2.1 Arithmetic  2.

3 Geometry
   
2.2 Algebra 2.4 Data Analysis
 
Arithmetic

Arithmetic is the fundamental building block of math. The other three subject areas tested in GRE
Math are all pretty much unthinkable without arithmetic. You’ll certainly need to know your
arithmetic to power through algebra, geometry, and data analysis problems, but the Math section also
includes some pure arithmetic problems as well. So it makes sense to start Math 101 with a discussion
of numbers and the typical things we do with them.
Common Math SymbolsYou may remember these from way bak when, but in case you need a
quick refresher, here’s a list of some of the most commonly used math symbols you
should know for the GRE. We’ll discuss some of them in this arithmetic section and
others later in the chapter.
Symbol Name Meaning
< Less than The quantity to the left of the symbol is less than the
quantity to the right.
> Greater than The quantity to the left of the symbol is greater than the
quantity to the right.
≤ Less than or equal The quantity to the left of the symbol is less than or
to equal to the quantity to the right.
≥ Greater than or The quantity to the left of the symbol is greater than or
equal to equal to the quantity to the right.
Square root A number which when multiplied by itself equals the
value under the square root symbol.
|x| Absolute value The positive distance a number enclosed between two
vertical bars is from 0.
! Factorial The product of all the numbers up to and including a
given number.
|| Parallel In geometry, two lines separated by this symbol have
the same slope (go in exactly the same direction).
Perpendicular In geometry, two lines separated by this symbol meet at
right angles.
° Degrees A measure of the size of an angle. There are 360 degrees
in a circle.
π Pi The ratio of the circumference of any circle to its
diameter; approximately equal to 3.14.
Number Terms

The test makers assume that you know your numbers. Make sure you do by comparing
your knowledge to our definitions below.
Number Definition Example
Whole The set of counting numbers, including zero 0, 1, 2, 3
numbers
Natural The set of whole positive numbers except zero 1, 2, 3, 4
numbers
Integers The set of all positive and negative whole –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3
numbers, including zero, not including
fractions and decimals. Integers in a sequence,
such as those in the example to the right, are
called consecutive integers.
Rational The set of all numbers that can be expressed
numbers as integers in fractions—that is, any number
that can be expressed in the form , where m
and n are integers
Irrational The set of all numbers that cannot be π, ,
numbers expressed as integers in a fraction 1.010100001000110000
Real Every number on the number line, including Every number you can
all rational & irrational
numbers think of

numbers
Even and Odd Numbers

An even number is an integer that is divisible by 2 with no remainder, including zero.

Even numbers: –10, –4, 0, 4, 10
An odd number is an integer that leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by 2.
Odd numbers: –9, –3, –1, 1, 3, 9
Even and odd numbers act differently when they are added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided.
The following chart shows the rules for addition, subtraction, and multiplication (multiplication
and division are the same in terms of even and odd).

Addition Subtraction Multiplication/Division

even + even = even even – even = even even × even = even
even + odd = odd even – odd = odd even × odd = even
odd + odd = even odd – odd = even odd × odd = odd
Zero, as we’ve mentioned, is even, but it has its own special properties when used in calculations.
Anything multiplied by 0 is 0, and 0 divided by anything is 0. However, anything divided by 0 is
undefined, so you won’t see that on the GRE. 1/0 = undefined or infinity
Positive and Negative Numbers
A positive number is greater than 0. Examples include , 15, and 83.4. A negative number is less
than 0. Examples include –0.2, –1, and –100. One tip-off is the negative sign (–) that precedes
negative numbers. Zero is neither positive nor negative. On a number line, positive numbers
appear to the right of zero, and negative numbers appear to the left:
–5, –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Positive and negative numbers act differently when you add, subtract, multiply, or divide them.
Adding a negative number is the same as subtracting a positive number:
5 + (–3) = 2, just as 5 – 3 = 2
Subtracting a negative number is the same as adding a positive number:
7 – (–2) = 9, just as 7 + 2 = 9

To determine the sign of a number that results from multiplication or division of positive and
negative numbers, memorize the following rules.

+ + =+ + x + = + or + ÷ + = +
- - =+ - x - = + or - ÷ - = +
+ - =- + x - = - or + ÷ - = -
- + =- nil or given as above

Multiplication Division
positive × positive = positive positive ÷ positive = positive
positive × negative = negative positive ÷ negative = negative
negative × negative = positive negative ÷ negative = positive

Here’s a helpful trick when dealing with a series of multiplied or divided positive and negative
numbers: If there’s an even number of negative numbers in the series, the outcome will be
positive. If there’s an odd number, the outcome will be negative.
When negative signs and parentheses collide, it can get pretty ugly. However, the principle is
simple: A negative sign outside parentheses is distributed across the parentheses. Take this
question:
3 + 4 – (3 + 1 – 8) = ?
You’ll see a little later on when we discuss order of operations that in complex equations we first
work out the parentheses, which gives us:
3 + 4 – (4 – 8)
This can be simplified to:
3 + 4 – (– 4)
As discussed earlier, subtracting a negative number is the same as adding a positive number, so
our equation further simplifies to:
3 + 4 + 4 = 11
An awareness of the properties of positive and negative numbers is particularly helpful when
comparing values in Quantitative Comparison questions, as you’ll see later in

chapter 4.

Remainders
A remainder is the integer left over after one number has been divided by another. Take, for
example, 92 ÷ 6. Performing the division we see that 6 goes into 92 a total of 15 times, but 6 × 15
= 90, so there’s 2 left over. In other words, the remainder is 2.

Divisibility
Integer x is said to be divisible by integer y when x divided by y yields a remainder of zero. The
GRE sometimes tests whether you can determine if one number is divisible by another. You
could take the time to do the division by hand to see if the result is a whole number, or you could
simply memorize the shortcuts in the table below. Your choice. We recommend the table.
Divisibility Rules
1 All whole numbers (0,1,2,3,…..) are divisible by 1. 0/1 =0, 1/1=1…..etc
2 A number is divisible by 2 if it’s even. 2/2, 4/2, 6/2, 8/2,……etc 1,2,3,4,
3 A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3. This means you add
up all the digits of the original number.

If that total is divisible by 3, then so is the number. For example, to see whether 83,503
is divisible by 3, we calculate 8 + 3 + 5 + 0 + 3 = 19. 19 is not divisible by 3, so neither
is 83,503. 3x1=3, 3x2=6, 3x3=9, 3x4=12, 3x5= 15, 3x6=18……
4 A number is divisible by 4 if its last two digits, taken as a single number, are divisible
by 4. For example, 179,316 is divisible by 4 because 16 is divisible by 4.
5 A number is divisible by 5 if its last digit is 0 or 5. Examples include 0, 430, and
–20.
6 A number is divisible by 6 if it’s divisible by both 2 and 3. For example, 663 is
not divisible by 6 because it’s not divisible by 2. But 570 is divisible by 6
because it’s divisible by both 2 and 3 (5 + 7 + 0 = 12, and 12 is divisible by 3).

2x3 =6 3x2= 3 suck it up

7 7 may be a lucky number in general, but it’s unlucky when it comes to divisibility.
Although a divisibility rule for 7 does exist, it’s much harder than dividing the original
number by 7 and seeing if the result is an integer. So if the GRE happens to throw a
“divisible by 7” question at you, you’ll just have to suck it up and do the math.

8 A number is divisible by 8 if its last three digits, taken as a single number, are
divisible by 8. For example, 179,128 is divisible by 8 because 128 is divisible by
8.
9 A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9. This means
you add up all the digits of the original number. If that total is divisible by 9,
then so is the number. For example, to see whether 531 is divisible by 9, we
calculate 5 + 3 + 1 = 9. Since 9 is divisible by 9, 531 is as well.
10 A number is divisible by 10 if the units digit is a 0. For example, 0, 490, and –20
are all divisible by 10.
11 This one’s a bit involved but worth knowing. (Even if it doesn’t come up on the
test, you can still impress your friends at parties.) Here’s how to tell if a number
is divisible by 11: Add every other digit starting with the leftmost digit and write
their sum. Then add all the numbers that you didn’t add in the first step and write
their sum. If the difference between the two sums is divisible by 11, then so is
the original number. For example, to test whether

803,715 is divisible by 11,

we first add 8 + 3 + 1 = 12.

To do this, we just started with the leftmost digit and added alternating digits.
 Now we add the numbers that we didn’t add in the first step: 0 + 7 + 5 = 12.
Finally, we take the difference between these two sums: 12 – 12 = 0. Zero is
divisible by all numbers, including 11, so 803,715 is divisible by 11.

12 A number is divisible by 12 if it’s divisible by both 3 and 4. For example, 663 is

not divisible by 12 because it’s not divisible by 4.

162,480 is divisible by 12 because it’s divisible by both 4 (the last two digits,
80, are divisible by 4) and 3
(1 + 6 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 0 = 21, and 21 is divisible by 3).

4x3= 12 3x4= 12 663 /12 = give u decimal answer or no…

Factors
A factor is an integer that divides into another integer evenly, with no remainder. In other words,

if is an integer, then b is a factor of a. For example, 1, 2, 4, 7, 14, and 28 are all factors of 28,
because they go into 28 without having anything left over. Likewise, 3 is not a factor of 28 since
dividing 28 by 3 yields a remainder of 1. The number 1 is a factor of every number.
Some GRE problems may require you to determine the factors of a number. To do this, write
down all the factors of the given number in pairs, beginning with 1 and the number you’re
factoring. For example, to factor 24:
1 and 24 (1 × 24 = 24)
2 and 12 (2 × 12 = 24)
3 and 8 (3 × 8 = 24)
4 and 6 (4 × 6 = 24)
Five doesn’t go into 24, so you’d move on to 6. But we’ve already included 6 as part of the 4 × 6
equation, and there’s no need to repeat. If you find yourself beginning to repeat numbers, then the
factorization’s complete. The factors of 24 are therefore 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 24.
Prime Numbers
Everyone’s always insisting on how unique they are. Punks wear leather. Goths wear black. But
prime numbers actually are unique. They are the only numbers whose sole factors are 1 and
themselves. More precisely, a prime number is a number that has exactly two positive factors, 1
and itself. For example, 3, 5, and 13 are all prime, because each is only divisible by 1 and itself.
In contrast, 6 is not prime, because, in addition to being divisible by 1 and itself, 6 is also
divisible by 2 and 3. Here are a couple of points about primes that are worth memorizing:
All prime numbers are positive. This is because every negative number has –1 as a factor in
addition to 1 and itself.
The number 1 is not prime. Prime numbers must have two positive factors, and 1 has only one
positive factor, itself.
The number 2 is prime. It is the only even prime number. All prime numbers besides 2 are odd.
Here’s a list of the prime numbers less than 100:
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, and 97
It wouldn’t hurt to memorize this list. In addition, you can determine whether a number is prime
by using the divisibility rules listed earlier. If the number is divisible by anything other than 1 and
itself, it’s not prime.
If a number under consideration is larger than the ones in the list above, or if you’ve gone and
ignored our advice to memorize that list, here’s a quick way to figure out whether a number is
prime:
Estimate the square root of the number.
Check all the prime numbers that fall below your estimate to see if they are factors of the number.
If no prime below your estimate is a factor of the number, then the number is prime.
Let’s see how this works using the number 97.
Estimate the square root of the number:
Check all the prime numbers that fall below 10 to see if they are factors of 97: Is 97 divisible by
2? No, it does not end with an even number. Is 97 divisible by 2? No, it does not end with an even
number. Is 97 divisible by 3? No, 9 + 7 = 16, and 16 is not divisible by 3. Is 97 divisible by 5?
No, 97 does not end with 0 or 5. Is 97 divisible by 7? No, 97 ÷ 7 = 13, with a remainder of 6.
Therefore, 97 is prime. (Of course, you knew that already from familiarizing yourself with the
prime numbers less than 100. . . .)
Prime Factorization
Come on, say it aloud with us: “prime factorization.” Now imagine Arnold Schwarzenegger
saying it. Then imagine if he knew how to do it. Holy Moly. He would probably be governor of
the entire United States!
A math problem may ask you to directly calculate the prime factorization of a number. Other
problems, such as those involving greatest common factors or least common multiples (which
we’ll discuss soon), are easier to solve if you know how to calculate the prime factorization.
Either way, it’s good to know how to do it.
To find the prime factorization of a number, divide it and all its factors until every remaining
integer is prime. The resulting group of prime numbers is the prime factorization of the original
integer. Want to find the prime factorization of 36? We thought so:

36 = 2 × 18 = 2 × 2 × 9 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3

That’s two prime 2s, and two prime 3s, for those of you keeping track at home.
It can be helpful to think of prime factorization in the form of a tree:

As you may already have noticed, there’s more than one way to find the prime factorization of a
number. Instead of cutting 36 into 2 and 18, you could have factored it into 6 × 6, and then
continued from there. As long as you don’t screw up the math, there’s no wrong path—you’ll
always get the same result.
Let’s try one more example. The prime factorization of 220 could be found like so:
220 = 10 × 22
10 is not prime, so we replace it with 5 × 2:
10 × 22 = 2 × 5 × 22
22 is not prime, so we replace it with 2 × 11:
2 × 5 × 22 = 2 × 2 × 5 × 11
2, 5, and 11 are all prime, so we’re done. The prime factorization of 220 is thus 2 × 2 × 5 × 11.
Greatest Common Factor

The greatest common factor (GCF) of two numbers is the largest number that is a factor of both
numbers—that is, the GCF is the largest factor that both numbers have in common. For example,
the GCF of 12 and 18 is 6, because 6 is the largest number that divides evenly into 12 and 18. Put
another way, 6 is the largest number that is a factor of both 12 and 18.
To find the GCF of two numbers, you can use their prime factorizations. The GCF is the product
of all the numbers that appear in both prime factorizations. In other words, the GCF is the overlap
of the two factorizations.
For example, let’s calculate the GCF of 24 and 150. First, we figure out their prime
factorizations:
24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3
150 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 5
Both factorizations contain 2 × 3. The overlap of the two factorizations is 2 and 3. The product of
the overlap is the GCF. Therefore, the GCF of 24 and 150 is 2 × 3 = 6.
Multiples

A multiple can be thought of as the opposite of a factor: If is an integer, then x is a multiple of

y. Less formally, a multiple is what you get when you multiply an integer by another integer. For
example, 7, 14, 21, 28, 70, and 700 are all multiples of 7, because they each result from
multiplying 7 by an integer. Similarly, the numbers 12, 20, and 96 are all multiples of 4 because
12 = 4 × 3, 20 = 4 × 5, and 96 = 4 × 24. Keep in mind that zero is a multiple of every number.
Also, note that any integer, n, is a multiple of 1 and n, because 1 × n = n.

Least Common Multiple

The least common multiple (LCM) of two integers is the smallest number that is divisible by the
two original integers. As with the GCF, you can use prime factorization as a shortcut to find the
LCM. For example, to find the least common multiple of 10 and 15, we begin with their prime
factorizations:
10 = 5 × 2
15 = 5 × 3
The LCM is equal to the product of each factor by the maximum number of times it appears in
either number. Since 5 appears once in both factorizations, we need to include it once in our final
product. The same goes for the 2 and the 3, since each of these numbers appears one time in each
factorization. The LCM of 10 and 15, then, is 5 × 3 × 2 = 30. In other words, 30 is the smallest
number that is divisible by both 10 and 15. Remember that the LCM is the least common multiple
—you have to choose the smallest number that is a multiple of each original number. So, even
though 60 is a multiple of both 10 and 15, 60 is not the LCM, because it’s not the smallest
multiple of those two numbers.
This is a bit tricky, so let’s try it again with two more numbers. What’s the LCM of 60 and 100?
First, find the prime factorizations:
60 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5
100 = 2 × 2 × 5 × 5
So, 2 occurs twice in each of these factorizations, so we’ll need to include two 2s in our final
product. We have one 5 in our factorization of 60, but two 5s in our factorization of 100. Since
we’re looking to include the maximum number of appearances of each factor, we’ll include two
5s in our product. There’s also one 3 in the first factorization, and no 3s in the second, so we have
to add one 3 to the mix. This results in an LCM of 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 × 5 = 300.
Order of Operations
What if you see something like this on the test:

You basically have two choices. You can (a) run screaming from the testing site yelling “I’ll
never, ever, EVER get into graduate school!!!” or (b) use PEMDAS.
PEMDAS is an acronym for the order in which mathematical operations should be performed as
you move from left to right through an expression or equation. It stands for:
Parentheses
Exponents
Multiplication
Division
Addition
Subtraction
You may have had PEMDAS introduced to you as “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally.” Excuse
us, but that’s a supremely lame 1950s-style acronym. We prefer, Picking Eminem Made Dre A
Star. Whatever. Come up with one of your own if you want. Just remember PEMDAS.
If an equation contains any or all of these PEMDAS elements, first carry out the math within the
parentheses, then work out the exponents, then the multiplication, and the division. Addition and
subtraction are actually a bit more complicated. When you have an equation to the point that it
only contains addition and subtraction, perform each operation moving from left to right across
the equation. Let’s see how this all plays out in the context of the example above:

First work out the math in the parentheses, following PEMDAS even within the parentheses. So
here we focus on the second parentheses and do the multiplication before the subtraction:

Now taking care of the subtraction in both sets of parentheses:

Now work out the exponent (more on those later):

Then do the multiplication:

Then the division:

12 – 7 + 17
We’re left with just addition and subtraction, so we simply work from left to right:
5 + 17
And finally:
22
Piece of cake! Well, not exactly, but it beats fleeing the room in hysterics. PEMDAS is the way to
crunch down the most difficult-looking equations or expressions. Take it one step at a time, and
you’ll do just fine.
Fractions
Much of what we’ve covered so far concerns whole numbers. Now we enter the vast universe that
exists between those nice round numbers: the world of fractions. The GRE loves fractions. The
number of questions on the Math section that involve fractions in some way or another is nothing
short of stupefying. This means you must know fractions inside and out. Know how to compare
them, reduce them, add them, and multiply them. Know how to divide them, subtract them, and
convert them to mixed numbers. Know them. Love them like the GRE does. Make them your
friend on the test, not your enemy.
To begin, here are the basics: A fraction is a part of a whole. It’s composed of two expressions, a
numerator and a denominator. The numerator of a fraction is the quantity above the fraction bar,
and the denominator is the quantity below the fraction bar. For example, in the fraction , 1 is the
numerator and
2 is the denominator. The denominator tells us how many units there are in all, while the
numerator tells us how many units out of that total are specified in a given instance. For example,
if your friend has five cookies and offers you two of them, you’d be entitled to eat of her cookies.
How many you sneak when she’s not looking is up to you.
The general concept of fractions isn’t difficult, but things can get dicey when you have to do
things with them. Hence, the following subtopics that you need to have under your belt.
Fraction Equivalencies
Fractions represent a part of a whole, so if you increase both the part and whole by the same
multiple, you will not change the relationship between the part and the whole.
To determine if two fractions are equivalent, multiply the denominator and numerator of one
fraction so that the denominators of the two fractions are equal (this is one place where knowing
how to calculate LCM and GCF comes in handy). For example, because if you multiply the
numerator and denominator of by 3, you get: . As long as you multiply or divide both the
numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same nonzero number, you will not change the
overall value of the fraction.
Reducing Fractions
Reducing fractions makes life simpler, and we all know life is complicated enough without crazy
fractions weighing us down. Reducing takes unwieldy monsters like and makes them into
smaller, friendlier critters. To reduce a fraction to its lowest terms, divide the numerator and
denominator by their GCF. For example, for , the GCF of 450 and 600 is 150. So the fraction
reduces down to , since and .
A fraction is in its simplest, totally reduced form when the GCF of its numerator and denominator
is 1. There is no number but 1, for instance, that can divide into both 3 and 4, so is a fraction in
its lowest form, reduced as far as it can go. The same goes for the fraction , but is a different
story because 3 is a common factor of both the numerator and denominator. Dividing each by this
common factor yields , the fraction in its most reduced form.
Adding, Subtracting, and Comparing Fractions
To add fractions with the same denominators, all you have to do is add up the numerators and
keep the denominator the same:

Subtraction works similarly. If the denominators of the fractions are equal, just subtract one
numerator from the other and keep the denominator the same:

Remember that fractions can be negative too:

