be more in subsurface irrigation
(drip irrigation ) then surface irrigation.

5). canal lining

The duty of water will be less in an unlined canal than lined canal.

6). Quality of water

If irrigation water contain harmful salt then extra discharge of water is to be given in
the field for removal of salt by which the duty of water will be less.

7). Method of cultivation

If the land is properly ploughed then the soil pore become loose by which water
retaining capacity increases. Hence number of watering decreases by which duty of
water will be more

Note : - Duty of water will be more in field or in the water course or at outlet

Terms of irrigation
1). cultivable commanded Area (CCA)
It is that portion of field which is culturable or cultivable

2). Intensity of irrigation – 2017

• it is defined as the percentage of cultivable commanded area propose to be
irrigated annually
• The annual intercity of irrigation may be obtained by adding the intensity of
irrigation for all the crop season

3). Crop Ratio

It is the ratio of area of land irrigated during the 2 main crop season such as rab &
kharif. It is also known as kharif rabi ratio.

4). Palco

Palco
 Kor watering
it is defined as the watering done before sawing of a crop. This is done to prepare
the field for sawing.

5). Kor Watering

• The first watering after the plant have grown a few cm height, known as kor
watering.
• The depth of water applied during Kor watering is known as kor depth.
• The kor watering must be done in a limited period which is known as Kor
period.
Duty (D) = 8.64 x Kor Period
Kor Depth

Note :- 1). The kor depth for rice is 19cm

The kor depth for wheat is 13.5 cm
The kor depth for sugarcane is 16.5 cm
2). The kor period for rice is 2 to 4 weeks
The kor period for wheat is 3 to 8 weeks
6. Cash crop
Those crop which are to be encashed in the market for processing & should not be
consumed directly by the cultivator known as cash crop.

all non food crop is considered as cash crop

e.g. sugar cane, tobacco, jute, cotton etc

7. Capacity factor
It is defined as the ratio of mean supply discharge for a certain duration to its
maximum discharge
The capacity factor for rabi crop is 0.67 & for kharif crop is 0.95

8. Time factor
It is the ratio of no of days the canal has actually run during a watering period to the
total no of days of the watering period.
 actual run of canal
Total days

9. outlet factor
The duty of water at the outlet is known as outlet factor or outlet discharge factor

10) cumec day

The total quantity of water flowing for 1 day at the rate of 1 cumec is known as
cumec day. it is a unit for measurement of quantity of water & used when large
quantity of water is available.

11). Overlap allowance

Sometimes, crop of 1 season my overlap to the next crop season by which extra
amount of water is req so, this extra discharge required for that crop is known as
overlap allowance e.g. Sugarcane

Duty =
ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐

Irrigation efficiency
1). water conveyance efficiency (nc)
It is the ratio of quantity of water delivered in the field (WF) to the quantity of water
diverted into the canal from river (WR)

nC = x 100
𝑊𝑓
𝑊𝑟

2). Water Application Efficiency (Na)

It is the ratio of quantity of water store (ws) in the root zone of the plant to the
quantity of water delivered in the field

na = x 100
𝑊𝑠
𝑊𝑓
3). Water use Efficiency (nu)
It is the ratio of quantity of water used beneficially for irrigation & leaching to the
quantity of water delivered in the field.

nu = x 100
𝑊𝑢
𝑊𝑓

4). Water storage Efficiency (ns)

It is the ratio of quantity of wear stored (WS) in the root zone during irrigation to the
quantity of water needed (Wn). to bring the moisture content of the soil at its field
capacity.

na = x 100
𝑊𝑠
𝑊𝑛

Wn = AM – FC
Consumptive use efficiency (ncu)
It is the ratio of normal consumptive use of water to the net amount of water depleted
into the ground.
ncu = x 100
𝑊𝑐𝑢
𝑊𝑑

Water distribution Efficiency (nd)

𝑛𝑑 = 1 – ( ) x 100
𝑦
𝑑

Where, y = avg numerical deviation is depth of water stored from the avg depth of
water
d.= stored in the root zone during irrigation

Irrigation Requirement of Crop

Consumptive irrigation Requirement (CIR)

It is defined as amount of irrigation water that is req to meet the evapotranspiration

need of a crop during its full growth.
CIR = CU or EL - Re
Where ,
Cu = Consumptive use to water
Et = evapotranspiration
Re = Effective rainfall

Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR)

NIR = CIR + LR + PSR + NWR
Where, LR = Leaching Requirement
PSR = Pre sowing Requirement
NWR = Nursery water requirement

Field irrigation Requirement (FIR)

FIR = NIR + Water Loss in run off & percolation

FIR = NIR
Na

Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR)

GIR = FIR + Water loss in conveyance

GIR = FIR
NC

Note : CIR < NIR < FIR

 Ch-4

Water – Logging
Water logging is a phenomena in which productivity of land get a affected due to high
water table which causes flooding of root zone & making tem ill – aerated

causes of water – logging

1. Over irrigation
2. excess rainfall
3. impervious obstruction
4. seepage of canal
5. submergence due to flood

Water logging control

1. optimum use to water for irrigation
2. Living of canal
3. To Provide efficient drainage system
4. by crop rotation

Soil reclamation
It is a process of making an unfertile field, fit for irrigation by removing the excess salt
present in the soil

Due to water logging the soil may have;

1). saline soil :-
 I. The soil become saline due to presence of salt of Na, Ca , k ,Mg, in the soil
which form a white layer of precipitation on the surface which is known as
efflorescence.
II. The reclamation of saline soil can be done by leaching

2). Alkaline soil

I. . The soil become alkaline due to presence of carbonate & bicarbonate of
minerals, by which a basic reaction may start after a long time & the soil may
change in black colour
II. Reclamation of alkaline soil is more difficult & it can be done by Leaching with
gypsum

Leaching
1). It is a process in which excess discharge is used for removing the salt present in
the soil.
2). in chemical industry leaching process is used to get a mineral from an ore by
reacting it with a chemical.

