ENPHO Journal V1 I1

JOURNAL OF
ENVIRONMENT
AND
PUBLIC HEALTH
A Publication of Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO)
Volume 1 | Issue 1 | March 2017

JOURNAL OF
ENVIRONMENT
AND
PUBLIC HEALTH
A Publication of Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO)
Published on the occasion of World Water Day 2017

“Theme : Wastewater”
Editor-in-Chief
Mr. Bipin Dangol
Editors
Dr. Laxman Joshi
Mr. Bhushan Tuladhar
Mr. Rajendra Shrestha
Mr. Prashanna Man Pradhan
Ms. Pramina Nakarmi
Coordinator
Ms. Rosy Singh
Language Editors
Laura MacDonald
Lena Bunzenmeyer
Rebecca McAllister
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Cover Photo
-Art by Kushal Dhakal, Grade 9 student of Everest English School, Byasi, Bhaktapur and Winner of the
Inter School Drawing Competition organized by Paschim Paaila and ENPHO on the occasion of World
Water Day 2017.
-The art is based on “Wastewater”- the theme for World Water Day 2017
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The views and opinions expressed in the articles are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect
views, official policy or position of ENPHO or the editors. Authors are responsible for their citing of
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or possible violation of third party rights.
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Editorial
It gives us immense pleasure to share with you this “Journal of Environment and Public Health”, a
collection of research papers from the WASH sector. ENPHO is one of the prominent organizations
contributing in the areas of safe Water, sustainable Sanitation, better Hygiene (WASH), environment and
public health. It combines research and action to develop, demonstrate and disseminate sustainable and
appropriate WASH technologies and approaches. This publication aims to disseminate research findings
and information on WASH. The papers included in this publication resonate with the theme of World
Water Day 2017 i.e. “Wastewater”.
Furthermore, we intend to give continuity to this publication as a yearly publication, publishing on the
occasion of World Water Day.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all the authors/contributors for their papers and support
in making this publication successful. We highly anticipate constructive feedback and suggestions from
readers to make further improvement in coming days.
Thank you all for your kind cooperation and support.
Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO)

Contents
Status of wastewater generation and management in urban Nepal 1-6

Shrestha, P., Shrestha, R. and Dangol, B.
Characterization of wastewater in Nepal 7-12

Dhakal, I. and Nakarmi, P.
Situational assessment tools for citywide sanitation planning 13-20

Sherpa, M. G., Manandhar, A., Thapa, B. and Lüthi, C.
Performance of DEWATS in Nepal 21-26

Shrestha, J. and Kalu S.
Decentralized integrated wastewater and solid waste management 27-31

Shrestha, R.
Potential of wastewater use in irrigated agriculture: Case of Harisiddhi

wastewater treatment plant, Nepal 32-39
Dongol, R. and Baidya, M.
Productive reuse of organic waste in rooftop farming:

A case study from Kathmandu Metropolitan City 40-44
Shakya, S., Shrestha, J. and Kansakar, L.K.
Human urine application in rice and potato production 45-50

Nakarmi, P., Shakya, S., Dhakal, I. and Kansakar, L.K.
Co-treatment of faecal sludge with wastewater treatment systems: A systematic review 51-58
Dangol, B.
Faecal sludge treatment and reuse system in Mahalaxmi Municipality, Nepal 59-64
Rajbhandari, R. and Dangol, B.
Water quality of Bagmati river in Kathmandu valley: 2011-2014 65-73

Bhandari, B., Joshi, L., Shrestha, P. and Nakarmi, P.
Journal of Environment and Public Health 1
Status of wastewater generation and management in

urban Nepal
Shrestha, P., Shrestha, R. and Dangol, B.
Abstract Bipin Dangol

Prabina Shrestha (corresponding author)
Wastewater management is an emerging issue in urban areas, mostly Email: [email protected]
Rajendra Shrestha
in low-income countries including Nepal. Considering the need of
better wastewater management, there is a need for updated data and Environment and Public Health
information on wastewater generation and treatment. This paper presents Organization (ENPHO)
the estimated wastewater generation in urban areas and current status Kathmandu, Nepal
of wastewater management in Nepal. The intensive literature review
on wastewater management including production and treatment were
done to gather data and information. The data shows that 70% of total
urban wastewater production is collected in on-site sanitation system and
30% is collected by sewer. The theoretical estimation of total wastewater
production in urban area is 867 MLD. It was found that only 7% of
wastewater is treated in Nepal. Both centralized and decentralized systems
were found to be implemented at various scale.
Key words: grey water, sewerage, treatment, urbanization
Introduction pollution. The world population data sheet 2016

shows that 54 percent of the world population
Wastewater management is global issue. An is living in urban areas (Population Reference
estimated 90 percent of wastewater in developing Bureau, 2016). World Urbanization Prospects
countries is discharged directly into water 2014 has listed Nepal as one of the top ten fastest
bodies(Corcoran et al., 2010). Sato (2013) found urbanizing countries in the world (as cited in
that about 70% of wastewater is treated in high- Bakrania, 2015). Central Bureau of Statistics (2016)
income countries compared to about 8% in low- estimates that population living in urban areas of
income countries. Most of the growing cities have Nepal increased from 6.4% in 1981 to 38.2 %
inadequate and outdated sewerage infrastructures in 2014. After declaration of new municipalities
due to which wastewater is the main factor of in 2015, the population living in urban areas has
increasing dead zones in water bodies around the increased to 42.5% (Figure 1). With the increased
world (WWAP, 2012). Rapid urbanization and urban population, the wastewater generation in
urban population growth has resulted in increased urban Nepal is increasing. The proper wastewater
wastewater production and the number of people management is, therefore, persisting issue in Nepal.
vulnerable to the impacts of severe wastewater
Shrestha, P., Shrestha, R., & Dangol, B. (2017). Status of wastewater generation and management in urban Nepal. Journal of Environment and Public Health, 1(1), pp. 1-6. Published by ENPHO, Kathmandu, Nepal.
2 Journal of Environment and Public Health
Population living in urban areas in Nepal Results and Discussion

45
40
42.5 History of Wastewater management in
35
38.2
Nepal
growth rate(%)
30
25
There are no specifically written evident about
20 the ancient practices of wastewater management
17.1
15 13.9 in Nepal. The Hiti system, established as water
10
5 6.4
9.2
supply technologies since the Licchavi period
0 (300 AD – 879 AD) in Kathmandu Valley,
1981 1991 2001 2011 2014 2015
can be found integrated with the wastewater
year
management. The Hiti is ancient water supply
Figure 1: Urbanization trend of Nepal system with an underground water conveyance
and stone spout of water serving as a tap. The
According to the census 2011 in urban areas, system uses shallow aquifers. Hities are located
30 percent households are connected to either next to the aquifer or are connected to the
sewerage systems, 60 percent households have far away the aquifer using burnt clay or wooden
on site sanitation systems such as septic tank channels with gravity flow. Normally wastewater
and pit latrine and about 9 percent households from the Hities are drained out the settlement
do not have access to latrines (CBS, 2012). The through underground Dhon, the drainage. In
Government of Nepal has plan to connect the some cases, this water is collected in a pond
entire urban household with sewerage system and utilized for agricultural products washing,
by 2030 (NPC, 2016). The baseline data and duck farming. Similarly during Malla dynasty
target for wastewater treatment is, however, (1200-1768) the sewers in the major settlements
missing in the plan. The recent data on of Kathmandu valley were built as a combined
wastewater management including production sewer for domestic sewage, basically grey water
and treatment in urban areas of Nepal is very and surface drainage. The sewage was thrown
limited. freely in open fields with the outfalls located in
open fields. The collected water was used for
The objective of the paper is to present current irrigation purposes. Rana dynasty (1898-1950)
status of wastewater management in urban had further developed the sewerage system of
Nepal and to estimate the current wastewater core area of Kathmandu Valley. The main sewers
generation. made of bricks were circular or oval in section
with diameter of 600 mm. Absence of toilets with
flushing facilities in Valley during Rana dynasty
Methodology led the construction of sewers only for storm
The data on wastewater production and water drainage and after 1950, was changed
management were collected by intensive literature into combined sewer system with feeding
review of published and web-based online sources. unauthorized sanitary sewers from houses and
The census reports were reviewed to compile industries (Nyachhyon, 2006). The development
population, household data that were further of modern sewer system in the country started
used for estimation of wastewater generation. towards 1920s that include 55 km long brick
Several reports and documents published by the channel to collect and dispose combined sewer
government and non-government agencies were and rainwater runoff in Kathmandu and Patan
studied to understand and document status of (Nyachhyon, 2006 cited in Shukla et al., 2012).
wastewater management in Nepal. Sustainable management of wastewater is one
of the traditional practices since Malla period
in Kathmandu Valley which can be seen in urban areas of Nepal is 867 MLD.
the historical Newar settlements yet. The old
aged tradition comprises systematic collection, Based on the data 30 percent of urban household
conveyance, storage (treatment) and safe disposal are connected to sewer network, 288 MLD of
of domestic wastewater which is further reused wastewater of total estimated volume is conveyed
mainly in agriculture. through the sewer network. The calculation
showed that only 7 percent i.e. 20 MLD out of
288 MLD is being treated through the existing
Current scenario of wastewater functional centralized and decentralized wastewater
management in Nepal treatment plants in Nepal. The remaining 93
percent wastewater that is not connected to
Wastewater production and sewer sewer, is disposed into the nearby rivers without
system in Nepal treatment. There are five major centralized system
installed in Kathmandu valley out of which only
The source of wastewater in Nepal are mostly one system at Gujeshowri is currently functioning
domestic and commercial (washing and other and it contributes to about 86.1 percent of
sanitary activities) with addition of industrial wastewater treatment. The remaining 13.9 percent
wastewater in urban areas. Approximately 93 of wastewater is treated by 22 decentralized systems
percent of the total wastewater generated in the that are functioning properly (Figure 2). Due to
cities is domestic and remaining 7 percent is higher volume of wastewater disposal in nearby
industrial wastewater (KUKL, 2013). The census rivers, the receiving rivers are being polluted and
data shows that 70% of wastewater production their protection has also been a challenge.
particularly faecal sludge has been managed
by using on-site sanitation system whereas the Wastewater treatment in Nepal
remaining (30%) of wastewater production is
collected by existing sewer network (CBS, 2012). In 1975, modern technologies of wastewater
The projected population of the country in 2016 is treatment system was introduced for first
28.3 million with the growth rate of 1.35 percent time in Nepal with the establishment of
per annum out of which 12 million has been wastewater treatment plant at Hanumaghat. In
projected as urban population based on census of early 1980s wastewater treatment wastewater
2011. With the consideration of water demand of treatment plants were established at Kodku and
100 lpcd for urban areas and 80 percent of total Dhobighat, and Sallaghari (KUKL, 2013). To
water use is turned into wastewater, the theoretical avoid the pollution in Bagmati river along the
calculation of domestic wastewater production in religious area of Pashupati Nath, High Power
Unsafe Disposal
Sewer Network 93% without treatment =
30% (Wastewater) =
267.9 MLD
Domestic WW 288 MLD 7%
generation = 867 MLD On-site Sanitation
70% Treated Wastewater = Centralized WWTP
(Faecal Sludge) = 579 86%
20.1 MLD = 17.3 MLD
MLD
14%
DEWATS = 2.8
MLD
Figure 2 : Domestic wastewater flow diagram of urban areas in Nepal
Commission for Integrated Development of In pa rti a l

opera ti on,
Bagmati Civilization (HPCIDBC) constructed 23.5%
Guheshwori wastewater treatment plant which

came into operation in 2001 (Shukla et al.,
2012). These treatment plants comprise primarily
In ful l
of oxidation ponds and activated sludge oxidation opera ti on,
ditch. Guheshwori treatment plant is the only 53.0%
centralized system out of five centralized systems

that is currently functioning (Table 1). Not i n
opera ti on,
23.5%
The Kathmandu Valley Wastewater Management Figure 3 : Existing operational status of DEWATS
Project implemented by KUKL/PID with the (Source: ENPHO, 2017)
support from ADB has set target to treat 90.5
MLD and 382.1 MLD of wastewater by 2020 Conclusion
and 2030 respectively in Kathmandu valley
(KUKL, 2013). This paper reviews the existing trend of
wastewater production and the status of its
In 1997, decentralized wastewater treatment management. Urbanization is taking place
system (DEWATS) was introduced in Nepal as rapidly and uncontrollably and the trend is
constructed wetland technology in Dhulikhel more significant in last few years. As a result,
hospital (Shrestha et al., 2001) observed more wastewater production is abruptly increasing and
than 95 percent of major pollutants had been lack of proper wastewater management is posing
removed during time interval of 1997-2000 significant threats to human health, well-being
(Jha and Bajracharya, 2014). After its successful and economic activity.
operation, more than 60 DEWATS have been
established at community, municipality and The theoretical estimate of the wastewater
institutional scale throughout the country. From generation is 867 MLD in urban areas where
the latest study conducted by ENPHO (2017), 70% is collected in on-site sanitation system
22 out of 60 DEWATS was found to be in and 30% is collected by sewer. Nearly 7%
operation and most of them are managed by of wastewater is treated out of which 86% is
institution and community (Figure 3). Bagmati contributed by centralized wastewater treatment
Action Plan (2009-2014) has also recommended system and 14% by DEWATS. The Government
DEWATS as a new approach to manage of Nepal has plan to manage wastewater in
wastewater in peri-urban and rural areas in Kathmandu Valley by establishing centralized
Kathmandu valley (GoN/NTNC, 2009). and decentralized wastewater treatment systems.
Table 1: Status of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Plants of Nepal

SN Location Year of operation Catchment Served Design Capacity (MLD) Current Operational Status
1 Hanumanghat 1975 North-east Bhaktapur 0.5 Not in operation
2. Kodku 1982 East Lalitpur 1.1 Not in operation
3 Dhobighat 1982 Kathmandu & Lalitpur 15.4 Not in operation
4 Sallaghari 1983 North & South Bhaktapur 2 Not in operation
5 Guheshwori 2001* Gokarna & Chabahil 17.3* In partial operation
Source: KUKL, 2013 and Shukla et al., 2012
*: Source, CBS, 2012
The rapid urbanization, steep population growth Commission, N. P. (2016). Sustainable

and increasing unplanned settlements are Development Goals 2016-2030 National
some of the key challenges to ensure provision (Preliminary) Report. Kathmandu,
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be considered to ensure the functionality and R., Osborn, D. & Savelli, H. (eds)
sustainability of wastewater treatment systems. (2010). Sick Water ? The Central Role of
Wastewater Management in Sustainable
Development, Water. doi: 10.1007/
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M.Sc. thesis, Pokhara University, Nepal
Characterization of wastewater in Nepal

Dhakal, I. and Nakarmi, P.
Abstract Isha Dhakal (corresponding author)

Email: [email protected]
Across the world, there continues to be huge volumes of wastewater Pramina Nakarmi
discharged directly into rivers, streams and oceans. Disposing of

Environment and Public Health
wastewater is largely an issue in developing nations like Nepal. Organization (ENPHO)
It is important to treat the wastewater before it comes in contact Kathmandu, Nepal
with the environment. In order to treat the wastewater and to
design the treatment system, it is crucial to know the nature of
the wastewater, as the quality of effluent largely depends upon the
influent characteristics. The capacity and efficiency of treatment
systems are designed based upon the influent concentrations and the
effluent requirements. This study analyzed 269 untreated wastewater
samples received by the Environment and Public Health Organization
(ENPHO) laboratory and characterized them in terms of pH,
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD), Nitrate (NO3), Ammonia (NH4), Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
(TKN), Total Phosphorus (TP), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Oil
& Grease (O&G) and Dissolved Oxygen (DO). Based on the source
of generation, these samples were categorized as domestic, industrial
or hospital wastewater. The mean BOD and COD values of tested
samples were found to be 377 mg/L and 638 mg/L respectively. The
maximum COD was found to be 10,032 mg/L and maximum BOD
was found to be 5,050 mg/L. Significant differences were found in
TKN and DO values among different types of sources. Difference
in characteristics of wastewater from different sources indicates the
necessity of their characterization before choosing treatment options.
In general, the high values of the tested parameters in comparison
to the national industrial effluent standards show the urgency of the
treatment of wastewater owing to the practice of its unsafe disposal
into the environment without any treatment.
Key words: BOD, COD, DO, effluent, TKN, TSS
Dhakal, I., & Nakarmi, P. (2017). Characterization of wastewater in Nepal. Journal of Environment and Public Health, 1(1), pp. 7-12. Published by ENPHO, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Introduction of wastewater depends upon its origin, not all types

of wastewater need similar treatment. For instance,
Untreated sewage, industrial wastewater and domestic wastewaters have high organic loads while
agricultural runoff are the major water pollutants in industrial wastewater may be loaded with heavy
Nepal (WaterAid, 2008). This effectively converts metals (Henze and Comeau 2008; Sperling 2008).
the water resources into open sewers, thus causing With the rising awareness and interest in treatment
serious disturbances in the aquatic environment of wastewater in recent years, understanding the
and impacts both the ecosystem and human life. characteristics of wastewater is critical to design a
According to the 2011 census of Nepal, 4.52 suitable capacity to address the treatment needs
million people (17% of the population) live in 58 of particular types of waste. This study therefore
municipalities of Nepal. Among them, 91% of highlights the difference in characteristics of
households have toilets (CBS, 2011a). Of those wastewater based on the source of generation.
households, 30% have toilets connected to sewer
systems while 47.5% have toilets connected to septic
tanks (CBS, 2011b). As most pipelines are directly Methodology
connected to a water body or river, only 5% of Of 714 wastewater samples tested at ENPHO
generated wastewater is being appropriately treated during the last five years (2012-2016), 269
(WaterAid, 2008). Also, the wastewater generated untreated or raw wastewater samples were
in most industries in Nepal is mixed with the selected for analysis. Treated samples and effluent
municipal sewerage system (Jha et al., 2011). In case from treatment plant were not considered for
of Kathmandu, wastewater of all kinds including this study, as the source of generation of treated
grey water, leachate from dumping sites and septage wastewater samples were not known in most
from septic tanks is released directly to water bodies cases. The characteristics of wastewater were
without any treatment (Ellingsen, 2012). It is analyzed in terms of 10 parameters (Table 1).
imperative to treat this wastewater before it enters
the environment. When designing wastewater
treatment systems the nature of the wastewater must Characteristics of Influent
be considered, as the quality of effluent depends Of 269 untreated wastewater samples, 82% (220)
much upon the influent characteristics. The capacity were domestic, 13% (35) were industrial and 5
and efficiency of treatment systems are calculated (14) were hospital wastewater (Figure 1).
based upon the influent concentrations and the
effluent requirements (Gross, 2005). As the nature
Table 1: Test Methods Used for Analysis of Different Parameters