Some questions require you to compare fractions. Again, this is relatively straightforward when
the denominators are the same. The fraction with the greater numerator will be the larger fraction.
For example, is greater than , while is greater than . (Be careful of those negative
numbers! Since –5 is less negative than –13, –5 is greater than –13.)
Working with fractions with the same denominators is one thing, but working with fractions with
different denominators is quite another. So we came up with an easy alternative: the Magic X.
For adding, subtracting, and comparing fractions with different denominators, the Magic X is a
lifesaver. Sure, you can go ahead and find the least common denominator, a typical way of
tackling such problems, but we don’t call our trick the “Magic X” for nothing. Here’s how it
works in each situation.
Adding. Consider the following equation:

You could try to find the common denominator by multiplying by 9 and by 7, but then you’d
be working with some pretty big numbers. Keep things simple, and use the Magic X. The key is
to multiply diagonally and up, which in this case means from the 9 to the 3 and also from the 7 to
the 2:
In an addition problem, we add the products to get our numerator: 27 + 14 = 41. For the
denominator, we simply multiply the two denominators to get:

Believe it or not, we’re already done! The numerator is 41, and the denominator is 63, which
results in a final answer of .
Subtracting. Same basic deal, except this time we subtract the products that we get when we
multiply diagonally and up. See if you can feel the magic in this one:

Multiplying diagonally and up gives:

The problem asks us to subtract fractions, so this means we need to subtract these numbers to get
our numerator: 24 – 25 = –1. Just like in the case of addition, we multiply across the
denominators to get the denominator of our answer:

That’s it! The numerator is –1 and the denominator is 30, giving us an answer of . Not the
prettiest number you’ll ever see, but it’ll do.
Comparing. The Magic X is so magical that it can also be used to compare two fractions, with
just a slight modification: omitting the step where we multiply the denominators. Say you’re
given the following Quantitative Comparison problem. We’ll explain much more about QCs in
chapter 4, but for now remember that the basic idea is to compare the quantity in Column A with
the quantity in Column B to see which, if either, is bigger. (In some cases, the answer will be that
you can’t determine which is bigger, but as you’ll learn, when the two quantities are pure
numbers with no variables, that option is impossible.) See what you can make of this sample QC:

Column A Column B

Now, if you were a mere mortal with no magic at your fingertips, this would be quite a
drag. But the Magic X makes it a pleasure. Again, begin by multiplying diagonally and
up:

Now compare the numbers you get: 161 is larger than 150, so is greater than . Done.
Why does this work? Who knows? Who cares? It just does. (Actually, the rationale isn’t
too complex, but it doesn’t add anything to your GRE repertoire, so let’s skip it.) Learn
how to employ the Magic X in these three circumstances, and you’re likely to save
yourself some time and effort.
Multiplying Fractions

Multiplying fractions is a breeze, whether the denominators are equal or not. The product
of two fractions is merely the product of their numerators over the product of their
denominators:
Want an example with numbers? You got one:

Canceling Out. You can make multiplying fractions even easier by canceling out. If the
numerator and denominator of any of the fractions you need to multiply share a common
factor, you can divide by the common factor to reduce both numerator and denominator
before multiplying. For example, consider this fraction multiplication problem:

You could simply multiply the numerators and denominators and then reduce, but that
would take some time. Canceling out provides a shortcut. We can cancel out the
numerator 4 with the denominator 8 and the numerator 10 with the denominator 5, like
this:

Then, canceling the 2s, you get:

Canceling out can dramatically cut the amount of time you need to spend working with
big numbers. When dealing with fractions, whether they’re filled with numbers or
variables, always be on the lookout for chances to cancel out.

Dividing Fractions

Multiplication and division are inverse operations. It makes sense, then, that to perform division
with fractions, all you have to do is flip the second fraction and then multiply. Check it out:

Here’s a numerical example:

Compound Fractions.

Compound fractions are nothing more than division problems in disguise. Here’s an example of a
compound fraction:

It looks intimidating, sure, but it’s really only another way of writing , which now looks just
like the previous example. Again, the rule is to invert and multiply. Take whichever fraction
appears on the bottom of the compound fraction, or whichever fraction appears second if they’re
written in a single line, and flip it over. Then multiply by the other fraction. In this case, we get
. Now we can use our trusty canceling technique to reduce this to , or plain old 6. A far
cry from the original!

Mixed Numbers

Sick of fractions yet? We don’t blame you. But there’s one topic left to cover, and it concerns
fractions mixed with integers. Specifically, a mixed number is an integer followed by a fraction,
like . But operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can’t be
performed on mixed numbers, so you have to know how to convert them into standard fraction
form.
Since we already mentioned , it seems only right to convert it.
The method is easy: Multiply the integer (the 1) of the mixed number by the denominator of the
fraction part, and add that product to the numerator: 1 × 3 + 2 = 5. This will be the numerator.
Now, put that over the original denominator, 3, to finalize the converted fraction: .
Let’s try a more complicated example:

Pretty ugly as far as fractions go, but definitely something we can work with.

Decimals

A decimal is any number with a nonzero digit to the right of the decimal point. Like fractions,
decimals are a way of writing parts of wholes. Some GRE questions ask you to identify specific
digits in a decimal, so you need to know the names of these different digits. In this case, a picture
is worth a thousand (that is, 1000.00) words:

3197.000 + 0000.567

Notice that all of the digits to the right of

the decimal point have a th in their names.
In the number 839.401, for example, here
are the values of the different digits.
800 + 30 + 9 = 839.000 + 0.4
839.401,
Left of the decimal point Right of the decimal point
Units: 9 Tenths: 4
Tens: 3 Hundredths: 0
Hundreds: 8 Thousandths: 1

Converting Fractions to Decimals

So, what if a problem contains fractions, but the answer choices are all decimals? In that case,
you’ll have to convert whatever fractional answer you get to a decimal. A fraction is really just
shorthand for division. For example, is exactly the same as 6 ÷ 15. Dividing this out on your
scratch paper results in its decimal equivalent, .4.
Converting Decimals to Fractions
What comes around goes around. If we can convert fractions to decimals, it stands to reason that
we can also convert decimals to fractions. Here’s how:
Remove the decimal point and make the decimal number the numerator.
Let the denominator be the number 1 followed by as many zeros as there are decimal places in the
original decimal number.
Reduce this fraction if possible.
Let’s see this in action. To convert .3875 into a fraction, first eliminate the decimal point and
place 3875 as the numerator:

Since .3875 has four digits after the decimal point, put four zeros in the denominator following
the number 1:

We can reduce this fraction by dividing the numerator and denominator by the GCF, which is
125, or, if it’s too difficult to find the GCF right off the bat, we can divide the numerator and
denominator by common factors such as 5 until no more reduction is possible. Either way, our
final answer in reduced form comes out to .
Ratios
Ratios look like fractions and are related to fractions, but they don’t quack like fractions. Whereas
a fraction describes a part of a whole, a ratio compares one part to another part.
A ratio can be written in a variety of ways. Mathematically, it can appear as or as 3:1. In words,
it would be written out as “the ratio of 3 to 1.” Each of these three forms of the ratio 3:1 means
the same thing: that there are three of one thing for every one of another. For example, if you
have three red alligators and one blue alligator, then your ratio of red alligators to blue alligators
would be 3:1. For the GRE, you must remember that ratios compare parts to parts rather than
parts to a whole. Why do you have to remember that? Because of questions like this:

For every 40 games a baseball team plays, it loses 12 games. What is the ratio of the
team’s losses to wins? 40= 12 + 28 10 x 4 = 40
3 x 4 = 12
7x 4 = 28
(A) 3:10
(B) 7:10
(C) 3:7 = 10 part to whole…….. 3+7= 10

12+ ? = 40 3/10 x 40 = 12 loses

12+28 = 40 7/10 x 40 = 28 wines

? x 40 = 12 => ? = 12/40 = 3/10 3:7

? x 40 = 28 => ? = 28/40 = 7/10
(D) 7:3
(E) 10:3

The question says that the team loses 12 of every 40 games, but it asks you for the ratio of losses to wins,
not losses to games. So the first thing you have to do is find out how many games the team wins per 40
games played: 40 – 12 = 28. So for every 12 losses, the team wins 28 games, for a ratio of 12:28. You can
reduce this ratio by dividing both sides by 4 to get 3 losses for every 7 wins, or 3:7. Choice C is therefore
correct. If you instead calculated the ratio of losses to games played (part to whole), you might have just
reduced the ratio 12:40 to 3:10, and then selected choice A. For good measure, the test makers include 10:3
to entice anyone who went with 40:12 before reducing. There’s little doubt that on ratio problems, you’ll
see an incorrect part : whole choice and possibly these other kinds of traps that try to trip you up.

Proportions 3x2=6 red, 1x2=2 blue

Just because you have a ratio of three red alligators to one blue alligator doesn’t mean that you
can only have three red alligators and one blue one. It could also mean that you have six red and
two blue alligators or that you have 240 red and 80 blue alligators. (Not that we have any idea
where you’d keep all those beasts, but you get the point.) Ratios compare only relative
magnitude. To know how many of each color alligator you actually have, in addition to knowing
the ratio, you also need to know how many total alligators there are. This concept forms the basis
of another kind of ratio problem you may see on the GRE, a problem that provides you with the
ratio among items and the total number of items, and then asks you to determine the number of
one particular item in the group. Sounds confusing, but as always, an example should clear things
up:

Egbert has red, blue, and green marbles in the ratio of 5:4:3, and he has a total of 36 marbles. How many
blue marbles does Egbert have? 5:4:3 = 12 5/12 x 36 = 15 4/12x 36 = 12 3/12 x 36 = 9

First let’s clarify what this means. For each group of 5 red marbles, Egbert (who does sound like
a marble collector, doesn’t he?) has a group of 4 blue marbles and a group of 3 green marbles. If
he has one group of each, then he’d simply have 5 red, 4 blue, and 3 green marbles for a total of
12. But he doesn’t have 12—we’re told he has 36. The key to this kind of problem is determining
how many groups of each item must be included to reach the total. We have to multiply the total
we’d get from having one group of each item by a certain factor that would give us the total given
in the problem. Here, as we just saw, having one group of each color marble would give Egbert
12 marbles total, but since he has 36 marbles, we have to multiply by a factor of 3 (since 36 ÷ 12
= 3). That means Egbert has 3 groups of red marbles with 5 marbles in each group, for a total of 3
× 5 = 15 red marbles. Multiplying the other marbles by our factor of 3 gives us 3 × 4 = 12 blue
marbles, and 3 × 3 = 9 green marbles. Notice that the numbers work out, because 15 + 12 + 9
does add up to 36 marbles total. The answer to the question is therefore 12 blue marbles.
So here’s the general approach: Add up the numbers given in the ratio. Divide the total items
given by this number to get the factor by which you need to multiply each group. Then find the
item type you’re looking for and multiply its ratio number by the factor you determined. In the
example above, that would look like this:
5 (red) + 4 (blue) + 3 (green) = 12
36 ÷ 12 = 3 (factor)
4 (blue ratio #) × 3 (factor) = 12 (answer)
For the algebraic-minded among you, you can also let x equal the factor, and work the problem
out this way:
5x + 4x + 3x = 36
12x = 36
x=3
blue = (4)(3) = 12

Percents
Percents occur frequently in Data Interpretation questions but are also known to appear in
Problem Solving and Quantitative Comparison questions as well. The basic concept behind
percents is pretty simple: Percent means divide by 100. This is true whether you see the word
percent or you see the percentage symbol, %. For example, 45% is the same as or .45.
Here’s one way percent may be tested:
4 is what percent of 20?
The first thing you have to know how to do is translate the question into an equation. It’s actually
pretty straightforward as long as you see that “is” is the same as “equals,” and “what” is the same
as “x.” So we can rewrite the problem as 4 equals x percent of 20, or:

Since a percent is actually a number out of 100, this means:

Now just work out the math:

Therefore, 4 is 20% of 20.

Percent problems can get tricky, because some seem to be phrased as if the person who wrote
them doesn’t speak English. The GRE test makers do this purposefully because they think that
verbal tricks are a good way to test your math skills. And who knows—they may even be right.
Here’s an example of the kind of linguistic trickery we’re talking about:

What percent of 2 is 5?
Because the 2 is the smaller number and because it appears first in the question, your first instinct
may be to calculate what percent 2 is of 5. But as long as you remember that “is” means “equals”
and “what” means “x” you’ll be able to correctly translate the word problem into math:

So 5 is 250% of 2.
You may also be asked to figure out a percentage based on a specific
occurrence. For example, if there are 200 cars at a car dealership, and 40 of
those are used cars, then we can divide 40 by 200 to find the percentage of
used cars at the dealership: . The general formula for this kind
of calculation is:
Percent of a specific occurrence =

Converting Percents into Fractions or Decimals

Converting percents into fractions or decimals is an important GRE skill that may come into play
in a variety of situations.
To convert from a percent to a fraction, take the percentage number and place it as a numerator
over the denominator 100. If you have 88 percent of something, then you can quickly convert it
into the fraction .
To convert from a percent to a decimal, you must take a decimal point and insert it into the
percent number two spaces from the right: 79% equals .79, while 350% equals 3.5.Percent
Increase and Decrease
Percent Increase and Decrease
One of the most common ways the GRE tests percent is through the concept of percent increase
and decrease. There are two main varieties: problems that give you one value and ask you to
calculate another, and problems that give you two values and ask you to calculate the percent
increase or decrease between them. Let’s have a look at both.
One Value Given
In this kind of problem, they give you a single number to start, throw some percentage increases
or decreases at you, and then ask you to come up with a new number that reflects these changes.
For example, if the price of a $10 shirt increases 10%, the new price is the original $10 plus 10%
of the $10 original. If the price of a $10 shirt decreases 10%, the new price is the original $10
minus 10% of the $10 original.
One of the classic blunders test takers make on this type of question is to forget to carry out the
necessary addition or subtraction after figuring out the percent increase or decrease. Perhaps their
joy or relief at accomplishing the first part distracts them from finishing the problem. In the
problem above, since 10% of $10 is $1, some might be tempted to choose $1 as the final answer,
when in fact the answer to the percent increase question is $11, and the answer to the percent
decrease question is $9.
Try the following example on your own. Beware of the kind of distractor we’ve just
discussed.

A vintage bowling league shirt that cost $20 in 1990 cost 15% less in 1970. What
was the price of the shirt in 1970?
(A) $3
(B) $17
(C) $23
(D) $35
(E) $280
First find the price decrease (remember that 15% = .15):
$20 × .15 = $3
Now, since the price of the shirt was less back in 1970, subtract $3 from the $20 1990
price to get the actual amount this classic would have set you back way back in 1970
(presumably before it achieved “vintage” status):
$20 – $3 = $17
Seventeen bucks for a bowling shirt!? We can see that . . . If you finished only the first
part of the question and looked at the choices, you might have seen $3 in choice A and
forgotten to finish the problem. B is the choice that gets the point.
Want a harder example? Sure you do! This one involves a double-percent maneuver,
which should be handled by only the most experienced of percent mavens. Do not
attempt this at home! Oh, wait . . . Do attempt this at home, or wherever you’re reading
this book.
The original price of a banana in a store is $2.00. During a sale, the store reduces the
price by 25% and Joe buys the banana. Joe then raises the price of the banana 10% from
the price at which he bought it and sells it to Sam. How much does Sam pay for the
banana?
This question asks you to determine the cumulative effect of two successive percent
changes. The key to solving it is realizing that each percentage change is dependent on
the last. You have to work out the effect of the first percentage change, come up with a
value, and then use that value to determine the effect of the second percentage change.
We begin by finding 25% of the original price:

Now subtract that $.50 from the original price:

$2 – $.50 = $1.50
That’s Joe’s cost. Then increase $1.50 by 10%:
Sam buys the banana for $1.50 + $.15 = $1.65. A total rip-off, but still 35 cents less than
the original price.
Some test takers, sensing a shortcut, are tempted to just combine the two percentage
changes on double-percent problems. This is not a real shortcut. It’s more like a dark
alley filled with cruel and nasty people who want you to do badly on the GRE. Here, if
we reasoned that the first percentage change lowered the price 25%, and the second
raised the price 10%, meaning that the total change was a reduction of 15%, then we’d
get:

Subtract that $.30 from the original price:

$2 – $.30 = $1.70 = WRONG!
We promise you that if you see a double-percent problem on the GRE, it will include this
sort of wrong answer as a trap.
Two Values Given
In the other kind of percent increase/decrease problem, they give you both a first value
and a second value, and then ask for the percent by which the value changed from one to
the other. If the value goes up, that’s a percent increase problem. If it goes down, then it’s
a percent decrease problem. Luckily, we have a handy formula for both:
percent increase =
percent decrease =
To borrow some numbers from the banana example, Sam pays $1.65 for a banana that
was originally priced at $2.00. The percent decrease in the banana’s price would look like
this:
percent decrease =
So Sam comes out with a 17.5% discount from the original price, despite lining Joe’s
pockets in the process.
A basic question of this type would simply provide the two numbers for you to plug into
the percent decrease formula. A more difficult question might start with the original
banana question above, first requiring you to calculate Sam’s price of $1.65 and then
asking you to calculate the percent decrease from the original price on top of that. If you
find yourself in the deep end of the GRE’s question pool, that’s what a complicated
question might look like.
Common Fractions, Decimals, and Percents
Some fractions, decimals, and percents appear frequently on the GRE. Being able to
quickly convert these into each other will save time on the exam, so it pays to memorize
the following table.
Fraction Decimal Percent
0.125 12.5%
(the little line above the 6 means that the 6 repeats
indefinitely, so 0.166 = .1666666666 . . .)
0.2 20%
0.25 25%
 0.375 37.5%
0.4 40%
0.5 50%
0.625 62.5%

0.75 75%
0.8 80%
0.875 87.5%
Exponents
An exponent is a shorthand way of saying, “Multiply this number by itself this number of
times.” In ab, a is multiplied by itself b times. Here’s a numerical example: 25 = 2 × 2 × 2
× 2 × 2. An exponent can also be referred to as a power: 25 is “two to the fifth power.”
Before jumping into the exponent nitty-gritty, learn these five terms:
Base. The base refers to the 3 in 35. In other words, the base is the number multiplied by
itself however many times specified by the exponent.
Exponent. The exponent is the 5 in 35. The exponent tells how many times the base is to
be multiplied by itself.
Squared. Saying that a number is squared is a common code word to indicate that it has
an exponent of 2. In the expression 62, 6 has been squared.
Cubed. Saying that a number is cubed means it has an exponent of 3. In the expression
43, 4 has been cubed.
Power. The term power is another way to talk about a number being raised to an
exponent. A number raised to the third power has an exponent of 3. So 6 raised to the
third power is 63.
Common Exponents
It can be very helpful and a real time saver on the GRE if you can easily translate back
and forth between a number and its exponential form. For instance, if you can easily see
that 36 = 62, it can really come in handy when you’re dealing with binomials, quadratic
equations, and a number of other algebraic topics we’ll cover later in this chapter. Below
are some lists of common exponents.
Squares Cubes Powers of 2
We’ll start with the Here are the Finally, the powers of 2 up to 210 are
squares of the first ten first five cubes: useful to know for various applications:
integers:
12 = 1 13 = 1 20 = 1
22 = 4 23 = 8 21 = 2
32 = 9 33 = 27 22 = 4
42 = 16 43 = 64 23 = 8
52 = 25 53 = 125 24 = 16
62 = 36 25 = 32
72 = 49 26 = 64
82 = 64 27 = 128
92 = 81 28 = 256
102 = 100 29 = 512
210 = 1,024
Adding and Subtracting Exponents
The rule for adding and subtracting values with exponents is pretty simple, and you can
remember it as the inverse of the Nike slogan:
Just Don’t Do It.
This doesn’t mean that you won’t see such addition and subtraction problems; it just
means that you can’t simplify them. For example, the expression 215 + 27 does not equal
222. The expression 215 + 27 is written as simply as possible, so don’t make the mistake
of trying to simplify it further. If the problem is simple enough, then work out each
exponent to find its value, then add the two numbers. For example, to add 33 + 42, work
out the exponents to get (3 × 3 × 3) + (4 × 4) = 27 + 16 = 43.
However, if you’re dealing with algebraic expressions that have the same base variable
and exponents, then you can add or subtract them. For example, 3x4 + 5x4 = 8x4. The
base variables are both x, and the exponents are both 4, so we can add them. Just
remember that expressions that have different bases or exponents cannot be added or
subtracted.
Multiplying and Dividing Exponents with Equal Bases
Multiplying or dividing exponential numbers or terms that have the same base is so quick
and easy it’s like a little math oasis. When multiplying, just add the exponents together.
This is known as the Product Rule:

To divide two same-base exponential numbers or terms, subtract the exponents. This is
known as the Quotient Rule:

Quick and easy, right?