Leaching Requirement (LR)

LR =
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝐷𝑑
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖

LR = x 100
𝐷𝑑
𝐷𝑖

∵ Di = C u + Dd

∴ Dd = D i – Cu

LR = x 100
𝐷𝑖 +𝐶𝑢
•
𝐷𝑖

Cu = consumptive use of water

∴ Depth of water x
1
𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∴ Dd x
1
𝐶𝑐

Cc = salt conc. in irrigation water

& Dd x
1
(𝐶𝑑)

LR = ( 𝑖 ) x 100
𝐶
•
𝐶𝑑

∵ Salt concentration x electrical conductivity of water

∴ (Ci) α (EC)i

&
(Cd) α (EC)d

LR = ( 𝑖 ) =
𝐶 (𝐸𝐶)𝑖
𝐶𝑑 (𝐸𝐶)𝑑

or

LR = x 100
(𝐸𝐶)𝑖
(𝐸𝐶)𝑑

& (EC)d = 2(EC)se salt conc. extracted from saturated soil

If Saturation extract > 120 mg/l then it is highly saline

Where, (EC)d = Electrical conductivity of drained water

(EC)I = Electrical conductivity of irrigation water applied
(EC)se = Electrical conductivity of saturation extract

LR = x 100
(𝐸𝐶)𝑖
2(𝐸𝐶)𝑆𝑒

Drainage system
It is the process of removal of excess water present on the ground. IT can be done
as

1). surface drainage

• In this, the removal of excess rain water or irrigation water is to be done by
constructing field drams or open drains. it has 2 types
I. Shallow surface drain – It remove rainwater
II. Deep surface drain – it remove rainwater & seepage
• When excess rainfall are logged into some pot or ditches then an underground
structure is to be constructed for removal of that water which is known as
surface inlet. it is similar as a manhole. constructed of brick & a vertical pipe is
to be hold for drainage of that surface water.

2). Sub surface drainage

• These are the underground drainage system which required for the solid having
poor internal discharge & a high water table.
• These are also called as pipe drain or tile drain having circular in section . Its
diameter may vary from 10 cm to 30 cm.
• The pipe drain should not be placed below the less pervious stratum

Spacing b/w tile drain (s) = 4k (b2-a2)

q
Where,
q = discharge
k = Coefficient of permeability
b = Max depth of drained water table
a = depth of original water table from impervious stratum.
d = depth of pipe drain below the ground surface which may vary from 1 m to 1.5m.
• The pipe drain should be laid on a slope which vary from 0.05 % to 3%

Drainage coefficient
• It is the rate at which water is removed by drain. it is expressed as depth of
water in cm or m to be removed in 24 hours from the drainage area.
• Its main recommended value is 1% of average annual rainfall to be removed
per day.
The drainage coefficient for mineral soil is 1-2.5 cm/day & for organic soil, it is 1.25 –
10 cm/day.

Note : -

1). The soil may become practically infertile if its pH is more than 11.
2). The method which used dead furrow for drainage of excess water is called as
bedding.
 CH – 5
Canal Design
A canal may be defined as artificial channel constructed to carry water from the water
sources
A canal have trapezoidal cross section.

Classification of canal
1). A/C to source of supply

i. Permanent canal
It has permanent source of supply. It has 2 types
1. perennial canal
this canal get supply throughout the year.
2. Non-perennial canal
This canal get supply only for a part of year
ii). Inundation canal
This canal gets it supply during floods.

2). A/C to Function

i. Feeder canal
This canal is used to feed another canal & no direct irrigation can be performed
by this
ii. Carrier canal
This canal is used for both as for feeding & irrigation
3). A/C to network & discharge
i. Main canal (more discharge)
ii. Branch canal (Q>5 cumec)
iii. Manor distributaries (Q = 0.25 to 5 cumec)
iv. Minor Distributary (Q< 0.25 cumec)
v. Water course (very less discharge)

4). A/C To lining

i. Lined canal
ii. unlined canal or further canal

5). A/C to financial output

i). Productive canal
The canal which give enough revenue as more than 6% of its capital invested initially
for its construction, known as productive canal.
ii). Protective canal
This canal is used for relief work during famine

5). A/C to Alignment

i). Ridge canal or watershed
• This canal is aligned along a ridge line or natural water shed line.
• This canal is provided in plain area.
• This canal can irrigate areas on both side of it.
• This canal does not require cross drainage work.

ii). Contour canal

• this canal is aligned nearly parallel to the contours of a country.
• this canal can irrigate areas only 1 side of it
• this canal require cross drainage work.
• this canal is provided in hilly area.
iii). Side slope canal
This canal is aligned at right angle to the contours of a country.
This canal is neither on a ridge line nor in the valley but in somewhere b/w two.
this canal does not require cross drainage work.

NOTE : - The Best canal alignment is along ridge line or natural watershed line.