SN Parameter Reference
1 pH APHA, AWWA, WEF (2012), 4500-H B
2 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) APHA, AWWA, WEF (2012), 5220 B
3 Nitrate (NO3) APHA, AWWA, WEF (2012), 4500-NO3 B
4 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) APHA, AWWA, WEF (2012), 4500 - Norg B
5 Total Phosphorus (TP) APHA, AWWA, WEF (2012), 4500 P F
6 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) APHA, AWWA, WEF (2012), 2540 D
7 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) APHA, AWWA, WEF (2012), 5210 B
8 Oil and Grease (O&G) APHA, AWWA, WEF (2012), 5520 B
9 Ammonia (NH4) APHA, AWWA, WEF (2012), 4500-NH3 F
10 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) APHA, AWWA, WEF (2012), 4500-O C
Based on the sources, wastewaters were categorized as domestic, industrial or hospital wastewater for further interpretation.
One way ANOVA test was carried out to test

the difference in wastewater characteristics
among different sources of generation. Pearson
correlation test was applied to identify the
relationships between the parameters tested.
All the statistical analyses were carried out
at 95% confidence interval and data were
analyzed using SPSS.
Results
The overall mean value of BOD and COD
Figure 1: % of Wastewater Samples with Respect to Different
Sources of Generation
was found to be 377 mg/L and 638 mg/L
respectively (Table 3). Differences were observed
The composition of typical domestic, industrial among COD values of all sources; the highest
and hospital wastewater is shown in Table 2. was observed in industrial sources, followed by
domestic and then hospital wastewater. In the
Table 2: No. of Samples Analyzed for Different Parameters case of BOD, the mean value was found to be
Based on Sources of Generation highest in domestic wastewater. TSS values were
Type Domestic Hospital Industrial Grand Total found to be highest in industrial wastewater and
pH 51 10 6 67 lowest in hospital wastewater. Conversely, pH
TSS 138 10 6 154 was found to be highest in hospital wastewater
BOD 50 14 25 89
and lowest in industrial wastewater. Oil and
COD 200 14 32 246
Ammonia 19 10 2 31 grease was found to be highest in industrial
DO 8 13 - 21 wastewater and lowest in domestic wastewater
TP 64 - 2 66 (Table 3).
TKN 11 9 - 20
Nitrate 45 10 - 55
Oil & Grease 21 10 10 41
Table 3: Mean, Maximum and Minimum Values of Tested Parameters Among Different Sources of Wastewater
Type
Parameters Domestic Industrial Hospital
Mean Minimum Maximum Mean Minimum Maximum Mean Minimum Maximum
pH 7.04 (± 0.92) 4 9 6.67 (± 1.51) 5 9 7.1 (± 0.32) 7 8
TSS (mg/L) 356 (± 704.89) 3 6150 429 (± 767.85) 16 1984 195 (± 362.66) 6 1144
DO (mg/L) 1 (± 1.31) 0 3 - - - 4 (± 3) 0 8
BOD (mg/L) 420 (± 732.01) 8 5050 411 (± 509.07) 10 2275 166 (± 233.56) 3 652
COD (mg/L) 640 (± 1002.07) 16 10032 766 (± 1372.09) 0 7488 329 (± 467.9) 6 1373
Ammonia
118 (± 106.46) 24 370 17 (± 23.33) 1 34 48 (± 51.25) 19 183
(mg/L)
Nitrate (mg/L) 6 (± 6.14) 0 34 - - - 4 (± 3.14) 1 10
TKN (mg/L) 385 (± 294.66) 65 846 - - - 44 (± 36.02) 17 112
TP (mg/L) 16 (± 18.83) 0 98 2 (± 2.12) 0 3 - - -
Oil & Grease
18 (± 27.83) 0 121 37 (± 55.06) 0 159 2 (± 2.23) 0 6
(mg/L)
Of the tested parameters, only TKN and DO In the case of industrial wastewater, TSS,
were found to be significantly different among COD and oil & grease were found to be the
the sources (p-values < 0.05). Statistically, BOD highest and BOD was found to be similar to
was found to be significantly correlated with domestic wastewater. The high COD may be
COD, TKN and TSS. Similarly, COD was due to the high concentration of inorganic
found to be significantly correlated with TSS, oxygen demanding wastes from different
BOD, ammonia and TKN (p-values < 0.01) industries like paper mills and dye industries,
(Table 4). which cause lowering of DO levels in water.
The oil & grease layer reduces biological
activity in the treatment processes and also
Discussion causes clogging of pipes in treatment units,
The study indicates that the characteristics of thus leading to high cleaning and maintenance
wastewater vary among sources. Mean values costs (El-gawad, 2014). TSS was found to be
for BOD, ammonia, organic nitrate and total positively and significantly correlated with
phosphorus were found to be higher in domestic BOD and COD (Table 4). The correlation of
wastewater compared to other sources. The TSS, BOD and COD indicates that removal
high value of BOD in domestic wastewater of suspended particles through settlement only
reflects the high organic matter content from – a simple wastewater treatment component –
carbohydrates, fats and protein in the waste. can remove much of the BOD and COD from
Sukumaran et al., (2008) stated that when wastewater.
wastewaters with high BOD enter water bodies,
assimilation of organic matters by microbial Though the mean values of the studied
activity, and hence the oxygen consumption, parameters are comparatively lower in hospital
leads to hypoxic conditions in water bodies with wastewater, it is important to understand that
consequent adverse effects on aquatic biota and the main constituents of hospital wastewater
aesthetics of water (Noorjahan, 2014). Similarly, are different than household or industrial
high levels of nitrate and phosphorus can lead to wastewaters. Hospital waste can comprise of
eutrophication which increases algal growth and infectious liquids, antibiotics, estrogens and
ultimately reduces dissolved oxygen in the water. metals such as mercury or platinum, used in
Algal blooms not only disrupt the aesthetics of a different medication procedures (Pauwels &
water body but can also hinder water treatment Verstraete, 2006).
processes such as filtration, coagulation,
sedimentation and chlorination.
Table 4: Correlations (p-values) Among Tested Parameters

Parameters TSS BOD COD Ammonia pH Nitrate Oil & Grease TKN TP DO
TSS - .000 .000 .013 .071 .210 .066 .000 .054 .049
BOD - - .000 .049 .018 .677 .197 .000 .170 .094
COD - - - .008 .044 .470 .848 .001 .017 .083
Ammonia - - - .302 .178 .340 .002 .002 .075
pH - - - - - .240 .465 .002 .578 .696
Nitrate - - - - - - .879 .933 .807 .190
EC - - - - - - - .000 .382 -
Oil & Grease - - - - - - - .849 .909 .914
TKN - - - - - - - - .079 .046
TP - - - - - - - - - .185
DO - - - - - - - - - -
Table 5: BOD/COD for Different Sources of Wastewater As Government of Nepal has not set the standard
for domestic wastewater, therefore the results
Industrial
Domestic
Medium Strength
Hospital
Municipal Wastewater obtained were compared with the effluent
Ratio
(Henze & Comeau, 2008) standard for industrial wastewater (GoN 2012).
BOD/COD 0.66 0.54 0.50 0.4
COD/TKN 1.66 - 7.56 8 to 12 Table 7: % of Samples Not Within the National Effluent
BOD/TKN 1.09 - 3.81 4 to 6 Standard
COD/TP 39.51 510.63 - 35 to 45
Parameter
Industrial
Domestic
Hospital
BOD/TP 25.94 274.11 - 15 to 20
Mara (2004) found the BOD/COD ratio

pH 8% All within range 33%
of untreated domestic wastewater to be
Oil & Grease 48% All within range 50%
approximately 0.5. This study found the BOD/ TSS 37% 20% 33%
COD ratio for domestic, industrial and hospital BOD 72% 36% 80%
wastewater to be 0.66, 0.54 and 0.50 respectively COD 59% 29% 66%
(Table 5). Abdallaa and Hammamb (2014) Ammonia 63% 30% All within range
revealed that if BOD/COD is >0.6, the organic
Table 8: No. of Times the Maximum Value of Parameters
matter in the wastewater is mostly biodegradable, Exceeded the National Effluent Standard Value
and can be effectively treated biologically (Zaher Parameters Domestic Industrial Hospital
and Hammam, 2014). Therefore, domestic pH 0.7 - 1.5
wastewater in Nepal, due to the presence of TSS 30.8 - 5.7
high organic loads, can be treated by biological BOD 50.5 22.8 6.5
processes. The low COD/TKN and BOD/ COD 40.1 30.0 5.5
TKN ratios in the domestic wastewater show Ammonia 7.4 0.7 3.7
the organic concentrations are not sufficient for Oil & Grease 12.1 15.9 -
nitrogen removal by biological denitrification.
Comparing with the standard, the pH of the tested
Comparatively, the hospital wastewater had high
samples from hospital wastewater were found to
COD/TKN and BOD/TKN ratios, indicating
be within range. Most samples from all sources
the possibility of nitrogen removal by biological
of wastewater were found to exceed the standard
denitrification. The COD/TP and BOD/TP ratio
(Table 7). TSS, BOD and COD were found
was extremely high for industrial wastewater,
to exceed the standard by more than 30 times.
suggesting phosphorus can be removed through a
Exceeding the standards in most of the parameters
biological phosphorus removal process. Similarly,
for all sources of generation indicates that these
the results of COD/TP and BOD/TP ratios
waters, if introduced to water bodies without any
of domestic wastewater indicate the presence
pre-treatment, is bound to cause severe pollution.
of sufficient organic matter for biological
Therefore the treatment of wastewater is essential
phosphorus removal (Henze and Comeau, 2008).
and very relevant within the present context.
Table 6: Tolerance Limits for Industrial Effluents to be
Discharged into Inland Surface Waters (GoN 2012) Additionally, the study clearly indicates the
Characteristics Tolerance Limit differences in characteristics of wastewater
Total Suspended solids, mg/L, Max 200 depending on the sources. Since all contaminants
pH 5.5 to 9.0 cannot be removed by the same process, it is
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (mg/L) 100
important to know the wastewater characters
Oils and grease, mg/L, Max 10
Ammonical nitrogen, mg/L, Max 50
in order to determine the required steps for
Chemical Oxygen Demand, mg/L, Max 250 treatment, dosing time and dosage of chemicals to
optimize costs and minimize losses in treatment.
Conclusion Gross, M. (2005). Wastewater Characterization

Text M.A. Gross and N.E. Deal,
The study shows the varying nature of wastewater ed.,University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR:
generated from different sources. Parameters University Curriculum Development for
that signify the presence of high organic matter, Decentralized Wastewater Management.
such as BOD, ammonia, organic nitrate and National Decentralized Water Resources
phosphorus, are higher in domestic wastewater. Capacity Development Project.
In industrial wastewater, oil and grease, COD Henze, M. & Comeau, Y. (2008). Wastewater
and total suspended solids (TSS) are higher. The Characterization. Biological Wastewater
high values of the tested parameters compared Treatment: Principles Modelling and
to the national effluent standards indicate the Design. pp.33–52. Available at:http://ocw.
need for appropriate wastewater treatment before unesco-ihe.org/pluginfile.php/462/mod_
disposing them into water bodies. Since the resource/content/1/Urban_Drainage_
nature of wastewater varies among sources, the and_Sewerage/5_Wet_Weather_and_
characteristics of wastewater should be taken Dry_Weather_Flow_Characterisation/
into consideration prior to design of wastewater DWF_characterization/Notes/Wastewater
treatment plants for their effective and long characterization.pdf.
running operation. Jha, A.K., Li, J., Pradhan, S. & Hoover, M.
(2011).Current practices ofsolid waste
Acknowledgements management and a sustainable perspective
in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Waste
We express our sincere gratitude to Mr. Bipin Manage., 31, pp.2647–265.
Dangol, Executive Director, ENPHO and Mr. Noorjahan, C.M. (2014). Physicochemical
Subin Kalu, ENPHO for their suggestions and Characteristics , Identification of Fungi
support during preparation of this article. and Biodegradation of Industrial Effluent.
Journal of Environment and Earth Science,
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Situational assessment tools for citywide sanitation

planning
Sherpa, M. G., Manandhar, A., Thapa, B. and Lüthi, C.
Abstract Anjali Manandhar

Mingma Gyalzen Sherpa (corresponding
The Citywide Sanitation Planning approach was validated in author)
Tikapur Municipality in collaboration with the Third Small Towns
Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project. An array of situational 500B Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
assessment tools was used to understand the environmental sanitation Kathmandu, Nepal
context namely stakeholder analysis, Kobo Toolbox, GIS, Shit Flow
Diagrams, and Sanipath. This paper highlights the outcomes, pros Bhoj Bikram Thapa
and cons of some of these tools. With a carefully designed capacity
Third Small Towns Water Supply and
building and orientation programme, planners, engineers and Sanitation Sector Project
decision makers can easily understand and apply these tools. As a way Nepal
forward, beyond ODF, CSPs should be taken up as the next step to
improve and upgrade environmental sanitation situation in urban Christoph Luthi
areas, especially: municipalities, small towns and emerging urban
Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic
settlements. Science and Technology (Eawag/Sandec)
Switzerland
Key words: CSP, FSM, sanipath, shit flow diagram
Introduction some of the major requirements are targeted

programmes, adequate investment and sector
Small and medium-sized towns carry the innovations.
major brunt of urbanization and according
to the United Nations, more than half of the As per the National Plan for Small Town Water
population in developing regions live in cities Supply and Sanitation, 265 small towns (153 in
of less than 0.5 million people (UN, 2011). the Terai and 112 hill), with a total population of
Most future urban growth in middle- and 3.6 million, have been identified in Nepal (ADB,
low-income countries is expected to occur in 2009). This plan, endorsed by the Government in
these towns. Unlike larger, and often richer January 2000, was updated and redefined within
towns, small towns face a lack of financial and the framework of the National Urban Policy in
institutional capacity as well as the availability 2007. The plan quantified the water supply and
and affordability of technology. This is most sanitation needs of small towns, estimated the cost
apparent in the poor state of basic urban of providing improved services, and proposed a
services such as water, sanitation and solid re-vamped institutional framework. Small towns
waste management. To improve urban services, are defined by the following criteria: (i) population
Sherpa, M., Manandhar, A., Thapa, B., & Lüthi, C. (2017). Situational assessment tools for citywide sanitation planning. Journal of Environment and Public Health, 1(1), pp. 13-20. Published by ENPHO, Kathmandu, Nepal.
of 5,000–40,000; (ii) located on a road linked to • insufficient attention to service delivery

a strategic road network and (iii) having at least requirements for low-income and informal
one secondary school and a health post in addition settlements,
to grid electricity, basic telecommunications, • overlooking the role of small-scale service
and banking (ADB, 2009). The Government providers, and
of Nepal and the ADB has been implementing • plans or proposed implementations are not
the Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation suited to the particular, often weak, technical
Sector Project (STWSSSP) since the year 2000. and financial capacities of small towns.
The project is now in its in third phase (2014-
2021) of implementation and is currently being We considered the learnings of recent city
implemented in 21 towns. sanitation planning as required by the National
Urban Sanitation Policy in India, which
Building on previous sanitation planning experienced some major limitations in their
initiatives like Strategic Sanitation Planning implementation. Firstly, many Indian CSPs
or Community-led Urban Environmental tended to favour networked solutions and
Sanitation (CLUES), we explored the possibilities sideline faecal sludge management (FSM)
of using integrated, multi-stakeholder City solutions, due to the limited knowledge and
Sanitation Plans (CSPs) as a model planning awareness of FSM at the municipal level.
framework for weak institutional small town Secondly, a fragmented approach limited to
settings in Nepal. Tikapur, a small town located toilet provision and open defecation free status,
in the far western part of Nepal was selected as neglecting the entire sanitation delivery chain.
the site for validation of the CSPprocess. The Thirdly, the non-inclusive character of many
timeline of the planning validation was between CSP processes which were produced by external
April 2016 and February 2017 (10 months). consultants or NGOs without considering needs
The planning initiative was supported by the of special user groups like women, the disabled or
Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation elderly and children.
(SDC) and the ADB-supported Third Small
Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector In the validation of small town CSP, we sought
Project (TSTWSSSP). to address the following issues:
• Integrated, multi-stakeholder approach that
This paper discusses the validation of novel addresses the entire sanitation delivery chain;
situational assessment tools and how these could • Improved analysis of the situation and
be applied in small town settings. The final awareness raising, using state-of-the-art tools;
outcomes of the planning process or the final and
environmental sanitation improvement plan is • A less costly and time-consuming planning
not discussed in this paper. exercise that meets the human and financial
resource needs of small towns.
Rationale to citywide approach
to sanitation planning Methods
In the Tikapur planning exercise, a series of
Much has been written about the inadequacies
sanitation planning tools were used. These mainly
of conventional sanitation planning approaches
included: the geographic information systems
which can be summed up as:
(GIS), Shit Flow Diagrams (SFDs), SaniPath and
• too great an emphasis on infrastructure and
semi-structured interviews using the mobile data
insufficient attention on improving services,
collection tool - Kobo Toolbox.
Household Survey: A careful situational analysis Analysis of stakeholder roles and

is the cornerstone of any successful planning.
In Tikapur this consisted of a structured capacities
household survey with 400 households, three Stakeholder analysis is essential to gain insight into
focus group discussions and the production of the positions, interests, and the decision-making
a GIS map based on the Quantum GIS free power among the various parties. It is about finding
shareware package with the help of Google Earth out who plays an active part in the planning process
Pro©. Using the GIS mapping tool, a detailed and who influences processes. Three different
situational analysis was done at ward level for stakeholder categories were analyzed with respect to
issues like toilet coverage, storm water drainage or the CSP as discussed below:
water provision.
Process stakeholders
Shit Flow Diagram: For the first time the Shit
Process stakeholders are institutions driving
Flow Diagram (SFD) was validated in Nepal, a
forward the planning process and are vital in
powerful tool to communicate and visualize how
achieving the main outcomes of the process,
excreta physically flows through a city or town.
primary and secondary stakeholders. The
The information was gathered from a variety of
TSTWSSSP of DWSS represented by the Project
sources and then triangulated.
Management Office (PMO) and Regional
Offices (RPMO), Eawag-Sandec and 500B
The SFD can be used as an advocacy and
Solutions Pvt. Ltd. were identified as the process
assessment tool that is easily understood by non-
stakeholders. All three institutions provided
experts and decision-makers as the SFD diagram
support to facilitate the planning process in
clearly differentiates between safe (green) and
Tikapur. The Building Design Authority, which
unsafe (red) disposal (Figure 2).
is the design and supervision consultant, provided
technical supervision for the Tikapur Water
Sanipath: A further tool we tested was the
Supply and Sanitation Sub-project and hence was
Sanipath risk-based assessment tool for the
also categorized as a process stakeholder.
assessment of exposure to faecal contamination.
It is used to measure exposure pathways like
drains, drinking water, surfaces, toilets, soils or
Primary stakeholders
stormwater (www.sanipath.org). Primary stakeholders are institutions who have a
primary stake in the process, are able to influence
the decision making or are directly affected by the
Results and Discussion planning decisions. Tikapur Municipality, Water
A crucial bottleneck for realistic planning of Users and Sanitation Committee (WUSC), Tikapur
infrastructure and basic services in Nepal’s and Households and Town Development Fund
exponentially growing small- and medium- (TDF) were identified as the primary stakeholders.
sized towns is the lack of reliable and up-to-date
data. Within the framework of the STWSSP in Tikapur Municipality has a keen interest in the
Tikapur Municipality, the need for simplified, planning process and its outcomes. By the power
contextualized planning tools which are easy to vested, it is positioned to make critical decisions
utilize, and add value to an integrated planning to address the different environmental sanitation
approach that covers the entire sanitation value problems. For example, it has the capacity to co-
chain is highlighted. This section discusses some finance prioritized sanitation interventions of the
of the key tools used as part of the situational CSP. Likewise, using the Local Self Governance
assessment, how it was used and the pros and cons. Act, it can develop appropriate bylaws for solid
waste, wastewater and faecal sludge management, Secondary stakeholders

and create enabling conditions to introduce the Secondary stakeholders are those who have
private sector. an interest in the planning process but do not
necessary have influence over the decision-
Tikapur WUSC is the representative body of making process. There are many local institutions
the users and implementing the TSTWSSSP at in the town project area such as schools,
the local level. On behalf of the users, it takes hospitals, college, factories, restaurants and local
strategic decisions to execute project activities. youth clubs that could provide support to roll
With strong local links, it coordinates and creates out the CSP. However, a further analysis will be
an enabling environment to smoothly implement required to map out their capacities and how they
project activities. WUSC is currently managing could be involved during the implementation
the existing water supply system and collects process. The role of the private sector was not
charges from users. There is a strong possibility found prominent in the environmental sanitation
that drinking water and sanitation services may sector. The Municipality has plans to involve
be integrated in the future and that a combined the private sector for solid waste collection and
tariff could be collected from households. transportation.
Households are also considered one of the
primary stakeholders because they have a strong
interest in upgrading their sanitation status. Sanitation situational analysis
The sanitation situational analysis was carried
The Town Development Fund (TDF) is a out using a variety of tools and methods. A brief
government-owned autonomous body that overview and the results have been discussed below.
provide financial, technical and institutional
support to organizations involved in the Sample survey using Kobo Toolbox and FGDs
construction and development of municipalities The mobile data collection application,
and urban centers. TDF is the financial lending Kobocollect based on ODK coding language, was
arm for the sub-project in Tikapur. TDF used for baseline data collection. Results showed
possess the resources and capacity to finance that on-site sanitation is the predominant form
capital-intensive interventions of the CSP. For of sanitation systems in Tikapur (Figure 1).
example, it could authorize a detailed technical Most households are served by pour flush toilets
investigation and finance establishment of a which are connected to single pits (60%) and
storm water management system.
Figure 1: Situational analysis of toilet access in Tikapur - left and analysis of containment systems found in Tikapur -right
Source: Eawag/500B Solutions
double pits (7%). Likewise, a significant number be essential even for the current “safely” handled
of households have toilets connected to a biogas sludge (i.e. contained, but not emptied).
digester (12%). Baseline survey results and FGDs
showed that FSM, storm water and solid waste The practice of transferring the sludge into an
management were the top three priority areas alternative pit, even though it is the safest option
requiring immediate attention. in absence of formalized emptying services, has not
been considered as a satisfactory treatment option.
Shit Flow Diagram This decision was based on the lack of information
The Shit Flow Diagram (SFD) was produced as on how these alternative pits were built and also to
part of the CSP using data on sanitation practices not send a wrong message to Tikapur’s residents.
at ward level (Figure 2). Despite the absence of However, in Tikapur’s rural areas, this option
some information, an evidencebased SFD was might still be the best option for managing faecal
developed based on the collected data. sludge if sufficient land is available and the risk of
groundwater contamination is low. Overall, there
is a lack of awareness on how to safely operate and
maintain sanitation systems.
Sanipath
The results of Sanipath rapid assessment tool are
presented in what is called “people plots” which
represent two important values: (i) the proportion
of the population that is exposed to a pathway of
infection (percentage exposed) and (ii) the level of
contamination of this pathway (dose).
Figure 2: SFD for Tikapur differentiating between safe and Results of the rapid assessment in Tikapur
unsafe disposal of human waste in Tikapur. Municipality showed that a large proportion
Source: Eawag/500B Solutions of the surveyed population, both adults and
children, were exposed to all the three studied
Formalised FSM management is absent in pathways: pumped drinking water, surface water
Tikapur. Like many other small towns in Nepal, and flood and field water (Figure 3).
there is a high toilet coverage, due to the successful
ODF campaigns in the past decade. Faecal sludge Water quality tests on hand pumps showed
was found either not emptied or was directly that contamination was more localized and
disposed into the local environment, resulting in site specific, as determined by some cases of
very unhygienic urban environmental conditions. medium to high contamination. Unsurprisingly,
community hand pumps which were often
The SFD of Tikapur shows that 30% of the sludge leaking and are located near open drains and
is currently safely handled. This was due to the private pumps located close to pit latrines were
large portion of containment technologies that most prone to contamination. Surface and flood
have either never been emptied or are connected to and field water had high contamination and one
a biogas digester and single pit latrines in the rural of the main reasons could be the unimproved
areas. At some point, the sludge must be emptied faecal sludge disposal system.
and the existence of treatment infrastructures will
pumped drinking water surface water flood and field water

Adults
Children (5-12 years old)
Figure 3: People plot based on Sanipath assessment in Tikapur

A brief analysis of the different assessment tools discussed above is provided in Table 1. Each of the six
tools that were validated in Tikapur has its merits, but not all were as accessible or easily applied.
Table 1: Pros and Cons of Different Assessment Tools Used for the CSP in Tikapur
SN Assessment tools Pros Cons
1 Google Base Maps  Provides up-to-date satellite image of the  Normally, updated maps of the settlement
settlement are not available, needs manual verification
 Helpful to draw system boundaries, identification of and updates
landmarks and other specific areas of interest
 Helpful in visualizing and planning
2 GIS  Provides a strong framework for managing spatial  Adequate knowledge and skills required to
information with full transaction support and use the applications
reporting tools
 Provides a visual framework for conceptualizing,
understanding and prescribing action in a distinct
spatial setting
 Allows for better decision making
3 KOBO Toolbox for  Free application to conduct household surveys  Translating questionnaire into the local
household surveys  Easily uploaded into a smart phone language, uploading and getting the system
 Easy steps to prepare required set of questionnaire configured takes additional time
for survey  Requires good internet connection to transfer
 Conveniently used by people who have hands-on data into the central online platform
experience in using smart phones
 Data transferred to a central online platform for
further processing and analysis
4 Stakeholder analysis  Helps to map out the range of stakeholders who  Requires good support from the local
could be useful for the planning process and to roll community and authority to understand the
out the interventions context and collaboration potentials – often
not easy to obtain
5 Shit Flow Diagram  Provides a clear analysis of the excreta flow  Needs a reliable and adequate data set to
pathways along the sanitation chain produce a good SFD
 Easy to follow and understand
 A good sensitization tool for non-experts
6 Sanipath  Provides quantitative results to show pathways of  Assured budget is required for water analysis
faecal contamination from different pathways, which is not always
 Provides strong evidence to take corrective possible
measures/actions to cut specific routes of  Difficult to transport samples to laboratory
contamination unless a field lab is available
 Convincing donors to integrate such
sophisticated tools into a tight planning
process is a challenge
Conclusion and Way forward best alternative for a given context.