Multiplying and Dividing Exponents with Unequal Bases
You want the bad news or the bad news? The same isn’t true if you need to multiply or
divide two exponential numbers that don’t have the same base, such as, say, . When
two exponents have different bases, you just have to do your work the old-fashioned way:
Multiply the numbers out and multiply or divide the result accordingly: .
There is, however, one trick you should know. Sometimes when the bases aren’t the
same, it’s still possible to simplify an expression or equation if one base can be expressed
in terms of the other. For example:
25 × 89
Even though 2 and 8 are different bases, 8 can be rewritten as a power of 2; namely, 8 =
23. This means that we can replace 8 with 23 in the original expression:
25 × (23)9
Since the base is the same for both values, we can simplify this further, but first we’re
going to need another rule to deal with the (23)9 term. This is called . . .
Raising an Exponent to an Exponent
This one may sound like it comes from the Office of Redundancy Office, but it doesn’t.
To raise one exponent to another exponent (also called taking the power of a power),
simply multiply the exponents. This is known as the Power Rule:
Let’s use the Power Rule to simplify the expression that we were just working on:
25 × (23)9 = 25 × 23×9 = 25 × 227
Our “multiplication with equal bases rule” tells us to now add the exponents, which
yields:
25 × 227 = 232
232 is a pretty huge number, and the GRE would never have you calculate out something
this large. This means that you can leave it as 232, because that’s how it would appear in
the answer choices.
To Recap: Multiply the exponents when raising one exponent to another, and add the
exponents when multiplying two identical bases with exponents. The test makers expect
lots of people to mix these operations up, and they’re usually not disappointed.
Fractions Raised to an Exponent
To raise a fraction to an exponent, raise both the numerator and denominator to that
exponent:

That’s it; nothing fancy.

Negative Numbers Raised to an Exponent
When you multiply a negative number by another negative number, you get a positive
number, and when you multiply a negative number by a positive number, you get a
negative number. Since exponents result in multiplication, a negative number raised to an
exponent follows these rules:
A negative number raised to an even exponent will be positive. For example, (–2)4 = 16.
Why? Because (–2)4 means –2 × –2 × –2 × –2. When you multiply the first two –2s
together, you get positive 4 because you’re multiplying two negative numbers. When you
multiply the +4 by the next –2, you get –8, since you’re multiplying a positive number by
a negative number. Finally, you multiply the –8 by the last –2 and get +16, since you’re
once again multiplying two negative numbers. The negatives cancel themselves out and
vanish.
A negative number raised to an odd exponent will be negative. To see why, just look at
the example above, but stop the process at –23, which equals –8.
Special Exponents
It’s helpful to know a few special types of exponents for the GRE.
Zero
Any base raised to the power of zero is equal to 1. Strange, but true:
1230 = 1
0.87750 = 1
a million trillion gazillion0 = 1
Like we said: strange, but true. You should also know that 0 raised to any positive power
is 0. For example:
01 = 0
073 = 0
One
Any base raised to the power of 1 is equal to itself: 21 = 2, –671 = –67, and x1 = x. This
fact is important to know when you have to multiply or divide exponential terms with the
same base:

The number 1 raised to any power is 1:

12 = 1
14,000 = 1
Negative Exponents
Any number or term raised to a negative power is equal to the reciprocal of that base
raised to the opposite power. Got that? Didn’t think so. An example will make it clearer:

Here’s a more complicated example:

Here’s an English translation of the rule: If you see a base raised to a negative exponent,
put the base as the denominator under a numerator of 1 and then drop the negative from
the exponent. From there, just simplify.
Fractional Exponents
Exponents can be fractions too. When a number or term is raised to a fractional power, it
is called taking the root of that number or term. This expression can be converted into a
more convenient form:

The symbol is known as the radical sign, and anything under the radical is called the
radicand. We’ve got a whole section devoted to roots and radicals coming right up. But
first let’s look at an example with real numbers:
, because 4 × 4 × 4 = 64. Here we treated the 2 as an ordinary exponent and
wrote the 3 outside the radical.
Roots and Radicals
The only roots that appear with any regularity on the GRE are square roots, designated by
a fancier-looking long division symbol, like this: . Usually the test makers will ask you
to simplify roots and radicals.
As with exponents, though, you’ll also need to know when such expressions can’t be
simplified.
Square roots require you to find the number that, when multiplied by itself, equals the
number under the radical sign. A few examples:
= 5, because 5 × 5 = 25
= 10, because 10 × 10 = 100
= 1, because 1 × 1 = 1
= , because
Here’s another way to think about square roots:
if xn = y, then = x
When the GRE gives you a number under a square root sign, that number is always going
to be positive. For example, is just 5, even though in real life it could be –5. If you
take the square root of a variable, however, the answer could be positive or negative. For
example, if you solve x2 = 100 by taking the square root of both sides, x could be 10 or –
10. Both values work because 10 × 10 = 100 and –10 × –10 = 100 (recall that a negative
times a negative is a positive).
Very rarely, you may see cube and higher roots on the GRE. These are similar to square
roots, but the number of times the final answer must be multiplied by itself will be three
or more. You’ll always be able to determine the number of multiplications required from
the little number outside the radical, as in this example:
= 2, because 2 × 2 × 2 = 8
Here the little 3 indicates that the correct answer must be multiplied by itself a total of
three times to equal 8.
A few more examples:
= 3, because 3 × 3 × 3 = 27
= 5, because 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 625
= 1, because 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 1
Simplifying Roots
Roots can only be simplified when you’re multiplying or dividing them. Equations that
add or subtract roots cannot be simplified. That is, you can’t add or subtract roots. You
have to work out each root separately and then perform the operation. For example, to
solve , do not add the 9 and 4 together to get . Instead, .
You can multiply or divide the numbers under the radical sign as long as the roots are of
the same degree—that is, both square roots, both cube roots, etc. You cannot multiply,
for example, a square root by a cube root. Here’s the rule in general form:

Here are some examples with actual numbers. We can simplify the expressions below
because every term in them is a square root. To simplify multiplication or division of
square roots, combine everything under a single radical sign.

You can also use this rule in reverse. That is, a single number under a radical sign can be
split into two numbers whose product is the original number. For example:

The reason we chose to split 200 into 100 × 2 is because it’s easy to take the square root
of 100, since the result is an integer, 10. The goal in simplifying radicals is to get as much
as possible out from under the radical sign. When splitting up square roots this way, try to
think of the largest perfect square that divides evenly into the original number. Here’s
another example:

It’s important to remember that as you’ve seen earlier, you can’t add or subtract roots.
You have to work out each root separately and then add (or subtract). For example, to

solve , you cannot add 25 + 9 and put 34 under a radical sign. Instead, =5+3
= 8.
Absolute Value
The absolute value of a number is the distance that number is from zero, and it’s
indicated with vertical bars, like this: |8|. Absolute values are always positive or zero—
never negative. So, the absolute value of a positive number is that number: |8| = 8. The
absolute value of a negative number is the number without the negative sign: |–12| = 12.
Here are some other examples:
|5| = 5
| –4.234 | = 4.234

=
|0| = 0
It is also possible to have expressions within absolute value bars:
3 – 2 + |3 – 7|
Think of absolute value bars as parentheses. Do what’s inside them first, then tackle the
rest of the problem. You can’t just make that –7 positive because it’s sitting between
absolute value bars. You have to work out the math first:
3 – 2 + | –4 |
Now you can get rid of the bars and the negative sign from that 4.
3–2+4=5
You’ll see more of absolute value in the algebra section of this Math 101 chapter. And
speaking of which, it’s time to head there now.
<< return to the previous section | continue to the next section >>
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<< return to the previous section | continue to the next section >>

2.1 Arithmetic   2.3 Geometry

   
2.2 2.4 Data Analysis
 Algebra  
Algebra
See if you can notice the difference between most of the math problems we’ve considered
so far, and these:
Eek! There are letters in there! As you no doubt know, the letters are called variables, and
they make possible the wonderful world of algebra. Whoever thought of adding variables
into math certainly made tens of millions of school kids’ lives harder, because without
algebra, there would be no geometry, no trigonometry, no calculus, and possibly no
misery at all in the world. Thanks a lot, Mr. or Mrs. Math Genius . . . Of course, there
would probably be no microwave ovens or iPods either, so it’s not all bad.
Since the variables represent unspecified quantities, algebra brings arithmetic into the
world of the unknown. Of course, much of algebra deals with making that unknown
known; that is, solving equations so that variables can be replaced by good old-fashioned
numbers. We’ll get to all that soon enough, but first a little vocabulary is in order.
Algebra Terms
There are six main terms that describe the world of algebra. The GRE won’t ask you to
define them but will nonetheless give you questions that require you to work with them.
Constant. A numerical quantity that does not change.
Variable. An unknown quantity written as a letter. A variable can be represented by any
letter in the English alphabet; x or y are common on the GRE, but you’ll see others as
well. Variables may be associated with specific things, like x number of apples or y
dollars. Other times, variables have no specific association, but you’ll need to manipulate
them to show that you understand basic algebraic principles.
Coefficient. A coefficient is a number that appears next to a variable and tells how many
of that variable there are. For example, in the term 4x, 4 is the coefficient and tells us
there are four xs. In the term 3x3, 3 is the coefficient and tells us there are three x3s.
Term. The product of a constant and a variable. Or, a quantity separated from other
quantities by addition or subtraction. For example, in the equation 3x3 + 2x2 – 7x + 4 = x
– 1, the side to the left of the equal sign contains four terms (3x3, 2x2, –7x, 4), while the
right side contains two terms (x, –1). The constants, 4 and –1, are considered terms
because they are coefficients of variables raised to the zero power: 4 = 4x0. So
technically, every algebraic term is the product of a constant and a variable raised to
some power.
Expression. A funny look on your face. Or in math, any combination of terms. An
expression can be as simple as a single constant term, like 5, or as complicated as the sum
or difference of many terms, each of which is a combination of constants and variables,
such as . Expressions don’t include an equal sign—this is what differentiates expressions
from equations. If you’re given the value of every variable in the expression, then you
can calculate the numerical value of the expression. Lacking those values, expressions
can’t be solved, although they can often be simplified.
Equation. Two expressions linked by an equal sign. Much of the algebra on the GRE
consists of solving equations.
Inputs and Outputs: Simple Substitutions
We mentioned above that we can calculate the numerical value of an expression if we’re
given the value of every variable in it. In this case, the expression itself is like a machine
that takes an input (the variable value) and outputs a solution. One of the simplest kinds
of algebraic problems on the GRE operates like this, as in the following example:
We mentioned above that we can calculate the numerical value of an expression if we’re
given the value of every variable in it. In this case, the expression itself is like a machine
that takes an input (the variable value) and outputs a solution. One of the simplest kinds
of algebraic problems on the GRE operates like this, as in the following example:
If x = 2, what is the value of ?
There’s nothing to do but simply input 2 into the expression in place of x and do the
math:
So here, an input of 2 yields an output of 6.
You may see something like this in the beginning of the Math section, but things will
most likely get more complicated after that. For example, the inputs themselves may be a
bit more complex than a single number; in fact, an input may itself contain variables:
If 2y + 8x = 11, what is the value of 3(2y + 8x)?
You might see this equation bubbling over with variables and panic. Don’t. Since the
expression 2y + 8x appears in both parts of the question, and we’re told this expression
equals 11, we can simply substitute that figure in place of the expression on the right to
get 3(11) = 33.
A question may also involve multiple substitutions. For instance:

z= , y = 3x, and x = 2, then what is the value of z?

To approach this problem, you just have to input 2 for x to find y, and then input those
values into the equation for z. Substituting 2 for x into y = 3x gives y = 3(2) = 6.
Inputting x= 2 and y = 6 into the equation for z gives:
Simplifying Algebraic Expressions
Before we move on to solving more complicated equations, we need to cover a few
simplification tools that allow us to change algebraic expressions into simpler but
equivalent forms.
Distributing
The rule of distribution states:

The a in this expression can be any kind of term, meaning it could be a variable, a
constant, or a combination of the two. When you distribute a factor into an expression
within parentheses, multiply each term inside the parentheses by the factor outside the
parentheses. 4(x + 2), for example, would become 4x + (4)(2), or 4x + 8. Let’s try a
harder one: 3y(y2 – 6). Distributing the 3y term across the terms in the parentheses
yields:

Seems logical enough. But the true value of distributing becomes clear when you see a
distributable expression in an equation. We’ll see an example of this later in the section
on linear equations.
Factoring
Factoring an expression is the opposite of distributing. 4x3 – 8x2 is one mean-looking
expression, right? Or so it seems, until you realize that both terms share the greatest
common factor 4x2, which you can factor out:
By distributing and factoring, you can group or ungroup quantities in an equation to make
your calculations simpler, depending on what the other terms in the equation look like.
Sometimes distributing will help; other times, factoring will be the way to go. Here are a
few more examples of both techniques:

Combining Like Terms

After factoring and distributing, you can take additional steps to simplify expressions or
equations. Combining like terms is one of the simplest techniques you can use. It
involves adding or subtracting the coefficients of variables that are raised to the same
power. For example, by combining like terms, the expression

can be simplified by adding the coefficients of the variable x3 (–1 and 3) together and the
coefficients of x2 (1 and 4) together to get:

Variables that have different exponential values are not like terms and can’t be combined.
Two terms that do not share a variable are also not like terms and cannot be combined
regardless of their exponential value. For example, you can’t combine:

You can, however, factor the first expression to get x2(x2 + 1), which you should do if it
helps you answer the question.
Linear Equations with One Variable
Simplifying is nice, and helpful to boot, but solving is really where it’s at. To solve an
equation, you have to isolate the variable you’re solving for. That is, you have to
“manipulate” the equation until you get the variable alone on one side of the equal sign.
By definition, the variable is then equal to everything on the other side of the equal sign.
You can’t manipulate an equation the way you used to manipulate your little brother or
sister. When manipulating equations, there are rules. Here’s the first and most
fundamental. In fact, it’s so important we’re going to bold it:
Whatever you do to one side of an equation, you must do to the other side.
If you divide one side of an equation by 3, divide the other side by 3. If you take the
square root of one side of an equation, take the square root of the other. If you fall in love
with one side of the equation, fall in love with the other. Neither side will think you’re a
two-timer. They’ll think you’re a highly skilled mathematician.
By treating the two sides of the equation in the same way, you don’t change what the
equation means. You change the form of the equation into something easier to work with
—that’s the point of manipulating it—but the equation remains true since both sides stay
equal.
Take, for instance, the equation 3x + 2 = 5. You can do anything you want to it as long as
you do the same thing to both sides. Here, since we’re trying to get the variable x alone
on the left, the thing to do is subtract 2 from that side of the equation. But we can only do
that if we subtract 2 from the other side as well:
Ah, that’s better. Now we can just divide both sides by 3 to get x = 1, and we’re done.
You should use the simplification techniques you learned above (distributing, factoring,
and combining like terms) to help you solve equations. For example:

That seems fairly nasty, since there aren’t any like terms to combine. But wait a sec . . .
what if you distribute that 3y on the left side of the equation? That would give:

Shiver our timbers! Now we can subtract 3y3 from both sides to get
and then simply divide both sides by 18 to get y = 2.
Reverse PEMDAS
Many equations include a combination of elements you learned about in our arithmetic
discussion. Remember PEMDAS, the acronym you learned to help you remember the
order of operations? Well, what do you get if you do PEMDAS in reverse? SADMEP, of
course. Or, using the old corny mnemonic device, Sally Aunt Dear My Excuse Please.
Wait, scratch that—mnemonics don’t work in reverse.
Why do we want to reverse our trusty order of operations, anyway? The idea is to undo
everything that has been done to the variable so that it will be isolated in the end. So you
should first subtract or add any extra terms on the same side as the variable. Then divide
and multiply anything on the same side as the variable. Next, raise both sides of the
equation to a power or take their roots according to any exponent attached to the variable.
Finally, work out anything inside parentheses. In other words, do the order of operations
backward: SADMEP!
We’ll need to demonstrate with an example. Here’s a little monstrosity that at first glance
might make you reconsider your decision to go to grad school:

At second glance you might feel the same way. But at third glance you’d know what to
do.
In this equation, poor little x is being square rooted, multiplied by 2, added to 3, and
encased in parentheses—all in the numerator of a fraction. That’s hardly what we’d call
“alone time.” You’ve got to get him out of there! Undo all of these operations to liberate
x and solve the equation.
Let SADMEP be your guide: First, subtract 2 from both sides of the equation:

There’s no addition or division possible at this point, but we can multiply both sides by 2
to get rid of the fraction:

Now divide both sides by 3 (see you later, parentheses!):

Now we’re in position to subtract 3 from each side:

Divide both sides by 2:

Finally, square each side to get rid of the square root:

Success! You’ve freed poor x from all of those bullying operations.
Variables in the Denominator
Remember, the key to solving equations is to isolate the variable, but how to do this
depends on where the variable is located. A variable in the numerator of a fraction is
usually pretty easy to isolate. But if the variable is in the denominator, things get more
complicated. See what you can make of this one:

Following SADMEP, start by subtracting the 3:

But now you have to get the x out of the denominator, and the only way to do that is to
multiply both sides of the equation by that denominator, x + 2:

Divide both sides by 4:

Subtract 2 from each side:

Equations with Absolute Value

To solve an equation in which the variable is within absolute value bars, you have to
follow a two-step process:
Isolate the expression within the absolute value bars.
Divide the equation in two.
Divide the equation in two? What is this, a magic trick? Kind of. Watch:
If |x + 3| = 5, then x =
Since both 5 and –5 within absolute value bars equal 5, the expression inside the bars can
equal 5 or –5 and the equation will work out. That’s why we have to work through both
scenarios. So we’re actually dealing with two equations:
x+3=5
x + 3 = –5
For a complete solution, we need to solve both. In the first equation, x = 2. In the second
equation, x = –8. So the solutions to the equation |x + 3| = 5 are x = {–8, 2}. Both work.
Substitute them back into the equation if you have any doubts and to reinforce why we
need to solve two equations to get a full answer to the question.
Equations with Exponents and Radicals
Absolute value equations aren’t the only ones with more than one possible answer.
Exponents and radicals can also have devilish effects on algebraic equations that are
similar to those caused by absolute value. Consider the equation x2 = 25. Seems pretty
simple, right? Just take the square root of both sides, and you end up with x = 5. But
remember the rule of multiplying negative numbers? When two negative numbers are
multiplied together the result is positive. In other words, –5 squared also results in 25: –5
×–5 = 25. This means that whenever you have to take the square root to simplify a
variable brought to the second power, the result will be two solutions, one positive and
one negative: . (The only exception is if x = 0.) You’ll see what we mean by working
through this question:
If 2x2 = 72, what is the value of x?
To solve this problem, we first divide both sides by 2 to get x2 = 36. Now we need to
take the square root of both sides: .
Recognizing when algebraic equations can have more than one possible answer is
especially important in Quantitative Comparison questions. Sometimes it may appear that
the relationship between columns A and B leans in a definite direction, until you notice
that one of the columns can actually have more than one possible value. Keep your eyes
peeled for this common nuance.
Linear Equations with Two or More Variables
So you’re kicking butt and taking names on those old one-variable equations, huh? Good.
But some GRE questions contain two variables. Lucky for you, those questions also
contain two equations, and you can use the two equations in conjunction to solve for the
variables. These two equations together are called a system of equations or simultaneous
equations. We said earlier that manipulating equations isn’t like manipulating your
younger brother or sister. Actually, that’s not entirely true: Solving simultaneous
equations is like manipulating your younger brother and sister. You use one equation
against the other, and in the end you get whatever you want.
There are two ways to solve simultaneous equations. The first method involves
substitution, and the second involves adding or subtracting one equation from the other.
Let’s look at both techniques.
Solving by Substitution
You’ve already seen examples of substitution in the Input/Output discussion earlier in the
chapter, so you should be familiar with the mechanics of plugging values or variables
from one place into another place to find what you’re looking for. In these next examples,
both pieces of the puzzle are equations. Our method will be to find the value of one
variable in one equation and then plug that into a second equation to solve for a different
variable. Here’s an example:
If x – 4 = y – 3 and 2y = 6, what is x?
You’ve got two equations, and you have to find x. The first equation contains both x and
y. The second equation contains only y. To solve for x, you first have to solve for y in the
second equation and substitute that value into the first equation. If 2y = 6, then dividing
both sides by 2, y = 3. Now, substitute 3 for y in the equation x – 4 = y – 3:

That’s all there is to it. But here’s one that’s more likely to give you trouble:
If 3x = y + 5 and 2y – 2 = 12k, what is x in terms of k?
Notice anything interesting? There are three variables in this one. To solve for x in terms
of k, we have to first get x and k into the same equation. To make this happen, we can
solve for y in terms of k in the second equation and then substitute that value into the first
equation to solve for x:

Then substitute 6k + 1 for y in the equation 3x = y + 5:

This is our answer, since x is now expressed in terms of k. Note that you could also solve
this problem by solving for y in terms of x in the first equation and substituting that
expression in for y in the second equation. Either way works.
Solving by Adding or Subtracting
The amazing thing about simultaneous equations is that you can actually add or subtract
the entire equations from each other. Here’s an example:
If 6x + 2y = 11 and 5x + y = 10, what is x + y?
Look what happens if we subtract the second equation from the first:

To add or subtract simultaneous equations, you need to know what variable or expression
you want to solve for, and then add or subtract accordingly. We made the example above
purposely easy to show how the method works. But you won’t always be given two
equations that you can immediately add or subtract from each other to isolate the exact
variable or expression you seek, as evidenced by this next example:
If 2x + 3y = –6 and –4x + 16y = 13, what is the value of y?
We’re asked to solve for y, which means we’ve got to get rid of x. But one equation has
2x and the other has –4x, which means the x terms won’t disappear by simply adding or
subtracting them. Don’t despair; our Golden Rule of Algebra comes to the rescue: If you
do the same thing to both sides of an equation, you don’t change the meaning of the
equation. That means that in this case, we could multiply both sides of 2x + 3y = –6 by 2,
which would give us 2(2x +3y) = 2(–6). Using the trusty distributive law, and
multiplying out the second part, gives us 4x +6y = –12. Now we’re in a position to get rid
of those pesky x terms by adding this new (but equivalent) form of equation 1 to equation
2:

On the GRE, you will almost always be able to manipulate one of the two equations in a
pair of simultaneous equations so that they can be added and subtracted to isolate the
variable or expression you want. If you can’t see how to do this, or for questions with
easy numbers, go ahead and solve by using substitution instead. As you practice with
these types of problems, you’ll get a sense for which method works best for you.
Binomial and Quadratic Equations
A binomial is an expression containing two terms. The terms (x + 5) and (x – 6) are both
binomials. A quadratic expression takes the form ax2 + bx + c, where . Quadratics
closely resemble the products formed when binomials are multiplied. Coincidence? Fat
chance. That’s why we treat these topics together. We’ll start off with binomials, and
work our way to quadratics.
Multiplying Binomials
The best acronym ever invented (other than SCUBA: “self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus”) will help you remember how to multiply binomials. This acronym
is FOIL, and it stands for First + Outer + Inner + Last. The acronym describes the order
in which we multiply the terms of two binomials to get the correct product.