Sediment transport
The water flowing in a channel has a tendency to scour its surface, silt, gravel &
large boulders are detached from the surface. then these particles moves with the flow
this phenomena is known as sediment transport

Sediment load
It is the burden of sediment carrying by flowing water in a canal.
It has 2 types.

1. bed load
2. suspended load

Mechanism of failure of bed

1. The channel bed may get distorted into various shape by moving water
depending on velocity & discharge of water,
2. Low velocity, the bed does not move at all but it goes on different shape as
the velocity increases
3. When velocity is gradually increased, then at a stage the sediment just at the
point of motion which is called as threshold stage of motion. On further
increase of velocity, the bed developed saw – tooth type ripples.
4. as the velocity is increases further, large irregularity appears which are called
as dunes \.
5. When dunes are appearing, ripples are superimpose. on them. but at higher
velocity, ripples disappear, only dune are left.
 6. When velocity is further increased then dunes are disappear & very small
undulations come on the surface.
7. On further increase in velocity sand waves are formed which are flowing with
surface wave and the bed of channel are more scoured by which large
seepage accuse into the channel and the channel become fail
I. Saw – tooth type ripples
II. dunes with ripples
III. dunes
IV. Flat surface
V. sand wave with surface wave
Regime channel
A channel in which neither silting nor scouring take place
OR
silting & scouring are to be so balanced that the channel remains in equilibrium,
known as Regime channel

Kennedy’s Theory
R.G. Kennedy (an Executive Engineer of Punjab, PWD)in 1895 carried out an
investigation on some of the canal reaches in upper bari doab canal system (UBDCS)

Kennedy concluded that the silt supporting power in a channel cross section depend
on generation of eddies
Kennedy defined the critical velocity & mean velocity which will just keep the channel
free from silting & scouring and related it to the depth of flow.

Critical velocity (Vo) = C1yC2

Where, c1 & C2 are constants

C1 = 0.55
C2 = 0.64
y = depth of flow

Vo = 0.55 y0.64

This is valid only for UBDCS.

So for other canal.

Vo = 0.55 my0.64

Where, m → critical velocity ratio (C.V.R)

For silt coarser than UBDCS, m > 1 (upto 1.2)
For silt finer than UBDCS, m < 1 (upto 0.7)
For silt same as UBDCS, m = 1
Kennedy used kutter’s eqn for mean velocity

𝑖 0.00155
+ (23+ )
Mean velocity (V) = 𝑛 𝑠
0.00155 𝑛 √𝑅𝑆
1+(23+ )
𝑠 √𝑅

Where, S = bed slope

R = Hydraulic mean depth =
𝐴
𝑃
N = Kutter’s Velocity coefficient

❖ R(in cumec) y (in m)

0-20 1.0
20-40 2.0
40-80 2.5
80-100 3.0
>100 3.5

Area of trapezoidal channel (A)= (b+n’y)y

Perimeter of trapezoidal channel (P) = b+2y√(1 +n1)2

Drawback in Kennedy’s theory

1. This theory is aimed to design only a regime channel.
2. This involves trial and error method
 3. No equation of bed slope
4. Kennedy did not define silt grade.
5. Kennedy used kutter’s eqn for mean velocity so limitation of kutter’s equation will
also be the limitation of Kennedy’s eqn
Note : - A Mathematical solution of Kennedy’s eqn & kutter’s eqn was given by Mr.
Garret, in a graphical ways

Lacey’s theory
Lacey (Civil Engineer of up irrigation dept) in 1939 carried out investigation of on
design of stable channel in alluvium. lacey found many drawback in Kennedy’s theory
& given his new theory.
Lacey’s regime channel
Lacey classify the regime channel A/C to regime condition
1). true regime
A channel said to be in true regime’s condition if
i). discharge is constant
ii). flow is uniform
iii). silt charge & silt grade are constant

But these condition can never be satisfied so an artificial channel can never be in true
regime condition

2). initial regime

This is the regime’s condition attained by a channel when it is in service.
If discharge, silt grade, silt charge & width are fixed but bed slope & depth of slope
are varied then channel attain stability. so, this condition is known initial regime.

3). Final regime

This is the ultimate state of regime is which the channel adjust its width, depth & dab
slope in order attain stability then this condition is known as final regime.
Lacey’s regime Equation
1). Mean velocity (V)

𝑄𝑓 2 1/6
V = ( )
140
2). Silt factor (f)

f = 1.76√𝑑
D ➔ mean particle size (in mm)

3).welted perimeter (P)

P = 4.75 √Q

4). Hydraulic Radius (R)

𝑉2
R = ( )
5
2 𝑓

5). Bed slops (S)

𝑓 5/3
S =
1
3340 𝑄 1/6

6). Scour depth (d)

d = 0.48 ( )1/3
𝑄
𝑓
OR
d = 1.35 ( )1/3 (for per m width)
𝑞
𝑓

Where, q =
𝑄
𝐵

B ➔ Bed width

Drawback in lacey’s theory

1. The true regime condition defined by lacey are only theoretical
2. The characteristic of a regime channel are note defined accurately.
3. Silt charge & silt grade have not been defined properly
4. Lacey said that a true regime channel has semi elliptical section but it is not
supported by any of his eqn
 5. Lacey considered a single silt factor for bed & side slope, which is not
satisfactory

Comparison b/W Kennedy’s Theory & lacey’s Theory

Kennedy’s theory Lacey’s theory

1. Trapezoidal channel 1. Semielliptical channel
2. trial & error method 2. Direct method
3. No eqn for bed slope. 3. Given eqn for bed slope
4. Used kutter’s eqn for mean velocity 4. used his own eqn of mean velocity
5. Eddies are generated on the bed 5. Eddies are generated on the bed &
of channel side slope of channel.
6.