A variety of diagnostic tools were validated in
Beyond ODF, CSPs should be taken up as the Tikapur as part of the situational assessment
next step to improve and upgrade environmental to provide a clear picture of the environmental
sanitation situation in urban areas, namely sanitation status (Figure 4). We believe the
municipalities, small towns and emerging urban tools applied in Tikapur can be useful and add
settlements. If carried out correctly, CSP provides significant value for similar planning processes in
a holistic framework and approach to address other urban settlements to improve their urban
environmental sanitation challenges from a environments. Given appropriately targeted
systems perspective and facilitates selection of the
Figure 4: City sanitation planning toolbox validated in Tikapur

capacity building and short orientation programs References

on the different tools, planners, engineers and
decision makers will be able to understand and United Nations (2011). World Urbanisation
use the tools for future planning. Prospects: The 2010 Revision. New York,
NY: United Nations.
ADB (2009). Report and Recommendation of
Acknowledgements the President to the Board of Directors,
We would like to acknowledge the following Proposed Asian Development Fund Grant
institutes and individuals for the direct and Nepal: Second Small Towns Water Supply
indirect support provided during the CSP and Sanitation Sector Project, Project
validation process in Tikapur: Tikapur Number: 41022, Manila, Philippines.
Municipality, STWSSSP, Tikapur Water Users
and Sanitation Committee, Marius Klinger -
Swiss civil service volunteer and ENPHO.
Performance of DEWATS in Nepal

Shrestha, J. and Kalu S.
Abstract Jagam Shrestha (corresponding author)

Decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS) are gaining Subin Kalu
attention in developing countries for treating wastewater. However,

sustainable operation of DEWATS over long-term has continued to Organization (ENPHO)
be a great challenge. This study focuses on exploring the influence of Kathmandu, Nepal
managerial practices for the sustainable operation and performance of
DEWATS. DEWATS under different management set-ups were chosen,
and managerial aspects and physical conditions of different modules
were explored. The performance of DEWATS were also assessed by
comparing the pollutant levels in the inlets and outlets from available
secondary data. It was found that DEWATS with good physical status
were better at pollutant removal. The maintenance of good physical status
of DEWATS is the function of continuous operation and maintenance
which is governed by the responsibility, capacity and knowledge of the
management committee and mobilization of caretaker. Even where
there is an effective management committee in place, lack of technical
knowledge and capacity and financial limitations may hinder good
performance of DEWATS.
Key words: decentralized system, effluent, management, O&M
Introduction relatively simple, non-mechanized treatment

technologies (such as anaerobic baffled reactors,
Wastewater treatment systems have been anaerobic filters, constructed wetland, ponds,
gaining attention in order to conserve natural etc.). These modules do not require energy input
ecosystems and improve public health. and are easy to operate and maintain. Depending
Nowadays, particularly in developing countries on the context, a decentralized wastewater
like Nepal, it has been realized that Decentralized treatment system can also use any other
Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) wastewater treatment technology.
are more appropriate due to their cost-
effectiveness compared to centralized systems DEWATS has been promoted as an approach
(Jha and Bajracharya, 2014). Often the acronym rather than just a technical hardware package
DEWATS is used to describe a specific set of (Sasse, 1998). In principle, DEWATS constitutes
Shrestha, J., & Kalu, S. (2017). Performance of DEWATS in Nepal. Journal of Environment and Public Health, 1(1), pp. 21-26. Published by ENPHO, Kathmandu, Nepal.
both technical and non-technical aspects for • To explore the overall physical conditions
sustainable operation. Technical aspects contain of DEWATS under different management
simple, non-energy consuming, easily operational sectors
and maintainable technological units/modules • To explore influences of management practices
which are also capable of reuse/recovery of and physical conditions on the performance
energy and resources. Non-technical aspects of DEWATS for treating wastewater under
include the decentralization of responsibility and different management sectors
capacity which would be effective and efficient
only through good governance (Fladerer, 2010).
Moreover, the sustainable operation of DEWATS
Methods
is influenced by several factors including For the purpose of study, DEWATS in Nepal
the levels of motivation of the management were first categorized as private, community or
committee, financial sources to cover major municipal systems. Interaction was carried out
repairs, concern for performance of DEWATS with management committee members to explore
and external technical support (WSP, 2013). existing management practices. Managerial aspects,
provision of caretakers and their knowledge,
In the context of Nepal, DEWATS have been operation and maintenance (O&M) mechanisms
promoted and constructed by governmental and and financial arrangements were discussed. In
non-governmental organizations working towards addition, direct field observation was carried out
environmental conservation in support of national at 30 DEWATS to explore the overall physical
and international donor agencies. In addition, the conditions. The performance status of DEWATS
private sector has also been engaged in designing was studied based on secondary sources (ENPHO
and constructing DEWATS. The major benefit 2010). Finally, a qualitative comparison was
of DEWATS is its low cost of operation and performed amongst the three categorizations of
maintenance. However, lack of maintenance DEWATS based on management aspects, physical
may degrade the physical status of different condition and performance.
modules. This may hinder the performance of
the DEWATS and in the long run may lead to
collapse of the system (WSP, 2013). For efficient
Results
operation and maintenance of DEWATS, apart Existing Management Practices
from simple technological combinations, there is a DEWATS installed and operated in private
need for good management practices and effective sectors, such as in schools and hotels, were
financial mechanisms. Therefore, it is assumed constructed mainly as private entities in response
that despite the simple and efficient technology, to the nuisance created in surrounding areas due to
management practices may have a greater influence unmanaged wastewater. The possibility of reusing
over the status and performance of DEWATS. treated wastewater for gardening or toilet flushing
has also attracted many private sector companies
Objectives to install these kinds of systems. Private systems
are generally managed by an owner or head of an
This study was carried out with the broad institute. Gardeners, guards or technicians without
objective of exploring the performance of any knowledge or experience in wastewater
DEWATS installed and managed by different management are responsible for regular O&M
sectors in Nepal. These can be split into the with limited guidance from the designer of the
following specific objectives: system or through direct supervision of the owner.
• To explore the existing management practices In most of these systems, all financial expenses for
of DEWATS managed by different sectors
regular O&M were covered by the owner with areas from direct discharge of influents from
some exceptional cases in systems supported by sewers. These systems were constructed through
donor agencies. a partnership between central- and local-level
government bodies with financial support from
Community level DEWATS are often installed international development agencies. They were
with the support of international or national handed over to the municipality (local-level
non-government organizations working in the government) after completion of the system.
sector of environmental conservation, health Overall management of these systems and
and hygiene. These systems are mainly installed performance of regular O&M was executed
to demonstrate DEWATS as an alternative through the Environmental and Social Unit
wastewater treatment system to conventional or Urban Planning Unit of the municipality.
centralized wastewater treatment systems at In some systems, a caretaker was appointed
the community level. Reuse or recycling of for regular O&M while in others local labors
wastewater and resource recovery (e.g. biogas were hired as needed. Financial sustainability
production) have been integral parts of such of the system under the local governance act
systems. In most of these systems, users was accomplished by the municipality initiating
committees were formed prior to construction. collection of a wastewater service tax and a one-
They were engaged during the planning phase, time connection fee from users.
to coordinate with users, to select appropriate
sites and during construction of the system. Physical Conditions of Systems
Cash or in-kind contributions have been Physical conditions of DEWATS managed by
managed by the users. It was observed that users the private sector were generally well maintained.
committees were trained to execute regular The unique features of systems in this category
managerial and basic operational activities after were the arrangement of modules according to site
the construction phase. For regular operation conditions and land availability. In many systems
and maintenance, one member from the users modules were designed as part of a garden, which
committee was appointed as a caretaker and adds aesthetic value to the premises. Desludging of
given basic O&M training in order to execute septic compartments, cutting of reeds in constructed
daily operational activities of the system. A wetlands and general cleaning of systems were
well-documented operational plan was prepared observed as being carried out regularly. However,
to sustain the system, including basic O&M maintenance work requiring technical knowledge,
guidelines and means of collecting service such as maintaining the position of feeding buckets,
fees from users and visitors. However, it was swivel pipes and other pipe networks for feeding
observed in some systems that users have no wastewater into constructed wetlands, were not
willingness to pay the service fees. Thus there properly maintained.
was lack of sufficient financial means to execute
regular operational activities and maintenance An attempt had been made in many community
of the system. This lack of financial means led sector systems to protect physical infrastructures
to a decline in the motivation and enthusiasm of systems by constructing fences around them.
of members of user committees and their In general, direct visible components of various
participation in management of the system. modules of systems were well maintained, such
as cleaning of manual screens, installation of
Most municipal level DEWATS were initiated manhole covers for settling compartments and
in 2009AD through a government-supported regular removal of decayed reeds and weeds.
program to conserve water sources in urban
However, it was found that accumulated shelter for the caretaker, physical conditions were
scum and sludge were not removed regularly, not satisfactory in most of these systems. The most
cracked connecting pipes were not replaced common problem was higher influent diverted
and the position of swivel pipes in constructed away due to silt and sand deposition at the inlet
wetlands were misplaced. In addition, excessive channel. Further, a lack of regular cleaning and
or scattered and uneven planting of reeds in cutting of reeds in wetlands was observed. Also,
constructed wetlands were common. Channelized the practice of regular removal of scum and
flow in constructed wetlands and clogging of desludging of the septic compartment was not
filter media were the most common problems observed despite the installation of a sludge drying
observed in systems. In a few systems, significant bed in all such systems.
rehabilitation of major modules was urgently
required. In some systems where biogas digesters Performance Evaluation of Effluents
were installed, biogas was still generated despite in Different Systems from Different
other consecutive modules being completely Sectors
nonfunctional or only partially functional. It was observed that the removal efficiency
of private (after 10 years of operation) and
It was observed that municipal DEWATS community (after 4 years of operation) sector
constituted preliminary treatment modules such DEWATS were found to be similar in terms of
as screens with manual cleaning, grit chambers BOD and COD removal (>90%). However,
and grease and oil traps. Primary treatment removal efficiency of municipal DEWATS (after
modules were based on anaerobic reactors, such as 2 years of operation) was lower (72%-73%)
septic tanks followed by anaerobic filters in a few compared to those of the private and community
systems. Finally, constructed wetlands had been sectors (Figure 1). It can be concluded that the
incorporated for final treatment before discharging performance of private DEWATS is higher than
effluent. In general these systems were protected that of community sector, followed by that of
by fencing, and caretakers were provided on-site municipal sector.
shelter in some systems. Despite the provision of
100% 98% 94% BOD Remova l Effi ci ency

91% 93%
90%
COD Remova l Effi ci ency
80% 73%
72%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Pri va te Communi ty Muni ci pa l
Figure 1: Removal Efficiency of DEWATS in Different Sectors

Discussion risks of degrading physical conditions of

various modules. This is due to the lack of
DEWATS consisting of different modules direct personal benefit to the members of the
function well when the modules are in good users committees. Similarly, the absence of
physical condition. Also, the performance of direct benefits to users reduces the enthusiasm
the system is higher when the influent quality and motivation of the community users to
and quantity are within design parameters. financially contribute towards necessary
For example, one of the major parts of the O&M. For example, the Sunga Community
treatment system based on retention and Wastewater Treatment Plant at Thimi,
degradation of organic matter is the settling Bhaktapur, which functioned well during
tank, which functions well when the sludge is the initial phase, has now become completely
filled no more than 2/3 of its capacity, otherwise defunct due to lack of financial resources.
removal efficiency of Total Suspended Solids These funds are needed in order to overcome
(TSS) is drastically reduced (Kurniawan et subsidence in the constructed wetland, however
al., 2016). Similarly, for constructed wetlands local users are not willing to contribute towards
only settled, solids-free wastewater should maintenance of the system.
be introduced. Distribution of wastewater
in a constructed wetland should be uniform There are additional challenges in the case
throughout the width of the inlet zone in order of Nepal, where working in such wastewater
to avoid clogging (Sasse, 1998). Hence, for treatment systems is regarded as an undignified
maintaining good physical condition, good job. Due to the social stigma, it has been very
operation and maintenance practice is essential. difficult to appoint long-term caretakers for
This is governed by several factors including DEWATS. The community based wastewater
responsibility of the management committee treatment plant at Sano Khokana, Lalitpur
and caretaker, capacity and knowledge of the was only performing partially as a result
management committee and caretaker and also of insufficient regular maintenance due to
financial matters. the absence of a caretaker. Incapability of
management committees to retain caretakers
It was observed that DEWATS managed by has further worsened the physical conditions of
the private sector had relatively efficient and different modules and their components. Finally,
effective management due to the self-decision insufficient financial resources results in a lack
making authority of the owner. Improperly of responsibility towards the system by all users,
managed systems may be directly or indirectly caretakers and management committee members.
detrimental to the owner, therefore prompt Similarly, it was observed that there is no specific
execution of regular O&M was generally carried unit within the local authority responsible for
out, resulting in good physical conditions of O&M of DEWATS within the municipal
these systems. This is thus reflected in the good sector. Confusion over which is the most
performance in removal efficiency of private appropriate unit to manage the system, as well
sector managed DEWATS, even after 10 years as lack of coordination between units, has led to
of operation. insufficient regular monitoring by caretakers and
hence a deterioration in the condition of systems.
Despite active participation throughout This was reflected in the results of DEWATS
the planning phase, implementation and managed by the municipal sector, whose
well documented operational plan, systems performance was relatively lower even after only
managed at the community level have higher two years of operation.
Conclusions References
The management committee of DEWATS within APHA (2012). Standard Methods For the
the private sector tends to be highly motivated in Examination of Water and Wastewater,
comparison to that of community and municipal American Public Health Association,
sectors. This leads to more efficient O&M American Water Workds Association,
activities, which in turn leads to good physical Water Environment Federation.
condition of DEWATS and sustainable long- BORDA (2009). Decentralised Wastewater
term performance. For community managed Treatment Systems (DEWATS) and
systems, motivation levels are much lower due to Sanitation in Developing Countries,
financial constraints and lack of enthusiasm of Water, Engineering and Development
the community members and users committees. Center in association with Bremen
Lack of coordination and information sharing Overseas Research and Development
among different units of local authority towards Association.
the management of wastewater treatment systems Fladerer, F. (2010). Mainstreaming DEWATS
has hindered the performance of DEWATS and the Subsequent Need to Introduce
within the municipal sector. a Quality Management System. Water
Practice and Technology, 5.
It is recommended that despite well documented Jha, A. K. & Bajracharya T. R. (2014).
operational plans and management committees Wastewater Treatment Technologies in
in place, reliable financial resources must be Nepal. IOE Graduate Conference.
identified. Thus for financial sustainability, a Kurniawan, A., Kwon, S., Shin, J.-H., Hur, J. &
business model should be developed. At the Cho, J. (2016). Acid Fermentation Process
municipal level, a strong coordination between Combined with Post Denitrification for
the technical unit and social unit must be the Treatment of Primary Sludge and
developed in order to promptly address any Wastewater with High Strength Nitrate.
problems that arise. Water, 8, 117.
Sasse, L. (1998). DEWATS - Decentralized
Wastewater Treatment in Developing
Acknowledgements Countries, BORDA.
We would like to thank all members of WSP (2013). Review of Community-Managed
wastewater management committees for Decentralized Wastewater Treatment
cooperating and sharing their experiences on the Systems inIndonesia, Water and Sanitation
management and operation of DEWATS. Also, Program.
we are thankful to the caretakers of all systems ENPHO (2010). DEWATS in Nepal -
for assistance during observation of systems. We Performance Assessment Report,
also appreciate Mr. Rajendra Shrestha, Director Environment and Public Health
of Outreach Division at ENPHO for valuable Organization.
guidance.
Decentralized integrated wastewater and solid waste

management
Shrestha, R.
Abstract Rajendra Shrestha (corresponding author)