For example, let’s say you were kidnapped by wretched fork-tongued lizard-men whose
only weakness was binomials. Now what if the lizard-king asked you to multiply these
binomials:
(x + 1)(x + 3)
What would you do? Follow FOIL, of course. First, multiply the first (F) terms of each
binomial:
x × x = x2
Next, multiply the outer (O) terms of the binomials:
x × 3 = 3x
Then, multiply the inner (I) terms:
1×x=x
And then multiply the last (L) terms:
1×3=3
Add all these terms together:

Finally, combine like terms, and you get:

Here are a few more examples of multiplied binomials to test your FOILing faculties:
Note that the last one doesn’t form a quadratic equation, and that none of the terms can be
combined. That’s okay. When presented with binomials, follow FOIL wherever it leads.
Working with Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation will always have a variable raised to the power of 2, like this:
x2 = 10x – 25
Your job will be to solve for the given variable, as we’ve done with other algebraic
equations throughout this section. The basic approach, however, is significantly different
from what you’ve done so far. Instead of isolating the variable on the left, you’ll want to
get everything on the left side of the quadratic equation, leaving 0 on the right. In the
example above, that means moving the 10x and –25 to the left side of the equation:
x2 – 10x + 25 = 0
Now it’s looking like most of the products of binomials we saw in the previous section,
except instead of being just a quadratic expression, it’s a quadratic equation because it’s
set equal to 0.
To solve the equation, we need to factor it. Factoring a quadratic equation means
rewriting it as a product of two terms in parentheses, like this:
x2 – 10x + 25 = (x – 5)(x – 5)
How did we know to factor the equation into these binomials? Here’s the secret:
Factoring quadratic equations on the GRE always fits the following pattern:
(x ± m)(x ± n)
Essentially, we perform FOIL in reverse. When we approach a quadratic like x2 – 10x +
25, the two numbers we’re looking for as our m and n terms need to multiply to give the
last number in the equation. The last number in the equation is 25, so we need to find two
numbers whose product is 25. Some pairs of numbers that work are:
1 and 25
–1 and –25
5 and 5
–5 and –5
Further, the sum of the two numbers needs to give the middle number in the equation. Be
very careful that you don’t ignore the sign of the middle number:
x2 – 10x + 25
Since you’re subtracting 10x, the middle number is –10. That means the m and n
numbers we seek not only need to multiply to 25 but also need to add to –10. Going back
to our factor list above, –5 and –5 is the only pair that works. Substituting this into the
pattern gives:
(x – 5)(x – 5)
And since we originally set the equation equal to 0, we now have:
(x – 5)(x – 5) = 0
For the product of two terms to equal 0, that means that either one could be 0. Here both
terms are (x – 5), so x – 5 must equal 0.
x–5=0
x=5
The final answer is x = 5.
In this example, m and n are equal, which is why we end up with only one answer. But
that’s usually not the case. Let’s look at another example, using different numbers:
x2 = –10x – 21
To solve for x, first move everything to the left to set the equation equal to 0:
x2 + 10x + 21 = 0
Now we need to figure out what numbers fit our pattern:
(x ± m)(x ± n)
We know from our equation that m × n needs to equal 21, and m + n needs to equal 10.
So, which numbers work? Let’s look at m × n = 21 first:
1 and 21
–1 and –21
3 and 7
–3 and –7
We can eliminate (1 and 21) and (–1 and –21), since neither of these pairs add up to 10.
The third pair, 3 and 7, adds to 10, so we can stop right there and plug these numbers into
our pattern:
(x + 3)(x + 7) = 0
If you need to double-check your factoring, just FOIL the resulting binomials, which
should bring you right back to the original quadratic. Since we now have the product of
two different binomials sets equal to 0, one of the two terms needs to be 0. So, either (x +
3) = 0 or (x + 7) = 0, which means x could be equal to –3 or –7. There’s no way to
determine for sure, since both values work.
Quadratic Factoring Patterns
There are three patterns of quadratics that commonly appear on the GRE. Learn them
now, and you’ll work faster on test day.
Pattern 1: x2 + 2xy + y2 = (x + y)(x + y) = (x + y)2
Example: x2 + 6xy + 9 = (x + 3)2
Pattern 2: x2 – 2 xy + y 2 = (x – y )( x – y) = (x – y)2
Example: x2 – 10xy + 25 = (x – 5)2
Pattern 3: (x + y)(x – y) = x2 – y2
Example: (x + 4)(x – 4) = x2 – 16
You may be wondering why we wrote the last pattern with the factored form first. We
wrote it this way because this is the way it often appears on the GRE: You’ll be given an
expression that fits the pattern on the left of the equal sign [(x + y)(x – y)], and you’ll
need to recognize its equivalent form of (x2 – y2).
Here’s an example of how you can use this pattern on test day:
What is the value of ?
This looks horrific, and, well, it is if you attempt to perform a full FOIL treatment on it.
Who wants to multiply 72 by 85 and deal with all those radical signs? Not us. Not you.
Not anyone. Luckily, quadratic pattern 3 helps us avoid all that work. That pattern states
that whenever we have the sum of two values multiplied by the difference of those same
values, the whole messy expression is equal to x2 – y2. Here, if we let x = and y = , then
x2 – y2 =

. If this doesn’t look any better to you, then you’re not realizing that the squared symbol
(the little 2) and the square root symbol (the ) cancel each other out. This gives the much
simpler expression 85 – 72, which equals 13.
This is an excellent example of how changing your math mindset, something we
implored you to do in the previous chapter, will help you on the GRE. In the difficult-
looking problem we just tackled, your first instinct may have been to hack your way
through the numbers. However, if you instead suspected that the GRE test makers
probably wouldn’t present a problem like this if there wasn’t a more elegant solution,
then you might have searched for an easy way in. Quadratic factoring pattern 3 does the
trick.
Inequalities
Life isn’t always fair. That’s why there are inequalities. An inequality is like an equation,
but instead of relating equal quantities, it specifies exactly how two quantities are not
equal. There are four types of inequalities:
x > y x is greater than y.
x < y x is less than y.
x ≥ y x is greater than or equal to y.
x ≤ y x is less than or equal to y.
So, for example, x + 3 ≤ 2x may be read as “x + 3 is less than or equal to 2x.” Similarly,
y > 0 is another way of saying “y is greater than 0.” Inequalities may also be written in
compound form, such as 4 < y – 7 < 3y – 10. This is really just two separate inequalities:
4 < y – 7 and y – 7 < 3y – 10. Another way to think about this compound inequality is
that y – 7, the expression stuck in the middle, is between 4 and 3y – 10.
Solving Inequalities
Solving inequalities is a lot like solving equations: Get the variable on one side of the
inequality and all the numbers on the other, using the algebraic rules you’ve already
learned. The one exception to this, and it’s a crucial exception, is that multiplying or
dividing both sides of an inequality by a negative number requires that you flip the
direction of the inequality.
This exception is crucial, so we’ll repeat it:
The Inequality Exception
Multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by a negative number requires you to
flip the direction of the inequality.
Let’s try some examples.
Solve for x in the inequality .
First we knock that 3 away from the x by adding 3 to both sides:

That 2 in the denominator is quite annoying, but by now you should know the fix for that
—just multiply both sides by 2 and it will disappear from the left side of the inequality:

Almost there. We can simplify the right side with our handy distributive law, multiplying
the 2 by both terms in the parentheses to get a final answer of:

We’re done. The x stands alone, and we know that it’s less than the expression 4y + 6.
Now try this one:
Solve for x in the inequality .
Here are the steps, all at once:

Notice that in this example the inequality had to be flipped, since both sides had to be
divided by –2 to isolate the variable in the end.
To help remember that multiplication or division by a negative number reverses the
direction of the inequality, remember that if x > y, then –x < –y. Just as 5 is greater than
 4, –5 is less than –4. The larger the number, the smaller it becomes when you make it
negative. That’s why multiplying or dividing inequalities by negatives requires switching
the direction of the inequality sign.
Inequalities with Two Variables
Another type of inequality problem involves two variables. For these, you’ll be given a
range of values for each of the two variables. For example:
–8 ≤ a ≤ 0
5 ≤ b ≤ 25
This is just another way of saying that a is between –8 and 0, inclusive, and that b is
between 5 and 25, inclusive. Inclusive means that we include the values at each end,
which is what’s meant by the greater than or equal to and less than or equal to signs. If
the test makers didn’t want –8 and 0 to be possible values for a, for example, they would
have to use simple greater-than and less-than signs (> and <). That scenario corresponds
to the word exclusive, which means you should exclude the values at each end.
Once the range of the two variables has been established, the problem will then ask you
to determine the range of values for some expression involving the two variables. For
example, you could be asked for the range of values of a – b. This is really just asking for
the smallest and largest possible values of a – b.
One good way to tackle these problems is to whip up a handy Inequality Table, a table
with columns for each of the two variables and one column for the expression whose
range you’re trying to determine. First write in the largest and smallest values for a and b
from the original inequalities. In this example, the extreme values for a are –8 and 0, and
for b are 5 and 25. Write these values in the table so that each combination of a and b is
represented. There will be four combinations total: the smallest value of a with the
smallest value of b; the smallest value of a with the largest value of b; the largest value of
a with the smallest value of b; and the largest value of a with the largest value of b:
aa

–8 b 5
–8 25
0 5
0 25
Now simply evaluate the expression you’re asked about for each of the four combinations
in the table—in this case, a – b:
a b a–b
–8 5 –8 – 5 = –13
–8 25 –8 – 25 = –33
0 5 0 – 5 = –5
0 25 0 – 25 = –25
The Inequality Table shows us that the smallest possible value of a – b is –33 and the
largest is –5. Writing this as a compound inequality gives our final answer:
–33 ≤ a – b ≤ –5
Inequality Ranges
The previous question demonstrated how inequalities can be used to express the range of
values that a variable can take. There are a few ways that inequality problems may
involve ranges. We consider three scenarios below.
Operations on Ranges
Ranges can be added, subtracted, or multiplied. Consider the following:
If 4 < x < 7, what is the range of 2x + 3?
To solve this problem, manipulate the range like an inequality until you have a solution.
Begin with the original range:
4<x<7
Since the range we’re ultimately looking for contains 2x, we need to turn the x in the
inequality above into that. We can do this by multiplying the whole inequality by 2:
8 < 2x < 14
Since we’re doing the same thing to all parts of the inequality, this manipulation doesn’t
change its value or meaning. In other words, we’re simply invoking the Golden Rule: Do
unto one part what we do unto the other part. But we’re not there yet, because the range
we seek is 2x + 3, not plain old 2x. No problem: Just add 3 to the inequality across the
board, and you have the final answer:
11 < 2x + 3 < 17
Always remember the crucial rule about multiplying inequalities: If you multiply or
divide a range by a negative number, you must flip the greater-than or less-than signs.
For example, if you multiply the range 2 < x < 8 by –1, the new range will be –2 > –x > –
8.
Absolute Value and Single Ranges
Absolute values do the same thing to inequalities that they do to equations. You have to
split the inequality into two parts, one reflecting the positive value of the inequality and
one reflecting the negative value. You’ll see an example just below. If the absolute value
is less than a given quantity, then the solution will be a single range with a lower and an
upper bound. An example of a single range would be the numbers between –5 and 5, as
seen in the following number line:
A single range question will look something like this:
Solve for x in the inequality |2x – 4| ≤ 6.
First, split the inequality into two. In keeping with the rule for negative numbers, you’ll
have to flip around the inequality sign when you write out the inequality for the negative
scenario:
2x – 4 ≤ 6
2x – 4 ≥ –6
Solve the first:
2x – 4 ≤ 6
2x ≤ 10
x≤5
Then solve the second:
2x – 4 ≥ –6
2x ≥ –2
x ≥ –1
So x is greater than or equal to –1 and less than or equal to 5. In other words, x lies
between those two values. So you can write out the value of x in a single range, .
Absolute Value and Disjointed Ranges
You won’t always find that the value of the variable lies between two numbers. Instead,
you may find that the solution is actually two separate ranges: one whose lower bound is
negative infinity and whose upper bound is a real number, and one whose lower bound is
a real number and whose upper bound is infinity. Yeah, words make it sound confusing.
A number line will make it clearer. An example of a disjointed range would be all the
numbers smaller than –5 and larger than 5, as shown below:
On the GRE, disjointed ranges come up in problems in which the absolute value is
greater than a given quantity, such as the following:
Solve for x in the inequality |3x + 4| > 16.
You know the drill. Split ’er up, then solve each inequality:
3x + 4 > 16
3x + 4 < –16
Again, notice that we have to switch the inequality sign in the second case because of the
negative-number rule.
Solving the first:
3x + 4 > 16
3x >12
x>4
And the second:
3x + 4 < –16
3x < –20

Notice that x is greater than the positive number and smaller than the negative number. In
other words, the possible values of x don’t lie between the two numbers; they lie outside
the two numbers. So you need two separate ranges to show the possible values of x: –∞ <
x < – and 4 < x < ∞. There are two distinct ranges for the possible values of x in this
case, which is why the ranges are called disjointed. It doesn’t mean they can bend their
fingers back all the way—that’s double-jointed.
Made-up Symbols
As if there aren’t enough real math symbols in the world, the GRE test makers
occasionally feel the need to make up their own. You may see a made-up symbol
problem on the GRE involving little graphics you’ve never seen before in a math context.
Sure, they look weird, but they often involve variables and equations, which is why we
thought we’d cover them here in the algebra section. Anyway, there’s a silver lining to
this weirdness: Made-up symbol problems always give you exact instructions of what to
do. Follow the instructions precisely, and you’ll do just fine. Let’s see how this works
with an example:
If x Ω y = 5x + 2y – 10, what is 3 Ω 4?
Some test takers will see a problem like this and think, “Ω is one of those symbols that
only math geniuses learned. I never learned this symbol. I’m not a math genius. I majored
in Spanish. AAAAGGGHHHH!!!!”
Relax: The fact is, no one learned what this symbol means, because the test makers made
it up. Fortunately, the test makers have also made up a definition for it—that is, they tell
us exactly what do to when we see a Ω. All it requires is some simple calculating.
Look at the first part of the problem again: x Ω y = 5x + 2y – 10. All that’s really saying
is that whenever we have two numbers separated by a Ω, we need to take 5 times the first
number and 2 times the second number, add them together, and subtract 10. That’s it—
these are the only instructions we need to follow.
For the expression 3 Ω 4, then, x is 3, which we multiply by 5 to get 15. Similarly, y is 4,
which we’re told to multiply by 2, which gives us 8. Adding these together gives us 23,
and subtracting 10 brings us to 13 and a quick and easy point. Quick and easy, that is, if
you don’t panic and just follow the directions to a T.
Try one more example to get the hang of this symbol business:
If j@k = , what is 5@–1?
Forget the actual variables for a moment and focus on the instructions given: Whenever
we have two numbers separated by an @, we need to divide the second number by 2,
multiply the first number by 13 and subtract the two numbers. So, substituting 5 for j and
–1 for k:

The test makers may keep the choices as fractions, or they may decide to write them in
decimal form, in which case –65.5 will be correct.
Geometry-Algebra Hybrids: Coordinate Geometry
Once upon a time, geometry and algebra hooked up after a drunken night. The result was
coordinate geometry: a geometry-algebra hybrid. Coordinate geometry combines the
graphical figures found in geometry with the variables used in algebra. So where does it
belong, in algebra or geometry? Geometry wins on the name front, since it appears in the
title and algebra doesn’t. But the GRE Official Guide includes this as an algebra topic, so
we’ll defer to that and cover it here.
The Coordinate Plane
The coordinate plane is where all the magic happens. It’s the space in which coordinate
geometry exists. Pretty snazzy.
Every point on a coordinate plane can be mapped by using two perpendicular number
lines. The horizontal x-axis defines the space from left to right. The vertical y-axis
defines the space up and down. And the two meet at a point called the origin.

Every point on the plane has two coordinates. Because it’s the center of the plane, the
origin gets the coordinates (0,0). The coordinates of all other points indicate how far they
are from the origin. These coordinates are written in the form (x, y). The x-coordinate is
the point’s location along the x-axis (its distance either to the left or right of the origin). If
a point is to the right of the origin, its x-coordinate is positive. If a point is to the left of
the origin, its x-coordinate is negative. If a point is anywhere on the y-axis, its x-
coordinate is 0.
The y-coordinate of a point is its location along the y-axis (either up or down from the
origin). If a point is above the origin, its y-coordinate is positive, and if a point is below
the origin, its y-coordinate is negative. If a point is anywhere on the x-axis, its y-
coordinate is 0.
So the point labeled (2, 2) is 2 units to the right and 2 units above the origin. The point
labeled (–7, –5) is 7 units to the left and 5 units below the origin.
Quadrants
Each graph has four quadrants, or sections. The upper-right quadrant is quadrant I, and
the numbering continues counterclockwise. At the exact center of the graph, the origin is
not in any of the four quadrants. Similarly, the x-axis and y-axis are not in any quadrant,
either.