CH – 6
Theory of Seepage
When hydraulic structure are constructed on pervious foundation then they may
become fail due to seepage action. The failure may be of following type
1). piping failure
2). failure due to uplift pressure

Bligh’s Creep theory

• Bligh given a theory on the subsurface flow
• Bligh assumed that the percolation water follow the outline of the base of the
structure which is in contact with the subsoil.
• The length of path travelled by percolating water is called as creep length
• Bligh further assumed that the head loss per unit length of creep is constant
Length of creep(L) = 2d1 + l1 + 2d2 + l2 + 2d3

Hydraulic gradient = =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐿
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿

Safety against piping

L α 𝐻𝐿
L = CHL
or
C = 1
HL
L

C = 1
Safe hydraulic gradient

C → Bligh’s creep coefficient

C Varies from 5 to 15.
Safety against uplift pressure

Thickness of base of the hydraulic structure

T = h
Gs-1

H = height of dam above base

GS = Specific gravity of material

Limitations of Bligh’s Creep theory

1. Bligh made no difference b/w horizontal & vertical creep
2. Bligh assumed that head loss is proportional to the creep length but it is not
true
3. Bligh didn’t specify significance of exit gradient.
4. Bligh theory good when horizontal distance b/w the cutoff is greater than twice
their depth [l > 2 d].

Lane’s Weighted creep theory

Lane said that the horizontal creep is less effective reducing the uplift pressure. then
vertical creep, so he suggested a weightage factor of 1/3 for horizontal creep & 1 for
vertical creep

Length of creep (L) = 2d1 + 1/3l1 + 2d2 + 1/3l2 + 2d3

Hydraulic gradient = Head loss = HL

Length L

L X HL

L = CLHL

CL ➔ Lane’s weighted creep coefficient

Khosla’s theory

Dr. A.N. Khosla & his associate carried investigation on subsurface flow & given
following conclusion.
1. the outer face of end sheet pile were more effective then the inner one. And
the horizontal length of floor
2. The intermediate sheet pile, if smaller in length than the outer one then it will
be ineffective except for local redistribution of pressure.
3. It cause essential to have deep vertical cutoff at downstream end of the floor.
4. Under mining of the floor started from tail end:

Exit Gradient
1. It may be defined as the hydraulic or pressure gradient of the sub soil flow at
downstream at exit end of floor.
2. If a floor of length ‘b’ & vertical cutoff depth ‘d’ at its downstream end then
khosla given as eqn for the exit gradient.

Exit gradient (GE) = –

𝐻 1
𝑑 𝜋√𝑥

1+√1+𝛼 2
Where, λ =
2

& α =
𝑏
𝑑

If there is no vertical cutoff at downstream end, then exit gradient GE = ∞

Lining of canal
Canal lining it to be done for preventing the seepage it can be done if following way;
1). hard surface lining
I. brick lining
II. tile lining
III. cement concrete lining
IV. boulder lining
 V. asphaltic concrete lining
2). Earth type lining
I. Compacted Earth lining
II. soil cement lining
Requirements of good lining
I. To prevent seepage
II. To increase stability of structure
III. To make surface impermeable
IV. To enhance hydraulic efficiency
V. To provide resistance to erosion
VI. To increase durability
VII. To make economical structure.

Design of lined irrigation canal

1. the line irrigation canal may have 2 type of channel section when hard surface
material is used for lining
I. Triangular channel section
It has circular bottom & used for small discharge (Q < 50 cumec)
II. Trapezoidal channel section
It has rounded corner & used for large discharge
(Q>50 Cumec)

Triangular channel section

Area (A) = y2 (ϴ + cotϴ)
Perimeter(P) = 2y (ϴ+cotϴ)

Trapezoidal channel section

Area (A) = y(B + yϴ + ycotϴ)

Perimeter (P) = B + (2yϴ + 2ycotϴ)

Note
Type of lining Permissible velocity
1). cement concrete lining 2 – 2.5 m/s
2). Tile lining 1.8 m/s
3). boulder lining 1.5 m/s
 CH – 7
MISCELLANEOUS
Cross – section of an irrigation canal

• when natural surface level (NSL) is above the top of bank, then the entire
canal section will have to be in cutting which is called as “canal in cutting”
• When the NSL is lower than bed level of canal . the it will be called “canal in
filling” or “canal in bank”

Berm
• It is the horizontal distance left as ground level b/w toe of the bank & top edge
cutting.
• Berm provide scope for future widening of canal & protect the bank from
erosion due to wave action

Freeboard
The margin b/w FSL & bank level is known as freeboard the amount of freeboard
depend on size of the channel & discharge

Discharge in cumec Freeboard in (m)

1-5 .5
5-10 .6
10-30 .75
30-150 .9
Side slope
The stability of side slope depend on the type of soil & a steeper slope should be
provided in cutting.