Ineffective management of solid waste and wastewater are two major
problems in cities in the developing world. In Kathmandu Valley, for
Organization (ENPHO)
example, disposal of waste and untreated wastewater from 2.5 million Kathmandu, Nepal
residents into the Bagmati River has significantly polluted the river
and surrounding environment. As collection and transportation costs
make up more than half the total cost of solid waste management and
wastewater treatment systems and large, central systems for waste and
wastewater management are often difficult to establish and maintain,
decentralized solutions can play an important role for addressing both of
these issues. Furthermore, systems that combine waste and wastewater
management can offer significant benefits from a technical, financial and
managerial perspective. In Nepal, a few systems have been established
at the institutional- and community-levels to treat organic solid waste
as well as wastewater and produce valuable products such as biogas and
slurry. Because such systems can generate more biogas and reduce the
cost of waste and wastewater management, users are incentivized to
effectively operate and maintain them. Biogas generation from cow dung
and decentralized wastewater treatment systems are not new to Nepal,
but Decentralized Integrated Wastewater and Solid Waste Management
Systems are new and offer more environmental as well as economic
benefits. Integrated systems in institutions such as children’s homes,
monasteries and prisons as well as community-based systems in Sano
Khokana and Bharatpur demonstrate these benefits. This paper analyses
the technical, financial and managerial performance of these systems
using several case studies and suggests ways to promote them further in
Nepal and other countries.
Key words: biogas, community scale system, financial, management,

technical
Shrestha, R. (2017). Decentralized integrated wastewater and solid waste management. Journal of Environment and Public Health, 1(1), pp. 27-31. Published by ENPHO, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Introduction This makes these systems financially affordable,

which improves sustainability, especially in low-
Wastewater (WW) and solid waste (SW) income communities.
management are two sectors causing major
challenges in developing countries like Nepal. The management of these systems is crucial
Ineffective management of WW and SW make for sustainability and is directly related to the
these challenges even more complicated and availability of O & M funding and incentives.
problematic. In Kathmandu Valley, for example, Unfortunately, sanitation is often a low priority
disposal of untreated wastewater and solid waste not only for the general population but also
in the Bagmati River has significantly polluted for the government, which contributes to the
the river environment. A study conducted by perception that investment in sanitation is a waste
the Asian Development Bank (ADB) in 2013 of money. When this is the case, the potential for
revealed that the total SW generation from income from WW and SW treatment, even if in
five municipalities of Kathmandu Valley was small amounts, can generate positive attention.
611 ton/day and that 70-80% of this SW was In this way, decentralised integrated solid waste
biodegradable. The volumes of wastewater and wastewater treatment systems (DISWATS)
generated and collected in the wastewater are one of the most promising solutions to SW
management systems of these five municipalities and WW management, as they rely upon natural
were found to be 99 and 49 MLD per day, processes and generate energy, and thereby
respectively. There are several technologies and incentives, from waste.
systems that have been implemented for the
management of SW and WW separately at the
household-, institution- and municipal-level. Methodology
Unfortunately, these implementations have not This study is based on a literature review,
been successfully designed or met expectations. questionnaire, and field visits. It relies upon
In fact, most of them are no longer in operation. qualitative methods, case studies and fieldwork to
assess some of the community and institutional
A number of factors have been identified as DISWATS in Kathmandu Valley, Dhulikhel,
contributing to the malfunctioning of these Pokhara and Bharatpur.
systems. Among these factors, the most
prominent are technical complications and Literature review
weaknesses, insufficient finances and other There have been a number of research studies
financial problems, managerial weaknesses and on household-, institution- and community-
lack of accountability. Technically, most of scale biogas production. These studies have
the existing systems were designed to treat or mainly focused on the technical aspects of biogas
manage either SW or WW, not both together. production and its efficiency and not on financial
More specifically, very few systems with biogas and managerial aspects. A recent report by AEPC
technologies are fed by both SW and WW. estimated that more than 300,000 household
scale biogas plants have been constructed and
From a managerial perspective, small, simple, that 200 institutional and communal biogas
decentralised units are easier and cheaper to plants have been installed, although there are
manage, and the operation and maintenance no records of these systems (AEPC, 2017). At
(O&M) costs are negligible as well. Additionally, the household level, cow dung is the major
such systems do not rely upon mechanical units feedstock for biogas production, which is why
and therefore require neither fuel nor highly it is known locally as Gover Gas. About 70% of
skilled manpower for operation and maintenance.
these household systems are connected to toilets, organic waste requiring less digestion time. In
whereas institutional biogas plants are typically DEWATS at Shrikhandapur, owing to small
designed to manage feacal sludge, kitchen waste, inlet of the system designed for cow dung and
and slaughter house waste (AEPC, 2017). wastewater, solid waste feeding is not being
possible.
Case study
Solid waste and wastewater treatment systems Needles to mention organically rich material
with combination of different technologies, produces more biogas. Separate sewer system
wastes and users are considered in this study. The (SSS), therefore, is best as it conveys concentrated
following plants were selected for case studies: wastewater comparative to combined sewer
• Community DEWATS with Biogas Plant, system (CSS). CSS enforces to bigger sized biogas
Shrikhandapur plants because of higher volume wastewater
• Biogas Plant, Barahi Hotel, Pokhara resulting higher investment and more land
• Biogas Plant, Schechen Monastry, consumption as well as higher operation &
Kathmandu maintenance cost.
• Community Biogas Plant, Lankhu,
Bharatpur Centralized treatment systems (composting
• Amaghar Children's home, Godavari, plant, landfill, traditional wastewater treatment)
Kathmandu are not reliable and sustainable methods of
• Bajra Academy, Lalitpur waste management as it dissipates methane
gas into environment, consumes large areas,
Data collection makes nuisance to surrounding, requires highly
skilled manpower and needs higher investment,
A questionnaire is prepared and used with
operation and maintenance cost. DISWATS
different key actors like operators, biogas users
could be a sustainable solution that overcomes
and owners. In the questionnaire, following three
drawbacks mentioned above, recycles nutrients
aspects were taken into consideration.
and produces energy.
• Technical Aspect
• Financial Aspect
As it requires large amount of water, biogas plant
• Managerial Aspect
is not feasible in water scarce areas. Integrated
solid waste and wastewater system, therefore,
Findings and discussion could be a good technological alternative since
wastewater replaces amount of water required for
Technical Aspect
biogas plant. Likewise solid waste maintains C/N
Most of the designs of the community / ratio (20-30:1) mostly in the case of black water
institutional biogas plants of Nepal are enlarged that generated from public toilet/institutions may
version of GGC 2047 model (BSP, 2017). In contain comparatively higher nitrogen.
fact this model is specially designed assuming
that the feedstock as cow dung. From the study Waste and wastewater management system
it was found that design of biogas plant should should be aesthetically attractive or designed to
be modified as per the nature of designated suit the landscape or beautification of nature that
waste so that it performs with good efficiency. makes easy to convince people. Otherwise most
If the organic waste that requires more time of people rejects such system because of smell,
for the anaerobic digestion, then the design of unpleasant looking.
the digesters should be larger compared to the
Financial Aspect extremely poor in case of community or public

Financial aspect is one of the major factors for systems. It includes series of activities as follows
selection and sustainability of DISWAT System. • providing after sales services by construction
Most of the sanitation systems are not properly company/agency
managed or are not in operation in the absence • orientation and training on operation and
of the fund especially in case of public system maintenance to operator, owner and users
whereas most of the systems having funds to • informing clearly on the limitations and
maintain are functioning. In addition people, benefits of systems
however owner or operator, are satisfied and • establishment of O&M fund
happy with biogas since it neutralize full or • regular supervision and maintenance
certain portion of fuel cost.
During the study it was found that management
In community biogas system biogas will be is the most serious. Even in institutional systems
incentive to operate and maintain the system and managerial part was found very weak. At the
it provides monthly cost of caretaker. In Khokana same time, accountability towards nature,
and Dhulikhel biogas plant is good example as incentives from systems is encouraging people
other part of treatment system is not properly to manage the system well in some cases. Based
maintain whereas biogas is working well. Besides on the field observations, the management of
they comparatively show more concern towards the systems was found good in Shrikhandapur
biogas unit and its problems. DEWATS, Biogas at Sechen Monastery and
Biogas at Barahi Hotel. Proper collection and
In Amaghar they are not only saving monthly segregation of waste, regular operation and
2 LPG cylinder which cost NRs 3000 in local maintenance, trained and responsible operators
context. But they are also saving NRs. 30,000 were the key traits for the successful operation of
per year that they used to expend previously for these systems.
desludging of septic tank. Similarly the slurry or
sludge can be sold as fertilizer. Conclusions
From the study it can be concluded that the
Managerial Aspect
integrated way of treatment of waste is one
Management is fundamental for sustainability of the most appropriate methods. Blackwater
and further development of any system. It is and organic solid waste can be treated together
more critical in the sanitation system as it is which produces more biogas giving more
the least priority sector not only for people but incentives or payback to owner or operator. In
government as well. Also management becomes
Table 1: Monthly O & M Cost and Income/Saving from Biogas

Plant Monthly O&M cost (NRs) Monthly Income/Saving (NRs) Saving per month (NRs.)
Community biogas at Dhulikhel 2500 2500 0
Community biogas at Khokana 1500 1750 250
Biogas at Amaghar, Lalitpur 2000 3000 1000
Biogas at Sechen Monastery 2000 3000 1000
Biogas at Barahi Hotel 2000 4500 2500
Community biogas at Lankhu 4000 4590 590
Shared biogas, Gulariya 2000 3000 1000
addition it also saves water which is essential to References

add in ratio of solid waste feeding as wastewater
subsidies the need. Nevertheless, the system Chen, Y., Cheng, J. J., Creamer, K. S. (2007).
should be improved in technical aspects. Inhibition of anaerobic digestions process:
The system performs regularly and sustain if A review, Bioresource Technology. 99, pp.
managerial and financial aspects is also proper 4044-4064.
and attractive. Devkota, G. (2008). Policy development
modality for promotion of Institutional or
For biogas digesters at institutions, issues Community Biogas plants in Nepal, BSP.
of strong ownership and responsibilities for Deublein, D., & Steinhauser, A. (2008). Biogas
maintenance work are crucial points which need from waste and renewable resources: an
special attention. If the system is not properly introduction, Willey, Wienheim.
operated and maintained, there will be adverse Bajgain, S., & Shakya, I. (2005). The Nepal
effects such as methane emissions (greenhouse Biogas support program: a successful
gas) or health risks from leaking gas in the model of public private partnership for
kitchen. Following the positive experience in rural household energy supply, BSP.
Nepal, ICRC will pursue this approach in prisons Centre for Rural Technology Nepal. (2005).
in other countries and support the promotion of National Energy Situation Survey Report
biogas plants for institutions (prisons, schools, Nepal -Focus on Renewable Energy &
and hospitals) in order to improve the sanitary Poverty Reduction, International Network
conditions and provide renewable and clean for Sustainable Energy.
cooking energy. The Asian Development Bank (2013). Solid
waste management in Nepal: Current
Status and Policy Recommendations.
Shukla, A. (2011).Wastewater Production,
Treatment and Use in Nepal.
Potential of wastewater use in irrigated agriculture:

Case of Harisiddhi wastewater treatment plant, Nepal
Dongol, R. and Baidya, M.
Abstract Manina Baidya

Robert Dongol (corresponding author)
Harisiddhi wastewater treatment plant (Scheme number 1) was completed Email: [email protected]
in 2005. The partially functional treatment plant treats domestic wastewater Nepal Engineering College
from 100 households and the effluent of the treatment plant mixes with Bhaktapur, Nepal
a surface drain and finally drains to Karmanasa River. The wastewater
treatment plant is being operated and maintained by the community. This
paper mainly reflects upon the local perception of the wastewater treatment
plant focussing on finding out the potential for wastewater use in agriculture
in terms of technical and financial aspects only. Wastewater quality and
quantity analyses were conducted to assess the technical aspects; participatory
tools such as questionnaire survey, key informant interview and observation
were carried out to assess local perception, environmental benefits and
financial aspects of the treatment plant. Two different aspects were studied
regarding the wastewater use in agriculture i. use of treated effluent and ii.
use of treated effluent mixed with the surface drain. The survey showed great
acceptance for the wastewater treatment plant as the improvements are visible
in the surrounding environment. The quantity, accessibility and reliability
factors indicate the possibility of combined treated and diluted wastewater
use in agriculture. The potential for treated wastewater use alone is very low
whereas the potential for the use of combined treated and diluted wastewater
is very high. The potential for use of wastewater effluent is directly associated
with the quality of treated wastewater, which is questionable at the moment.
Reconstruction of the reed bed and proper and timely maintenance of the
wastewater treatment plant is required to achieve its goal of wastewater use in
agriculture or for the safe disposal in the water bodies.
Key words: effluent,local knowledge, quality, reuse, SAR
Introduction 2014). Changing rainfall patterns, unpredictable

rainfall and inadequate irrigation coverage has led
In Nepal, approximately 60 % of the total irrigable to a threat in the sufficient and timely availability
land has some form of irrigation facility, while less of water for the agricultural sector. Drying up
than one-third has year round irrigation (Shakya, of water sources and issues of priority rights
Dongol, R., & Vaidya, M. (2017). Potential of wastewater use in irrigated agriculture: Case of Harisiddhi wastewater treatment plant, Nepal. Journal of Environment and Public Health, 1(1), pp. 32-39. Published by ENPHO, Kathmandu, Nepal.
has limited the quantity of water available for (DWSS, 2014). However, most of the wastewater
agriculture. The 2011 national census provided collected is disposed directly to nearby surface
an annual population growth figure of 1.3 %; the water sources without any treatment. Wastewater
increase in food production led by population in Nepal is primarily organic in nature. According
growth threatens water security for agriculture. to international practices, wastewater can be used
Sufficient quantity of quality water for agriculture for agriculture after primary treatment. This would
has been threatened by changing climatic patterns lead to a solution for both issues; safe disposal of
and competition of water use among its users for wastewater and the provision of irrigation water
different purposes; Irrigation is prioritized second for agriculture in water scarce areas.
after drinking water by the Water Resources Act
(GoN, 1992). Hence, alternative sources for
irrigation, along with freshwater irrigation, need
Study Area
to be evaluated for water security for agriculture. Harisiddhi Wastewater Treatment Plant is the first of
Although wastewater has a direct impact upon its type in the country. To address the arising problem
humans and the environment, it has been set as of safe wastewater disposal and maintain sanitary
a second priority in the national projects, termed conditions in the area, people of Harisiddhi demand
as P2 projects as indicated in the red book by the a wastewater treatment plant whose effluent could
National Planning Commission (DWSS, 2014). also be fed into their agricultural land (Figure 1). This
This eventually has led to less budget provision idea of wastewater use originated from the centuries
for wastewater treatment across the country. long local initiative where the inhabitants in the urban
Wastewater Policy and Strategy (draft) recognizes fringe of Kathmandu Valley use human waste in
wastewater as a renewable and reusable resource agriculture.
Figure 1: Location of Harisidhhi wastewater treatment plant in Harisiddhi VDC

Harisiddhi Village Development Committee • electrical conductivity

(VDC) consists of four wastewater treatment plants • Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
located at four different locations so that wastewater • Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
can be collected under gravity. Three plants are • total nitrogen
completed and one is currently under construction. • phosphorus
Among the completed wastewater treatment plants, • potassium
only one (Scheme number 1) is functional, serving • faecal coliform
100 households primarily treated by means of a
grit chamber and an Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Effluent volume at some irregular intervals
Reactor (ASBR) and secondarily by a reed bed was also taken to assess the quantity of treated
system (Figure 2). The final effluent combines wastewater. A questionnaire survey was conducted
with a surface drain downstream in the agricultural with 80 households (use of Cochrane formula
area and finally discharges to nearby stream, at 95 % confidence interval and standard error
contradictorily differently from its prior purpose. of 5 % amongst 100 households) to gain an
understanding of the local perception of the
The collapsed units of wastewater treatment wastewater treatment plant and its potential
plant due to April 2015 earthquake are still not contributions. In addition, data was also collected
reconstructed. The wastewater from the ASBR by observation wherever relevant and deemed
is collected in sludge drying beds and directly necessary. Observations were made to identify the
discharges at present. This reflects the poor current status of the infrastructure, to confirm
management of the wastewater treatment plant the current use of wastewater and the sectors
and symbolizes the condition of few existing using wastewater. As this research is aimed at
treatment plants in the country. The reasons for investigating the potential use of wastewater in
the poor functioning treatment plants should be irrigation, analyses from different dimensions such
considered, allowing for the consideration of use as technical, financial and local perception towards
of the effluent within agriculture. the wastewater treatment plant was carried out.
Methodology Data Analysis

One sample of effluent from the wastewater Wastewater quality parameters data was
treatment plant and two samples of effluent compared against the Guideline Values of
combined with the surface drain were collected Irrigation Water Quality Standards of Nepal
for wastewater quality analysis. Concentrations of and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
the following key physio-chemical and microbial The mode value of time required to collect 1
parameters where analysed the a laboratory; litre of effluent was calculated. The discharge of
• pH effluent was calculated by using this time value.
• temperature Reliability was assessed by using discharge data.
• total suspended solids Cost analysis was carried out using the costs of
Coarse Grit Anaerobic Constructed

Screen Chamber Sludge Wetland Effluent
Blanket
Reactor
Figure 2: Layout of Harisdddhi wastewater treatment plant (Scheme number 1)
irrigation by wastewater application in agriculture Diverse responses were obtained about the
and the cost of current practices of irrigation. benefits of the wastewater treatment plant. The
Likert scale was used to assess the local perception main benefit of the treatment plant identified by
of the wastewater treatment plant. the households was the reduction of wastewater
disposal cost; 25 % of respondents did not know
the benefits of the treatment plant and 2.5 %
Results and Discussion of the respondents thought that there is no
Local perception towards wastewater benefit of such treatment plant. The details of the
treatment plant respondents view about the perceived benefits of
Before the construction of Harisidhhi wastewater the wastewater treatment plant are presented in
treatment plant, only 65 % out of surveyed 80 Figure 3.
households had toilets connected to septic tanks,
3% 5%
the remaining 35 % used community toilets.
Separate toilets where available for male and
25%
female users however they were in an unhygienic
condition with scattered human waste around the
VDC giving unpleasant aesthetics, awful odour 38%
and bad environment. Almost all households now

6%
are connected to a sewer line and 78 out of 80
(97.5 %) households responded that wastewater 4%
from their kitchen, toilets and bathrooms are 13% 6%
disposed to the sewer line. Two respondents Use of sanitary toilets Low cost for WW disposal
(2.5%) responded that their wastewater is Health benefits Good quality water for irrigation
disposed to a septic tank due to technical Privacy Safe, easy
difficulties with connecting to the sewer. Most of Don't know No
the respondents, 67 households (83.75 %) know Figure 3: Perceived Benefits of Wastewater Treatment Plant
the purpose of the treatment plant. However, the
real implementation of effluent into agriculture Before the construction of the treatment plant, the
is still lagging in the VDC. The effluent from locals used to empty their septic tanks for Rs 2000
the treatment plant combines with the surface to Rs 5000 in frequencies of between 3 months
drain which ultimately disposes to the Karmanasa to 3 years, depending on the number of family
River. 68 households (85 %) stated that they members. The charge was depends upon the
knew where the effluent is disposed of, while bargaining capabilities of the household through
the remaining 12 respondents are unaware of a series of negotiations with the tanker owners.
the fate of treated effluent. Of the mentioned 68 The households stated that this was a tedious
respondents, 29 (36.25%) stated that the effluent process and depends on the monopoly of tankers.
is disposed to the surface drain and finally to the Therefore, the disposal charge associated with the
river. 35 households (43.75%) stated that the treatment plant was proven to be a desirable and
effluent is disposed to the river and 4 respondents cheap solution for the people. Support for the
stated that the effluent is disposed to the surface treatment plant was present from its planning
drain and finally to agricultural land. However, and implementation phase. It was assessed that
during field visit it was observed that during dry no conflicts regarding the construction of the
season, the water from the drain was collected treatment plant took place based on the responses
to an artificial ditch and pumped by a nearby of 73 respondents (91.25%). The land where
private brick kiln for brick production. Therefore, the treatment plant is located is public land and
no water from this drain discharges to the river.
was previously the location of the community permissible value. The turbidity, total nitrogen
toilet. Local people are aware of the benefits of and potassium values could not be compared as
wastewater use in agriculture. The beneficial none of the guidelines and standards prescribe
factors associated with the use of wastewater in a limiting value. The details of comparison is
agriculture as mentioned by the local people were presented in Table 1.
water security and fertilizer value.
The quality of the diluted effluent was also
considered as the effluent is mixed with the surface
Technical aspects of Harisiddhi drain prior to its use in agriculture. The seasonal
wastewater treatment plant flows are considerably different in our context.
There are a small number of wastewater With both the earlier considerations, the diluted
treatment plants in the country and even fewer water sample was collected on 24th March 2016
are functional. Experts also accept this fact and and surface drain sample was collected on 22nd July
that with the exception of some small local 2016 for analysis. A sample of wastewater effluent
level treatment plants, none of them are totally could not be collected due to site conditions. Some
functional. The state of the functional treatment additional parameters like Total Dissolved Solids
plants is also not satisfactory. This is supported by (TDS), Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) and
their operational status and effluent quality. Suspended Solids (SS) were considered during the
second water quality analysis.
Quality
The sample analyses showed that the majority
From the wastewater analysis data, it is clear of parameters do not meet any of the standards
that majority of the parameters analysed considered. For the diluted sample collected on
were not removed to meet any of the referred 24th March, only pH and electrical conductivity
standards and guidelines. Only pH and electrical meet the standards. However, it is observed
conductivity meet the guideline values and that due to heavy dilution during rainy season,
standards whereas all other parameters, including BOD, COD, SS and TDS are also well within
BOD, COD and faecal coliform, exceed the the limits. Total Nitrogen and phosphate has
Table 1: Wastewater quality of treated effluent and surface drain