You may be asked where a particular point exists. Although you could graph the point on
a sketched graph, then use the diagram above, a faster method is to memorize the chart
below:
x-coordinate y-coordinate quadrant
positive positive I
negative positive II
negative negative III
positive negative IV
This chart makes coordinate-location questions a breeze. Check it out:
In which quadrant is coordinate pair (–8.4, –2) located?
Sure, you could draw the coordinate plane and plot the pair. Or you could simply note
that both the x-coordinate and the y-coordinate are negative, which means that (–8.4, –2)
lives in quadrant III.
Distance on the Coordinate Plane
You may come across a GRE math question that asks you to find the distance between
two points on the coordinate plane or to find the midpoint between two points. This news
should make you happy. Why? Because these are fairly easy as long as you know the
necessary formulas. There are two methods for finding distance and a formula for finding
midpoints. We’ll tackle distance first.
Finding Distance Using the Distance Formula
If you know the coordinates of any two points—we’ll call them (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)—
you can find their distance from each other with the aptly named distance formula:

Let’s say you were suddenly overcome by the desire to calculate the distance between the
points (4,–3) and (–3, 8). Just plug the coordinates into the formula:

Finding Distance Using Right Triangles

You can also solve distance questions using right triangles. Consider this one:
What is the distance between the points (2, 4) and (5, 0)?
Plot the two points on a graph and connect them with a straight line:
The distance between these two points is the length of the dark line connecting them. To
calculate this length, let the dark line be the longest side of a right triangle. Then draw
two perpendicular lines to construct the short sides, as indicated by the slashed lines in
the diagram.
Since the horizontal side went from an x-coordinate of 2 to an x-coordinate of 5, its
length is 5 – 2 = 3.
Since the vertical side went from a y-coordinate of 0 to a y-coordinate of 4, its length is 4
– 0 = 4.
These two sides fit the {3, 4, 5} right-triangle pattern, and so the long side must be 5.
And that’s the distance between the two points. (No doubt you’ve learned about right
triangles, but don’t worry, we’ll review them extensively in the upcoming geometry
section.)
So which method for calculating distance should you use? If you’re given the two points,
there’s no reason why you shouldn’t be able to plug them into the distance formula and
get the answer without bothering to sketch out a picture. The reason we also teach you
the right-triangle method is because, hey, you may just like it better, but more important,
a question may present you with a diagram to start, in which case the triangle method
may be easier.
Finding Midpoints
To find the midpoint between points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in the coordinate plane, use
this formula:

In other words, the x- and y-coordinates of the midpoint are simply the averages of the x-
and y-coordinates of the endpoints. (Again, we know you’ve heard of and worked with
averages before, but we’ll review the concept in the data analysis section later in the
chapter.) Applying the formula, the midpoint of the line in the coordinate plane
connected by the points (6, 0) and (3, 7) is:

Slope
Coordinate geometry isn’t all the fun and games of calculating distances and naming
quadrants—it’s also about finding slopes and solving equations. What follows isn’t
particularly difficult, but terms such as slope and y-intercept rarely evoke positive
feelings. Stay with us, and you’ll be okay.
A line’s slope is a measurement of how steeply that line climbs or falls as it moves from
left to right. The slopes of some lines are positive; the slopes of others are negative.
Whether a line has a positive or negative slope is easy to tell just by looking at a graph of
the line. If the line slopes uphill as you trace it from left to right, the slope is positive. If a
line slopes downhill as you trace it from left to right, the slope is negative. Uphill =
positive. Downhill = negative.
You can get a sense of the magnitude of the slope of a line by looking at the line’s
steepness. The steeper the line, the greater the slope; the flatter the line, the smaller the
slope. Note that an extremely positive slope is larger than a moderately positive slope,
while an extremely negative slope is smaller than a moderately negative slope.
Check out the lines below and try to determine whether the slope of each line is negative
or positive and which has the greatest slope:

Lines a and b have positive slopes, and lines c and d have negative slopes. In terms of
slope magnitude, line a > b > c > d.
Slopes You Should Know by Sight
There are certain easy-to-recognize slopes that it pays to recognize by sight:
A horizontal line has a slope of zero.
A vertical line has an undefined slope.
A line that makes a 45º angle with a horizontal line has a slope of either 1 or –1,
depending on whether it’s going up or down from left to right.
Of the four lines pictured below, which has a slope of 0, which has a slope of 1, which
has a slope of –1, and which has an undefined slope?

Line a has slope 0 because it’s horizontal. Line b has slope –1 because it slopes
downward at 45º as you move from left to right. Line c has slope 1 because it slopes
upward at 45º as you move from left to right. The slope of line d is undefined because it
is vertical.
Calculating Slope
If you want the technical jargon, slope is a line’s vertical change divided by its horizontal
change. Or, if you prefer the poetic version, slope is “the rise over run.” Okay, it’s not
Hemingway (The Sun Also Rises), but it’ll do. For some strange reason, slope is
symbolized by the letter m. We think s would be a better choice. Hello . . . Maybe s was
taken. Anyway, you have two points on a line—once again (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)—the
slope of that line can be calculated using the following formula:

Rise is how far the line goes up between two points. Run is how far the line goes to the
right between two points. The formula is just shorthand for the difference between the
two y-coordinates divided by the difference between the two x-coordinates. Let’s work
out an example:
Calculate the slope of the line passing through (–4, 1) and (3, 4).
The difference in y-coordinates, y2 – y1, is 4 – 1 = 3. The difference in x-coordinates, x2
– x1, is 3 – (–4) = 7. The slope is simply the ratio of these two differences, .
Slopes of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
The slopes of parallel and perpendicular lines exhibit the following relationships:
The slopes of parallel lines are always the same. If one line has a slope of m, any line
parallel to it will also have a slope of m.
The slopes of perpendicular lines are always the opposite reciprocals of each other. A line
with slope m is perpendicular to a line with a slope of .
In the figure below, lines q and r both have a slope of 2, so they are parallel. Line s is
perpendicular to both lines q and r, so it has a slope of .
Finding the Equation of a Line
Now that you’ve mastered slope, you’re ready to determine the entire equation for a line
that passes through two points. There are two ways to do this, and we’ll cover both.
The Point-Slope Formula
The equation of a line passing through two points in the coordinate plane can be
expressed by the point-slope formula:
(y – y1) = m(x – x1)
You already know how to calculate the slope, m. And x and y are just variables. You
don’t have to do anything special with them in the formula other than write them down,
unchanged.
As for x1 and y1, these are just the x- and y-coordinates of one of the points given. You
can use whichever point you like; just make sure you use the same point for both the x1
and y1 values.
Let’s use the formula to work through an example, using the same points we used in the
previous question:
What is the equation of the line passing through (–4, 1) and (3, 4)?
We already calculated . Now we have to decide which of the two points to use in the
equation. Again, either point will do. Maybe (3, 4) in this case would be a little easier,
since it doesn’t have a negative sign. Letting x1 = 3 and y1 = 4 gives:

Believe it or not, we’re almost done! We’ve actually written the equation of the line
passing between the two points; all that’s left is to simplify it. First, eliminate the fraction
by multiplying both sides by 7:
7(y – 4) = 7 (x – 3)
7y – 28 = 3(x – 3)
Then distribute the 3 on the right side:
7y – 28 = 3x – 9
Finally, move the 3x to the left and the –28 to the right to isolate the variables:
–3x + 7y = 19
This is the final equation of the line passing through (–4, 1) and (3, 4), written in simplest
form.
x-intercept and y-intercept
The x- and y-intercepts are the points at which the graph intersects the x-axis and the y-
axis, respectively. A useful way to think about this is that at the x- intercept, y = 0, and at
the y-intercept, x = 0.
Graphically, this is what the x- and y-intercepts look like for the equation we derived
above:

To calculate the precise values of these intercepts, recall the equation of this line, which
we figured out earlier: –3x + 7y = 19. Since x = 0 at the y-intercept, you can calculate it
simply by setting x = 0 in the equation, like this:
0 + 7y = 19
y=
So is where the graph intersects the y-axis. Since the x-coordinate at this point is 0, the
coordinate pair for the y-intercept is . Following the same mysterious naming
conventions that cause slope to be named m, the point where the graph intersects the y-
axis is called b.
For the x-intercept, let y = 0 in the equation –3x + 7y = 19. This gives:
–3x + 0 = 19
x=
So is where the graph intersects the x-axis. Since the y-coordinate at this point is 0, the
coordinate pair for the x-intercept is .
The Slope-Intercept Equation
The second method for calculating the equation of a line designated by two points in the
coordinate plane is the slope-intercept equation. It looks like this:
y = mx + b
It’s likely that you had this one drilled into your head in high school, and you therefore
recall the sound of it while having absolutely no idea what it means. Relearning it now is
like being reacquainted with an old friend. Aren’t you glad you’re taking the GRE?
You’re now familiar with each part of this equation:
x and y are variables, which you don’t need to change.
m is the slope, calculated by .
b is the y-intercept, the point where the graph intersects the y-axis.
For the line we’ve been working with, the slope, m, is

. The y-intercept, b, is . Plugging these values into the slope-intercept equation gives:

This is the equation in slope-intercept format. You could simplify it by multiplying both
sides by 7, then moving the variables to the left and the numbers to the right. As you may
or may not expect, this gives exactly the same result as the point-slope format above:
–3x + 7y = 19
This actually makes a lot of sense: The equation for the line should be the same,
regardless of the method you use to calculate it.
Which Equation Rules?
You might be wondering when you should use each of the two equations, (y – y1) = m(x
– x1) and y = mx + b. Decisions, decisions. Although slope-intercept is more commonly
taught (most of us have at least heard of y = mx + b), the point-slope format is actually
more useful when it comes to certain problems on the GRE. Both equations require the
slope, so they’re similar in that respect. The slope-intercept formula requires a very
specific point, the y-intercept, but the point-slope formula can be calculated with any
point. Since it’s less restrictive, you may therefore find more uses for point-slope. But if
they flat-out give you the slope and the y-intercept, then y = mx + b may be the way to
go. The bottom line: Know both, and decide which to use depending on the question’s
parameters.
Word Problems
Perhaps you’ve had nightmares in high school, certainly around SAT time, involving two
trains, traveling in opposite directions, at different speeds, over different distances . . .
That might be the point where you woke up screaming, or your dream morphed into Aunt
Mabel offering you a piece of cheesecake.
Well, relax. Word problems are nothing more than algebra problems, complicated by one
small inconvenience: You have to come up with your own equations. Word problems
present particular scenarios; the trick is to translate the information into math. The good
news is that once you have your equations, they usually aren’t hard to solve.
Pretty much any math concept is fair game for a word problem, but there are certain types
that show up with some regularity. We’ll work through a few examples here, and you’ll
see more later in the book.
Using Simultaneous Equations
Try this:
In a sack of 50 marbles, there are 20 more red marbles than blue marbles. All of the
marbles in the sack are either red or blue. How many blue marbles are in the sack?
Well, these are very nice words and all, but talk is cheap—we want equations to crunch.
And to get equations, we’re going to need to round ourselves up some variables. We
don’t need a variable for total marbles, since that’s given: 50. However, we do need
variables for the red and blue marbles, since those are unknown quantities. Unlike those
nutty folks who come up with things like m for slope and b for y-intercept, we’ll be
reasonable and just use r for red and b for blue. Since there’s no y-intercept for miles
around in this one, we doubt anyone will mind if we borrow that b.
Now for some translating: Is there a math expression that means the same thing as “there
are 20 more red marbles than blue marbles”? You bet:
r = b + 20
Since both r and b are unknown, we can’t solve the problem from this equation alone, so
we’ll need to squeeze another equation out of this scenario. The only other facts are that
there are 50 marbles total, and only red and blue ones in the sack. So it must also be true
that:
r + b = 50
Eureka! Why so excited? Because we have two different equations, each containing two
variables, which means we have enough information to solve the problem. And if you
remember from earlier in the chapter, we even have a choice of how to solve such
simultaneous equations. We’ll go with substitution. Since the first equation tells us that r
= b + 20, we can go ahead and substitute b + 20 for r in the second equation, giving us:
b + 20 + b = 50 2b + 20 = 50 2b = 30 b = 15
Done.
Now perhaps the CAT software would present you with the problem in the form we just
solved. Or, perhaps, if you answered one or two more questions correctly before this one,
that wily CAT would up the ante and make the question a tad harder by requiring an
additional step. For example, instead of merely asking you to find the number of blue
marbles in the sack, the question could ask you to find the ratio of blue to red marbles.
No problem; it requires a few more steps, but it’s not so difficult.
First, use either equation to find the number of red marbles. We’ll just plug 15 for b into r
= b + 20, to get 35 reds. Then set up the ratio as 15:35 and simplify to 3:7.
Ratios
And speaking of ratios, here’s another kind of word problem based on this concept.
In a certain class, the ratio of boys to girls is 4 to 5. If the class has 12 boys, what is the
total number of boys and girls in the class?
Again, the first step is to translate the English into algebra. Since ratios are part-to-part
fractions, the ratio of boys to girls in the class is really just the fraction . A common
careless mistake is to write the fraction upside down—that is, as . A great way to avoid
making this mistake is to remember . In other words, whatever quantity appears after the
word of in the problem goes in the numerator, and whatever quantity appears after the
word to goes in the denominator.
So, the ratio of boys to girls is 4 to 5, which, in math terms, can be written like this:

We’re also told that the class has 12 boys. Substituting this into our equation gives:
We’ll now use the Magic X to cross-multiply diagonally and up:
5 × 12 = girls × 4
60 = girls × 4
= girls
15 = girls
Think 15 is the answer? Think again. The question didn’t ask for the number of girls, but
for the total number of boys and girls in the class. Easy: Total = 12 + 15 = 27, and we’re
done.
Distance
Since practically everyone who ever attended high school has had that nightmare about
the trains traveling in different directions, the GRE test makers figure it’s a good problem
to torment people with. Of course, they don’t always use trains. But these problems are
really not that bad if you learn how to handle them; in fact, distance problems require
only one fairly basic formula:
rate × time = distance
The concept is fairly intuitive: If you bike at a rate of 10 miles per hour, and you bike for
2 hours, you’re going to cover 10 × 2 = 20 miles. What gets confusing is the various
ways they state these problems, but rest assured they always give you enough information
to set up an equation and solve for the variable you seek. Here’s an example:
Jim roller-skates 6 miles per hour. One morning, Jim roller-skates continuously for 60
miles. How many hours did Jim spend roller-skating?
One thing that makes word problems annoying is that they sometimes include
unnecessary facts. Here, for example, we’re told such exciting things as how Jim is
traveling (by roller skates) and when he started (in the morning). Heck, it doesn’t even
matter that his name is Jim—he could be Egbert the marble collector for all we care. You
have to ignore the nonessentials and focus on the facts you need to solve the problem.
Begin with the trusty distance formula:
rate × time = distance
Then fill in the values you know:
6 miles per hour × time = 60 miles
Divide both sides by 6 miles per hour to calculate the time spent as 10 hours.
This next distance problem is a bit more difficult because it requires one extra step.
Instead of being given two variables and simply setting up an equation to solve for the
third, you need to first calculate one of the variables before getting to that point. Try it
out:
A traveler begins driving from California and heads east across the United States. If she
drives at a rate of 528,000 feet per hour, and drives 4.8 hours without stopping, how
many miles has she traveled? (1 mile = 5,280 feet)
The reason you need to go the extra mile (so to speak) is because the rate is given in feet
per hour but the distance traveled is given in miles. The units must jibe for the problem to
work, so a conversion is necessary. Luckily, the numbers are easy to work with: The
driver drives 528,000 feet per hour, and 5,280 feet equal one mile. So to change her rate
into miles per hour, simply divide:

= 100 miles per hour

That’s some fast traveler. Now plug the values from the problem, including this new one,
into the formula:
100 miles per hour × 4.8 hours = distance
The distance traveled is 480 miles.
Work
Work sucks. You’re there from at least 9 to 5, get two weeks off per year (at best), and
you’ve got a boss constantly checking up on you. Work word problems on the GRE are a
breeze in comparison. Work word problems are very similar to distance word problems,
except the final outcome is units of something produced instead of distance covered. The
other two variables are analogous to those in distance problems: the rate at which the
units are produced, and the time someone spends producing them. If you knit 2 sweaters
per hour, and knit for 8 hours, then you’ll knit 2 × 8 = 16 sweaters. This generalizes to
the same basic formula we saw earlier:
rate × time = units produced
Since you’ve seen this basic mechanism in action in the previous section, we’ll jump
right to a difficult work word problem:
Four workers can dig a 40-foot well in 4 days. How long would it take for 8 workers
working at the same rate to dig a 60-foot well?
Sure, it’s complicated, but the three parameters are the same: rate, time worked, and
amount of work completed. We know the latter: 60 feet dug. The middle amount, time, is
what we’re looking for, so we’ll just leave that as our unknown variable for now. The
question then hinges on the rate, which we need to calculate ourselves. Well, since 4
workers dig 40 feet in 4 days, we can divide by 4 to determine that those 4 workers can
dig 10 feet in one day. The 8 workers that we’re interested in dig at the same rate, and
since they represent twice as many people, they’ll be able to dig twice as many feet in a
day: 20. Now we have the variables to plug into our formula:
20 feet per day × time = 60 units produced (in this case, feet dug)
Divide both sides by 20 to get a time of 3 days of work for the 8 workers to dig the 60-
foot well.
Many other word problems follow the same basic form as the examples above. For
example, in a price word problem, the price of an item times the number of items bought
will equal the total cost. The particulars are slightly different, but the concept is basically
the same. Use the information given in the problem to get two of the values, and you’ll
always be able to calculate the third. And you’ll never have a word problem nightmare
again.
That wraps it up for algebra. Now we move on to triangles, circles, and all of the other
fun shapes of our next math subject, geometry.

Geometry
Geometry has a long and storied history that goes back thousands of years, which we’re
sure you’re dying to hear about. But unless you’re taking the GRE to go for your masters
in math history, this has no possible relevance to your life. So we’ll skip the history
lesson and get right to the facts.
Lines and Angles
An angle is composed of two lines and is a measure of the spread between them. The
point where the two lines meet is called the vertex. On the GRE, angles are measured in
degrees. Here’s an example:

The ° after the 45 is a degree symbol. This angle measures 45 degrees.

Acute, Obtuse, and Right Angles
Angles that measure less than 90° are called acute angles. Angles that measure more than
90° are called obtuse angles. A special angle that the GRE test makers love is called a
right angle. Right angles always measure exactly 90° and are indicated by a little square
where the angle measure would normally be, like this:

Straight Angles
Multiple angles that meet at a single point on a line are called straight angles. The sum of
the angles meeting at a single point on a straight line is always equal to 180°. You may
see something like this, asking you to solve for n:
The two angles (one marked by 40° and the one marked by n°) meet at the same point on
the line. Since the sum of the angles on the line must be 180°, you can plug 40° and n°
into a formula like this:
40° + n° = 180°
Subtracting 40° from both sides gives n° = 140°, or n = 140.
Vertical Angles
When two lines intersect, the angles that lie opposite each other, called vertical angles,
are always equal.

Angles and

are vertical angles and are therefore equal. Angles and are also vertical, equal
angles.
Parallel Lines
A more complicated version of this figure that you may see on the GRE involves two
parallel lines intersected by a third line, called a transversal. Parallel means that the lines
run in exactly the same direction and never intersect. Here’s an example:

line 1 is parallel to line 2

Don’t assume lines are parallel just because they look like they are—the question will
always tell you if two lines are meant to be parallel. Even though this figure contains
many angles, it turns out that it only has two kinds of angles: big angles (obtuse) and little
angles (acute). All the big angles are equal to each other, and all the little angles are equal
to each other. Furthermore, any big angle + any little angle = 180°. This is true for any
figure with two parallel lines intersected by a third line. In the following figure, we label
every angle to show you what we mean:

As described above, the eight angles created by these two intersections have special
relationships to each other:
Angles 1, 4, 5, and 8 are equal to one another. Angle 1 is vertical to angle 4, and angle 5
is vertical to angle 8.
Angles 2, 3, 6, and 7 are equal to one another. Angle 2 is vertical to angle 3, and angle 6
is vertical to angle 7.
The sum of any two adjacent angles, such as 1 and 2 or 7 and 8, equals 180º because they
form a straight angle lying on a line.
The sum of any big angle + any little angle = 180°, since the big and little angles in this
figure combine into straight lines and all the big angles are equal and all the little angles
are equal. So a big and little angle don’t need to be next to each other to add to 180°; any
big plus any little will add to 180°. For example, since angles 1 and 2 sum to 180º, and
since angles 2 and 7 are equal, the sum of angles 1 and 7 also equals 180º.
By using these rules, you can figure out the degrees of angles that may seem unrelated.
For example:

If line 1 is parallel to line 2, what is the value of y in the figure above?