In cutting
1H : 1V to 1½H :1V

In filling
1½H : 1V To 2H:1V

Dowlas
It is provided along the bank to prevent slop erosion.
It is 0.3m high and 0.3 to 0.6m wide at top with a side slope of :
1½H : I V to 2H : I V

Service road
• these are provided for inspection purpose for remote areas.
• They are provided 0.4 m to 1 m above FSL

Spoil Bank
when the earthwork in excavation exceeds the earthwork in filling then extra earth has
to dispose off alone the bank in the form of heaps which is called as spoil bank.

Borrow pit.
the pit which are dug for bringing earth called as borrow pit.
It has 2 type.
1). Internal borrow Pit
2). external Borrow pit

Canal Headwork
these are the structure constructed to divert or store the water of a river
these have 2 types

1). Diversion Headwork

It is used to divert the flow in the river eg. weir, Barrage.

2). Storage Headwork

It is used to store the water when water level rises Suring floods.
eg. Dam, reservoir.

Weir
• It is an obstruction constructed across the river, to raise its water level & divert
the water into canal.
• In this, shutters are provided on the crest & only small amount of water is
carried out by shutter.
• Weirs are aligned as right angle to the direction of flow of the river.

Barrage
It is a structure similar as weir with the only difference that in Barrage, crest is kept at
a low level & large amount of water is carried out by shutter.
Elements of weir

Scouring sluices
these are the openings provided in the weir wall with their crest at low level. they
pass low flood without dropping with crest.

Block protection
• It consists of 0.6m to 1m thick stone of concrete block
• it is provided immediately at the upstream end of impevrious floor

Launching Apron
• It is an apron of loosely packed stone.
• It is used to protect the impervious floor & the pile from scouring

Inverted filters
• It consists of layers of materials of increasing permeability from bottom to top
• An inverted filter reduces the possibility of piping & allow the free flow of
seepage.
• The thickness of inverted filter vary from 0.5m to 1.2h m
• The depth of inverted filter is equal to depth of downstream launching apron.
• An inverted filter is provided immediately at downstream end of impervious floor
• Its length varies from 1.5d to 2d. Where d is scour depth

Silt control devices

1). Silt excluder
• It excludes the silt from water entering the canal it is provided on the river bed
at upstream end of canal.
 • A min velocity of 2m/s to 3m/s must be maintain throughout the tunnel to keep
it free from silting.

2). Silt Ejector

these are the devices which remove the silt which has already entered into the canal
from the head. this is also known as silt extractor.

Dam
It is a hydraulic structure use to store the water when water level rises in the river. It
may have various types.
1. Gravity Dam
2. Earthen Dam
3. Rock fill Dam
4. Steel Dam etc

Gravity dam
In this dam self weight is used to resist all the external forces. It has various type
such as:

1). Concrete Dam

2). Reinforce cement concrete dam etc.
Forces on gravity Dam
1). water pressure
@ u/s
Water pressure (P) – ½ rwH2 at H/3 from base
@ d/s
Water pressure (P) = ½ rwH2 at H/3 from base

2). Self weight of Dam

W = rV r = W/V

3). Earthquake force

this force is exerted by generation of some earthquake wave. Its intensity depends on
the location where wave are generated.

Earthquake Force = 0.55 krwH2

rw = Unit wt. of water

H = Height of water
k = seismic factor

4). Wave pressure

Wave Pressure = 2rwH2wave
Wave pressure act at Hwave
3
8

5). Silt pressure

S.P = ½ Kar1H2silt

ka = coeff of active earth pressure

Hsilt = Height of silt available.

r’ = submerged weight of water

6). ICE pressure

IP = 500 kN/m2
Stability Analysis of Dam

1). Overturning
• The dam fails in overturning along the toe point only.
• The moment generated along the toe point due to external force, known as
overturning moment at due to specific weight of dam
• the moment generated known as resisting moment
• if resisting moment is greater than overturning moment then the dam will be
safe.
• ➔ FOS = 1.5

2). Tension
The dam will be safe in tensile force acted on it if

B >
𝐻
√𝐺−1

B = Width of base floor

H = Height of dam
G = Specific gravity of concrete

Canal outlet or modules

It is a small structure built at the head of water course so as it connect it with a
distributary channel. These devices regulate the flow of water from a bigger channel
into a smaller channel
Type of outlet

1). Non-Modular outlet

This is the outlet through which discharge depend on the difference of head b/w the
distributary & the water course
eg. open sluice & drawned pipe outlet

2). Semi modular outlet

This is the outlet through which discharge is independent of the distributary so long as
a min working head is available. Eg pipe outlet, orifice semi module, venture flume &
open flume.
• Semi – modular outlet are also known as flexible outlet
3). Modular outlet
• this is the outlet through which discharge is const & fixed within a limit and it
does not depend upon the fluctuation of water level in the distributary or water
course.
• This module is also module & Khanna rigid module.

Properties of a module
The behavior & performance of a module can be judged by following property.

1). Flexibility
It is defined as the ratio of change of discharge of outlet to the ratio of change of
discharge of the distributary channel

Flexibility F = dq/q
dQ/Q
where,
q → discharge passing through outlet
Q → discharge passing through distributary

& q = C.Hm
& Q = K.Hn
 F = Chm
K.Hn
 F =
𝑚 𝐻
𝑛 ℎ

Where, c, m & K ,n are constant & depend on the discharge.