Turbidity (NTU)
index/100 mL)
coliform (MPN
Total Nitrogen
Conductivity
BOD5 (mg/L)
(μmhos/cm)
COD (mg/L)
SAR (mg/L)
TDS (mg/L)
Phosphate
Potassium
pH at 210C
SS (mg/L)
Electrical
(mg/L)
(mg/L)
(mg/L)
Faecal
Total
Parameters
Wastewater treatment
7.4 42 1170 101.1 9.16 14.17 600 181.2 1100+ - - -
effluent
Wastewater quality
of surface drain (24 7.3 28 965 57.17 4.88 9.21 440 163.2 1100+ - - -
March 2016)
Wastewater quality of
surface drain (22 July 6.9 73 456 13.3 1.74 14.15 50 14.15 1100+ 5.1 297 180
2016)
Nepal WQ Guideline 6.5-
- 4000 - - - - - 1 2 40 50
for Irrigation water 8.5
Generic Standards
5.5-9 - - - - - 250 50 - - - 50
Part III
FAO standards - - 700-3000 - 5-30 - - - <=1000 3-6 450-2000 -
been reduced by more than 200 % but turbidity and do not belong to the catchment of the
has increased by around 300 %. As per FAO wastewater treatment plant.
guidelines, for SAR 3-6 and EC 300-1200,
infiltration is slight to moderate, which means Reliability
there is a chance of infiltration of this diluted The effluent is a reliable source of water with little
water to pollute groundwater. TDS was measured deviation in its discharge during a period of one
at less than 400 mg/l, salinity is none which month measured at different times and occasions.
means there are no chances of salt deposition in This discharge is available throughout the year.
soil when irrigated by this mixed effluent. The discharge data for the effluent in wet season
could not be calculated as the drain from the
Quantity treatment plant laid beneath the high flow level
The reliability of wastewater in terms of quantity in surface drain during the month of heavy
was also checked by calculating the effluent rainfall in June. Comparing the discharge data
discharge on site. The time taken to fill up of the surface drain in wet and dry seasons, the
a known volume was recorded and used to discharge in wet season is approximately 20 times
calculate the wastewater discharge. The calculated the discharge in dry season due to monsoon.
discharge was 0.048 l/s indicating low flow which
is also substantiated by the responses of the
respondents. The discharge of the surface drain
Financial status of wastewater
was calculated to be 0.228 l/s during dry season, treatment plant and wastewater
whereas the discharge is almost 20 times higher use in agriculture
during wet season. During the observation, it was
found out that 68.75 % of the respondents own The financial resource for construction was
land downstream of the treatment plant. The managed by the government with 20 %
combined discharge available in the surface drain, contribution from the community, both in cash
which is approximately 6 times the discharge and kind. The user’s committee collected Rs
of the effluent, is sufficient to irrigate the land 2,500 from each household for contribution
accessible by the drain. This land cannot be solely and also contributed labour for excavation and
irrigated by the effluent. site clearance. The main source of finance for
operation and maintenance of the treatment plant
Accessibility and associated infrastructures is a monthly tariff
It was observed that 51 out of 55 (92.73 %) collection of NRs 50 per household. Among the
respondents who own the land downstream nine members of the sewer subcommittee under
of the treatment plant use the surface drain the Water Users’ committee, five members are
water for irrigating their land both during dry engaged in tariff collection. The tariff is collected
and wet season. The drain water is applied in a once every three months; this is currently on hold
cascade system, from higher land to lower land due to the devastating earthquake. The tariff is
and between land holders turn by turn. The used to pay cleaning staff and buy different tools
remaining 7.27 % of land owners do not have and equipment to clean the treatment plant and
access to the surface drain water and are totally sewer line. The cleaning staff is paid Rs 2,000 per
rain-fed. Hence, the treatment plant effluent, month. A conservative calculation estimates that a
diluted with the surface drain, is accessible to net saving of NRs. 18,000 occurs.
the majority of respondents. During extremely
dry seasons, land holders having land adjoining The treated effluent from the wastewater
to the river pump water from the river. treatment plant combines with the surface drain
However, this is a small number of farmers at a similar level to that of the drain. In dry
season, the invert level of the sewer carrying the agriculture or disposing to surface water source.
treatment plant effluent is just above the level The diluted effluent mixed with surface drain
of the dry season flow of the surface drain. In also does not meet the standards and cannot be
the wet season the drain is totally submerged by used for agriculture or disposal to river during
the surface runoff. It is not possible to construct dry season but can be used for agriculture and
a new channel parallel to the existing one due disposal to the stream during rainy season.
to the limited space. It is therefore necessary to The quantity of effluent is not sufficient to
construct a crossing across the drain to irrigate irrigate the agricultural land downstream of the
agriculture land solely from the effluent. treatment plant. The combined discharge from
the surface drain and the effluent is sufficient
The adjacent land on other side of the effluent to irrigate the land both in dry and wet season.
sewer, parallel to the drain, is low with a rising The surface drain combined with the effluent
elevation totalling approximately 2 m. This is accessible to the agricultural land and the
makes the construction of a separate system more effluent is highly reliable with little deviation in
difficult. Hence, it is mandatory to construct discharge. However, the reliability of the diluted
a piped system under pressure or pumping effluent is dependent upon the season with high
mechanism to carry the effluent to the agricultural discharge in wet season and low discharge in
land. Owing to the huge investment associated dry season. The surrounding households have
with the construction of a sole wastewater effluent good knowledge of the benefits and adverse
supply and its minimum discharge, it is highly impacts of wastewater use in agriculture. The
infeasible to construct a separate effluent drain to acceptability was high for use of wastewater in
use in agriculture. The analysis of wastewater use agriculture. There is no possibility of the sole
in agriculture is hence carried out for combined use of the effluent to supply the surrounding
discharge from the wastewater treatment plant agricultural land. The use of effluent diluted
and the surface drain. All the respondents who by the surface drain water is highly possible
have land downstream of the treatment plant and is currently practiced. There is no change
and whose land is accessible to surface drain in the cost of irrigation due to there being
water use the water for irrigation. They pose an no changes to any existing infrastructures.
obstruction in the drain to irrigate their lands. All Farmers are aware of the wastewater quality
the respondents stated that one day of labour was and are among those who prefer it the least
sufficient to irrigate their land. One day of labour due to the associated impacts. The potential
costs approximately Rs 600 - Rs 800 for women for treated wastewater use alone is very low
and Rs 700 - Rs 1000 for men. The possible and the potential for combined treated and
mechanism for the diluted wastewater use in diluted wastewater use is very high. It potential
agricultural land will remain the same and the cost use is directly associated with the quality of
for irrigation will also be same as there is no other treated wastewater. Reconstruction of the reed
viable possibility for irrigation of land and this beds is essential to maintain quality of treated
condition is strictly site specific. wastewater alongside the proper and timely
maintenance of other components to achieve
maximum removal efficiency. If possible, and
Conclusion depending upon the financial budget, the user
Harisiddhi wastewater treatment plant has committee should recruit a full time technician
significantly contributed in providing aesthetic for regular operation and maintenance, revision
look to the VDC. However, the quality of tariff is necessary.
of effluent is not good enough for use in
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Productive reuse of organic waste in rooftop farming:

A case study from Kathmandu Metropolitan City
Shakya, S., Shrestha, J. and Kansakar, L.K.
Abstract Jagam Shrestha

Luna Keshari Kansakar (former staff
Rooftop farming (RTF) has been introduced in Kathmandu as an member)
Srijana Shakya (corresponding author)
alternative solution to managing urban waste and wastewater through
recycling and reusing organic waste and grey water generated at
household level since RTF was initiated by the Kathmandu Metropolitan Environment and Public Health
City (KMC) with technical support of development agencies - Organization (ENPHO)
Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO) and Institute Kathmandu, Nepal
for Social and Environmental Transformation Nepal (ISET-Nepal). This
study has been carried out to estimate the potential rooftop area available
for rooftop farming in KMC. Also, this study estimates a total volume
of compost that can be generated from organic waste and the current
demand of compost for rooftop farming. The study shows that 34% of
the households in KMC are practicing some form of kitchen gardening
and rooftop farming. Hence, it was assumed that these households will
culturally accept RTF and thus total rooftop farming area in KMC was
estimated to be 5.7 sq. km. Similarly, the total demand of compost
manure for rooftop farming is 63.3 tons per day which equates to 40%
of potential compost generation from organic waste of Kathmandu.
Grey water generated at household level can be effectively and efficiently
applied for watering crops.
Key words: compost, RTF, urbanization, waste calculation, waste to

resource
Introduction of the statement “Waste to Resource”. The

compost produced from organic waste and
Rooftop farming (RTF) is the production of recycled grey water can be a cost effective and
fresh vegetables, herbs, fruits, edible flowers and locally generated source of fertilizer and water
possibly some small animals on rooftops for for rooftop farming, thereby, supporting the
local consumption (Dubbeling & Massonneau, productive re-use of waste and wastewater.
2014). It can be one of the solutions for urban Rooftop farming has been formally introduced in
waste management by maintaining the essence Nepal recently in 2013 through public awareness
Shakya, S., Shrestha, J., & Kansakar, L. K. (2017). Productive reuse of organic waste in rooftop farming: A case study from Kathmandu Metropolitan City. Journal of Environment and Public Health, 1(1), pp. 40-44. Published by ENPHO, Kathmandu, Nepal.
campaigns and programs by Kathmandu Objective

Metropolitan, Environment and Public Health
Organization, Clean Energy Nepal, along with The overall objective of the study is to assess the
many other NGOs and local organizations. The potential of recycling and productive reuse of
practice is currently limited to particular groups, urban waste in rooftop farming in Kathmandu.
communities or areas. The exact number of The specific objectives are:
households practicing RTF is not known. • To assess the rooftop area feasible for rooftop
farming in KMC.
Many people from rural areas of the country • To estimate the quantity of organic solid
migrate to Kathmandu seeking better waste and wastewater (grey water) that can
opportunities of livelihood. Kathmandu Valley be transformed into compost and used as
is home to 2.5 million people and Kathmandu resources for RTF.
district is the most rapidly growing district
in the country in terms of population with a Methodology
4.71 percent growth per annum (CBS, 2012).
Uncontrolled and rapid urbanization of The study was conducted through a literature
Kathmandu Valley has a multi-sector adverse review on waste and wastewater management
impact on the environment. Solid waste and practices in Kathmandu Valley. Additionally, the
wastewater are the most visible environmental findings from the assessment of 139 households
nuisance and major causes of pollution in the practicing rooftop farming under the UPAF
urban areas of Kathmandu Valley. Managing (Urban and Peri Urban Agriculture and Forestry)
these pollution sources has become a daunting project implemented by KMC, ENPHO and
task as a result of this haphazard urbanization. ISET Nepal in 2012 was reviewed. Rooftop area
Traditionally, waste was considered a ‘Resource’ was calculated on the basis of land use mapping
in Kathmandu Valley and solid waste and of KMC. Crop water demand, compost required
wastewater generated from households were and cropping pattern were derived from available
recycled or reused for agriculture purposes. literature and information from local farmers.
However at present, wastewater from the urban
areas of Kathmandu Valley is directly discharged Results and Discussion
into the Bagmati River and its tributaries without
any treatment. Similarly, solid waste is either Available Rooftop Area
conveyed to landfill sites or dumped haphazardly. On the basis of land use mapping, the total
residential area of Kathmandu Valley is 24
Rapid urbanization, unprecedented population sq.km comprising 200,000 households. Out of
growth and reduction in local food production these households, approximately 34% of urban
have exerted immense pressure on adequate dwellers were found to practice kitchen gardening
food supply in the Kathmandu Valley. This has or RTF for domestic consumption (ENPHO,
resulted in the dependency upon food either 2012). Thus, it was assumed that at least this
from outside the valley or from foreign countries. portion of households in Kathmandu would
Between 1984 and 2000, agricultural land in the adopt RTF. It was also assumed that only 70%
valley decreased from 62% to 42% (ICIMOD, of the available rooftop area would be utilized for
2007). Thus, this paper assess the viability of RTF. Hence, the total RTF area in Kathmandu
rooftop farming for recycling and the productive equates to 5.7 sq. km. as shown in calculation 1.
use of urban waste in Kathmandu.
Calculation 1: Available Roof top Area for RTF compost manure in RTF is 63.3 tons per day as
Total Residential Area: 24 sq. km. shown in calculation 3.
Roof top area =34% of 24= 8.16 sq. km.
Cultivable Roof Top Farming area=5.7 sq. km.
Calculation 3: Total demand of compost
Estimation of Demand and Supply of Compost: manure for RTF per day
1 hectare of cultivation area requires 10 tons of compost,
Since use of compost generated from household i. e. 10000 sq. m. = 10 tons of compost per season [1 season
organic wastes and greywater is embedded in is equivalent to 3 months]
the concept of RTF, this section assesses the which implies, 5.7 sq. km. = 5,700,000 sq. m of cultivated
production of compost from organic waste in area demands
KMC and its utilization in RTF. = 5,700 tons of compost per season
= 63.3 tons per day
According to a study carried out by Asian This shows the current demand of compost
Development Bank in 2013, it was estimated manure, 63.3 tons per day for RTF, is only 40%
that 504 tons of solid waste is generated per day of estimated total potential compost production
in KMC. Out of this, 63.22% is organic waste of 160 tons per day (calculation 2).
which can be decomposed to produce manure
(ADB, 2013). Under suitable conditions and Estimation of grey water utilization:
adequate decomposition, this volume of organic Approximately 68.92 MLD (Million liters per
waste can produce 160 tons of compost per day day) of wastewater is generated in Kathmandu
as shown in calculation 2. Valley (Shukla, Timilsina and Jha, 2012) which
is approximately equivalent to 344 liters per day
Calculation 2: Compost produced per day in per household. In general, the volume of grey
KMC water accounts for 50% to 80% of the domestic
Total Solid Waste generated = 504 tons per day
Composition of organic waste = 63.22% of total waste household water uses and thus the wastewater
= 318.63 tons per day generated (Al-Mashaqbeh, Ghrair and Megdal,
Compost manure generated = 50% of organic waste 2012). Thus, 45 MLD, 65% of water use, was
(Since organic waste generally consists of 40-60% of moisture, assumed to be grey water which is discharged into
for the calculation, 50% loss as moisture during composting nearby drainage.
process has been assumed)
= half of organic waste produced
=160 tons per day Besides reusing organic solid waste as compost,
RTF also provides an opportunity to reuse
The total demand for compost was estimated grey water produced at household level.
based on the above mentioned cultivable roof top Water demand for crops may vary according
area and available secondary data on the manure to their types which is presented in Table 1
required for the cultivation of crops. As per the below (National Committee on Plasticulture
Agricultural Information and Communication Application in horticulture, n.d.). Water demand
Center, the requirement of compost varies from for crops was calculated at a household level so as
5 to 15 tons per hectare for different crops. The to reuse grey water generated at household level.
study also revealed that 10 tons per hectare of
compost produced maximum yield of rice grain According to Table 1: crop water demand
(Plaza and Oilseed, 2010). Thus, 10 t/ha was for crops for total cultivable RTF, crop water
assumed the required compost amount for crop required is 3.17 MLI to 15.66 MLI in initial
cultivation in RTF. Hence, total demand for phase and 6.3 MLI to 28.6 MLI in peak phase
Table 1: Crop Water Demand for Crops for Total Cultivable RTF
Initial Phase crop Water Water
Peak Phase crop Number of plant
water demand (Liter Cropping area requirement requirement
Crops water demand ( Cultivable area/
per Irrigation per Plant per plant (cm )
2
Initial Phase Peak Phase
(L/I/P) cropping area)
(L/I/P)) (MLI) (MLI)
Tomato 0.45 1.15 75*60 12693333 5.71 14.6
Cauliflower 0.74 1.35 45*60 21155556 15.66 28.6
Beans* 0.25 0.5 45*45 46628571 11.66 23.3
Garlic* 0.05 0.1 5*5 2284800000 114.24 228.5
Strawberry* 0.05 0.1 30*30 63466666 3.17 6.3
*: Crop water demand calculated based on experience shared by local farmer
Table 2: Crop Water Demand as Crops per Household (230 sq. ft.)
No. of plants Crop water demand
Crop water Monthly crop water Monthly crop
RTF area (HHs) = RTF Initial Phase= No of
Crops demand Peak demand (Initial water demand
(HHS cm2) Area / No. of plant* initial water
Phase Phase) LI (Peak Phase) LI
plants demand (Liter/irrigation)
Tomato 230000 51 23 59 138 353
Cauliflower 85 63 115 378 691
Beans* 188 47 94 282 563
Garlic* 9200 460 920 2760 5520
Strawberry* 256 13 26 77 153
*: Crop water demand calculated based on experience shared by local farmer
except for garlic. This indicates that the demand Recommendation

of water for cultivable RTF in KMC is lower
than the volume generated. Table 2 also shows It is recommended that awareness campaigns be
crop water demand for different crops is 13 scaled-up to raise the awareness of the benefits of
L/D to 63 L/D in initial phase and 26 L/D to rooftop farming at household and community
63L/D in peak phase which implies that grey level while using organic waste for composting.
water generated at household level is sufficient to Also, further research should be conducted on
irrigate rooftop farming in crops. the quality of greywater or compost being used in
RTF and the quality of crops produced.
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
It can be concluded that the promotion of
rooftop farming provides an opportunity to We are grateful to Mr. Alok Chandra Neupane,
reuse urban waste into resources. Currently, a local farmer for providing information on the
there is demand of 63.3 tons of compost per current practices of cropping patterns and water
day which is 40% of the potential compost demands. Also we are thankful to Mr. Prashanna
manure production from the waste generated Man Pradhan, Senior Manager at ENPHO and
in Kathmandu. Also, crop water demand for Mr. Keshab Shrestha, Manager at ENPHO
different crops is 13 L/D to 63 L/D in initial for their valuable guidance. Additionally we
phase and 26 L/D to 63L/D in peak phase, would like to thank our colleagues for valuable
thus grey water generated at households can be suggestions. Finally, we express our deep
effectively applied for rooftop crop irrigation. gratitude towards all those who provided valuable
contribution in the preparation of this paper.
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Metropolitan City.
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policy-recommendations KVEO_2007.pdf
Al-Mashaqbeh, O. A., Ghrair, A. M., & Megdal, National Committee on Plasticulture Application
S. B. (2012). Grey Water Reuse for in horticulture. (n.d.). National
Agricultural Purposes in the Jordan Valley: Committee on Plasticulture Application in
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Dubbeling, M., & Massonneau, E. (2014).
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Human urine application in rice and potato production

Nakarmi, P., Shakya, S., Dhakal, I. and Kansakar, L.K.
Abstract Isha Dhakal

Luna Keshari Kansakar (former staff
This study was carried out to evaluate the effect of human urine on rice and member)
Pramina Nakarmi
potato production while comparing yields from urine application, chemical Srijana Shakya (corresponding author)
fertilizer application and farmer’s common practice. Urine application Email: [email protected]
supplemented with compost gave significantly higher yield in rice (p<0.05)
compared to two-split or three-split urine application, chemical fertilizer or Environment and Public Health
farmer’s practice. Potato yields, though not significantly different among Organization (ENPHO)
Kathmandu, Nepal
treatments (p>0.05), were generally higher in plots treated with urine and
compost combined. Rice yield from farmer’s common practice was lower
compared to application of chemical fertilizers. In case of potato, the yield
from farmer’s practice is slightly higher than that from plots treated with
urine alone and is comparable or even higher than yield from plots treated
with chemical fertilizers. Furthermore, organic matter in soil increased with
every treatment, with the highest organic content reported in soil treated
with urine supplemented with compost. The study indicates that urine in
combination with compost can act as a valuable fertilizer and a potential
substitute for chemical fertilizer for rice and potato cultivation. Diverting
urine from wastewater streams for its use in agriculture can also reduce
nutrient load in wastewater thereby saving valuable energy and resources
required for wastewater treatment.
Key words: compost, ecological sanitation, fertilizer, human waste,

organic matter
Introduction of phosphorus, and 90% of potassium in the total

nutrient load (Larsen et al., 2001).While use of
The emerging concept of “Closing the Loop” human excreta in agriculture is an age-old practice,
emphasizes ecological sanitation for food security the concept of Ecological Sanitation (Eco San)
and considers human waste a valuable resource toilets has fostered separation of urine and faeces,
for increasing soil fertility and food production. A their use as fertilizers as well as curbing of unsafe
major source of nutrients in wastewater is human excreta disposal (Karak and Bhattacharya, 2011).
excreta,most of which is contributed by urine. Urine A urine-separating system can save about 80% of
typically contributes around 80% of nitrogen, 50%
Nakarmi, P., Shakya, S., Dhakal, I., & Kansakar, L. K. (2017). Human urine application in rice and potato production. Journal of Environment and Public Health, 1(1), pp. 45-50. Published by ENPHO, Kathmandu, Nepal.
water used for toilet flushing which can account This study evaluated the effect of human urine
for 30% of average direct daily water use. A family application (and its application method) on rice and
of four could save around 80 litres of water per day potato production, the first and the fourth most
with such system(Larsen et al., 2001). This in turn important crops of Nepal respectively (Joshi et al.,
can reduce wastewater load along with nutrients and 2003). Crop yields from urine application, chemical
can significantly decrease the energy requirement fertilizers and farmer’s common practice (urea and
for wastewater treatment (Wilsenach and Van animal manure) were compared.
Loosdrecht, 2003).
Use of urine in agrilculture can reduce emission