Again, this figure has only two kinds of angles: big angles (obtuse) and little angles
(acute). We know that 55° is a little angle, so y must be a big angle. Since big angle +
little angle = 180°, you can write:
y° + 55° = 180°
Solving for y:
y° = 180° – 55°
y = 125
Perpendicular Lines
Two lines that meet at a right angle are called perpendicular lines. If you’re told two lines
are perpendicular, just think 90°. We’d love to tell you more about these beauties, but
there’s really not much else to say.
Polygon Basics
A polygon is a two-dimensional figure with three or more straight sides. Polygons are
named according to the number of sides they have.
Number of Sides Name
3 triangle
4 quadrilateral
5
6 pentagon
7 hexagon
8 heptagon
9 octagon
10 nonagon
12 decagon
n dodecagon
n-gon All polygons, no matter how many sides they possess, share certain characteristics:
The sum of the interior angles of a polygon with n sides is (n – 2)180°. For instance, the
sum of the interior angles of an octagon is (8 – 2)180°= 6(180°) = 1080°.
A polygon with equal sides and equal interior angles is a regular polygon.
The sum of the exterior angles of any polygon is 360°.
The perimeter of a polygon is the sum of the lengths of its sides.
The area of a polygon is the measure of the area of the region enclosed by the polygon.
Each polygon tested on the GRE has its own unique area formula, which we’ll cover
below.
For the most part, the polygons tested in GRE math include triangles and quadrilaterals.
All triangles have three sides, but there are special types of triangles that we’ll cover
next. Then we’ll move on to four common quadrilaterals (four-sided figures) that appear
on the test: rectangles, squares, parallelograms, and trapezoids.
We’ll then leave the world of polygons and make our way to circles and then conclude
this geometry section with a discussion of the three-dimensional solids you may see on
your test: rectangular solids, cubes, and right circular cylinders.
Triangles
Of all the geometric shapes, triangles are among the most commonly tested on the GRE.
But since the GRE tends to test the same triangles over and over, you just need to master
a few rules and a few diagrams. We’ll look at some special triangles shortly, but first
we’ll explain four very special rules.
The Four Rules of Triangles
Commit these four rules to memory.
1. The Rule of Interior Angles. The sum of the interior angles of a triangle always equals
180°. Interior angles are those on the inside. Whenever you’re given two angles of a
triangle, you can use this formula to calculate the third angle. For example:

What is the value of a in the figure above?

Since the sum of the angles of a triangle equals 180°, you can set up an equation:
a° + 100° + 60° = 180°
Isolating the variable and solving for a gives a = 20.
2. The Rule of Exterior Angles. An exterior angle of a triangle is the angle formed by
extending one of the sides of the triangle past a vertex (or the intersection of two sides of
a figure). In the figure below, d is the exterior angle.

Since, together, d and c form a straight angle, they add up to 180°: d + c = 180°.
According to the first rule of triangles, the three angles of a triangle always add up to
180°, so a + b + c = 180°. Since d + c = 180° and a + b + c = 180°, d must be equal to a +
b (the remote interior angles). This generalizes to all triangles as the following rules: The
exterior angle of a triangle plus the interior angle with which it shares a vertex is always
180°. The exterior angle is also equal to the sum of the measures of the remote interior
angles.
3. The Rule of the Sides. The length of any side of a triangle must be greater than the
difference and less than the sum of the other two sides. In other words:
difference of other two sides < one side < sum of other two sides
Although this rule won’t allow you to determine a precise length of the missing side, it
will allow you to determine a range of values for the missing side, which is exactly what
the test makers would ask for in such a problem. Here’s an example:

What is the range of values for x in the triangle above?

Since the difference of 10 and 4 is 6, and the sum of 10 and 4 is 14, we can determine the
range of values of x:
6 < x < 14
Keep in mind that x must be inside this range. That is, x could not be 6 or 14.
4. The Rule of Proportion. In every triangle, the longest side is opposite the largest angle
and the shortest side is opposite the smallest angle. Take a look at the following figure
and try to guess which angle is largest.
Meanwhile, side c is the shortest side and is the smallest angle. So c < b < a and

This proportionality of side lengths and angles holds true for all triangles.
Use this rule to solve the question below:

What is one possible value of x if ?

(A)
4

(B)
5

(C)
7

(D)
10

(E)
15

According to the rule of proportion, the longest side of a triangle is opposite the largest
angle, and the shortest side of a triangle is opposite the smallest angle. The question tells
us that angle C < angle A < angle B. So, the largest angle in triangle ABC is angle B,
which is opposite the side of length 8. We know too that the smallest angle is angle C,
since angle C < angle A. This means that the third side, with a length of x, measures
between 6 and 8 units in length. The only choice that fits this criterion is 7, choice C.
Isosceles Triangles
An isosceles triangle has two equal sides and two equal angles, like this:
The tick marks indicate that sides a and b are equal, and the curved lines inside the
triangle indicate that angle A equals angle B. Notice that the two equal angles are the
ones opposite the two equal sides. Let’s see how we might put this knowledge to use on
the test. Check out this next triangle:

With two equal sides, this is an isosceles triangle. Even though you’re not explicitly told
that it has two equal angles, any triangle with two equal sides must also have two equal
angles. This means that x must be 70°, because angles opposite equal sides are equal.
Knowing that the sum of the angles of any triangle is 180°, we can also calculate y: y +
70 + 70 = 180, or y = 40.
Equilateral Triangles
An equilateral triangle has three equal sides and three equal angles, like this:

The tick marks tip us off that the three sides are equal. We can precisely calculate the
angles because the 180° of an equilateral triangle broken into three equal angles yields
60° for each. As soon as you’re given one side of an equilateral triangle, you’ll
immediately know the other two sides, because all three have the same measure. If you
ever see a triangle with three equal sides, you’ll immediately know its angles measure
60°. Conversely, if you see that a triangle’s three interior angles all measure 60°, then
you’ll know its sides must all be equal.
Right Triangles
A right triangle is any triangle that contains a right angle. The side opposite the right
angle is called the hypotenuse. The other two sides are called legs. The angles opposite
the legs of a right triangle add up to 90°. That makes sense, because the right angle itself
is 90° and every triangle contains 180° total, so the other two angles must combine for
the other 90°. Right triangles are so special that they even have their own rule, known as
the Pythagorean theorem.
The Pythagorean Theorem
The ancient Greeks spent a lot of time philosophizing, eating grapes, and riding around
on donkeys. They also enjoyed the occasional mathematical epiphany. One day,
Pythagoras discovered that the sum of the squares of the two legs of a right triangle is
equal to the square of the hypotenuse. “Eureka!” he shouted, and the GRE had a new
topic to test. And the Greek police had a new person to arrest, since Pythagoras had this
epiphany while sitting in the bath and immediately jumped out to run down the street and
proclaim it to the world, entirely in the buff. Or maybe that was Archimedes . . . ? Hey, it
was a long time ago. Suffice it to say that some naked Greek guy thought up something
cool.
Since Pythagoras took the trouble to invent his theorem, the least we can do is learn it.
Besides, it’s one of the most famous theorems in all of math, and it is tested with
regularity on the GRE, to boot. Here it is:
In a right triangle, a2 + b2 = c2, where c is the length of the hypotenuse and a and b are
the lengths of the two legs.
And here’s a simple application:

What is the value of b in the triangle above?

The little square in the lower left corner lets you know that this is a right triangle, so
you’re clear to use the Pythagorean theorem. Substituting the known lengths into the
formula gives:
32 + b2 = 52
9 + b2 = 25
b2 = 16
b=4
This is therefore the world-famous 3-4-5 right triangle. Thanks to the Pythagorean
theorem, if you know the measures of any two sides of a right triangle, you can always
find the third. “Eureka!” indeed.
Pythagorean Triples. Because right triangles obey the Pythagorean theorem, only a
specific few have side lengths that are all integers. For example, a right triangle with legs
of length 3 and 5 has a hypotenuse of length

. Positive integers that obey the Pythagorean theorem are called Pythagorean triples, and
these are the ones you’re likely to see on your test as the lengths of the sides of right
triangles. Here are some common ones:
{3, 4, 5}
{5, 12, 13}
{7, 24, 25}
{8, 15, 17}
In addition to these Pythagorean triples, you should also watch out for their multiples. For
example, {6, 8, 10} is a Pythagorean triple, since it is a multiple of {3, 4, 5}, derived
from simply doubling each value. This knowledge can significantly shorten your work in
a problem like this:

What is the value of z in the triangle above?

Sure, you could calculate it out using the Pythagorean theorem, but who wants to square
120 and 130 and then work the results into the formula? Pythagoras himself would
probably say, “Ah, screw it . . .” and head off for a chat with Socrates. (Actually,
Pythagoras died about twenty years before Socrates was born, but you get the point.)
But armed with our Pythagorean triples, it’s no problem for us. The hypotenuse is 130,
and one of the legs is 120. The ratio between these sides is 130:120, or 13:12. This
exactly matches the {5, 12, 13} Pythagorean triple. So we’re missing the 5 part of the
triple for the other leg. However, since the sides of the triangle in the question are 10
times longer than those in the {5, 12, 13} triple, the missing side must be 5 × 10 = 50.
30-60-90 Right Triangles
As you can see, right triangles are pretty darn special. But there are two extra-special
ones that appear with astounding frequency on the GRE. They are 30-60-90 right
triangles and 45-45-90 right triangles. When you see one of these, instead of working out
the Pythagorean theorem, you’ll be able to apply standard ratios that exist between the
length of the sides of these triangles.
The guy who named 30-60-90 triangles didn’t have much of an imagination— or maybe
he just didn’t have a cool name like “Pythagoras.” The name derives from the fact that
these triangles have angles of 30°, 60°, and 90°. So, what’s so special about that? This:
The side lengths of 30-60-90 triangles always follow a specific pattern. If the short leg
opposite the 30° angle has length x, then the hypotenuse has length 2x, and the long leg,
The sides of every 30-60-90 triangle will follow the ratio 1: :2
Thanks to this constant ratio, if you know the length of just one side of the triangle, you’ll
immediately be able to calculate the lengths of the other two. If, for example, you know
that the side opposite the 30º angle is 2 meters, then by using the ratio you can determine
that the hypotenuse is 4 meters, and the leg opposite the 60º angle is meters.
45-45-90 Right Triangles
A 45-45-90 right triangle is a triangle with two angles of 45° and one right angle. It’s
sometimes called an isosceles right triangle, since it’s both isosceles and right. Like the
30-60-90 triangle, the lengths of the sides of a 45-45-90 triangle also follow a specific
pattern. If the legs are of length x (the legs will always be equal), then the hypotenuse has
length .
The sides of every 45-45-90 triangle will follow the ration of

This ratio will help you when faced with triangles like this:

This right triangle has two equal sides, which means the two angles other than the right
angle must be 45° each. So we have a 45-45-90 right triangle, which means we can
employ the ratio. But instead of being 1 and 1, the lengths of the legs are 5 and 5. Since
the lengths of the sides in the triangle above are five times the lengths in the right
triangle, the hypotenuse must be , or .
Area of a Triangle
The formula for the area of a triangle is:
area = or
Keep in mind that the base and height of a triangle are not just any two sides of a triangle.
The base and height must be perpendicular, which means they must meet at a right angle.
Let’s try an example. What’s the area of this triangle?

Note that the area is not

, because those two sides do not meet at a right angle. To calculate the area, you must
first determine b. You’ll probably notice that this is the 3-4-5 right triangle you saw
earlier, so b = 4. Now you have two perpendicular sides, so you can correctly calculate
the area as follows:

Triangles are surely important, but they aren’t the only geometric figures you’ll come
across on the GRE. We move now to quadrilaterals, which are four-sided figures. The
first two we cover you’re no doubt familiar with, no matter how long you’ve been out of
high school. The other two you may have forgotten about long ago.
Rectangles
A rectangle is a quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are parallel and the interior
angles are all right angles. The opposite sides of a rectangle are equal, as indicated in the
figure below:

Area of a Rectangle
The formula for the area of a rectangle is:
area = base × height or simply a = bh
Since the base is the length of the rectangle and the height is the width, just multiply the
length by the width to get the area of a rectangle.
Diagonals of a Rectangle
The two diagonals of a rectangle are always equal to each other, and either diagonal
through the rectangle cuts the rectangle into two equal right triangles. In the figure below,
the diagonal BD cuts rectangle ABCD into congruent right triangles BAD and BCD.
Congruent means that those triangles are exactly identical.

Since the diagonal of the rectangle forms right triangles that include the diagonal and two
sides of the rectangle, if you know two of these values, you can always calculate the third
with the Pythagorean theorem. For example, if you know the side lengths of the
rectangle, you can calculate the length of the diagonal. If you know the diagonal and one
side length, you can calculate the other side length. Also, keep in mind that the diagonal
might cut the rectangle into a 30-60-90 triangle, in which case you could use the 1: : 2
ratio to make your calculating job even easier.
Squares
“Hey, buddy, don’t you be no square . . .”
Elvis Presley, Jailhouse Rock
We don’t know why, but sometime around the 1950s the word square became
synonymous with “uncool.” Of course, that’s the same decade that brought us words like
daddy-O and dances called “The Hand Jive.”
We think that squares are in fact nifty little geometric creatures. They, along with circles,
are perhaps the most symmetrical shapes in the universe—nothing to sneeze at. A square
is so symmetrical because its angles are all 90º and all four of its sides are equal in length.
Rectangles are fairly common, but a perfect square is something to behold. Like a
rectangle, a square’s opposite sides are parallel and it contains four right angles. But
squares one-up rectangles by virtue of their equal sides.
As if you’ve never seen one of these in your life, here’s what a square looks like:

Area of a Square
The formula for the area of a square is:
area = s2
In this formula, s is the length of a side. Since the sides of a square are all equal, all you
need is one side to figure out a square’s area.
Diagonals of a Square
The square has two more special qualities:
Diagonals bisect each other at right angles and are equal in length.
Diagonals bisect the vertex angles to create 45º angles. (This means that one diagonal
will cut the square into two 45-45-90 triangles, while two diagonals break the square into
four 45-45-90 triangles.)
Because a diagonal drawn into the square forms two congruent 45-45-90 triangles, if you
know the length of one side of the square, you can always calculate the length of the
diagonal:

Since d is the hypotenuse of the 45-45-90 triangle that has legs of length 5, according to
the ratio , you know that . Similarly, if you know only the length of the diagonal, you can
use the same ratio to work backward to calculate the length of the sides.
Parallelograms
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel. That means that
rectangles and squares qualify as parallelograms, but so do four-sided figures that don’t
contain right angles.

In a parallelogram, opposite sides are equal in length. That means that in the figure
above, BC = AD and AB = DC. Opposite angles are equal: ∠ABC = ∠ADC and ∠BAD
= ∠BCD. Adjacent angles are supplementary, which means they add up to 180°. Here, an
example is ∠ABC + ∠BCD = 180°.
Area of a Parallelogram
The area of a parallelogram is given by the formula:
area = bh
In this formula, b is the length of the base, and h is the height. As shown in the figure
below, the height of a parallelogram is represented by a perpendicular line dropped from
one side of the figure to the side designated as the base.

Diagonals of a Parallelogram

The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect (split) each other: BE = ED and AE = EC

One diagonal splits a parallelogram into two congruent triangles: ∆ABD = ∆BCD
Two diagonals split a parallelogram into two pairs of congruent triangles: ∆AEB = ∆DEC
and ∆BEC = ∆AED
Trapezoids
A trapezoid may sound like a new Star Wars character, but it’s actually the name of a
quadrilateral with one pair of parallel sides and one pair of nonparallel sides. Here’s an
example:

In this trapezoid, AB is parallel to CD (shown by the arrow marks), whereas AC and BD

are not parallel.
Area of a Trapezoid
The formula for the area of a trapezoid is a bit more complex than the area formulas
you’ve seen for the other quadrilaterals in this section. We’ll set it off so you can take a
good look at it:

In this formula, s1 and s2 are the lengths of the parallel sides (also called the bases of the
trapezoid), and h is the height. In a trapezoid, the height is the perpendicular distance
from one base to the other.
If you come across a trapezoid question on the GRE, you may need to use your
knowledge of triangles to solve it. Here’s an example of what we mean:

Find the area of the figure above.

First of all, we’re not told that the figure is a trapezoid, but we can infer as much from the
information given. Since both the line labeled 6 and the line labeled 10 form right angles
with the line connecting them, the 6 and 10 lines must be parallel. Meanwhile, the other
two lines (the left and right sides of the figure) cannot be parallel because one connects to
the bottom line at a right angle, while the other connects with that line at a 45° angle. So
we can deduce that the figure is a trapezoid, which means the trapezoid area formula is in
play.
The bases of the trapezoid are the parallel sides, and we’re told their lengths are 6 and 10.
So far so good, but to find the area, we also need to find the trapezoid’s height, which
isn’t given.
To do that, split the trapezoid into a rectangle and a 45-45-90 triangle by drawing in the
height.

Once you’ve drawn in the height, you can split the base that’s equal to 10 into two parts:
The base of the rectangle is 6, and the leg of the triangle is 4. Since the triangle is 45-45-
90, the two legs must be equal. This leg, though, is also the height of the trapezoid. So the
height of the trapezoid is 4. Now you can plug the numbers into the formula:

Another way to find the area of the trapezoid is to find the areas of the triangle and the
rectangle, then add them together:
area = (4 × 4) + (6 × 4)

(16) + 24
8 + 24 = 32
Circles
A circle is the collection of points equidistant from a given point, called the center.
Circles are named after their center points—that’s just easier than giving them names like
Ralph and Betty. All circles contain 360°. The distance from the center to any point on
the circle is called the radius (r). Radius is the most important measurement in a circle,
because if you know a circle’s radius, you can figure out all its other characteristics, such
as its area, diameter, and circumference. We’ll cover all that in the next few pages. The
diameter (d) of a circle stretches between endpoints on the circle, passing through the
center. A chord also extends from endpoint to endpoint on the circle, but it does not
necessarily pass through the center. In the following figure, point C is the center of the
circle, r is the radius, and AB is a chord.

Tangent Lines
Tangents are lines that intersect a circle at only one point. Just like everything else in
geometry, tangent lines are defined by certain fixed rules.
Here’s the first: A radius whose endpoint is the intersection point of the tangent line and
the circle is always perpendicular to the tangent line, as shown in the following figure:

And the second rule: Every point in space outside the circle can extend exactly two
tangent lines to the circle. The distances from the origin of the two tangents to the points
of tangency are always equal. In the figure below, XY = XZ.

Central Angles and Inscribed Angles

An angle whose vertex is the center of the circle is called a central angle.

The degree of the circle (the slice of pie) cut by a central angle is equal to the measure of
the angle. If a central angle is 25º, then it cuts a 25º arc in the circle.
An inscribed angle is an angle formed by two chords originating from a single point.
An inscribed angle will always cut out an arc in the circle that is twice the size of the
degree of the inscribed angle. For example, if an inscribed angle is 40º, it will cut an arc
of 80º in the circle.
If an inscribed angle and a central angle cut out the same arc in a circle, the central angle
will be twice as large as the inscribed angle.
Circumference of a Circle
The circumference is the perimeter of the circle—that is, the total distance around the
circle. The formula for circumference of a circle is:
circumference = 2πr
In this formula, r is the radius. Since a circle’s diameter is always twice its radius, the
formula can also be written c = πd, where d is the diameter. Let’s find the circumference
of the circle below:

Plugging the radius into the formula, c = 2πr = 2π (3) = 6π.

Arc Length
An arc is a part of a circle’s circumference. An arc contains two endpoints and all the
points on the circle between the endpoints. By picking any two points on a circle, two
arcs are created: a major arc, which is by definition the longer arc, and a minor arc, the
shorter one.

Since the degree of an arc is defined by the central or inscribed angle that intercepts the
arc’s endpoints, you can calculate the arc length as long as you know the circle’s radius
and the measure of either the central or inscribed angle.
The arc length formula is:
arc length =
In this formula, n is the measure of the degree of the arc, and r is the radius. This makes
sense, if you think about it: There are 360° in a circle, so the degree of an arc divided by
360 gives us the fraction of the total circumference that arc represents. Multiplying that
by the total circumference (2pr) gives us the length of the arc.
Here’s the sort of arc length question you might see on the test:
Circle D has radius 9. What is the length of arc AB?
To figure out the length of arc AB, we need to know the radius of the circle and the
measure of ∠C, the inscribed angle that intercepts the endpoints of arc AB. The question
provides the radius of the circle, 9, but it throws us a little curveball by not providing the
measure of ∠C. Instead, the question puts ∠C in a triangle and tells us the measures of
the other two angles in the triangle. Like we said, only a little curveball: You can easily
figure out the measure of ∠C because, as you know by now, the three angles of a triangle
add up to 180º:
∠c = 180° – (50° + 70°)
∠c = 180° – 120°
∠c = 60°
Since ∠c is an inscribed angle, arc AB must be twice its measure, or 120º. Now we can
plug these values into the formula for arc length:

Area of a Circle
If you know the radius of a circle, you can figure out its area. The formula for area is:
area = πr2
In this formula, r is the radius. So when you need to find the area of a circle, your real
goal is to figure out the radius. In easier questions the radius will be given. In harder
questions, they’ll give you the diameter or circumference and you’ll have to use the
formulas for those to calculate the radius, which you’ll then plug into the area formula.
Area of a Sector
A sector of a circle is the area enclosed by a central angle and the circle itself. It’s shaped
like a slice of pizza. The shaded region in the figure on the left below is a sector. The
figure on the right is a slice of pepperoni pizza. See the resemblance?