Note :-
1). for a modular outlet, flexibility = 0
2). For a semi nodular outlet, flexibility ≠ 0

2).Proportionality

Outlet discharge = channel discharge

The outlet is said to be proportional when the rate of change of outlet discharge is
equal to the rate of change of channel discharge . in this case, flexibility = 1
Note ;- if F > 1 ➔ Hyper proportional outlet
if F < 1 => sub-proportional outlet

River Engineering
River takes off from mountain & flows through the plain terrain & finally join the
ocean. It is important to know the behavior of river. Its control training as to
established the river channel

Classification of rivers
1). A/C to Topography
i). River in Hills
a). Rocky stage River
b). boulder stage river

ii). A/c to flood plains

a). Aggrading river ➔ silting
b). degrading river → scouring
c). stable river
d). Braided river --. This river flow in two or more channel.
e). Deltaic river → this river divided into branches & form river.
iii) tidal river affected by tides

2) A/c to flood

i). Flashy river --. In this rise & fall of tides accurse suddenly
ii). virgin river → this river become dry completely before joins the sea.

3). Indian River

i). Himalayan River → eg Jhelum, Chenab, ravi, Sutlej, ganga, kosi, brahmputra etc.
ii). Non – Himalayan river → eg Chambal, Mahanadi, Godavari, Tapti etc.

River trading work

1). High water training → it is used to flood control.
2). low water training → It is used for navigation.
3). Mean water training→ it is used for disposal of suspended load & bed load.

Meandering
it is a behavior of a river in which river flows through a irregular path & in this the
formation of ‘S’ curve is called meander.

Cross Drainage work

This is a structure constructed for carrying a canal across a natural drain. these
structure may of following type.
1). when canal is over drain

Bed level of canal > FSL of drain Bed level < FSL of
(Aqueduct) of canal Drain
(siphon Aqueduct)

2). when drain is over canal

Bed level > FSL of canal Bed level < FSL of

Of drain Canal of drain canal
(super passage) (siphon)
3). When drain & canal are on same level
i).

No. of inlet = no of outlet No of inlet ≠ no of outlet

Qinlet = Qoutlet Qinlet ≠ Qoutlet
(level crossin) (Inlet & outlet)

Hydrology
Hydrology is the science that deals with the occurrence, urulation & distribution of
water on the earth & its atmosphere
Hydrological cycle
• It is a global sun driven process where water is transported from the ocean to
the atmosphere, from the atmosphere to the ground then back to the sea.
• Hydrological cycle has no beginning or end
Note:- The hydrological cycle extent from a depth of 1 km to a depth of 15 km in
the atmosphere.
Water budget Equation
Stored water = Inglow – outflow
ΔS = P – R – E – T – G
Where,
P = Precipitation
E = Evaporation
R = Runoff
T = Transpiration
G = Ground water flow

Residence Time
The time taken by the water to change from one state to another is called as
residence time.

Catchment area
The area draining into river is known as catchment or drainage area

Precipitation
It is defined as all the form of water is which water travels from atmosphere tot the
earth surface precipitation has diff froms:
1). rainfall
in this water tavel in the form of liquid drop having size .05 mm to 6 mm. it is
measured in terms depth of water.
Intensity Type of rain face
0-2.5 mm/hr Light
0.5 – 7.5 mm/hr Moderate
>7.5mm/hr Heavy
2). snowfall
The fall of larger snowflakes from the clouds is called as snowfall. it s average density
is 0.1g/cc

3). sleet
This is a mixture of rainfall & snowfall having dia 5 mm ar less [≤5mm]

4). hail
this is a large skpere of ice having dia 5 to 50mm. it may be very destructive for the
crop, animal & human.

5). Drizzle
this is a fall of minute droplet of water having dia less than 0.5 mm [<0.5mm]

6). Glaze
It fall as rain & freezes when comes in contact with cold gaound at OoC

Measurement of precipitation
precipitation can be measured by rain gauges which has following types.
1. None recording gauges
• this rain gauge gives reading at a fix time, everyday at 8;30 AM
• symon’s rain gauge is a non recording gauge which is used in India.
2. Recording gauges
• This rain gauge can give short duration data of rainfall against time. it
has various type;
1. Tipping bucket type – it gives intensity of rainfall.
2. Weighing Bucket type – it gives mass curse of rainfall
3. Float type gauges or natural syphon type – it gives mass curve of rainfall &
used in India.
Note :- A/C to meteorological department of India, the rain gauge network should
be as:
• in plains ➔ one station per 520km2
• in Modeerately elevated area ➔ one station in 260 to 390km2
Mass curve of rainfall
This is a plot of accumulated precipitation against time.

It slope gives intensity of rainfall

Calculation of No. of rain gauge station
1). Mean Rainfall (Pm) = P1 + P2 + _ _ _ _ _ _ + Pn
n

2). standard Deviation (σn-1) = (P1 + Pm)2 + (P2 + Pm)2 + _ _ _ _ _ _ + (Pn + Pm)2
n

3). Coefficient of variation (Cv) = (σn-1)

PM
x 100
2

4). optimal no of station(n) =

𝐶𝑣
𝑒

Where,
E → allowable degree of error in the estimation of mean rainfall (in%)
5). Additional no of rain gauge station req. = N-n

Hyetograph
this is a plat of average intensity of rainfall against time interval. this is derived from
mass curve of rainfall & represented as a bar chart. The area under a hyetograph
represent total precipitation received in that period.