Objectives
from fertilizer production and contamination The overall objective of the study was to assess
of agricultural soils by heavy metals through applicability of human urine in agriculture. The
synthetic fertilizers (Larsen et al., 2001). Especially specific objective of the study was to compare
in developing world where chemical fertilizers are the yields of rice and potato from different kinds
expensiveand not readily available, urine can be a of fertilizers including the common practice of
quick acting, nutrient-rich fertilizer(Gensch et al., applying animal manure and urea.
2011; Feineigle, 2011), that provides significant
quantity of water to agricultural crops. Studies
suggest human urine as clean fertilizers because of
Materials and Methods
the lower concentrations of heavy metals in human Study site and materials
urine than farmyard manure and artificial fertilizers The field experiment was carried out in Gundu,
(Richert et al., 2010). Johansson et al. (2002) Bhaktapur for three consecutive years (2009-
suggest that though urine can possibly be cross- 2011) in a total cultivation area of 58.75 m2 (five
contaminated with faecal pathogens, it is effectively plots measuring 11.75 m2 each for five different
sterile under high pH and high temperature (e.g. treatments). The soil properties were analyzed at
>20°C) when stored for ≥6 months (Beal et al., the start of the experiment (Table 1).
2008).In general,urine has nitrogen concentration
of 3-7 gm/L and each human being produces 0.8– Table 1: Soil attributes before the experiment
1.5 L of urine per day (Richert et al., 2010). The Parameters Value
nutrients in ionic form in urine are readily available pH 7.2
and therefore is comparable to chemical fertilizers Electrical Conductivity (EC) 491 (µs/cm)
(Jonsson et al., 2004).Literature suggests that urine
Organic Matter (OM) 0.20%
produced by a person in one year has enough
fertilizer value to feed him the amount of cereal the Total Nitrogen (TN) 0.10%
person consumes in a year (Ganrot, 2005).Different Total Phosphorus (TP) 0.20%
studies on fertilizer value of human urine suggests Available Phosphorus 0.02%
increase in yield of different vegetables and maize
Moisture Content 1.70%
due to the readily available nutrients (Sene et al.,
2013).
The soil was characterized to be sandy loam; 55%
Urine application can help improve soil fertility sand, 9% clay and 36% silt.
and decrease the use of inorganic fertilizers. Urine
application in agricultural crops can also reduce The plants used for study were rice (Variety
the nutrient load entering into the wastewater Khumal-11) and potato (Variety Janak Dev)
streams, thus saving energy and other resources which were planted sequentially: rice planted in
necessary for wastewater treatment. May/June and harvested in October/November;
potato planted in January and harvested in April/ Urine application

May. The space allotted per plant of rice was 20 x Urine was collected separately from faeces from
15 cm2 and 75 x 25 cm2 for potato. Actual yields Eco San Toilets (system that separates faeces
were measured and transformed to kg/ha for rice and urine), and stored for one month before
and tons/ha for potato. The potato harvest was its use as recommended by Richert et al., 2010.
also followed by soil analysis every year. Urine samples were analyzed for pH, nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium content (Table 3) at
The yields obtained under different treatments ENPHO laboratory every year.
for rice and potato were compared statistically.
In case of rice, urine was directly applied without
Treatments dilution, whereas in case of potato, urine was
Five different treatments (Table 2) were tested. A diluted in the ratio 1:3 (urine: water) at the time
narrow protective plastic strip (2 feet deep) was of application (Richert et al., 2010). The total
used between treatment plots to prevent cross dosage of urine was 20 litres (Richert et al., 2010)
contamination. each for both crops.
The chemical fertilizers used were urea (46% N), Table 3: Attributes of urine
di-ammonium phosphate (18% N and 46% P) and Parameter
Year
murate of potash (60% K). The fertilizer dose for 2009 2010 2011
rice was 80:30:30 and for potato 150:100:30. Urine Total Nitrogen (mg/L) 2926 5391 7117
Total Phosphorus (mg/L) 308 178 314
dose for the crops were calculated to be 20 litres Potassium (mg/L) 874 1711 1797
(Richert et al., 2010) each for both, rice and potato Sodium (mg/L) - 2774 3526
per season. The analysis of urine used for the study
was carried out at Environment and Public Health
Organization (ENPHO) laboratory (Table 3). Results and Discussion
Soil quality
Table 2: Treatment details
Treatment Application Method
The pH value of soil slightly increased (range 7.2
to 7.9) after first application in all treatments
Half volume (1/2 dose) of calculated dose of urine
split urine
T2: Three-split T1: Two-
was applied at the time of planting and half (1/2

(Table 1). According to FAO (1984), the
dose) was applied on day 25-30 after planting. availability of plant nutrients is high when pH is
1/3 volume (1/3 dose) of calculated dose of urine between 6.5 to 7.5 as soil reaction is highest in
was applied at the time of planting, whereas the the range and breakdown of organic matter and
rest of the volume was applied at two different release of nutrients is greatest in intermediate
times i.e. 25-30 days (1/3 dose) and 50-60 days pH levels – around 7 (Thapa, 2013). The
urine
(1/3 dose) after planting. organic matter content of the soil increased in
all treatments with the highest increase seen in
supplemented
Half volume (1/2 dose) of calculated dose of urine

with compost
was applied at the time of planting along with T3 during and after the experiment. EC value
T3: Urine
compost @ 10 tons/ha per crop per season. The

decreased in every treatment except in T3 after
other half was applied on 25-30 days after planting.
first harvest. However, the EC values in final year
Half volume (1/2 dose) of recommended dose are lower than initial values in all treatments.
Chemical
fertilizers was applied at the time of planting

fertilizer
whereas the other half was applied at 25-30

T5: Farmer’s T4:
days after planting.
Use of animal manure and then addition of urea

common
practice
at 20-25 days after plantation.

Change in pH Change in Electrical Conductivity

8.0 800
7.8
7.6 600
7.4
pH
Initial
EC (µs/cm)
7.2 400 Initial
7.0 2009
2011 2009
6.8 200
6.6 2011
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 0
Treatment T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Treatment
Change in Organic Matter

4.0
3.5
3.0
OM (mg/L)
2.5
2.0 Initial
1.5
2009
2011
1.0
0.5
0.0
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Treatment
Rice and potato yields

According to the results for rice yields under different treatments, the yield in T3 (treatment with human
urine and compost) was significantly higher than all other treatments (p<0.05). The results also suggest that
among different urine application methods, i.e. T1 (two-split), T2 (three-split) and T3 (urine supplemented
with compost), T3 was the most effective. The rice yield under T3 is about 20% higher than under other urine
treatments (Table 4) possibly due to a higher level of nitrogen in the soil and its uptake by the crops. Earlier
research have also reported significant positive rice yield response to application of nitrogen (Singh et al., 2014).
Table 4: Yield of rice and potato production under different with that of the third year, the increase in yield is
treatments in different years least (12%) under T1 and highest (106%) under
Rice Yield (kg/ha) Tuber Yield (t/ha) farmer’s common practice. This could be due
Treatment 2009 2010 2011 2009 2010 2011 to the increase in fertility of the soil for potato
T1 6915 7191 4902 10.1 10.9 11.4 production because of the treatment methods
T2 6775 6519 6162 10.3 11.1 17.0 applied or the farming.
T3 8362 7336 7838 14.9 17.4 22.8
T4 7064 7183 6545 14.3 13.8 19.1
T5 6838 6800 5557 12.0 17.2 24.8
Rice production with T3 is 2-20% and 23%

higher compared to yield of T4 and T5
respectively. Yield from T4 (chemical fertilizers)
was lower than yield from T3, but higher than
T1, T2 and T5. The yield from farmer’s common
practice was consistently lower than those from
chemical and two-split urine applications.
In case of potato, highest yield was obtained
with T3 (urine supplemented with compost)
every year. Though statistical analysis of yields
under different treatment methods did not show Conclusions
significant difference in potato yields (p>0.05), The research clearly shows significantly higher
the general trend indicates a higher yield with productivity of rice (p<0.05) under T3 (human
T3. Potato yield from T3 is about 50% higher urine supplemented with compost). Rice yield
than yieldfrom other urine treatments and about under farmer’s common practice was less than
16% higher compared to chemically treated under chemical fertilizers and two-split urine
plots. Unlike in rice, potato yield under T3 application. The yield of potato was generally
was not significantly different from yield under higher with T3 although the difference between
farmer’s common practice.Potato yield with treatments was not statistically significant
farmer’s practice was higher than those from (p>0.05). Potato yield with farmer’s common
chemically treated plots. The plots treated with practice was slightly higher than that with urine
urine only (T2 and T3) showed lower yields alone and with chemical fertilizers. Hence, it can
compared to other treatments, which indicate be concluded that urine in combination with
that the nutrients could not be effectively used by compost (T3) can act as a valuable fertilizer and
plants with these treatments. Similar results were a potential substitute for chemical fertilizer for
reported by Pradhan et al. (2007) who studied rice and potato cultivation. Separating urine from
the effect of human urine fertilizer on cabbage sewage and wastewater for use in agriculture can
growth. Another study by Pradhan et al. (2009) also reduce nutrient load in wastewater streams
also found that urine fertilized tomato produce and save energy and resources necessary for
was equal to the produce of mineral fertilized wastewater treatment.
plants which was 4.2 times more than non-
fertilized plants (Karak and Bhattacharya, 2011).
Acknowledgements
The potato yield increased over the years under Authors are very grateful to Dr. Laxman Joshi
all treatments. Comparing yields of the first year (Board Member, ENPHO) and Mr. Subin Kalu
(Research Assistant, ENPHO) for their support Pradhan, S. K., Nerg, A. M., Sjoblom, A.,
in reviewing this paper and for the valuable Holopainen, J. K., & Heinonen-Tanski,
comments in preparation of this paper. H. (2007). Use of human urine fertilizer in
cultivation of cabbage (Brassica oleracea) -
Impacts on chemical, microbial, and flavor
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Co-treatment of faecal sludge with wastewater

treatment systems: A systematic review
Dangol, B.
Abstract Bipin Dangol (corresponding author)

Co-treatment of faecal sludge with sewer-based wastewater treatment plants
could be one solution for treating faecal sludge. The objective of this paper
Organization (ENPHO)
is to systematically review empirical studies of the potential for and impacts Kathmandu, Nepal
of co-treatment of faecal sludge with wastewater treatment systems. Data
were obtained from peer-reviewed articles, books and reports. Globally,
the practice of faecal sludge co-treatment is very limited, with examples
including activated sludge plants, trickling filters, rotating biological
contactors, waste stabilization ponds, aerated lagoons, and anaerobic
systems. The feasibility of co-treatment largely depends upon solids, organic
and nitrogen loadings, shock loadings, faecal sludge characteristics and
capacity of treatment plants. One significant challenge is that relatively
small volumes of faecal sludge can be co-treated with wastewater treatment
plants. Additionally, excessive loadings lead to severe operational problems
as a result of the incomplete removal of organics, cessation of nitrification,
high sludge generation, presence of inhibitory compounds. Based on this
review, the author concludes that co-treatment of faecal sludge with sewer-
based wastewater treatment systems is unlikely to be a viable solution in the
majority of cases in low-income countries.
Key words: activated sludge plant, co-treatment guideline, FSM, organic

loading, septage
Introduction substantially in both urban and rural areas (Water

Research Commission, 2011). Nevertheless,
Proper management of waste and wastewater proper planning for faecal sludge management
is a growing issue in urban areas of developing (FSM) is often lacking. As a result, hundreds of
countries. About 90% of wastewater in thousands of tons of faecal sludge (FS) collected
developing countries is discharged directly into from on-site sanitation systems, most of which
the water bodies without treatment (Corcoran et is untreated, is disposed of haphazardly into the
al., 2010). Over the past few years, promotion environment everyday (Strauss and Montangero,
and installation of on-site sanitation systems such 2002). In many cities, FS dumping sites are
as pit latrines and septic tanks have increased located close to squatter areas or informally
Dangol, B. (2017). Co-treatment of faecal sludge with wastewater treatment systems: A systematic review. Journal of Environment and Public Health, 1(1), pp. 51-58. Published by ENPHO, Kathmandu, Nepal.
inhabited low-income areas where people, Center for Environmental Publications (https://
particularly children, are at the greatest risk of www.epa.gov/nscep), and Google Scholar (https://
exposure to hygienically unsafe excreta (Strauss scholar.google.com) using the following keywords:
and Montangero, 2002). “Faecal Sludge” AND “Co-treatment”; “Septage”
AND “Co-Treatment”; “Faecal Sludge” AND
There are major problems and challenges associated “Wastewater Treatment Plants”; “Septage” AND
with each of the components of FSM, including pit/ “Wastewater Treatment Plants”. The systematic
vault emptying, haulage, storage or treatment, and review mainly focused on identifying data and
reuse or disposal (Strauss and Montangero, 2002). information on type and design capacity of
Although much effort and many resources have WWTPs; co-treatment processes; characteristics
been invested in developing both low- and high-cost and volume of FS added; impacts of FS addition;
wastewater treatment technologies over the past and procedures to reduce these impacts.
decades, very limited field research, technological
development and testing have been carried out
on sustainable FS treatment and management
Results and Discussions
(Ingallinella et al., 2002). FS co-treatment in conventional WWTPs
has been practiced in high-income countries,
The practice of disposing FS at centralized including the United States, and in some middle-
wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is income countries. Based on monitoring results,
seen as a feasible option to help to stabilize the US EPA (1984) pointed out that the ability
the sludge from an environmental perspective of WWTPs to accommodate the addition of FS
(Andreadakis, 1992; Heinss and Strauss, 1999; depends on the plant type, layout & location;
Harrison and Moffe, 2003; Lake, 2010). design capacity; wastewater flow; effluent
However, the characteristics of FS and septage limitations; FS pre-treatment facilities; and sludge
can affect the performance and operation of the handling facilities. The quantity of FS that can be
receiving sewage treatment plants since they are added to the WWTP depends on the quantity &
more concentrated than typical sewage flows characteristics of the FS; nature of flow (slug load
(Andreadakis, 1992; Harrison and Moffe, 2003). or continuous loadings); and aeration capacity, in
The objective of this paper is to present the the case of aeration based WWTP.
review of co-treatment of FS with centralized
WWTPs and the issues with co-treatment Co-treatment in activated sludge
that should be addressed to avoid failures. The wastewater treatment plant
findings from the review of the FS co-treatment The co-treatment of FS in an activated sludge
with activated sludge plants, trickling filters, WWTP can be achieved in two ways: addition in
rotating biological contactors, waste stabilization the liquid stream - before bar screening, before
ponds, aerated lagoons, and anaerobic systems are primary clarifier and before the aeration tank or
presented and discussed in this paper. trickling filter, and addition in the solid stream
- in the sludge thickener, in the sludge digester
Methods and in the dewatering facility (US EPA, 1984).
FS addition to the WWTP is recommended only
Data were collected by reviewing the existing after pre-treatment (e.g. screening, degritting and
scientific literature, books and reports related equalization) (US EPA, 1984). Pre-treatment is
to FS co-treatment with WWTPs. To find the required to prevent possible shocks to the plant’s
relevant documents, the search was done on hydraulic and organic load-carrying capacity.
the websites of United States Environmental This is further supported by the results of the
Protection Agency (US EPA), National Service study conducted by Eikum (1983) in Norway. If
pre-treatment is not possible, the US EPA (1984) Dangol (2013) carried out mathematical
suggests discharging fecal sludge into a controlled modelling of different volumes and strengths of
manhole upstream of the plant headworks digested and fresh FS combined with wastewater
allowing it to get diluted by the wastewater before to assess the potential impact on the efficiency of
entering the plant. However, the addition of FS a 100,000 Population Equivalent (P.E.) activated
during low flows is not recommended, since that sludge WWTP receiving medium strength
can exert shock loading, leading to operational wastewater. This simulation study highlighted the
problems. The US EPA (1984) recommends detrimental effects of adding FS to an activated
evaluating the impact of FS addition to the sludge WWTP. The aeration capacity of the
activated WWTP units, with a focus on such key system was rapidly insufficient and nitrification
considerations as: increased hydraulic loading stopped due to the high TSS, COD and N
on primary and secondary clarifiers; increased loading. Further, it found that for low and
loading on sludge treatment or handling units; medium-strength digested sludge, only a small
increased sludge volume in clarifiers; increased quantity of the total influent flow (max. 0.6 and
organic loading to the biological process units; 0.5% respectively) could be added. For fresh FS,
scum build up in treatment units; odour and less than 1 promille was acceptable to the plant.
foaming problems in aeration units; and toxic The results demonstrated that co-treatment of
substances present in FS causing inhibition to faecal sludge is a feasible option only for limited
biological processes and effluent limitations. amounts of low and medium-strength digested
faecal sludge. Before discharging faecal sludge
Segall et al., (1979) reported that a constant to a WWTP, one must be know whether one is
addition of 2% of FS almost doubles the dealing with fresh or digested sludge.
organic input to an aeration basin and doubles
the solids loading on a primary clarifier in a Similarly, a field-based study on two activated
conventional activated sludge WWTP. It is sludge WWTPs in South Africa found serious
possible for conventional activated WWTPs operational problems caused by high loads of
to operate successfully with continuous FS organics, nitrogen compounds and suspended
additions (ahead of primary units) of less than solids after adding low volumes of FS into the
5% of flow volume at loadings of 0.33 to 1.1kg systems (Wilson and Harrison, 2012). A complete
BOD5/kg MLVSS/d and COD loadings of up cessation of nitrification process was observed
to 3kg COD/kg MLVSS/d (US EPA,1984). A in one of the plants, and excessive overloading
field study conducted at the full scale WWTP of the solids was found in another system (Still
at Marlborough, Massachusetts concluded that and Foxon, 2012). Still and Foxon (2012)
the plant is in operation at a loading of 0.42kg concluded that FS co-treatment in activated
BOD5/kg MLVSS/d without FS addition, which sludge WWTPs is not sustainable due to severe
increased to 0.45 and 0.54kg BOD5/kg technical and operational problems. Another
MLVSS/d for respective FS addition rates study conducted for co-treatment of septic tank
of 1.25 and 2.14 percent of wastewater flow sludge in an activated sludge WWTP on Saint
(Segall et al., 1979). The same study indicated Marten, Netherlands Antiles concluded that the
that the FS addition to WWTPs has an average plant could handle FS volumes of no more than
oxygen requirement of 0.7kg O2/kg of BOD 2.8% of the influent (Lake et al., 2011). The FS
in FS added. The FS added to these plants was discharged to this system contained high loads of
pre-treated, and operation & management non-biodegradable particulate organic matter and
requirements were carefully planned before non-biodegradable soluble organic nitrogen, which
the FS addition, which is key for the successful hindered compliance with the effluent limits after
operation of these plants. co-treatment.
In Manila, Philippines, an activated sludge plant a low-rate trickling filter would produce about
was found to be able to treat up to 814 m3/day 0.24 kg sludge/m3 of flow; this would increase to
of FS, mainly because the total volume handled 0.3 kg sludge/ m3 for high-rate trickling filters.
by the plant was only about 40-50% of its Therefore, besides a requirement for primary
design capacity, allowing room for FS addition treatment, the hydraulic & organic loadings and
(Robbins et al.,. 2012). In addition, there was handling of increased sludge production are the
adequate operator capacity and competence, and major considerations for FS addition to trickling
an appropriate management scheme was being filters (US EPA 1984).
implemented for the system.
Co-treatment in Rotating Biological
Germany has developed guidelines for the Contactors:
addition of FS in sewer mains and liquid streams Rotating biological contactors (RBCs) consist
connected to centralized WWTPs (ATV- of rotating discs where microbial biomass
Regelwerk, 1974). These guidelines include the can attach and grow and organic matter
following key suggestions: is aerobically broken down. RBC systems
are largely used in centralized WWTPs in
Table 1: Guidelines for FS addition in sewer mains and in
liquid stream developed countries. There are, however,
FS addition in liquid stream very few examples of combined treatment of
FS addition in sewer mains FS and wastewater in systems with RBCs.
in WWTP
The treatment plant must The treatment plant must Combined treatment of FS and wastewater at
have a biological step with have a biological step with the Ellsworth, Maine RBC treatment plant
adequate capacity to treat an adequate capacity to treat an was not very successful, as the addition of less
additional load of FS designed additional load of FS designed
for a minimum of 30,000 for a minimum of 10,000
than 1% of FS to a wastewater flow of 2,460
persons. persons. m3/d caused several operation problems (US
At the point of discharge, the At the point of discharge, the EPA, 1984). These problems included clogging
FS must be diluted at least FS must be diluted at least of roto strainers and high concentrations of
10 times with municipal 20 times with municipal BOD & TSS in the final effluent due to high
wastewater. wastewater. organic and solid contents in FS. Therefore,
FS must only be added at the FS must be added upstream
point specifically set aside for from the plant screen.
the organic loading rate is an important factor
FS addition. to be considered if FS co-treatment is to be
done in an RBC.
Co-treatment in Trickling filters:
Data on the performance and design of The US EPA (1983) reported that first stage
trickling filters for combined treatment of FS organic loadings of 2.7 kg total BOD5/d/1,000
and wastewater is very limited. Rezek et al., ft2 resulted in an increased frequency of process
(1980) found that the trickling filter plant at and mechanical problems at 24 facilities with
Huntington, New York with a capacity of 83.1 RBCs. These problems included excessive
L/S treated 1.3 L/S of FS with BOD reductions biofilm thickness, nuisance organism growth,
of 85 to 90%. As high concentrations of and deterioration of process removal efficiency.
suspended solids (1 to 3 %) could cause plugging As high influent H2S concentrations can impede
of the filter media in trickling filter units, it is RBC performance and accelerate nuisance
highly recommended that the mixture of FS & growths, control of excessive biological growth is
wastewater first go through primary treatment. very important when FS is added to RBC plants
For an FS addition of 1% of wastewater flow, (US EPA 1983).
Co-treatment in anaerobic processes: ponds, ammonia quickly becomes a limiting