The area of a sector is related to the area of a circle just as the length of an arc is related
to the circumference. To find the area of a sector, find what fraction of 360° the sector
makes up and multiply this fraction by the total area of the circle. In formula form:
area of a sector =
In this formula, n is the measure of the central angle that forms the boundary of the
sector, and r is the radius. An example will help. Find the area of the sector in the figure
below:

The sector is bounded by a 70° central angle in a circle whose radius is 6. Using the
formula, the area of the sector is:

Mish-Mashes: Figures with Multiple Shapes

The GRE test makers evidently feel it would be no fun if all of these geometric shapes
you’re learning appeared in isolation, so sometimes they mash them together. The trick in
these problems is to understand and be able to manipulate the rules of each figure
individually, while also recognizing which elements of the mish-mashes overlap. For
example, the diameter of a circle may also be the side of a square, so if you use the rules
of circles to calculate that length, you can then use that answer to determine something
about the square, such as its area or perimeter.
Mish-mash problems often combine circles with other figures. Here’s an example:
What is the length of minor arc BE in circle A if the area of rectangle ABCD is 18?

To find the length of minor arc BE, you have to know two things: the radius of the circle
and the measure of the central angle that intersects the circle at points B and E. Because
ABCD is a rectangle, and rectangles only have right angles, ∠BAD is 90°. In this
question, they tell you as much by including the right-angle sign. But in a harder
question, they’d leave the right-angle sign out and expect you to deduce that ∠BAD is
90° on your own. And since that angle also happens to be the central angle of circle A
intercepting the arc in question, we can determine that arc BE measures 90°.
Finding the radius requires a bit of creative visualization as well, but it’s not so hard. The
key is to realize that the radius of the circle is equal to the width of the rectangle. So let’s
work backward from the rectangle to give us what we need to know about the circle. The
area of the rectangle is 18, and its length is 6. Since the area of a rectangle is simply its
length multiplied by its width, we can divide 18 by 6 to get a width of 3. As we’ve seen,
this rectangle width doubles as the circle’s radius, so we’re in business: radius = 3. All we
have to do is plug in the values we found into the arc length formula, and we’re done.
That covers the two-dimensional figures you should know, but there are also some three-
dimensional figures you may be asked about as well. We’ll finish up this geometry
section with a look at those.
Rectangular Solids
A rectangular solid is a prism with a rectangular base and edges that are perpendicular to
its base. In English, it looks a lot like a cardboard box.

A rectangular solid has three important dimensions: length (l), width (w), and height (h).
If you know these three measurements, you can find the solid’s volume, surface area, and
diagonal length.
Volume of a Rectangular Solid
The formula for the volume of a rectangular solid builds on the formula for the area of a
rectangle. As discussed earlier, the area of a rectangle is equal to its length times its
width. The formula for the volume of a rectangular solid adds the third dimension, height,
to get:
volume = lwh
Here’s a good old-fashioned example:
What is the volume of the figure presented below?

The length is 3x, the width is x, and the height is 2x. Just plug the values into the volume
formula and you’re good to go: v = (3x)(x)(2x) = 6x3.
Surface Area of a Rectangular Solid
The surface area of a solid is the area of its outermost skin. In the case of rectangular
solids, imagine a cardboard box all closed up. The surface of that closed box is made of
six rectangles: The sum of the areas of the six rectangles is the surface area of the box. To
make things even easier, the six rectangles come in three congruent pairs. We’ve marked
the congruent pairs by shades of gray in the image below: One pair is clear, one pair is
light gray, and one pair is dark gray.

Two faces have areas of l × w, two faces have areas of l × h, and two faces have areas of
w × h. The surface area of the entire solid is the sum of the areas of the congruent pairs:
surface area = 2lw + 2lh + 2wh.
Let’s try the formula out on the same solid we saw above. Find the surface area of this:

Again, the length is 3x, the width is x, and the height is 2x. Plugging into the formula, we
get:
surface area = 2(3x)(x) + 2(3x)(2x) + 2(x)(2x)
=6x2 + 12x2 + 4x2
= 22x2
Dividing Rectangular Solids
If you’re doing really well on the Math section, the CAT program will begin scrounging
for the toughest, most esoteric problems it can find to throw your way. One such problem
may describe a solid, give you all of its measurements, and then tell you that the box has
been cut in half, like so:

A number of possible questions could be created from this scenario. For example, you
may be asked to find the combined surface area of the two new boxes. Or maybe a
Quantitative Comparison question would ask you to compare the volume of the original
solid with that of the two new ones. Actually, the volume remains unchanged, but the
surface area increases because two new sides (shaded in the diagram) emerge when the
box is cut in half. You may need to employ a bit of reasoning along with the formulas
you’re learning to answer a difficult question like this, but it helps to know this general
rule: Whenever a solid is cut into smaller pieces, its surface area increases, but its volume
is unchanged.
Diagonal Length of a Rectangular Solid
The diagonal of a rectangular solid, d, is the line segment whose endpoints are opposite
corners of the solid. Every rectangular solid has four diagonals, each with the same
length, that connect each pair of opposite vertices. Here’s one diagonal drawn in:

It’s possible that a question will test to see if you can find the length of a diagonal. Here’s
the formula:

Again, l is the length, w is the width, and h is the height. The formula is like a pumped-up
version of the Pythagorean theorem. Check it out in action:
What is the length of diagonal AH in the rectangular solid below if AC = 5, GH = 6, and
CG = 3?

The question gives the length, width, and height of the rectangular solid, so you can just
plug those numbers into the formula:

The problem could be made more difficult if it forced you to first calculate some of the
dimensions before plugging them into the formula.
Cubes
A cube is a three-dimensional square. The length, width, and height of a cube are equal,
and each of its six faces is a square. Here’s what it looks like—pretty basic:
Volume of a Cube
The formula for finding the volume of a cube is essentially the same as the formula for
the volume of a rectangular solid: We just need to multiply the length, width, and height.
However, since a cube’s length, width, and height are all equal, the formula for the
volume of a cube is even easier:
volume = s3
In this formula, s is the length of one edge of the cube.
Surface Area of a Cube
Since a cube is just a rectangular solid whose sides are all equal, the formula for finding
the surface area of a cube is the same as the formula for finding the surface area of a
rectangular solid, except with s substituted in for l, w, and h. This boils down to:
volume = 6s2
Diagonal Length of a Cube
The formula for the diagonal of a cube is also adapted from the formula for the diagonal
length of a rectangular solid, with s substituted for l, w, and h. This yields

, which simplifies to:

volume =
Right Circular Cylinders
A right circular cylinder looks like one of those cardboard things that toilet paper comes
on, except it isn’t hollow. It has two congruent circular bases and looks like this:

The height, h, is the length of the line segment whose endpoints are the centers of the
circular bases. The radius, r, is the radius of its base. For the GRE, all you need to know
about a right circular cylinder is how to calculate its volume.
Volume of a Right Circular Cylinder
The volume of this kind of solid is the product of the area of its base and its height.
Because a right circular cylinder has a circular base, its volume is equal to the area of the
circular base times the height or:
volume = πr2h
Find the volume of the cylinder below:

This cylinder has a radius of 4 and a height of 6. Using the volume formula, its volume =
π(4)2(6) = 96π.
We’ve covered a lot of ground so far in this Math 101 chapter, working our way through
arithmetic, algebra, and now geometry. We’ll bring it on home with our final subject,
data analysis.

Data Analysis
If there’s one thing we can say about modern society, it’s that we love our data. If you spend just a few
minutes on the Internet, you can find out roughly how many people there are in America; how much,
on average, they earn; how long they’re expected to live; what percentage of them marry; what
percentage have kids; how many kids they have; how much those kids weigh; and so on and so forth
until every aspect of daily life is reduced to numerical form. Perhaps expressing everything numerically
makes us feel in control of our fate, or perhaps it helps us cope with the ambiguities of our complex
technological lives. Whatever the reason, we love our data, we surround ourselves with it, and we have
invented all sorts of statistical mechanisms to express what all this information means.
The GRE test makers have taken our numerical fetish to heart. In this final Math 101 section, you’ll
find more than you ever wanted to know about statistical concepts such as mean, median, mode,
probability, and every other data analysis topic tested on the GRE.
Mean
On the GRE, mean and arithmetic mean both represent the concept that you may recognize by its more
common name, average. No matter what we call it, the calculation is the same: Add up all the terms
and divide by the number of terms. You’ve no doubt seen this in school: If you get scores of 90, 95, and
100 on three tests, then 95 is the average of the three test scores. In this basic example you can
probably see at a glance that 95 is the average, but technically you can calculate it by taking the sum of
the scores (90 + 95 + 100) and dividing it by the number of scores (3). The formula, in general terms,
is:

Let’s try one out:

What’s the arithmetic mean of 3, –5, 7, and 0?
Solve by using the formula:

Some mean problems may be straightforward like the one above, but the more complicated ones may
give you two values and ask you to solve for a third. For example, the test makers might give you the
mean and the number of terms and ask you to solve for the sum of the terms. Your job will still be to
plug the known values into the formula and solve from there. Here’s an example:
The average height of five people is 54 inches. One of the people leaves the group, and the
average height of those remaining is 52 inches. How tall is the person who left?
In the first sentence, we’re given the number of people, five, and their average height, 54. We can use
the mean formula to calculate the sum of the heights of these five people:

In the second sentence, we’re told that the average height of the remaining people is 52.
Since one person left the group, four people remain. Plugging 4 and 52 into the mean
formula gives:

The difference between the sum of the heights of the original five people and the sum of the heights of
the remaining four must be equal to the height of the person who left. Subtract the second sum from
the first to get the height of the person who left: 270 – 208 = 62 inches, the final answer.
Median
The median of a group of numbers is the middle term when the numbers are written in either
ascending or descending order. That means that before you can calculate a median, you must first
rewrite the terms of the group in ascending or descending order. For example, to calculate the median
of 0.3, 7, 0, 9, and 10, you can’t choose 0 simply because it appears in the middle. You must first write
the numbers in order: 0, 0.3, 7, 9, 10. Since 7 appears in the middle of this ordered list, 7 is the median.
If two numbers appear in the middle, which will happen whenever the total number of terms is even,
take the mean of the two middle numbers to determine the median. For example, the median of 1, 2, 4,
and 8 is 3, since 3 is the mean of 2 and 4.
One wrinkle you may come across in a median problem is a description of a list of consecutive
numbers, instead of a list of the actual numbers, as in this example:
What is the median of all the integers between 210 and 260, inclusive?
You certainly don’t want to write out all the numbers from 210 to 260, and then try to find the one in
the middle. It’s better to use the following formula:
In our example, the median would be:

Remember, inclusive means “including,” which is why we used 210 and 260. Had the question said
exclusive, we would have used 211 and 259, divided by 2, and also gotten a median of 235.
Mode
The mode of a group of numbers is the number that occurs most frequently. If multiple numbers are
tied for first place in the race to occur the most, then the group will have more than one mode. For
example, the modes of the set of numbers {6, 6, 1, 3, 4, 1} are 6 and 1, since both 6 and 1 occur twice,
and all the other numbers occur only once.
Range
The range of a group of numbers is the difference between the largest term and the smallest term. For
example, the range of 10, –25, 3, 2, and 4 is 10 – (–25) = 35. One would need to travel 35 units on a
number line to get from the smallest value, –25, to the largest value, 10.
Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is one of the most difficult statistical concepts, but thankfully you’ll only need a
very general understanding of it for the GRE. The test makers won’t ask you to actually calculate
standard deviation, as the formula for doing so is pretty difficult. You will, however, be expected to
know that standard deviation is a measure of how spread out a group of numbers is. The more spread
out a group of numbers, the larger its standard deviation. Let’s look at an example:
Which of the following groups of numbers has the greater standard deviation?
Group A: 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
Group B: 50, 51, 51, 52, 53
Even though the numbers in Group B are larger than those in Group A, they’re closer together thanks
to the double occurrence of number 51. No such overlapping occurs in Group A. Group A exhibits a
slightly greater spread and therefore has the greater standard deviation.
The 34-14-2 Rule
Standard deviation also lets you know how likely it is that a value will differ from the mean by a certain
amount. In general, the farther a value is from the mean, the less likely it is to occur. The following
graph, called a Normal Distribution, shows this in more detail:

This graph is the basis for the 34-14-2 Rule:

34%, 14%, and 2% represent the likelihood that a value will fall into each given region. For example,
there is a 34% chance that a value will be between the mean and one standard deviation to the right or
left of the mean. Similarly, there is a 14% chance that a value will be between one and two standard
deviations to the right or left of the mean.
Here’s how to use the numbers. Say that the mean for some group of values is 10, and the standard
deviation is 2. One standard deviation to the right of the mean will therefore be 10 + 2 = 12. The
Normal Distribution graph states that there is a 34% chance that a value from the group will fall
between 10 (the mean) and 12 (one standard deviation up from the mean). Based on this kind of
analysis, you may be asked something like this:
What is the likelihood that a value within a group of values with a mean of 10 and a standard
deviation of 2 equals 5?
If the mean is 10, then one standard deviation below the mean is 10 – 2 = 8, which creates a 34%
chance that a value from the group falls between 10 and 8. A second standard deviation to the left
would be 8 – 2 = 6, meaning that there’s a 14% chance that a particular value would fall between 8 and
6. More than two standard deviations to the left of the mean would be all values below 6. The graph
tells us that these values have a 2% likelihood. The number 5 falls into this group, so 2% would be the
answer.
Frequency Distribution
Say, for example, that fifteen college graduates were asked how many different jobs they had in their
first five years following college, and the responses came back like so:
2, 4, 2, 1, 0, 1, 3, 2, 2, 5, 3, 4, 1, 2, 1
Not very pleasing to the eye, is it? One way to organize this information is to express it in the form of a
frequency distribution: a chart that shows at a glance all of the answers given and the number of
people who gave each answer. Frequency distributions typically designate x as the values (in this case,
the answers given by those surveyed) and f as the frequency of each value. In the example
above, that would look like this:
x f

1 1 4

5 3

2 4

2 5

Total 1 15

We can see from the chart that one person surveyed had no jobs in the first five years after college
(slacker!), four people had one job, five people had two jobs, and so on. So what’s so great about this?
Well, the best thing about it is that it allows us to quickly determine many of the other statistical
features we’ve been discussing so far. For example, eyeing only the left-hand column tells us that the
range of responses is 5 – 0 = 5. A quick scan of the right-hand column indicates that 5 is the largest
frequency corresponding to any one answer, and it corresponds to the answer 2, which therefore
qualifies 2 as the mode. The chart already lists the responses in ascending order, so the median will be
the eighth value from the beginning—eighth because with fifteen values total, the eighth value is right
in the middle with seven values below it and seven above it. The first value is 0, the next four values are
1, bringing us to the fifth value, and the next five values are 2, bringing us to the tenth value. The eighth
value is therefore a 2, so 2 is the median of this group of values.
You may also be asked to calculate the mean from a frequency distribution. Recall the formula for
mean:

Using the frequency distribution, we can quickly calculate the sum of the terms by finding the sum of
each term multiplied by its frequency. The number of terms will be either given in the table (such as
“total = 15” in our chart), or you can just add up the frequency numbers in the right-hand column to
calculate the number of terms. In this case, the mean is:
If you learn the basics of frequency distributions, it should be a welcome sight if one of these appears
on your test.
Probability
Probability is the measure of how often something is expected to occur, expressed as a fraction or
decimal between 0 and 1. A probability of 0 means there’s no chance that the event under
consideration will take place. A probability of 1 means it definitely will happen. Most probabilities
tested on the GRE fall somewhere in between. We’ll use the common scenario of selecting colored
marbles from a bag to illustrate the various kinds of probability questions you might see on your test.
Single Trials
The most basic kind of probability question involves a single selection from a given group of elements.
Here’s an example:
In a bag containing 12 red, 13 white, and 15 black marbles, what is the probability of
selecting a red marble on a single draw?
To tackle probability problems, use the following formula:

The number of favorable outcomes is math lingo for the number of ways you can get what the problem
is asking you to get. Here, red marble is the favorable outcome, so the numerator of the fraction is 12,
the number of red marbles in the bag. The total number of possible outcomes is the total number of
possibilities, or, in our problem, the total number of marbles. Make sure to include all of the marbles,
including those already counted as favorable outcomes. The total number of marbles is 12 + 13 + 15 =
40. Plugging 12 and 40 into the formula gives:

Simplifying this gives , the final answer.

Independent Events
If one event does not influence the occurrence or nonoccurrence of another event, the two events are
independent. To find the probability of two independent events occurring, simply multiply their
individual probabilities. For example, if there’s a 1 in 4 chance that Mary will be selected for a
committee, and a 1 in 3 chance that Bill will be kicked out of college, and the events are independent
(that is, Mary isn’t angling to join the committee with the purpose in mind of booting Bill), then there’s
a chance that both Mary will be selected for the committee and Bill will be given his college walking
papers.
We mention independent events at this point because this concept affects our next topic, multiple
trials.
Multiple Trials
Frequently, probability questions on the GRE won’t be limited to a single draw, or trial, but will instead
involve repeated draws. When a question involves drawing multiple times from the same group of
entities, you need to distinguish between draws with replacement and draws without replacement.
Let’s illustrate the difference using our marble example:
1. 1 You select a marble, note its color, and put it back in the bag. You then select a marble again.
This is called drawing with replacement.
2. You select a marble and put it aside. Then you draw another marble from those remaining.
This is called drawing without replacement.

The GRE will always make it clear which method is being used either by including the actual phrase
with replacement or without replacement or by explicitly describing the method of selection in a way
that makes it obvious which mechanism is in play. Let’s look at an example of each type.
DRAWING WITH REPLACEMENT
Try your hand at this one:
A bag contains 12 red, 13 white, and 15 black marbles. What is the probability of selecting
two black marbles in a row if the selection is made with replacement?
The number of black marbles, or favorable outcomes, is 15. The total number of marbles is 40. First,
use the probability formula to find the probability of selecting a black marble on the first draw:

Since this problem involves drawing with replacement, we’ll need to put the black marble selected on
the first draw back into the bag before selecting again. So the bag will still contain 15 black marbles out
of 40 total for the second draw. The probability of drawing a black marble on the second draw is thus
the same .
Now, even though the marbles are coming from the same bag, these two events—a black marble on the
first draw and a black marble on the second—are independent; that is, what happens on one draw
doesn’t affect what happens on the other. To get the probability of two black marbles in a row, we can
therefore multiply the individual probabilities:

DRAWING WITHOUT REPLACEMENT

Now let’s see what happens when we don’t put the first marble back into the bag after selecting it:
A bag contains 12 red, 13 white, and 15 black marbles. What is the probability of selecting
two black marbles in a row if the selection is made without replacement?
The probability of the first marble being black is , just as before. For the second draw, however, only 14
black marbles remain out of 39 total. (Remember, we took a black marble out of the bag and did not
put it back.) This means that the probability of the second marble being black is . By assuming the first
draw was favorable (a black marble selected), we adjusted the figures for our second probability. Since
these figures are already adjusted to account for the first favorable outcome, the second drawing is
independent from the first, so we can still multiply the individual probabilities to get the chances of
selecting two black marbles in a row:
We can cancel the 3 and 39 before multiplying and also cancel a factor of 2 from the 8 and 14 to make
our lives easier:

This can’t be reduced any further, so it’s the final answer.

The Probability of Something NOT Happening
You’re probably familiar with the phrase not happening, as in when you ask your boss for three weeks
off in the summer and he tells you “that is so not happening.” But do you know that there’s an actual
math formula for “not happening”? You probably do, without even realizing it. For example, if you’re
told that the chance of snow tomorrow is 25%, it’s likely you recognize without much thought that the
chance that it will not snow is 75%. Here’s the formula you used, whether you were aware of it or not:
the probability of an event NOT happening = 1 – the probability of that event
This formula can turn very hard probability questions into easier ones. Consider this next one:
A bag contains 12 red, 13 white, and 15 black marbles. What is the probability of selecting
at least one red or one white marble in two draws if the selection is made with
replacement?
This is harder than the previous problems, because it’s not altogether clear what must happen on any
individual draw for a favorable outcome. For instance, the first draw might be black, and you still could
have a favorable outcome if the second draw is red or white. Similarly, the second draw could be black,
and you’d still have a favorable outcome if the first draw is red or white. And of course, a first and a
second draw of red or white would also count as a favorable outcome. So how do we deal with this
ambiguity?
Simple: Use the formula for “NOT happening.” It’s far easier in this case to calculate the probability of
not getting at least one red or white marble in two draws because this is actually the same thing as
drawing two black marbles, with replacement. We already calculated this earlier as . The probability of
drawing at least one red or white in two draws is 1 minus the probability of that NOT happening, which
is simply the probability of drawing two black marbles. The answer is therefore:

Still no piece of cake, but doable.