Calculation of Avg. depth of precipitation

1). Arithmetic mean method ➔ inside

Pm = P 1 + P2 + _ _ _ _ _ _ + Pn
n

Where, n = total no of rain gauge

2). Thiessen polygon method
 • This method considers the area for each rain gauge Inside & the rain gauges
present outside the catchment.
• in this method, a trangle is to be form by joining the rain gauge station
bisecting the edges of the trangle A polygon can be formed which is known as
theissend polygon.
• By this method, weighted average rainfall can be calculated
• This method consider non-uniform distribution of rain gauges
• This method is scriptable only in plain area but more accurate than arithmetic
mean method.
Average depth of precipitation

(Pm) = n
SPiAi
i=1
n
SAi
i=1

3). Isohyetal method

• Ishoyetal is a line joining point of equal rainfall magnitude
The are b/w 2 adjacent Isohyets is determined by plan meter.
• This is the most accurate method.
• In this, topography influences can be considered
• This method consider the rain gauges inside the catchment only.

Pm = A1 P1+P2 + A2 P2+P3 +______

2 2
A1 + A2 + _ _ _ _ _ _

DAD Curve
This is depth area duration curve. The rain face date any catchment can be
maintained in the form of DAD. Curve
losses from precipitation

1). Evaporation
• the process in which water is converted into vapors & transform into
atmosphere is called as evaporation.
• Evaporation can be measured by following:

1). Evaporation pan

I. class A evaporation pan
Dia = 1210 mm
Height = 255mm
Material → G.I sheet
II. I.S.I Pan
Material → Copper sheet
(9mm – 10mm thick)
III. Colored sunken pan
Evaporation = Initial final Surface area
Level level

2). Field evaporation (FE)

FE = Cp x Pan Evaporation

Where, CP → coefficient of pan

Pan type Cp
Class -A 0.7
I.S.I 0.8
Colorado 0.78

3). Empirical formula

E = km (Ew – Fa) ( 1 + )
𝑉𝑔
16

where,
km → Dalton’s constant
Vg → wind velocity of y km. height from earth surface.
Ew → saturated vapour pressure
Ea → atmospheric pressure.

2). Transpiration In this water transfer ito the atmosphere through the plant body in
the form of vapour.

3). Infiltration
• it is the movement of water through sail voids.
• the rate at which water can move is known as infiltration rate.
4). infiltration constant
I. ∅-index -
• this is the average rainfall above which rainfall above equals to the
run off.
• It represent the average infiltration rate the period of rainfall excess.
∅ - Index = P-Q ➔ LEARN
Δt
Where, t ➔ time duration
P ➔ precipitation

ii). W-index
When initial losses are separated from total precipitation then the constant is known as
W-index. = P-Q – Initial losses ➔ LEARN
Δt

Hydrograph
This is a plot b/w discharge Vs time or runoff vs. time

Unit hydrograph
 • It is a direct run off hydrograph under a unit depth this hydrograph may be of
diff unit duration such as 1 hour unit hydrograph, 2h unit hydrograph. etc
• The runoff can be calculated by following;
Q = CA3/4
Where,
C → Dickens’s constant
A → Catchment area.
Q → discharge.
 Canal Fall
Irrigation canals are designed for a prescribed bed slope so that velocity becomes non
silting or non scouring. But if the velocity becomes non silting or non scouring. But if
the ground topography is such that in order to maintain the canal designed slope,
indefinite filling from falling ground level is to be made. This indefinite filling is avoided
by constructing a hydraulic structure in the place of sudden bed level. This Hydraulic
structure is called canal fall or drop. Beyond the canal fall, canal again maintains its
designed slope.
• Thus, a canal fall or drop is an irrigation structure constructed across a canal to lower
down its bed level to maintain the designed slope when there is a change of ground
level to maintain the designed slope when there is change of ground level. This falling
water at the fall has some surplus energy. The fall is constructed in such a way that
it can destroy this surplus energy.

Necessity of Canal Falls

• When the slope of the ground suddenly changes to steeper slope, the permissible bed
slope cannot be maintained. It requires excessive earthwork in filling to maintain the
slope. In such a case falls are provided to avoid excessive earth work in filling.

• When the slope of the ground is more or less uniform and the slope is greater than
the permissible bed slope of canal.
• In cross-drainage works, when the difference between bed level of canal and that of
drainage is small or when the F.S.L of the canal is above the bed level of drainage
then the canal fall is necessary to carry the canal water below the stream or drainage.

Types of Canal Fall

• Depending on the ground level conditions and shape of the fall the various types of
fall are:
Ogee Fall
• The ogee fall was constructed by Sir Proby Cautley on the Ganga Canal. This type of
fall has gradual convex and concave surfaces i.e. in the ogee form. The gradual
convex and concave surface is provided with an aim to provide smooth transition and
to reduce disturbance and impact. A hydraulic jump is formed which dissipates a part
of kinetic energy. Upstream and downstream of the fall is provided by stone Pitching.

Ogee Fall
Stepped Fall

• It consists of a series of vertical drops in the form of steps. This steps is suitable in
places where sloping ground is very long and require a long glacis to connect the
higher bed level u/s with lower bed level d/s. It is practically a modification of rapid
fall. The sloping glacis is divided into a number drops to bring down the canal bed
step by step to protect the canal bed and sides from damage by erosion. Brick walls
are provided at each drop. The bed of the canal within the fall is protected by rubble
masonry with surface finishing by rich cement mortar.