The co-treatment of FS and wastewater in factor (Strauss et al., 2000; Still and Foxon,
anaerobic processes such as up-flow anaerobic 2012). Methanogenic bacteria are the most
sludge blanket reactors (UASBs), anaerobic sensitive to ammonia inhibition, resulting in
digesters, and anaerobic ponds could be an lower biogas yield even if soluble biodegradable
alternative for sludge stabilization, volume organics are available (Chen et al., 2008;
reduction, and increased dewaterability. Angelidaki et al., 1993; Chaggu, 2004). Due to
Anaerobic processes are particularly attractive high ammonia concentrations and high organic
due to the production of biogas. However, loads & solid content, treating high quantities
FS co-treatment in anaerobic processes can be of FS or treating only FS in WSPs is not
disrupted by overloading of COD, ammonia recommended (Strauss et al., 2000). Fernandez
inhibition, pH variations, and sulfide inhibition et al., (2004) suggested the pre-treatment of
(Lopez-Vazquez et al., 2013). Still and Foxon FS before adding it into a WSP, operated at
(2012) pointed out that the low concentrations maximum loading rates of 0.6 kg BOD5/m3/d.
of biodegradable organics in digested FS WSP can be used for the co-treatment of
will lead to low biogas production but high wastewater and FS effluent following pre-
solids accumulation that results in additional treatment (solid-liquid separation) in settling-
operational costs during FS co-treatment in thickening tanks. Kurup et al., (2002) pointed
anaerobic treatment systems. out the possibility of FS co-treatment with
landfill leachate in WSPs.
Lopez-Vazquez et al., (2013) conducted
mathematical modelling of FS co-treatment in Based on the intensive studies and monitoring
a UASB and concluded that the UASB system of FS addition in centralized WWTPs, Rezek et
designed for 100,000 P.E. can handle only al., (1980) prepared the chart in Figure 1 below,
7.5% of low-strength digested FS and 0.25% which shows the amount of FS that can be added
of high-strength fresh FS due to high COD to a plant as a function of plant capacity and the
content. A UASB could handle low-strength ratio of present flow to design flow (Figure 1).
FS but is prone to overloading in the case of The WWTP with 100% wastewater flow will
addition of high-strength FS. This clearly exhibits not accommodate FS addition. As per this
that it is important to know the characteristics chart, if the activated sludge plant with primary
of FS before addition to such processes. ATV treatment is in operation with annual wastewater
(1985) recommended that feeding that includes flow of 50%, then FS addition of 1.4% of the
FS should be lower than one twentieth of the plant design capacity can be done. Taking the
digester volume for anaerobic co-treatment in case of Guheshwori WWTP, which is based on
the digesters. Therefore, a maximum of 5% FS activated sludge with primary treatment and with
loading, regardless of its strength, is possible the design capacity of 17 MLD, if the annual
to prevent overloading or any reduction in the wastewater flow is 50% & 80% then about 238
Sludge Retention Time (SRT) in anaerobic m3/d and 102 m3/d of FS can be added into
digesters. this system, respectively. While the FS addition
seems relatively large, other key factors such
Anaerobic ponds, which are the first stage of as adequate dilution with wastewater, excess
treatment in a waste stabilization pond (WSP), aeration capacity, appropriate operation &
are widely used for the treatment of municipal maintenance, and management capability should
wastewater. With FS co-treatment in anaerobic be duly considered before the addition of FS into
the system.
Figure 1: Allowable rates of equalized FS addition in different wastewater treatment systems (Rezek et al., 1980)
Germany has developed guidelines using WWTP designed for 75,000 persons, if the
the chart seen in Figure 2, which shows the annual wastewater flow was 50% & 80% then
recommended volume of FS addition to the only 37.5 m3/d and 15 m3/d of FS could be
WWTP (Figure: 2). As per this chart, a WWTP added into this system, respectively. Compared
designed for 100,000 persons with wastewater to the previous chart, this guideline recommends
flow of 50% can accommodate only 5 m3/day a relatively low volume of FS addition to the
of FS addition. Taking the case of Guheshwori WWTP.
Figure 2: Allowable FS volume to be added to WWTP per German Guidelines (ATV-Regelwerk, 1985)
Conclusion ATV-Regelwerk (1974). Behandlung

und Beseitigug von Schlammaus
The feasibility and effectiveness of FS co- Kleinklaranlagen. Arbeitsblatt Abwasser.
treatment with wastewater treatment systems Chen, Y., Cheng, J.J., Creamer, K.S. (2008).
depends on treatment type, capacity of Inhibition of anaerobic digestion process: a
wastewater treatment systems, wastewater flow, review. Bioresource Technology 99, pp.4044-
FS characteristics, volume of FS added, FS pre- 4064.
treatment and handling facilities, and effluent Chaggu, E.J. (2004). Sustainable environmental
standards. The discharge of FS into WWTPs can protection using modified pit-latrines.
lead to severe operational problems, which are PhD, Wageningen University, The
mainly caused by the higher concentration of FS Netherlands.
compared to municipal wastewater. The most Corcoran, E., C. Nellemann, E. Baker, R. Bos,
common problem is the overloading of solids, D. Osborn &Savelli, H.(2010). Sick
COD, and nitrogen compounds. Excessive solids Water? The central role of waste-water
accumulation may lead to high sludge generation management in sustainable development.
that can increase the operational costs. Therefore, A Rapid Response Assessment.
FS co-treatment with existing WWTPs is not BirkelandTrykkeri AS, Norway.
recommended in low-income countries. Fernandez, R.G., Ingallinella, A.M., Sanguinetti,
G.S., Ballan, G.E., Bortolotti, V.,
Nevertheless, FS co-treatment in centralized Montangero, A., Strauss, M. (2004).
WWTP has been successful in developed Septage treatment using WSP. In:
countries mainly because of good planning, Proceedings of the 9th International IWA
management, and technical capabilities. If co- Specilaist Group Conference onWetland
treatment is desired, the capacity of the WWTP Systems for Water Pollution Control and
should be designed to accommodate FS loading, to the 6th International IWA Specialist
and adequate management and operator capacity Group Conferenceon Waste Stabilization
should be ensured for the sustainability of the Ponds. September 27th - October 1st,
system. Further field-based research on FS co- 2004. Avignon, France.
treatment in WWTP facilities with different Ingallinella, A. M., Sanguinetti, G., Koottatep,
operating conditions should be undertaken to T., Montangero, A. & Strauss, M. (2002).
generate more evidence. The challenge of faecal sludge management
in urban areas – strategies, regulations
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A mathematical model for dynamic G. (2002) Co-treatment of septage in a
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Sludge from Small Sewage Treatment treatment of faecal sludge in municipal
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Abwassertechnik e. V. (GFA), St. L., Ronteltap, M. & Brdjanovic, D. (eds.)
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Approach for Implementation and
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Management. U.S. EPA Report, NO. in on-site Faecal Sludge Management.
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August 1980. Durban, South Africa. Water Information
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Montangero, A. (2000). Treating faecal Commission.
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Faecal sludge treatment and reuse system in Mahalaxmi

Municipality, Nepal
Rajbhandari, R. and Dangol, B.
Abstract Bipin Dangol

Reetu Rajbhandari (corresponding
Faecal Sludge Management is growing issue in cities in Nepal. Due author)
to lack of faecal sludge treatment plant, the unsafe disposal of faecal
sludge very common in Kathmandu Valley. After the devastating Environment and Public Health
earthquake on April, 2015, many agencies constructed temporary Organization (ENPHO)
latrines in the campsites and open spaces. As a result, the pits get Kathmandu, Nepal
filled up quickly requiring immediate desludging services. With an
aim to treat the faecal sludge generated from the emergency latrines,
a faecal sludge treatment plant was established in Lubhu which is
first of its kind in Nepal. This article presents the current situation
of treatment plant, its performance and scope of replication as being
the proven example with successful operation for a year and aided
sector learning in context of Nepal. The data were collected from the
field visits, interviews, results from laboratory analysis. The efficiency
of FSTP in removing organic matters and nutrients was found good.
Some operation and maintenance problems were identified and fixed
during the monitoring period. Such kind of FSTP can be replicated in
other communities in the urban areas in Nepal.
Key words: biogas, compost, desludging, FSM in emergencies, pre-

fabricated system
Introduction in (post) emergency settings has been often

neglected due to other priorities. Inappropriate
In many emergency situations, providing disposal of FS generated from the emergency
better access to adequate sanitation facilities is latrines often result in public health risks and
important to minimize the risk of widespread environmental pollution. Thus the proper FSM
of water borne diseases. Besides the provision of should be planned while providing emergency
good sanitation, faecal sludge management and sanitation facilities during the emergency settings.
logistics in emergency settings are always a major
challenge for the humanitarian organizations. The In the aftermath of the devastating earthquakes in
development of suitable treatment and disposal 2015, people started residing in number of relief
methods of large quantities of human excreta camps in the open spaces for several months. The
Rajbhandari, R., & Dangol, B. (2017). Faecal sludge treatment and reuse system in Mahalaxmi Municipality, Nepal. Journal of Environment and Public Health, 1(1), pp. 59-64. Published by ENPHO, Kathmandu, Nepal.
temporary emergency latrines were established to and to discuss possibility of replication in the
improve the sanitation and safeguard the health context of Nepal.
conditions of people residing in the relief camps.
Lubhu situated in recently Open Defecation
Free (ODF) declared Mahalaxmi Municipality of
Methods
Kathmandu Valley where 10 small relief camps Questionnaire Survey
were set for 500 occupants. The intensive use A structured questionnaire for the caretaker of
of emergency latrines in the camp setup and the treatment plant was designed to understand
settlements resulted the problem of overflowing the major O&M requirements and overall
black water from the pits. The unsafe disposal perception of caretaker towards FSTP. A
of faecal sludge (FS) after the desludging, due questionnaire was also prepared for private tanker
to lack of appropriate FS treatment system in collecting sludge to understand the emptying
Kathmandu Valley, was preeminent problem practices, frequency of pit emptying, difficulties
during the emergency situation. during haulage and desludging and protective
measures used during emptying of the tank.
Environment and Public Health Organization
(ENPHO) with support from the Municipality, Sampling and Analysis of FS
Bremen Overseas Research and Development
With an aim to understand the performance
Association Organization (BORDA) and The
of treatment plant samples were collected by
Consortium for DEWATS Dissemination (CDD)
following grab methodology from different
Society established the Faecal Sludge Treatment
treatment units. Table 1 shows sampling location
Plant (FSTP) in March 2016, primarily to treat
and volume of sample collected.
FS generated from the camp sites and earthquake
affected households. The pre-fabricated treatment
Each sample was collected in a sterilized 1L and
plant was constructed within 45 days in 300 m2
250 ml plastic bottle and 500 ml acidified bottle
land area provided by the local NGO, Saligram
(for sample preservation) provided by the ENPHO
Orphanage. FSTP with design capacity of 6 m3
laboratory using personal protecting equipment.
per week is based on gravity flow system and have
Bottles were properly labeled in the site to prevent
reuse potential in the existing vegetable farmland.
any kind of errors and brought on the same day
Besides FS from emergency latrines, the treatment
to ENPHO laboratory for analysis. pH, electrical
plant also received FS from the households. The
conductivity, total solids, total volatile solids, total
research team have performed regular monitoring,
alkalinity as CaCO3, ammonia-nitrogen, nitrate,
performance evaluation, sampling and laboratory
total phosphorus, total nitrogen, total kjeldahl
analysis to understand the one-year of performance
nitrogen (TKN), chemical oxygen demand (COD),
and efficiency of FSTP. The objective of this paper
potassium, helminths, total coliform and E. Coli
is to present the status of treatment plant in terms
were analyzed following prescribed Standard
of performance, acceptability and sustainability
Table 1: Sampling Location and Amount of Sample Collected
Treatment units Exact point of sample collection
Feeding tank (FT) Inlet of Feeding Tank
Biogas digester (BGD) 1 Expansion chamber of BGD1
Biogas digester (BGD) 2 Expansion chamber of BGD2
Stabilization tank (ST) Final chamber of ST
Anaerobic baffle reactor (ABR) Final chamber of ABR
Anaerobic filter (AF) Final chamber of AF
Planted gravel filter (PGF) Outlet of PGF
Operating Procedures defined in APHA, AWWA, Description of modules of Treatment

WEF (2012) in ENPHO laboratory. The sampling Plant
for the selected parameters were done and analyzed The treatment plant has two different treatment
to know the efficiency of FSTP during pre- systems integrated into one: Liquid Treatment
monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. Plant and Solid Treatment Plant. After the
desludging truck empties faecal sludge from its
Field Observation tank into the feeding tank through hose pipe,
Technical team from ENPHO visited the supernatant is conveyed to liquid treatment
treatment plant for regular supervision of system and thick sludge is conveyed to solid
operation and maintenance of the plant treatment system, after retention for 3 to 4 hours.
and record books. The team performed the Following are the components of two different
maintenance work in the site due to overflowing treatment system with their respective size and
wastewater in Integrated Settler with ABR and functions;
AF and ponding PGF during post-monsoon.
Table 2: Function and Size of Treatment Modules
Name of Module Size Function
Bar-screen provided within feeding tank separates solid waste;
Feeding Tank (FT)
Incoming faecal sludge (FS) is retained for 3-4 hours for solid-liquid
(common for both
4 cum separation;
treatment plant)
After retention, supernatant is discharged to settler with anaerobic baffle
reactor (ABR) and anaerobic filter (AF) and sludge into biogas digester.
Biogas Digester (BGD) 6 cum each Anaerobic treatment of highly concentrated organic sludge;
(in series) (2 numbers) Produces biogas as the by-product.
Allow the sludge to get further stabilized, which leads to settlement of solids at
Sludge Stabilization Tank (ST) 10 cum
the bottom and supernatant to flow into the settler with integrated ABR and AF.
Treatment
Digest the sludge to reduce the organic activity, thereby reducing the
Units
Planted Sludge Drying 20 sq. m each pathogen content.
Beds (PSDB) (3 numbers) Dehydrates the sludge to produce bio-solids that can be easily transported or
handled for reuse applications.
Wastewater undergoes sludge stabilization with biological treatment in settler
(settler);
Integrated Settler
Anaerobic degradation of suspended and dissolved solids while flowing
Anaerobic Baffle
10 cum through sludge blanket making use of the pollutants for metabolism by
Wastewater Reactor (ABR) with
anaerobic bacteria (ABR);
Treatment Anaerobic Filters (AF)
Allows the growth of microorganisms to make use of the pollutants for
Units
metabolism, degrading the organic material present in the wastewater (AF).
Planted Gravel Filter Aerobic tertiary treatment unit where the pollutants (mostly nutrients) present
15 sq. m
(PGF) in the wastewater are degraded aerobically.
Collection Tank 4 cum Collects treated water.
Results and Discussion by Koottatep et al. (2004). The efficiency of FSTP

in removing the physico-chemical parameters
The efficiency of FSTP in removing various has increased in monsoon but again decreased in
parameters is presented in Table 3. post-monsoon. The overflowing of wastewater
treatment system was observed during monsoon.
With Solid Loading Rate (SLR) of 210 kg TS/ Some key technical problems such as leakages in
m2.year, this FSTP showed similar efficiency as control valve of feeding tank and backflow of faecal
observed in the planted sludge draying bed study sludge from the clearing pipe into the control valve
Table 3: Removal Efficiency of Treatment Plant During Pre-monsoon, Monsoon and Post-monsoon
After 152 days of After 271 days of
After 76 days of operation
operation operation
Parameters Unit Post- monsoon
Pre-monsoon (June) Monsoon (August)
(December)
Removal Efficiency (%) Removal Efficiency (%) Removal Efficiency (%)
pH - NA NA NA
Electrical Conductivity µS/cm 55.41% 69% 22%
Total Solids mg/L 71.37% 78% 50%
Volatile Solid mg/L 75.70% 85% 70%
Total Alkalinity as CaCO3 mg/L 40.43% 91% 26%
Nitrogen-Ammonia mg/L 53.87% 71% 42%
Nitrate mg/L NA 90% 96%
Total Phosphorus mg/L 72.90% 80% 71%
Total Nitrogen mg/L 55.78% 73% 56%
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) mg/L 55.78% 73% 56%
Organic Dry Matter mg/L 75.70% 85% 70%
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) mg/L 90.62% 91% 86%
Potassium (K) mg/L 33.11% 65% -68%
Present/
Helminths Absent Absent Absent
Absent
E. coli CFU/mL TNTC TNTC TNTC
TNTC: Too Numerous To Count
units increased undesired volume of sludge in each confirm if the efficiency of FSTP improved
unit of wastewater treatment system. As a result, after fixing the problems. No helminths were
the efficiency of FSTP in removing nutrient, solid found in the effluent. The majority of houses
and organic matters slightly decreased during post- are served by on-site sanitation systems such as
monsoon season (Figure 1). septic tanks and unsewered toilets. The faecal
sludges (FS) revealed that the bulk of helminths
After these results and field observations, the eggs contained in wastewater or in faecal sludge
problems observed in FSTP have been fixed. end up in the bio solids generated in treatment
The next round of sampling and analysis will schemes (Ingallinella et al., 2002). Thus, bio-
Nutrient Removal Efficiency of the Treatment Solids and Organic Removal Efficiency of the
Plant Treatment Plant
90% 100% 85% 91% 91% 86%
80% 78%
80% 73% 73% 71% 76% 70%
71% 80%
70%
56% 56% 60% 50%
60%
50% 76 days old 40%
40% 152 days old 20%
30% 0%
271 days old
20% Tota l Sol i ds Vol a ti l e Sol i d Chemi ca l Oxygen
10% Dema nd (COD)
0%
Tota l Phos phorus Tota l Ni trogen 76 days old 152 days old 271 days old
Figure 1: Season-wise nutrient, solids and organic removal efficiency of FSTP

solids that would be obtained from the treatment services at local level. The local stakeholders at
plant needs to be examined and verified with Lubhu provided their support in identifying the
the proposed guideline value (3-8 eggs/g TS) for land to establish FSTP and the municipality
bio-solids by Xanthoulis and Strauss (1991). E. office has been providing salary to the caretaker of
coli count was found very high in all the time. this system. These commitments showed by the
It indicates the need of hygienic reuse of treated local stakeholders is promising for sustainability
wastewater and sludge. The instructions on of this FSTP. In addition, the local stakeholders
hygienic use of treated wastewater and sludge was are proud to showcase this demonstration project
provided to the caretaker. which is a good platform for sector learning.
Altogether 91 trips of FS, about 320 m3 of FS According to Niwagaba and Mbéguéré (2014),
have been fed into FSTP, producing around 180 the rate of biological degradation increase
m3 of treated wastewater, which is being used by with warmer temperatures. Thus FSTP can be
Saligram orphanage in the farm land. Following largely replicated in the Hilly and Terai regions
the theoretical calculation method used by Lier of Nepal, where temperature is relatively high
et al. (2011), nearly 507 m3 biogas has been and the practices of onsite sanitation systems
produced from the system. Nevertheless, the actual is growing. The targeted populations at those
recorded data showed that 254 m3 of biogas have regions can be benefitted by the productive use of
been used for cooking by the caretaker’s family. biogas, treated wastewater and sludge.
The calculation showed that use of biogas from

the system has saved money for buying about 7
Conclusion
cylinder of LPG gas which accounts for saving Contrary to wastewater management, the
of USD 95. In addition, the amount saved due development and implementation of strategies
to use of treated wastewater is around USD and options to cope with faecal sludge (FS)
200 per year. Besides, financial benefits, the adapted to the conditions prevailing in
caretaker deemed that the productivity has been developing countries has long been neglected.
increased after the use of treated wastewater in In such situation, the promising results of the
the farm land. This is further supported by the treatment efficiency, the emerging demand
results of treated effluent with high NPK value. and the self-sustaining potential of this type of
It is expected that the used of treated sludge proven treatment plant indicates the relevance
will further increase the financial benefits and and hence the importance of scaling up of these
productivity. types of systems in the rapid and haphazard
urbanization context like of Nepal. Continued
The private FS tanker operators deemed the research and monitoring in terms of financial,
safe disposal of FS into FSTP is very good institutional, environmental, technical and
practice and showed willingness to pay for the social aspects of such treatment plant is essential
safe disposal. The demand for the desludging to scale-up replication in other communities.
services is around 4-5 times per day. They feel The findings and evidences from this study can
bad disposing FS haphazardly but they don’t be useful for the policy makers in developing
have any options. Thus, the operators suggested and implementing standards and policies on
to establish additional FSTP in different locations FS handling, disposal and treatment. The FS
for easy disposal. It will also minimize transport desludging and transportation services should be
mileage as suggested by Ingallinella et al. (2002). regulated and recognized that will significantly
Agyei et al. (2011) indicated the need of strong contribute in effective FSM in Nepal.
political will for effective and sustained FSM
Acknowledgements Ingallinella, M., Sanguinetti, G., Koottatep, T.,