“Or” Questions
A difficult question may ask you for the probability of event A or event B occurring, which is different
from the probability of A and B occurring. If you see one of these, use the formula:
probability of A or B = probability of A + probability of B – probability of A and B
For example, say the probability of Marcie passing a test is 70%, and the probability of Jerome passing
the same test is 30%. The events in this problem are independent: Neither person passing the test
influences whether the other person does so (unless of course they cheat from each other, which we’ll
assume is not the case). So the final term of the expression, the probability of Marcie and Jerome
passing, is equal to the product of the individual probabilities of those events, as we’ve seen all along.
We’ll convert the percentages to fractions, since working with those may be easier. Then we’ll plug ‘em
into the formula:

The probability of Marcie or Jerome passing the test is therefore equal to 79%.
In some cases, two events may be mutually exclusive, meaning that the probability of both occurring is
0. For example, in choosing a single dog from a kennel, the chances of choosing a black Labrador and a
white schnauzer are zero—you can’t have both. If these represented the A and B elements of the “or”
formula, the final term would be 0, and you wouldn’t have to subtract anything.
Sequences
A sequence is a list of numbers that follows a particular pattern. If you get a sequence problem, you’ll
probably be given at least one of the terms in the sequence, along with the rule that defines the pattern.
You probably won’t have to figure out the pattern on your own; that’s more like the kind of thing you’d
see on an IQ test.
However, what could make sequence problems tough is the notation. Each term in a sequence has the
same variable, but each has a different subscript. This subscript indicates a particular term. For
example:
a1 = the first term
a2 = the second term
a10 = the tenth term
a n = the nth term
an+1 = the term immediately after the nth term
For example, to indicate that the second term of a sequence is 5 and that the third term is 7, the test
makers might write:
a2 = 5
a3 = 7
This subscript notation can also be used to indicate how each term relates to the others. For example:
an+1 = an – 3
This just means that each successive term is three less than the previous term. Here’s an example,
using the notation we just discussed:
If a n = the nth term in a sequence, and a1 = 3 and an+1 = a n + 2, what is the value of a10?
Let’s use 1 as n to keep things simple:
a1 = a n = 3
So an+1 is the same as saying a1+1 or a2. This second term we’re told is equal to the first term, a n , plus 2,
which means that the second term will be 3 + 2, or 5. So the notation, which looks intimidating, is
really a shorthand way of saying that each successive term is two more than the previous term. Writing
out this sequence from the first to the tenth terms gives 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21. The tenth term is
21, and so a10 = 21.
Arithmetic Sequences
In an arithmetic sequence, the difference between each term and the next is constant. This is the kind
of sequence we saw in the previous example. In addition to understanding the notation and concepts
for sequences, you should know the formula for arithmetic sequences:
a n = a1 + (n – 1)d
where
a n = the nth term
a1 = the first term
d = the difference between consecutive terms
This formula is useful if you need to determine the value of some very high term and don’t want to
write down a long sequence of numbers. In our previous example, the first term (a1) is 3 and the
difference between consecutive terms is 2. If you plug these numbers into the equation above looking
for a10, you’ll get the same answer, 21, that we got earlier. In this example, it’s just as easy to write out
the terms. But to determine the 100th term in that sequence, we’ll need to plug the numbers into the
formula:
a100 = 3 + (100 – 1)2 = 3 + 99 × 2 = 201
Geometric Sequences and Exponential Growth
In a geometric sequence, the ratio between one term and the next is constant, not the actual difference
between the terms. For example, in the sequence 3, 9, 27, 81, each successive term is three times
greater than the preceding one, but the actual difference between the terms changes: 9 – 3 = 6, 27 – 9
= 18, and so on. Geometric sequences exhibit exponential growth, as opposed to the constant growth
of arithmetic sequences. Here’s an example of the kind of geometric sequence that the test makers
might toss at you:
g1 = 4
g n = 2gn – 1
Trying out some terms, this means that g2 = (2)g1, g3 = (2)g2, and so on.

In other words, the first term is 4, and each successive term is twice the value of the preceding term.
Writing out the first few terms lets us see that the ratio between terms is constant and thus confirms
that this is a geometric sequence:
4, 8, 16, 32, . . .
The ratio between consecutive terms is always 2, even though the differences between the terms
increase as you move to the right.
As with arithmetic sequences, you should learn the special formula for geometric sequences, just in
case it’s not convenient to list out all of the terms up to the one you’re looking for:
g n = g1rn–1
where
g n = the nth term
g1 = the first term
r = the ratio between consecutive terms
Let’s use the formula to calculate the value of the tenth term in the geometric sequence defined by g1 =
4 and g n = 2gn – 1. We already know r = 2:
g10 = 4 × (2)10–1 = 4 × 29 = 4 × 512 = 2,048
Digit Counting
Here’s an interesting kind of problem that appears with some regularity on the GRE. In digit counting
problems, you’re asked how many times a particular digit appears in a defined group of numbers, or
how many numbers within such a group don’t contain a certain digit. An example will make this
clearer:

How many three-digit positive even integers contain at least one digit that is a 7?

0…99 ( 100,101, 102, 103…. 999)

107, 117, 127, 137

7 x1 = 7, 7 x2 =14, 7x 3=21, 7x4 = 28 7x7x7=

(A)

45

(B)

60

(C)

90 9x 10=90

(D)

140

(E)
 210

First make sure you understand the range of numbers under consideration. Positive three-digit
numbers begin with 100 and go to 999.

Moreover, we’re only interested in the even ones. The question is looking for how many numbers fit
this description and contain at least one 7.

Well, we’re not going to go and count them all—that would take too long. But we will list a few
examples that fit the criteria and then see if we can discern a pattern. Beginning with the 100s, the first
number that has a 7 is 107, but since that’s not an even number, it doesn’t count. In fact, the next one,
117, doesn’t count either, nor does 127, 137, and so on. So we begin to see a pattern. The first even
number we get to that has a 7 is 170, followed by 172, 174, 176, and 178. No number from 179 to 200 fits
the bill, so in the entire 100s we have a total of 5 numbers that satisfy the question’s requirements.
Now we can generalize from what we’ve learned: The 200s will be no different, nor the 300s, nor the
400s, and so on. So if there are 5 cases in each of the nine groups of 100 numbers from 100 to 999, we
can multiply 5 instances per each group of hundreds by nine groups of hundreds (100s, 200s, etc.) to
get 45, choice A.
However, we’d be wrong. Naturally, A is a trap for people who forget that the 700s contain plenty of
numbers that work, so we need to consider the numbers from 700 to 800 separately. The other eight
groups of hundreds follow our pattern, so we’ll go with 5 × 8 = 40 to represent the instances that make
the cut among those. But we also have to consider all of the numbers in the 700s, since every number
in the 700s contains at least one 7. How many are even? There are 100 numbers between 700 and 799,
and half are even, so we need to add 50 more cases to the 40 we’ve found already. The correct answer is
40 + 50 = 90, choice C.
Digit counting questions can be difficult, and if you see one, chances are the GRE software is throwing
you more difficult questions because you’re doing pretty well. Understand the range, find a pattern and
generalize it to as many cases as you can, and then check for special cases. If you’re careful, you’ll find
them all.
Factorials
You may see some problems on your exam in which a number is followed by an exclamation point, like
this: 5!. This does not mean you should loudly exclaim, “Five!” Nor does it mean that the test makers
are extra-specially enthusiastic about a particular problem. The exclamation point makes it look like
there’s something really exciting going on! But there’s not.
An exclamation point used in math symbolizes a factorial. A factorial stands for the product of all the
numbers up to and including the given number. So 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120.
Some more examples:
3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6
4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
55! = 55 × 54 × 53 × . . . × 3 × 2 × 1 = a really huge number you would never be expected to solve for
0! = 1
The proof of this last example is beyond the scope of what you need to know for the GRE. Just
remember that 0! = 1 by definition. Consider it another bit of math trivia picked up on your way to
GRE mastery.
The factorial of n also signifies the number of ways that the n elements of a group can be ordered. So, if
you decide to ditch grad school and become a wedding planner instead, and need to figure out how
many different ways six people can sit at a table with six chairs, 6! is the way to go: 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
= 720 possible seating arrangements. You’ll astound the other wedding planners with this quick
calculation, never revealing the true source of your knowledge.
As you might guess from the name, factorials have many factors. Recall that a factor is a number that
divides into another number with no remainder. Whenever you take the factorial of a number, the
result will be divisible by all of the integers up to and including the original number. For example, 6! is
divisible by 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1, and all of those numbers are factors of 6!. This is all inherent in the
definition of factorial, but it’s good to understand it in these terms too.

Simplifying Factorials
The test makers may ask you to work out a problem that involves factorials in fractions, and as you’ll
soon see, this becomes downright necessary in permutation and combination problems. The trick is to
cancel before calculating. As you’ve seen in earlier examples, canceling with fractions means dividing
the numerator and denominator by the same number. A little cancellation makes complicated-looking
factorial problems much easier to solve. Check it out:
What is ?
This expression looks like it might be a huge number. And, in fact, trying to calculate 98! or 100! would
be near impossible without a computer or ultra-fancy calculator. Fortunately, we can simplify this
equation significantly:

This works, because everything after and including the 98 cancels out in both the numerator and the
denominator, leaving 100 × 99 in the numerator and 1 in the denominator. Here’s another way to think
about this:

The 98! in the numerator cancels out with the 98! in the denominator, leaving only 100 × 99 = 9,900.
Truth be told, even factorial problems involving smaller numbers benefit from canceling out. For
example:

Before you get sucked into multiplying out the factorials in the top and bottom parts of the fraction and
then dividing the results, first cancel out what you can.
Permutations and Combinations
Knowing how to calculate and simplify factorials is especially useful for problems involving
permutations and combinations. These types of questions ask you to determine how many ways
something can be done. They’re similar to the simple wedding planner example above, except that they
involve choosing a certain number of entities from a larger group. For example, “In a race of eight
horses, how many ways can the horses finish first, second, and third?” and “How many ways can two
students be selected for a Grammar Jamboree out of a class of 20 students?” In this section, we’ll
explain not only how to answer both of these questions but also the very important difference between
them.
Permutations
In a permutation, order matters—that is, being first in a group is different from being second, third, or
in any other position. The easiest way to tell that a question is a permutation is if it includes the word
order or the word arrange. Even if it doesn’t contain these words, the question might describe some
kind of ranking or race. Our horse race question above, for instance, is a permutation since finishing
first is certainly different from finishing second or third in a horse race. If, for example, three of the
horses are A, B, and C, then ABC is one possible finish, CAB is another, and BCA is a third. They all
involve the same three horses, but switching them around yields additional arrangements that we need
to add to our tally. In a combination problem, however, we’re not concerned with order, so BCA would
be considered the same as CAB, and we wouldn’t count those twice. We’ll get to combinations in just a
bit, but let’s continue with the permutation problem at hand.
Here’s the permutation formula:

In this case, nPr is the number of subgroups of size r that can be taken from within a set with n
elements.
Here’s the horse race question again, and this time we’ll work through it using the formula:
In a race of eight horses, how many ways can the horses finish first, second, and third?
In this problem, n = 8, because that’s the total number of horses racing, and r = 3, because that’s the
number of winners we’re interested in (first, second, and third place). Plugging into the formula gives:

Now we’ll solve, using our knowledge of factorials and canceling out:

Notice how the 5!s cancel out, leaving us with some basic multiplication to get our final answer.
Combinations
As we mentioned earlier, in a combination, order does not matter. For example, if you’re trying to buy
three horses instead of ordering them first through third in a race, then it really doesn’t matter if you
come away from the horse farm with horses ABC or horses CBA—they’re all the same horses. You
wouldn’t shuffle them around and then say, “Look, a whole new group of horses! Lucky me!” Well, you
could say that, but people would think you’re nuts.
You’ll be able to recognize a combination problem because it will involve selecting a small group from a
larger group, with no regard to order. An example is the Grammar Jamboree problem introduced
earlier:
How many ways can two students be selected for a Grammar Jamboree out of a class of 20
students?
Two students are to be selected from a class of 20, and no mention of order is made. This is common
for situations involving teams: A team consisting of Jonathan and Gloria is the same as a team
consisting of Gloria and Jonathan. Unless some specific mention is made of an ordering element,
assume you’re dealing with a combination problem. Here’s the combination formula:

Here, unordered subgroups of size r are selected from a set of size n. Notice that this is the same as the
permutation formula, except that it tacks on an extra r! term in the denominator. This means that we
divide by a larger number in combination problems, resulting in a smaller number of final orderings.
And that makes sense too: We’d expect fewer total orderings in combinations, since order doesn’t
matter and we therefore count the shuffled orderings (ABC, CAB, BCA, etc.) as one.
Use the formula to solve our Grammar Jamboree problem:

Cancel the 18!s:

So, there are 190 possible two-person teams of jamboree-ers to choose from the class of 20. Let the
jamboree begin!
Multiple Permutations and Combinations
If the CAT software is really impressed by your math acumen, it might throw you a problem involving
multiple permutations, combinations, or both. The key is to break the problem down into parts, solving
each independently using the formulas discussed above. To obtain a final answer, multiply all of the
individual results. Here’s an example:
How many ways can Suzanne order an ice cream cone if she is to select 3 different flavors
out of 15 available flavors and 3 different toppings out of 5 available toppings? The order in
which the flavors are stacked is significant, but the order in which the toppings are added is
not.
We admit it—this looks hard. However, it helps to think of this as two completely separate problems:
1. Selecting ice cream flavors nPr
2. Selecting toppings nCr

Don’t worry, we’ll combine them in the end, much as the flavors and toppings will be combined in
Suzanne’s cone. But first things first.
Since the order of flavors matters, this part of the problem is a permutation. Suzanne must select three
different flavors out of a total of fifteen. Let’s use the P formula:

As per the problem, n = 15 and r = 3:

So Suzanne has 2,730 choices of flavors. Delicious! But back to the problem: Since the order of
toppings does not matter, this part is a combination. Suzanne must select three different toppings out
of a total of five. Let’s use the C formula:

Now n = 5 and r = 3:

Cancel the 3!s, and restate 2! as 2 × 1:

Now we know that there are 10 possible combinations of toppings. The last step is to multiply the two
results: 2,730 × 10 = 27,300. And there we go: Suzanne has an unbelievable 27,300 choices for her ice
cream cone. It’s a wonder people don’t have anxiety attacks in ice cream stores—just one cone but
more than 27,000 varieties to choose from!
Groups
This topic sounds innocuous enough, but problems involving groups can drive test takers batty. The
basic idea is that some people or things belong to one group, others belong to another group, and still
others belong to both groups or neither group. For example, at a certain country club, some members
play golf, some play tennis, others play both sports, and still others prefer reading to playing. You’ll be
given some of the specific numbers in such a problem and then asked to determine the missing values.
The approach you should use depends on whether the problem concerns two or three groups. We’ll
cover the most effective techniques for both cases. You won’t see problems with more than three
groups.
Problems with Two Groups
All you need for two-group problems is this formula:
group 1 + group 2 – both + neither = total
where
group 1 = the number of entities in one of the two groups
group 2 = the number of entities in the other group
both = the number of entities in both groups
neither = the number of entities in neither group
total = the total number of entities

You’ll most likely be given values for all of the parts of this formula except for one. You’ll then have to
determine the value of the missing part. Let’s see how this works in the following example.
At a certain animal refuge, 180 animals have four legs, 240 are warm-blooded, and 85 both
have four legs and are warm-blooded. If the animal refuge has 500 animals in total, how
many animals at the refuge have neither four legs nor are warm-blooded?
If you don’t know the formula above, this question could be a nightmare. But the formula makes it very
doable. We’ll let group 1 be the 180 animals that have four legs and group 2 be the 240 animals that
are warm-blooded. Since we’re also given the number of animals that belong to both groups and the
total number of animals, the missing value is the number of animals that belong to neither group. Not
surprisingly, that’s what the question is after. Plugging the values into the formula gives:
180 + 240 – 85 + neither = 500
Solving for neither is a simple matter of solving this linear equation with one variable, something we
discussed way back in the algebra section. Here goes:
180 + 240 – 85 + n = 500
335 + n = 500
n = 165
Voila! (That’s genuine excitement—not a factorial.) But things get a bit more difficult if they
throw in an extra group.
Problems with Three Groups
The formula for three-group problems is really long and complicated (it involves nine unique terms!).
So, we’ll skip it in favor of an easier approach: Venn diagrams. Remember these from junior high?
Venn diagrams consist of intersecting circles, in which each circle represents the number of entities in
a particular group. For example:
You’ll notice that the circles overlap. The upside-down triangular section in the middle, with the darker
shading, represents the number of entities that belongs to all three groups. Sections in which only two
circles overlap, indicated with the lighter shading, represent the number of entities that belongs to two
overlapping groups. The outermost section of each circle, the part that doesn’t overlap with any of the
other circles, represents the number of entities that belongs to each group alone. For example, in the
swimming circle, the outermost section represents the number of swimmers who neither lift weights
nor do aerobics.
The key to three-group problems is to work from the inside out. Begin with the entities that belong to
all three groups, then address the entities that belong to two groups, and finally deal with the entities
that belong to only one group.

Here’s an example of a three-group problem that conveniently makes use of the diagram above:
At the Get Fit Athletic Club, every member swims, lifts weights, does aerobics, or
participates in some combination of these three activities.

Sixty members swim,

75 lift weights,
and 100 do aerobics. If 34 members both lift weights and swim, 25 members both do
aerobics and swim, 44 members both use the weight room and do aerobics, and 10
participate in all three activities, how many members belong to the Get Fit Athletic Club?
We’ll start by filling in values, working from the inside out. Since 10 people belong to all three groups,
we’ll write 10 in the middle section:

Next, we’ll fill in the values for people who belong to two groups. We’re told that 25 members
participate in aerobics and in swimming, and it would be very tempting to write 25 in the section above
the 10. Keep in mind, however, that 10 of these 25 people have already been accounted for: The 10
people who participate in all three activities are included among those who participate in aerobics and
swimming. That leaves 25 – 10 = 15 people for the aerobics/swimming overlap section above the 10 in
the middle. Similarly, 44 people do aerobics and use the weight room. Since 10 of these people have
already been accounted for in the middle section, that leaves 44 – 10 = 34 people in the section that
overlaps aerobics and weight room. Also, 34 people swim and use the weight room, so we’ll write 34 –
10 = 24 in the section overlapping those categories. That brings us to here:

Next we need to fill in values for people who belong to only one group. As with the previous step, we
have to be very careful not to count anyone more than once. For example, we’re told that 60 members
swim. That means that the total of all the numbers in the swimming circle must be 60. We already
have 10 + 15 + 24 = 49 members in the swimming circle. That leaves 60 – 49 = 11 members for the
outermost section of the swimming circle. Similarly, since 75 members use the weight room, that
leaves 75 – 10 – 34 – 24 = 7 members for the outermost section of the weight room circle. Finally, since
the total of the aerobics circle must be 100, the number in the remaining section must be 100 – 10 – 34
– 15 = 41. Filling these numbers in the appropriate sections of our Venn diagram yields the following:

The problem asks for the total number of club members, and we’re told
specifically that every member participates in at least one of these activities.
That means that no member exists outside of our three circles. We can
therefore add all of the values in our diagram to arrive at the total number of
club members. This gives us a final answer of

41 + 15 + 11 + 34 + 10 + 24 + 7 = 142.

We realize that this was a bit of work, but Venn diagrams are the only way to go on three-group
problems. And the good news is that you’d have to be doing something right on the Math section for
the CAT software to throw something this nasty your way, since the questions increase in difficulty the
better you do.
That finishes up our discussion of data analysis. Keep in mind that the GRE also requires you to
analyze data presented in the form of graphs and charts, but we have a whole chapter called Data
Interpretation devoted to that. In fact, we have a special chapter devoted specifically to each of the
three question types you’ll see. It’s high time we got to those, where you’ll learn how the concepts
covered here in Math 101 play out in GRE math questions, as well as effective ways to go about tackling
them.
Problem Solving is the first question type we’ll cover, and it’s up next.