Stepped Fall

Vertical Fall (Sarda Fall)

• In the simple type, canal u/s bed is on the level of upstream curtain wall, canal u/s
bed level is below the crest of curtain wall. In both the cases, a cistern is formed to
act as water cushion. Floor is made of concrete u/s and d/s side stone pitching with
cement grouting is provided. This type of fall is used in Sarda Canal UP and
therefore, it is also called Sarda Fall.
 Vertical Fall

Rapid Fall

• When the natural ground level is even and rapid, this fall is suitable. It consists of
long sloping glacis. Curtain walls are provided on both u/s and d/s sides. Rubble
masonry with cement grouting is provided from u/s curtain wall to d/s curtain wall.
Masonry surface is finished with a rich cement mortar.

Rapid Fall

Straight Glacis Fall

• It consists of a straight glacis provided with a crest wall. For dissipation of energy of
flowing water, a water cushion is provided. Curtain walls are provided at toe and heel.
Stone pitching is required at upstream and downstream of the fall.
Straight Glacis Fall

Trapezoidal Notch Fall

• It was designed by Reid in 1894. In this type a body or foundation wall across the
channel consisting of several trapezoidal notches between side pier and intermediate
pier is constructed. The sill of the notches are kept at upstream bed level of the
canal. The body wall is made of concrete. An impervious floor is provided to resist the
scouring effect of falling water. Upstream and downstream finished with cement
grouting

Trapezoidal Notch Fall

Well or Cylinder Notch Fall

• In this type, water of canal from higher level is thrown in a well or a cylinder from
where it escapes from bottom. Energy is dissipated in the well in turbulence. Energy is
dissipated in the well in turbulence. They are suitable for low discharges and are
economical also.
Montague Type Fall
• In the straight glacis type profile, energy dissipation is not complete. Therefore,
Montague developed this type of profile where energy dissipation takes place. His
profile is parabolic and is given by the following equation:

Inglis or Baffle Fall

• Here glacis is straight and sloping, but baffle wall provided on the downstream floor
dissipate the energy. Main body of glacis is made of concrete. Curtain walls both at
toe and heel are provided. Stone pitching are essential both at u/s and d/s ends.
 Inglis or Baffle Fall

Canal Escape

• It is a side channel constructed to remove surplus water from an irrigation channel

(main canal, branch canal, or distributaries etc.) into a natural drain.
• The water in the irrigation channel may become surplus due to-
• Mistake
• Difficulty in regulation at the head.
• Excessive rainfall in the upper reaches.
• Outlets being closed by cultivators as they find the demand of water is over.
• It is the structure required to dispose of surplus or excess water from canal from time
to time. Thus, a canal escape serves as safety valve for canal system. It provides
protection to the canal from possible damage due to excess supply which may be due
to mistake in releasing water at head regulator or heavy rainfall that makes sudden
regular demand of water. The excess supply makes the canal banks vulnerable to
failure due to overtopping dangerous leaks. Therefore, provision for disposing this
surplus water in form of canal escapes at suitable intervals along the canal is
essential. Moreover emptying canal for repair and maintenance and removal of
sediment deposited in the canal can also be achieved with the help of canal escapes.
 Escapes are usually of the following three types.

Surplus Escape

• It is also called regulator type. In this type sill of the escape is kept at canal bed
level and the flow is controlled by a gate. This type of escapes are preferred now-a-
days as they give better control and can be used for employing the canal for
maintenance.

Surplus Escape
Tail Escape

• A tail escape is provided at the tail end of the canal and is useful in maintaining the
required FSL in the tail reaches of the canal and hence, they are called tail escape.

Tail Escape

Scouring Escape

• This escape is constructed for the purpose of scouring of excess silt deposited in the
head reaches from time to time. Hence, it is called scouring escape. Here the sill of
the regulator is kept at about 0.3 m below the canal bed level at escape site. When
deposited silt to be scoured, a higher discharge than the FSL is allowed to enter the
canal from the head works. The gate of the escape is raised so as to produce
scouring velocity which remove the deposited silt. This type of Escape has become
obsolete as silt ejector provided in the canal can produce better efficiency.

Scouring Escape
 Head Regular

• Regulators Constructed at the off taking point are called head regulators. When it is
constructed at the head of main canal it is known as canal head regulator. It is called
distributary head regulator.
Function
• Control the entry of water either from the reservoir or from the main canal.
• To control the entry of silt into off taking or main canal.
• To serve as a meter for measuring discharge of water.
• Construction. The components of head regulator depends upon the size of canal and
location of head regulator. It consists of one or more gated research openings with
barrels running through the bank. For large canals head regulators are flumed to
facilitate the measurement of discharge.

Head Regulator

Cross Regulator

• Cross Regulator
• A Regulator Constructed in the main canal or parent canal downstream of an off take
canal is called corss-regulator.
• It is generally constructed at a distance of 9 to 12km along the main canal and 6 to
10 km along branch canal.
• Functions.
• (i) To control the flow of water in canal system.
• (ii) To feed the off taking Canals.
• (iii) To enable closing of the canal breaches on the d/s.
• (iv) To provide roadway for vehicular traffic.

Cross Regulator

Construction: For Cross Regulators abutments with grooves and piers are constructed
parallel to the parent canal. The sill of regulation is kept little higher than the u/s bed
level of canal across which it is constructed. Vertical lift gates are fitted in the
grooves. The gates can be operate from the road.

Canal Regulator
Canal Regulators

Cross Regulators

Head Regulators