Montanger, A., & Strauss, M. (2002). The
The authors wish to thank the representatives challenge of faecal sludge management in
from Mahalaxmi Municipality, Saligram urban areas--strategies, regulations and
Orphanage for their cooperation and support. treatment options. Water Science and
We gratefully acknowledge Mr. Surya Pd. Technology : A Journal of the International
Ghimire, the caretaker of FSTP and FS private Association on Water Pollution Research,
tank operators for his invaluable contributions, 46(10), 285–94. Retrieved from http://
support and kind cooperation during this www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12479483
study. Koottatep, T., Surinkul, N., Polprasert, C., Kamal,
A. S. M., Koné, D., Montangero, A.,
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Water quality of Bagmati river in Kathmandu valley:

2011-2014
Bhandari, B., Joshi, L., Shrestha, P. and Nakarmi, P.
Abstract Binod Bhandari (corresponding author)

Water quality of Bagmati River within Kathmandu valley was Dr. Laxman Joshi
Padmaja Shrestha
monitored for three seasons (pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-
Pramina Nakarmi
monsoon) at seven sites for four years (2011-2014). Eleven parameters
were analyzed. A rapid increase in values of EC, TSS, Cl, Ammonia, Environment and Public Health
Phosphorous, BOD and COD as the river flows downward was Organization (ENPHO)
observed that indicates severe contamination of the river. Except for Kathmandu, Nepal
the samples from Sundarijal, most other samples showed intensive
contamination that increased with river flow. The primary causes of
water pollution include direct dumping of sewage, septage, household
and industrial effluent and animal waste into the river. The difference
in parameter values between years was not significant in most cases. A
slight decrease in contamination was observed in 2013 and 2014 data,
possibly a positive impact of the “Bagmati River Clean-up” campaign
initiated in May 2013.
Key words: BOD, COD, ecosystem, ENPHO, pollution, urbanization
Introduction in Nepal most rivers flowing through urban

areas are polluted. Kathmandu valley is a living
Water of many important rivers in Asia is heavily example of how poor waste management and
polluted mainly due to human population growth, rapid urbanization can affect river water quality.
rapid urbanization, and improper waste disposal Numerous studies indicate that water in existing
from houses, livestock, and factories. Dense urban wells and aquifers in Kathmandu valley is also
populations, poor city waste management are polluted (Pandey et al., 2010; Gautam et al., 2013).
common causes of river water pollution in rivers
such as the Citarum River in Java (Indonesia), The holy river of Bagmati originates from
Yamuna River in Delhi (India), Marilao River in Baghdwar situated at the top of Shivapuri Hill
Manila (the Philippines), Yangtze River (China) (2690 masl) in the north of Kathmandu valley.
and Buriganga River in Dhaka (Bangladesh) The river has 24 tributaries of which six are
making their water unsuitable for human use within the valley. It flows from Kathmandu
(https://backpackerlee.wordpress.com/2014/11/12/ to the Terai in the south and finally joins the
top-5-most-polluted-rivers-in-asia/). Likewise, Ganga River in India. Bagmati River contains
Bhandari, B., Joshi, L., Shrestha, P., & Nakarmi, P. (2017). Water quality of Bagmati river in Kathmandu valley: 2011-2014. Journal of Environment and Public Health, 1(1), pp. 65-73. Published by ENPHO, Kathmandu, Nepal.
large amounts of untreated sewage, garbage water resources, sanitation facilities and waste
and waste (Davis, 1977). Not only household disposal.
waste, but most of industrial waste inside
Kathmandu valley is discharged untreated The on-going “Bagmati River Clean-up”
into Bagmati River that flows through the campaign, a joint initiative of various government
valley (ADB/ICIMOD, 2006). The industrial and non-government organizations started in May
effluent in general contains high levels of 2013. It is a collaborative effort to clean Bagmati
detergents, non-biodegradable materials and River by removing solid waste from the river
toxic chemicals hazardous to human health. The banks every Saturday (government holiday) and
tributaries Hanumante, Dhobi, Tukucha and discouraging waste dumping in the river. More
Bishnumati that pass through core city areas than 140 groups are involved in the campaign.
are the most polluted (Kannel et al., 2007). A
report by Stanley International et al. (1994)
concludes that water from Bagmati River within
Method
the Kathmandu valley is not fit for drinking, Water samples from Bagmati River were collected
recreation and irrigation. The water quality has from the seven sample sites for three seasons: pre-
further deteriorated since then. monsoon (Mar-Apr), monsoon (Jul-Aug) and
post monsoon (Oct-Nov) for four years (2011 to
Over the last few decades, Kathmandu valley 2014) to determine the seasonal and spatial impact
has seen an unprecedented growth in human of human and other activities within Kathmandu
population. The combined population of three valley. Seven sample sites (Table 1, Figure 1) along
districts (Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur) the river within the valley were selected to represent
of Kathmandu valley nearly tripled from 1981 changing population density and landscape.
to 2011, a 30-year period (from 766,345 in
1981 to 2,517,023 in 2011 (Countrymeters, The average rainfall (1981-2010) for Kathmandu
2015) with a population growth of 4.63% per valley is 1455 mm per year (https://en.wikipedia.
annum. The population density of Kathmandu org/wiki/Kathmandu#cite_ref-DHM_28-0),
district in 2011 reached 4416 persons per km2; with nearly 78% of annual rainfall falling within
while the average for the whole valley was 2800 four months (Jun-Sep). The heavy downpour
persons per km2 (derived from CBS, 2011). during the monsoon season increases river flow
The actual figures are probably much higher that dilutes contamination in the river.
(unofficial estimate is over 4 million people)
due to a large number of floating population. Collected samples were kept in acid washed bottles
The high population and density in the valley for physico-chemical parameters and in sterilized
is exerting immense pressure on existing glass bottles for bacteriological parameters. All
Table 1: Description of sampling sites

Sample sites Co-ordinates Code Remarks
Sundarijal 27.76381 85.42395 A Upper portion of river, just outside the national park, minimum human influence
Gokarna 27.7391 85.38796 B Mixing of seasonal rivers and some sewerage pipes; dense human settlement
Pashupati 27.71312 85.34994 C Religious site; human and industrial waste mixed along with sewerage (wastewater
treatment plant just above sampling site)
Minbhawan 27.68571 85.3433 D Settlement of squatters, sewages and garbage dumping into river
Thapathali 27.69261 85.30448 E After joining of Manohara, Hanumante, Dhobi, Tukuchha Khola
Sundarighat 27.67464 85.2932 F Lower stretch of the river after junctions of Bishnumati and Balkhu Khola
Chovar 27.65807 85.29349 G End point of Bagmati River inside Kathmandu valley
Figure 1: Map of Kathmandu valley with sampling points along Bagmati River
samples were stored in insulated cooler containing tests. The tested parameters, their units and test
ice (to maintain temperature at 4°C as suggested methods are provided in Table 2. The tested
by Kazi et al. (2009) and delivered on the same parameters include key indicator parameters to
day to ENPHO that has a government accredited quantify water pollution caused by human and
laboratory for bacteriological and physico-chemical industrial effluent.
Table 2: Water quality parameters and test methods

Parameter Unit Method used
pH - APHA, AWWA, WEF(2012), 4500-HB
Electrical Conductivity (EC) µS/cm APHA, AWWA, WEF(2012), 2510 B
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) mg/L APHA, AWWA, WEF(2012),2540 D
Chloride (Cl) mg/L APHA, AWWA, WEF(2012), 4500- Cl-B
Ammonia (NH3) mg/L APHA, AWWA, WEF(2012), 4500-NH3F
Nitrate (NO3) mg/L APHA, AWWA, WEF(2012), 4500-NO3B
Total Phosphorous (P) mg/L APHA, AWWA, WEF(2012), 4500 PF
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) mg/L APHA, AWWA, WEF(2012),5210B
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) mg/L APHA, AWWA, WEF(2012), 5220B
Faecal coliform CFU/mL APHA, AWWA, WEF(2012),90.222H
Results a general increasing trend in contamination

levels; the 2014 data showed slight reduction in
General observations contamination compared to 2013 data.
The water quality data from seven sites and
three seasons were analyzed. Faecal coliform was Seasonal variation
observed in all samples, including those from Signficant differences were seen in season
Sundarijal where it was assumed to be little means (Table 3). The values for all parameters,
affected by human activities. As Bagmati River except TSS, were highest during pre-monsoon,
flows through the Shivapuri Nagarjun National decreased to a minimum in monsoon and then
Park, the flowing water may have received faecal again increases in the post-monsoon season. For
contamination from wild animals or human most parameters (except for TSS), the monsoon
settlements (Okhreni, Chilaune and Mulkharka) values were significantly lower compared to those
located within the Shivapuri water catchment of pre and and post-monsoon seasons. This is
area. most likely due to the dilution effect of increased
river flow during the rainy season. For TSS,
ANOVA of data using season as an independent the highest value (642 mg/L) was seen during
variable indicated significant difference (p<0.05) the monsoon season, possibly debris and other
between seasons for most test parameters except suspended particles carried with the rain water.
nitrate and faecal coliform counts. Likewise, site
differences were significant except in case of pH, Data of some parameters are repeated in Figures
nitrate and faecal coliform. ANOVA of annual data 2 to 5 to show the dip in parameter values during
did not indicate significant influence, but indicated the rainy season.
Table 3: Seasonal means of tested parameters

Parameter Unit Pre-monsoon Monsoon Post-monsoon Mean
pH - 7.6 7.1 7.3 7.3
EC µS/cm 861.9 144.0 373.7 459.9
TSS mg/L 208.8 642.2 99.1 316.7
Chloride mg/L 65.2 10.7 32.3 36.1
Ammonia mg/L 64.7 6.6 20.5 30.6
Nitrate mg/L 1.4 1.0 1.3 1.2
Phosphorous mg/L 5.8 0.8 2.3 3.0
BOD mg/L 200.0 28.8 98.4 109.1
COD mg/L 426.0 70.1 211.5 235.9
Faecal coliform CFU/mL 622,893 29,034 14,943 222,290
Figure 2: Seasonal means of Electrical Conductivity

Figure 3: Seasonal means of Ammonia
Figure 4: Seasonal means of BOD and COD Figure 5: Seasonal means of Phosphorous and Nitrate
Site variation Figures 6 and 7 are presented as examples

The averaged site-wise data are presented in to highlight significant change (rise) in
Table 4. The general trend for most parameters contaminants across the sites as Bagmati River
is a gradual rise in contaminants from site A flows downstream. A slight decrease in the
(Sundarijal) to site F (Sundarighat) and then parameters was observed at the final site just
a slight decrease at site G (Chovar). There is before the river leaves the valley.
a steep rise in the value of most parameters
from site C (Pashupati) to site D (Minbhawan) Yearly analysis
indicating highest contamination stretch of Although annual variations in the means of tested
Bagmati River. parameters were mostly statistically insignificant,
they indicate some interesting trends. The values
Faecal coliform count increased almost 10 of chloride and COD gradually increased from
folds from one site to the next. The count was 2011 to 2013. Values of TSS and BOD increased
lowest in site A (Sundarijal) and highest in site F from 2011 to 2012 but dipped down in 2013
(Sundarighat). There was slight decrease from site and further in 2014 (Figures 8 and 9). This may
F to site G (Chovar).
Table 4: Site means of tested parameters

Sites
Parameter Unit A B C D E F G Mean
pH - 7.3 7.3 7.2 7.2 7.3 7.5 7.6 7.3
EC µS/cm 36.6 117.3 175.8 600.2 709.7 805.3 774.3 459.9
TSS mg/L 14.5 158.4 160.3 302.6 432.2 617.6 531.3 316.7
Chloride mg/L 1.1 6.9 12.4 50.1 57.8 64.8 57.3 36.1
Ammonia mg/L 0.2 3.3 6.6 43.3 53.1 55.5 52.1 30.6
Nitrate mg/L 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.7 1.4 1.3 1.2
Phosphorous mg/L 0.1 0.4 0.8 4.0 4.6 5.9 4.9 3.0
BOD mg/L 0.9 13.1 31.8 225.6 172.7 157.2 162.2 109.1
COD mg/L 5.8 34.3 57.8 481.6 412.3 361.5 297.9 235.9
Faecal coliform CFU/mL 117 948 10,958 104,830 94,955 1,285,744 58,477 222,290
Figure 6: Site-wise means of Electrical Conductivity Figure 7: Site-wise means of Ammonia
Table 5: Site-wise means of annual data

Parameter Unit 2011 2012 2013 2014 Mean
pH - 7.3 7.4 7.4 7.3 7.3
EC µS/cm 453.0 414.4 462.7 509.3 459.9
TSS mg/L 180.8 443.0 428.2 214.9 316.7
Chloride mg/L 27.4 34.6 41.6 40.5 36.1
Ammonia mg/L 28.6 32.4 29.9 31.6 30.6
Nitrate mg/L 1.5 0.3 1.6 1.4 1.2
Phosphorous mg/L 3.3 2.5 3.7 2.3 3.0
BOD mg/L 101.2 125.7 118.0 91.4 109.1
COD mg/L 206.3 259.0 266.6 211.6 235.9
Faecal coliform CFU/1mL 699,482 2,643 21,672 165,363 222,290
Figure 8: Yearly means of TSS Figure 9: Yearly means of BOD

be an indication of positive change in river water water samples, indicating unsuitability of water
quality due to weekly cleaning efforts made under for irrigation. High TSS value indicates sewage
the “Bagmati River Clean-up” campaign that and other biological contamination.
started in May 2013.
Presence of phosphorous in water at the stretch
of the river indicates water contamination most
Discussion and conclusion likely due to animal waste (sewage), industrial
Many studies in the past have analyzed the physical waste, soil erosion, and fertilizers that may
makeup and biological indicators of the Bagmati lead to eutrophication and negative impact on
River. Over 68 factories and nearly 2 million people aquaculture. The COD and BOD values of
pour industrial effluent and human waste directly water samples from site C (Pashupati) and below
into the Bagmati River which has religious, cultural far exceed the guideline values of 40 mg/L for
and social values ( Pandey, 2006). aquaculture. This is a strong evidence of heavy
contamination from industrial effluent and
With rapid urbanization and lack of control of organic waste making the river water unsuitable
river pollution, water of Bagmati River has been even for aquaculture (BBWMSIP, 1994).
deteriorating for many years. The rapid increase Desirable BOD level for drinking is 4mg/L and
of pollutants, as indicated by this study, provide 10mg/L for bathing and agriculture. Except for
good evidence of the intensity of contamination site A (Sundarijal), BOD values of all other sites
as the river flows through Kathmandu valley. were much higher.
Similar findings have been reported by (Moog
and Sharma, 2005; Kaprimo, 2007; Milner et al., Chloride values of all water samples remained below
2015). A range of human activities contribute the guideline specified range between 100-700
to river contamination. The direct dumping of mg/L for irrigation and 600 mg/L for aquaculture.
untreated human and industrial waste into the Presence of chloride indicates contamination
river, throwing remains from funeral pyres and from sewage from other waste. EC guideline
ashes into the river, bathing and washing, illegal limit for chloride is 40 mS/m for irrigation. The
sewage dumping along the river stretch are some high chloride values indicate that the water from
primary causes of river pollution. lower half of the river, starting from site D, i.e.
Minbhawan, is unsuitable even for irrigation.
Nepal Water Quality Guideline (CBS, 2008)
states a pH range of 6.5-8.5 for drinking and The biological contamination is a major indicator
irrigation; pH values of water samples fall within of water quality for human consumption. Only
this range. Likewise, the nitrate value of sampled two samples from site A (Sundarijal) were
water all fall within the maximum 50 mg/L limit. free of faecal coliforms. Water samples from
However, all ammonia values, except for samples lower stretches had very high levels of faecal
from site A (Sundarijal) are above the specified contamination. Kannel et al., (2007) concluded
limit. Ammonia value above 0.23 mg/L indicates that the Bagmati River water quality in the rural
possible contamination with decaying organic areas was increasingly affected from untreated
matter, excreta of humans and animals, fertilizers; human sewage and chemical fertilizers. Results of
this may also affect aquatic ecosystem. the current study concur with earlier studies and
provide an alarming load of faecal contamination
Nepal Water Quality Guideline (CBS, 2008) in Bagmati River with major risk to human
also specifies a maximum TSS value of 50 mg/L health. Likewise, high levels of EC, TSS, Cl–,
in water used for irrigation. Except for site A NH3 (aq), NO3–, Phosphorous, BOD and COD
(Sundarijal), TSS level was much higher in all clearly indicate extremely poor status of water in
Bagmati River within Kathmandu valley. valuable contributions and support during
The Government and Nepal and general public the study and preparing this report. We also
in Kathmandu are well aware of the deteriorating appreciate the various comments/suggestions of
quality of river water. Rules and regulations the anonymous reviewers.
(such as the Water Resources Act 2049, Aquatic
Animal Protection Act 2017, Environment
Protection Act 1996) have been developed to
References
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variation of quality of water in Bagmati River in management strategy and investment
Kathmandu provided convincing evidence of the programme, Final report. His Majesty’s
poor state of the sacred Bagmati River. The lower Government, Ministry of Housing and
stretches of the river are worse that indicates Physical Planning/JICA/The World Bank.
heavy contamination within Kathmandu valley CBS (2008). Environment Statistics of Nepal
due to poor waste management. 2008, Government of Nepal, National
Planning Commission Secretariat, Central
Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu: 194 pp.
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The study clearly shows rapidly increasing Census 2011 (National Report).
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flows downstream. A multitude of causes exist Commission Secretariat.264 pp.
and impact of each cause may vary with site. A Countrymeters (2015). Nepal population 2015.
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and often unavailable; and data from multiple Shrestha, C. (2013). Assessment of
studies incomparable. There is an urgent need River Water Intrusion at the Periphery
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S.P. & Lee, Y. (2007). Spatial–temporal
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Dhakal and Subin Kalu of ENPHO for their study of the river Bagmati .
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Conservation Trust and Biosphere
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Environment and Public Health Organization
110/25-Adarsha Marg, New Baneshwor
P.O. Box 4102, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel +977-1-4467151, 4468641 • Fax +977-1-4491376
Email [email protected] • Web www.enpho.org

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JOURNAL OF

A Publication of Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO)

Volume 1 | Issue 1 | March 2017

Published on the occasion of World Water Day 2017

Graphics Design and Printing House

Thank you all for your kind cooperation and support.

Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO)

Status of wastewater generation and management in urban Nepal 1-6

Characterization of wastewater in Nepal 7-12

Situational assessment tools for citywide sanitation planning 13-20

Performance of DEWATS in Nepal 21-26

Decentralized integrated wastewater and solid waste management 27-31

Potential of wastewater use in irrigated agriculture: Case of Harisiddhi

Productive reuse of organic waste in rooftop farming:

Human urine application in rice and potato production 45-50

Water quality of Bagmati river in Kathmandu valley: 2011-2014 65-73

Status of wastewater generation and management in

Abstract Bipin Dangol

Key words: grey water, sewerage, treatment, urbanization

Introduction pollution. The world population data sheet 2016

Population living in urban areas in Nepal Results and Discussion

Commission for Integrated Development of In pa rti a l

Guheshwori wastewater treatment plant which

centralized system out of five centralized systems

Table 1: Status of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Plants of Nepal

The rapid urbanization, steep population growth Commission, N. P. (2016). Sustainable

Characterization of wastewater in Nepal

Abstract Isha Dhakal (corresponding author)

discharged directly into rivers, streams and oceans. Disposing of

Key words: BOD, COD, DO, effluent, TKN, TSS

Introduction of wastewater depends upon its origin, not all types

Table 1: Test Methods Used for Analysis of Different Parameters

One way ANOVA test was carried out to test

Table 4: Correlations (p-values) Among Tested Parameters

Mara (2004) found the BOD/COD ratio

Conclusion Gross, M. (2005). Wastewater Characterization

Situational assessment tools for citywide sanitation

Abstract Anjali Manandhar

Introduction some of the major requirements are targeted

of 5,000–40,000; (ii) located on a road linked to • insufficient attention to service delivery

Household Survey: A careful situational analysis Analysis of stakeholder roles and

waste, wastewater and faecal sludge management, Secondary stakeholders

pumped drinking water surface water flood and field water

Figure 3: People plot based on Sanipath assessment in Tikapur

Conclusion and Way forward best alternative for a given context.

Figure 4: City sanitation planning toolbox validated in Tikapur

capacity building and short orientation programs References

Performance of DEWATS in Nepal

Abstract Jagam Shrestha (corresponding author)

attention in developing countries for treating wastewater. However,

Key words: decentralized system, effluent, management, O&M

Introduction relatively simple, non-mechanized treatment

100% 98% 94% BOD Remova l Effi ci ency

Figure 1: Removal Efficiency of DEWATS in Different Sectors

Discussion risks of degrading physical conditions of

Decentralized integrated wastewater and solid waste

Abstract Rajendra Shrestha (corresponding author)

Key words: biogas, community scale system, financial, management,

Introduction This makes these systems financially affordable,